VELOCITY ADDITION

RELATIVISTIC MASS
•Relativistic addition of velocities: The
Lorentz transformation equations enable
us to transform velocity from one frame
of reference to another, in relative
motion with respect to it. This leads to a
relativistic formula for the addition of
velocities. This formula is known as
•Einstein’s velocity addition theorem.
•Let S and S’ be the two inertial
frames in relative motion, so that S’
moves with a uniform velocity v to the
right, along the x-axis, relative to S.
•Let u and u’ be the velocities of a
particle measured in the inertial frame
S and S’ respectively. The components
of these velocities are (ux, uy, uz) and
(ux’, uy’, uz’)
ux = dx/dt, uy = dy/dt, uz = dz/dt ------------ (1)
ux’ = dx’/dt’, uy’ = dy’/dt’, uz’ = dz’/dt’ --------- (2)
We know Lorentz transformation equations
x’ = (x –vt)/√(1 – v2/c2), y’ = y, z’ = z and t’ = (t - vx/c2)/√(1 – v2/c2) --------- (3)
Taking the differentials of the equation (3), we get

dx’ = (dx – vdt)/√(1 – v2/c2), dy’ = dy, dz’ = dz and dt’ = (dt - vdx/c2)/√(1 – v2/c2) ------(4) Now we can write by using equation (4)

dx’/dt’ = (dx - vdt)/(dt – vdx/c2) = (dx/dt – v)/(dt/dt – vdx/c2dt) or dx’/dt’ = (dx/dt – v)/(1 – vdx/c2dt)
or ux’ = (ux – v)/(1 – vux/c2) ----------- (5)
Similarly

dy’/dt’ = dy√(1 – v2/c2)/(dt – vdx/c2) dy’/dt’ = (dy/dt) √(1 – v2/c2)/(1 – vdx/c2dt)

or uy’ = uy√(1 – v2/c2)/(1 – vux/c2) ------------- (6)
Similarly
uz’ = uz√(1 – v2/c2)/(1 – vux/c2) ------------ (7)
Similarly by using inverse Lorentz transformation equations, we get

ux = (ux’ + v)/(1 + vux’/c2), uy = uy’√(1 – v2/c2)/(1 + vux’/c2) and uz = uz’ √(1 – v2/c2)/ (1 + vux’/c2) If the velocity of the particle is along the x-axis, then ux’ = u’, uy’ = 0, uz’ = 0
And ux = u, uy = 0, uz = 0
Then equations (5), (6) & (7) may be written as
u’ = (u – v)/(1 – vu/c2) and u = (u’ + v )/(1 + vu’/c2)
We know that u = (u’ + v )/(1 + vu’/c2)
1. When u’ and v are smaller as compared to c, u’v/c2 can be neglected. Therefore u = u’ + v which is classical formula.
2. When v = c, then
u = (u’ + v )/(1 + vu’/c2) = c(u’ + c)/(u’ + c) = c
i.e. if one object moves with velocity c with respect to other then their relative velocity is always c, whatever may be the velocity
of the other.
3. when u’ = c = v then
u = (c + c)/(1 + c2/c2) = 2c/2 = c
3. If u’ = c then
u = (v + c)/(1 + vc/c2) = c
Therefore, the relativistic addition of velocities, is consistent with Einstein’s second postulate of special theory of relativity. This also
shows that Lorentz transformation equations are in accordance with the constancy of velocity of light.

Variation of mass with velocity: According to Newtonian mechanics – “The mass of a body does not change with velocity”, but
according to Einstein’s theory “The mass of a body in motion is different from the mass of the body at rest”.
Let the two identical bodies be moving with velocities u’ and –u’ parallel to x-axis in a frame S’, which moving with a uniform velocity v
relative to a frame S in the direction of +ve x-axis. The velocities of these two masses in frame S are
u1 = (u’ + v)/(1 + u’v/c2) ----------- (1)
u2 = (-u’ + v)/(1 – u’v/c2) ---------- (2)
In frame S let the masses of two bodies be m1 & m2 and since after collision the velocity of
these bodies is zero (as shown in Fig. above) relative to S’, it will be v relative to S.

Now applying the law of conservation of momentum in frame S, we

obtain m1u1 + m2u2 = (m1 + m2)v ----------- (3)

Putting the value of u1 & u2 from equation (1) & (2) in equation (3), we

get m1[(u’ + v)/(1 + u’v/c2)] + m2[(-u’ + v)/(1- u’v/c2)] = (m1 + m2)v

m1/m2 = (1 + u’v/c2)/(1 – u’v/c2) ----------- (4)

Now with the help of equation (1), we

have 1 – (u 2 2 2 2

= [(1 + u’v/c2)2 – (u’ + v)/c2]/(1 +

u’v/c2)2]

= [(1 – v2/c2) – u’2(1 – v2/c2)/c2]/(1 + u’v/c2)2

2 2 1/2
Or (1 + u’v/c
2 2
2) = [(1 –v2/c2)(1 – u’2/c2)/(1 – u /c )]
2 2 2 2
1
2 2
------------ (5)
Or 1 – (u
Similarly
2 2 1/2
(1 – u’v/c2) = [(1 – v2/c2)(1 – u’2/c2)/(1 – u2 /c )] ------------ (6)

With the help of eqs. (5) & (6), eqn. (4) changes to
2 – u )/√(1 – u /c
m1/m2 = √(1 2 ) 2 ----------- (7)
2 1

