Chapter 1

Special Theory
of
Relativity
Dr. Md. Saiful Islam
Senior Assistant Professor
Dept. of Physics, AIUB
❑ Inertial Frame of Reference

• An inertial frame of reference is one in which Newton’s first law

of motion (law of inertia) holds. In such a frame, an object at
rest remains at rest and an object in motion continues to move
at constant velocity (constant speed and direction) if no force
acts on it.
• Any frame of reference that moves at constant velocity relative
to an inertial frame is itself an inertial frame.
Postulates of Special Relativity
The special theory of relativity is based on two postulates
proposed by Albert Einstein in 1905:

• The principle of relativity: The laws of physics are the same in

all inertial reference frames.

• The principle of the constancy of the speed of light: The speed

of light in free space has the same value c (2.998x108 m/s) in all
inertial reference frames.
Relativistic Term, 𝛾 :
1
•𝛾= , where u = speed of object, c= speed of light.
𝑢2
1− 2
𝑐
• When u << c, 𝛾= 1, non-relativistic case.
• When u < c (u is less than but comparable with c), 𝛾 > 1, relativistic
case.
• We observe the relativistic effects as Time dilation, Length
contraction, Changes in: frequencies (wave lengths), masses,
energies, etc.
Time Dilation
• Time duration in the S’ reference frame,

• Time duration from the S reference frame,

l d l
∆𝑡 = 𝛾∆𝑡0

• For non relativistic case (γ=1), we get ∆𝑡 = ∆𝑡0 . 𝑢∆𝑡

• For relativistic case, (γ>1), we get ∆𝑡 > ∆𝑡0 .
Problem:

Solution:
Length Contraction
• For observer at S’:
The time duration for the round trip,
• For observer at S:

This is the time duration for one way (source to

mirror) and for the return trip (mirror to source),
Total time for round trip,
𝑙 𝑙 2𝑙
∆𝑡 = ∆𝑡1 + ∆𝑡2 = + = 𝑢2
𝑐−𝑢 𝑐+𝑢 𝑐 1− 2
𝑐
From the time dilation relation we know,

2𝑙 2𝑙0
≫ 𝑢2
=
𝑐 1− 2 𝑢2
𝑐 𝑐 1− 2
𝑐

• For non-relativistic case (γ=1), we get 𝑙 = 𝑙0 .

• For relativistic case, (γ>1), we get 𝑙 < 𝑙0 .
Solution:
Doppler Effect
An important consequence of relativistic kinematics is the
Doppler effect for electromagnetic wave. The motion of a
source of electromagnetic wave relative to the observer
results a shift in its frequency.
SOURCE OBSERVER

SOURCE OBSERVER
𝒄 𝒄
Frequency of the observed light, 𝒇 = =
𝝀 𝒄−𝒖 𝑻
Example 1.3: Beiser
A distant galaxy in the constellation Hydra is receding from the earth at 6.12× 107
m/s. By how much is a green spectral line of wavelength 500 nm emitted by this
galaxy shifted toward the red end of the spectrum?

Solution: 𝑠𝑜𝑢𝑟𝑐𝑒 𝑤𝑎𝑣𝑒𝑙𝑒𝑛𝑡ℎ, 𝜆0 = 500 𝑛𝑚 = 500 × 10−9 𝑚

𝑜𝑏𝑠𝑒𝑟𝑣𝑒𝑟 𝑤𝑎𝑣𝑒𝑙𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡ℎ, 𝜆 = ?
𝑠𝑝𝑒𝑒𝑑 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑔𝑎𝑙𝑎𝑥𝑦 𝑟𝑒𝑙𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑣𝑒 𝑡𝑜 𝐸𝑎𝑟𝑡ℎ, 𝑣 = 6.12 × 107 𝑚/𝑠
𝑐−𝑣
𝑚𝑜𝑣𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑎𝑤𝑎𝑦: 𝑓 = 𝑓0
𝑐+𝑣
𝑣 = 𝑓𝜆
𝑐 = 𝑓𝜆
𝑐 𝑐
𝑜𝑏𝑠𝑒𝑟𝑣𝑒𝑟, 𝑓 = 𝑠𝑜𝑢𝑟𝑐𝑒, 𝑓0 =
𝜆 𝜆0
𝑐 𝑐 𝑐−𝑣
=
𝜆 𝜆0 𝑐 + 𝑣
1 1 𝑐−𝑣
= 𝜆 = 615 × 10−9 𝑚
𝜆 𝜆0 𝑐 + 𝑣
𝜆0 𝑐−𝑣 𝜆 = 615 𝑛𝑚
=
𝜆 𝑐+𝑣
Wavelength shift = 𝜆 − 𝜆0 = 615 − 500 = 115𝑛𝑚 (𝐴𝑛𝑠)
𝑐+𝑣
𝜆 = 𝜆0
𝑐−𝑣
3 × 108 + 6.12 × 107
𝜆 = 500 × 10−9
3 × 108 − 6.12 × 107

