Relativity Equation Sheet

April 14, 2025

1 Coordinate Systems Diagram

Two inertial frames: O(x, y, z, t) and O′ (x′ , y ′ , z ′ , t′ ) with

O′ moving at velocity v along x.

γ as a function of β.

2 Lorentz Factor γ and Velocity

Fraction β
Definitions:
v
β= , 0≤β<1 (1)
c
1
γ=p , 1≤γ<∞ (2)
1 − β2

How to get the Velocity Fraction β from the Lorentz

Factor γ:
r s 2
1 1
β = 1− 2 = 1− (3)
γ γ

At rest (no relative velocity), β = 0 and γ = 1. At very high

relative velocity (approaching the speed of light), β → 1 and β as a function of γ.
γ → ∞.

3 Coordinate Transformations (b) Inverse Galilean Transformation:

(a) Galilean Transformation:

∆x′ = ∆x − v∆t (4) ∆x = ∆x′ + v∆t′ (8)

′
∆t = ∆t (5) ∆t = ∆t′ (9)
∆y ′ = ∆y (6) ∆y = ∆y ′ (10)
′ ′
∆z = ∆z (7) ∆z = ∆z (11)

1
(c) Lorentz Transformation: 7 Velocity Addition
∆x′ = γ(∆x − v∆t) (12) Let u be the velocity of an object as measured in frame O,

v∆x
and let u′ be the velocity of the same object as measured in
∆t′ = γ ∆t − 2 (13) frame O′ . Recall v is the relative velocity of frame O′ with
c
respect to O (along the x-axis).
∆y ′ = ∆y (14)
∆z ′ = ∆z (15) Galilean velocity addition:

(d) Inverse Lorentz Transformation: u′ = u − v and u = u′ + v (32)

∆x = γ(∆x′ + v∆t′ ) (16)

Relativistic velocity addition:
v∆x′

∆t = γ ∆t′ + 2 (17)
c u−v u′ + v
u′ = and u= ′ (33)
∆y = ∆y ′ (18) 1 − uv
c2 1 + uc2v
∆z = ∆z ′ (19)
8 Doppler Shift (Longitudinal)
(e) Alternate Lorentz Transformation:
For approaching source:
∆x′ = γ(∆x − βc∆t) (20) s
c∆t′ = γ(c∆t − β∆x) (21) 1+β
f = f0 (34)
∆y ′ = ∆y (22) 1−β
∆z ′ = ∆z (23)
For receding source:
(f ) Inverse Alternate Lorentz Transformation: s
1−β
′ ′
f = f0 (35)
∆x = γ(∆x + βc∆t ) (24) 1+β
c∆t = γ(c∆t′ + β∆x′ ) (25)
∆y = ∆y ′
(26) 9 4-Vectors
′
∆z = ∆z (27)
Spacetime Position: X = (ct, x, y, z)
4-Velocity: V = γ(c, ⃗v ) = γ(c, vx , vy , vz )
4 Time Dilation 4-Momentum: P = m0 V = (γm0 c, γm0⃗v ) where m0 is
the rest meass.
∆t = γ∆τ (28)
Where ∆τ is proper time (measured in moving frame), ∆t is 10 Relativistic Mass & Rest Mass
coordinate time (measured in lab frame).
mrel = γm0 (36)
We often refer to m as the relativistic mass and m0 as the
5 Length Contraction rest mass. Just using the word “mass” is ambiguous and
confusing. (Note: modern convention avoids this in favor of
L0
L= (29) 4-momentum)
γ
Where L0 is proper length/distance (measured in moving
frame) and L is coordinate length/distance (measured in lab
11 Energy, Momentum, Mass, & Ve-
frame). locity
By definition, momentum in relativity is:
6 Invariants
p = γm0 v = γm0 βc (37)
Proper Time:
and energy in relativity is:
2
2 ∆x E = γm0 c2 (38)
(∆τ )2 = (∆t) − (30)
c
The energy consists of two parts: the rest mass energy E0 =
Proper Length (Spacelike Separation): m0 c2 and the kinetic energy Ekin = E − E0 . Thus,
2 2
(∆s)2 = (∆x) − (c∆t) (31) E = Ekin + E0 = (γ − 1)m0 c2 + m0 c2 (39)
2
From (37) and (38), we can derive a comprehensive set of

relationships between energy E, momentum p, velocity v,
and rest mass m0 . Namely, if any two of these four quantities
are known, either of the other two can be calculated. (Make
E m0 c2
use of (1), (2), and (3) when necessary; knowing the velocity
v is equivalent to knowing the Lorentz factor γ and vice versa.)

Rest Mass + Velocity ⇒ Momentum: pc

p = γm0 v = γm0 βc (40) The “energy right triangle”

Rest Mass + Velocity ⇒ Energy:

• A particle at rest has only rest energy: E = m0 c2 , with
E = γm0 c2 (41) p = 0.
Rest Mass + Momentum ⇒ Velocity:
• A massless particle (like a photon) has no rest mass,
p pc so all of its energy comes from motion: E = pc.
v=p β=p (42)
2
p + (m0 c) 2 p + (m0 c)2
2
• A particle in motion with mass has both types of energy:
Rest Mass + Momentum ⇒ Energy: rest and kinetic.
q
2
E = (pc)2 + (m0 c2 ) (43)
Rest Mass + Energy ⇒ Velocity:
12 Electron-Volt Units
E The electron-volt (eV) is a convenient unit of energy used
γ= (44) in particle physics. It is defined as the amount of kinetic
m0 c2
s 2 energy gained or lost by a single electron when accelerated
1
v =c 1− (45) through a potential difference of one volt:
γ
1 eV = 1.602 × 10−19 Joules (53)
Rest Mass + Energy ⇒ Momentum:
s
2 We often express mass, momentum, and energy of particles
E 6 9
p= − (m0 c)2 (46) in terms of eV, MeV (10 eV), GeV (10 eV), etc., using the
c relations:
Velocity + Momentum ⇒ Rest Mass: • Energy: E in eV
r v 2
p p • Momentum: p in eV/c
m0 = = 1− (47)
γv v c
• Mass: m in eV/c2
Velocity + Momentum ⇒ Energy:
pc2 pc These are not different quantities — just different units.
E= = (48) Setting c = 1 is common in particle physics to simplify nota-
v β
tion. This means we treat space and time in the same units,
Velocity + Energy ⇒ Rest Mass: allowing us to express distances in light-seconds, light-years,
E etc., and compare them directly to time intervals:
m0 = (49)
γc2 • 1 light-second = distance light travels in 1 second
Velocity + Energy ⇒ Momentum:
• 1 light-year = distance light travels in 1 year
Ev Eβ
p= 2 = (50) Thus, when we set c = 1, we equate 1 light-second with 1
c c
second, or 1 light-year with 1 year, effectively removing c
Momentum + Energy ⇒ Rest Mass:
s from equations and simplifying expressions for relativistic
p
E 2 − (pc)2 E
2 p 2 dynamics.
m0 = = − (51)
c2 c2 c
Masses of fundamental particles:
Momentum + Energy ⇒ Velocity:
mp = 1.6726 × 10−27 kg = 938.27 MeV/c2 (proton)
pc2 pc −27 2
v= β= (52) mn = 1.6750 × 10 kg = 939.57 MeV/c (neutron)
E E
−31 2
Geometrical interpretation: In the relation E 2 = me = 9.1094 × 10 kg = 0.511 MeV/c (electron)
2
(pc)2 + m0 c2 , you can think of pc and m0 c2 as the two
legs of a right triangle, with E as the hypotenuse. This inter-
pretation helps clarify:
3