If the mass m2 is considered to be initially at rest in frame S then m2 can be taken as the rest mass mO of the body i.e. m2 = mO and u2 = 0, eqn. (7) becomes
Therefore 1 m1 = mO/√(1 – u 2/c2) --------(8)

Since the two bodies are considered to be identical the rest mass of m1 will also be mO. Therefore, eqn.(8) is applicable for a single body of rest mass mO,
relativistic mass m1 moving with u1 velocity. If we replace m1 by m and u1 by v, the eqn. (8) modifies as
m = mO/√(1 - v2/c2) --------------- (9)
From this eqn. (9), it is clear that
1. As v of the moving particle increases, its mass also increases.
2. As v = c, then m = infinity, i.e. the mass of the particle becomes infinite.
3. When v << c then v2/c2 = negligible and hence m = mO.

Mass Energy Equivalence: In Newtonian Mechanics, the force is defined as the time rate of change of linear momentum. This definition of force is valid in relativistic mechanics as well. Thus, the force
applied on a particle moving with relativistic velocity v (nealy equal to c) is given by
F = dp/dt = d(mv)/dt ----------(1)
where m is the relativistic mass of the particle and is variable quantity, eqn. (1) may be written as
F = mdv/dt + vdm/dt -----------(2)
The increase in kinetic energy of this particle, when it displaces through a distance ds in time dt under the influence of the force F, will be equal to the work done by the force on it i.e.
dEk = F.ds = [mdv/dt + vdm/dt]ds using eqn(2)
dEk = mdv.ds/dt + vdm.ds/dt = mvdv + v2dm ---------- (3) because ds/dt = v If mO is the rest mass of the particle, then
m = mO/√(1 – v2/c2) --------- (4)
Differentiate eqn. (4)
dm = mO(-1/2)(1 – v2/c2)-3/2(-2v/c2)dv

or dm = mOvdv/c2(1 – v2/c2)3/2 = mOvdv/(1 – v2/c2)1/2c2(1 – v2/c2) or dm = mvdv/c2(1 – v2/c2) = mvdv/(c2 – v2)

or dm(c2 – v2) = mvdv

or c2dm – v2dm = mvdv

or c2dm = mvdv + v2dm ---------- (5) correlate the eqns. (3) & (5), we get

dEk = c2dm -------------- (6)

Ek = ∫dEk m  c 2 dm = c 2 m dm = c2(m – mO) = mc2 –

m
= m omOc
2

E k + mOc2 = mc2 ------------ (7)

o

Eqn.(7) obtained by integrating eqn (6) between the limits (m, mO) the total increase in kinetic energy is given by eqn.(7). Eqn.(7) may be
written as

E = mc2 ---------- (8)

Where E = Ek + mOc2, Ek = kinetic energy, mOc2 = rest mass energy, mc2 = total energy. Eqn. (8) represents the mass-energy relation.

Examples of mass-energy equivalence:

1. Pair production phenomenon: When a gamma ray photon of suitable energy is absorbed by a nucleus, the photon disappears giving
rise to the production of electron –positron pair
γ (hν) → -1e0 + +1e0
1.02 0.51 MeV + 0.51 MeV
2. Annihilation phenomenon: When an electron and a positron combine together they annihilate and produce two γ-ray photons.
-1e + +1e → hν + hν → 2γ
0 0

0.51 MeV + 0.51 MeV → 1.02 MeV

3. Nuclear fission: The formation of two lighter nuclei due to disintegration of a

• heavy nucleus is known as nuclear fission. For example, U235 nucleus
disintegrate into barium and krypton nuclei
• 92U235 + 0n1 → 56Ba141 + 36Kr92 + 30n1 + Energy

• 4. Nuclear fusion: The formation of heavy nucleus due to combination of two

lighter nuclei is known as nuclear fusion. For example, formation of helium nucleus
due to combination of two hydrogen nuclei
• 1H2 + 1H2 → 2He4 + Energy
• Relation between relativistic momentum and relativistic energy: We know that
the relation between the rest mass mO and the relativistic mass m of a particle is
given by
• m = mO/√(1 – v2/c2) → mc2 = mOc2/√(1 – v2/c2) --------- (1)
• 2 2 =m 2 4
or (mc ) 2 2 2 2 4 2 22 2 2
• O c /(1 – v /c ) or E = mO c / (1 – m v /m c ) because mc = E
• or E 2 = m 2 4 2 2 2 2 4 2 2 2 4 2 4 2 22
• O c /(1 – p /m c ) = mO c /(1 – p c /m c ) = mO c /(1 – p c /E )
• E2(1 – p2c2/E2) = m 2 4 2 2 2 2 4 2 2 4 2 2
• O c or E – p c = mO c or E = mO c + p c -------(2)
• Equation (2) is the required relation between the relativistic momentum and the
relativistic energy.
• Concept of rest mass of photon: A particle which has zero rest mass (mO) is called a
massless particle. In classical physics the existence of massless particle is impossible.
However, in relativistic mechanics, a particle with zero rest mass can exist.
According to the relativistic relation between energy and momentum
• E2 – p2c2 = m 2c4
• O
• For massless particle, mO = 0. Therefore E =
pc or p = E/c
• Thus, we can say that massless particle has energy pc and momentum E/c and
moves with the velocity of light
• E = pc or mc2 = pc or mc = mv Or c
= v in case of photon
• Photon is a massless particle.