3 × 108 + 0.612 × 108

𝜆 = 500 × 10−9
3 × 108 − 0.612 × 108

3.612 × 108
𝜆 = 500 × 10−9
2.388 × 108
Relativistic Mass and Momentum
• If the rest mass of an object is denoted by 𝑚0 , the relativistic mass is
denoted by
𝑚
𝑚𝑟𝑒𝑙 = = 𝛾𝑚
𝑣2
1− 2
𝑐
That tells us that, relativistic mass is larger than the rest mass.
• The relativistic momentum:
𝑚𝑣
𝑝= = 𝛾𝑚𝑣
𝑣2
1− 2
𝑐
Mass and Energy

• Rest Energy, 𝐸0 = 𝑚𝑐 2
𝑚𝑐 2
• Relativistic Energy, 𝐸 = = 𝛾𝐸0
𝑣2
1− 2
𝑐
• Kinetic energy, 𝐾 = 𝐸 − 𝐸0 = 𝛾𝑚𝑐 2 − 𝑚𝑐 2 = 𝛾 − 1 𝑚𝑐 2
Energy and Momentum
Massless Particle: Photon
• In Classical Mechanics, a particle must have rest mass to have
energy and momentum but in relativistic mechanics this
requirement does not hold.
• When m=0, v<<c, E=p=0, in nonrelativistic case a massless particle
can not have momentum and energy.
• When m=0, v=c, E=0/0 and p=0/0, which are indeterminant: E and
p have any value. Thus, there is a possibility to have massless
particle if v=c.
• A massless particle- the photon- indeed exists.
Problem:
Find the mass of an electron (mo =9.1x10-31 kg) whose velocity is 0.99c.
Solution :

Given u/c=0.99, so

m0 9.1x10 −31
m= = = 64 x10 −31 kg .
1− u2 / c2 1 − (0.99) 2

which is 7 times greater than the electron’s rest mass.

If u =c , m = ∝ , from which we can conclude that u can never equal c:

No material object can travel as fast as light.

❑ What is the rest energy of the electron?
Answer: 𝑇ℎ𝑒 𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑎𝑛 𝑒𝑙𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑟𝑜𝑛, 𝑚0 = 9 ⋅ 1 × 10−31 kg
𝐸0 = 𝑚0 𝑐 2

𝐸0 = 9 ⋅ 1 × 10−31 3 × 108 2

𝐸0 = 81.9 × 10−15 𝐽 1𝑒𝑉 = 1.6 × 10−19 𝐽 [𝑒𝑉 𝑖𝑠 𝑙𝑎𝑟𝑔𝑒𝑟]

81.9×10−15
𝐸0 = eV = 51 ⋅ 18 × 104 𝑒𝑉 = 0.511 × 106 𝑒𝑉
1⋅6×10−19

𝐸0 = 0.511𝑀𝑒𝑉
𝑚0 𝑐 2 = 0.511𝑀𝑒V

𝑇ℎ𝑒 𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑒𝑙𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑟𝑜𝑛 𝑚𝑎𝑦 𝑏𝑒 𝑤𝑟𝑖𝑡𝑡𝑒𝑛, 𝑚0 = 0.511 𝑀𝑒V/ 𝑐 2

F𝑜𝑟 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑝𝑟𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑐𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑚𝑒𝑎𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑝𝑎𝑟𝑡𝑖𝑐𝑙𝑒 𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠𝑒𝑠 𝑖𝑛 𝑢𝑛𝑖𝑡𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑀𝑒V/ 𝑐 2
EXAMPLE 2.3: The Energy of a Speedy Electron
An electron has a speed 0.850c. Find its total energy and kinetic energy in
electron volts.
Solution: Speed of an electron, v = 0.85c

𝐸 = 𝐸0 + 𝐾𝐸
KE = 𝐸 − 𝐸0
𝐸0 = 𝑚0 𝑐 2

𝐸0 = 9 ⋅ 1 × 10−31 3 × 108 2

𝐸0 = 81.9 × 10−15 𝐽
81.9×10−15
𝐸0 = eV = 51 ⋅ 18 × 104 𝑒𝑉 = 0.511 × 106 𝑒𝑉
1⋅6×10−19

𝐸0 = 0.511𝑀𝑒V
𝑚0 𝑐 2
𝐸=
𝑣2
1− 2
𝑐
(0.511 𝑀𝑒𝑉/𝑐2)𝑐2
𝐸=
0 ⋅ 85𝑐 2
1−
𝑐2
0 ⋅ 511𝑀𝑒𝑉
𝐸=
1 − 0.7225

𝐸 = 1.9 0.511 𝑀𝑒𝑉

𝐸 = 0.97 𝑀𝑒𝑉 (𝐴𝑛𝑠)

KE = 𝐸 − 𝐸0 = 0.97 MeV − 0.511 MeV

KE = 0.459 MeV (Ans)

EXAMPLE 2.4 The Energy of a Speedy Proton
The total energy of a proton is three times its rest energy. (a) Find the proton’s rest
energy in electron volts. (b) With what speed is the proton moving? (c) Determine the
kinetic energy of the proton in electron volts. (d) What is the proton’s momentum?

Solution: 𝑇ℎ𝑒 𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑎𝑛 𝑝𝑟𝑜𝑡𝑜𝑛, 𝑚0 = 1 ⋅ 67 × 10−27 kg

𝐸0 = 𝑚0 𝑐 2

𝐸0 = 1 ⋅ 67 × 10−27 3 × 108 2

𝐸0 = 1.50 × 10−10 𝐽
1.50×10−10
𝐸0 = eV = 938 × 106 𝑒𝑉
1⋅6×10−19

𝐸0 = 938 𝑀𝑒V (Ans)

(b) With what speed is the proton moving?

𝐸 = 3𝐸0

𝑚0 𝑐 2
= 3𝑚0 𝑐 2
𝑣2
1− 2
𝑐
1
=3
𝑣2
1− 2
𝑐

𝑣2 1
1− 2 =
𝑐 3

𝑣2 1
1− 2 =
𝑐 9
1 𝑣2
1− = 2
9 𝑐
8 𝑣2
= 2
9 𝑐
8 2
𝑣2 = 𝑐
9
8
𝑣=𝑐
9

8
𝑣 =3× 108
3

𝑣 = 2 ⋅ 83 × 108 𝑚Τ𝑠 (𝐴𝑛𝑠)

(c) Determine the kinetic energy of the proton in electron volts.

𝐾 = 𝐸 − 𝐸0

𝐾 = 3𝐸0 − 𝐸0 [𝐸 = 3𝐸0 ]

𝐾 = 3𝑚0 𝑐 2 − 𝑚0 𝑐 2 [𝐸0 = 𝑚0 𝑐 2 ]

𝐾 = 2𝑚0 𝑐 2

𝐾 = 2 938𝑀𝑒V

𝐾 = 1876 𝑀𝑒V (Ans)

(d) What is the proton’s momentum?
𝐸 2 = 𝑝 2 𝑐 2 + 𝑚0 𝑐 2 2

3𝑚0 𝑐 2 2
= 𝑝 2 𝑐 2 + 𝑚0 𝑐 2 2

𝑝 2 𝑐 2 = 9 𝑚0 𝑐 2 2
− 𝑚0 𝑐 2 2

𝑝 2 𝑐 2 = 8 𝑚0 𝑐 2 2

8 𝑚 𝑐 2 2
0
𝑝2 =
𝑐2
√8 𝑚0 𝑐 2
𝑝=
𝑐
8 938 𝑀𝑒𝑉
𝑝=
𝑐
𝑝 = 2650 𝑀𝑒 𝑉Τ𝑐 (𝐴𝑛𝑠)
Problems for Practice
(Chapter 1, Beizer, Page: 49&50)

• Time Dilation: 3 to 9.
• Doppler Effect: 10 to 14.
• Length Contraction: 17 to 20.
• Relativistic Mass, Momentum and Energy:
24, 29, 30, 31, 33, 34, 35