B.Sc. in EECE, MIST. Level- 1, Term- I, Spring 2025.

Course Code: PHY 101, Course Title: Modern Physics (1 credit)

Course instructor: Lec Rafid Buksh

Lecture # 05: Mass-Energy Relation and Momentum-Energy Relation

Einstein’s theory of relativity revolutionized physics by unifying mass, energy, and momentum into a single
framework. Two key relations emerge:
1. Mass-Energy Equivalence: E = mc 2 (Mass can be converted to energy and vice versa)
2. Energy-Momentum Relation: E 2 = (pc)2 + (m0 c 2 )2 (Connects energy, momentum, and rest mass)
These concepts are fundamental in nuclear physics, particle accelerators, and cosmology.

Einstein’s Mass-Energy Equivalence

In the last lecture, we derived the relativistic mass relation as: (although this concept is not correct, we should
think this in terms of momentum not mass) if v is the velocity of the mass,
m0
m=
2
√1 − v2
c
We can rewrite the expression as,
m2 c 2 − m2 v 2 = m20 c 2
Differentiating this relation, we get,
2mc 2 dm − m2 2vdv − v 2 2mdm = 0
mvdv + v 2 dm = c 2 dm
Now consider a force F is acting on a body and there is a displacement ds along the direction of the force. The
work done is then given by
W = Fds
If no other forces act on the object and the object starts from rest, all the work done on it becomes kinetic
energy K. and is given by, (work-energy theorem ΔK = W)
s
K = ∫ F ds
0

If the force is changing with time and v is the velocity of the body, the expression for force is given by,
dp d(mv)
F= =
dt dt
Here, p is the relativistic momentum, that is,
m0 v
p = mv =
2
√1 − v 2
c
So the kinetic energy of the body becomes,
s s
d(mv)
K = ∫ F ds = ∫ ds
0 0 dt
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s
ds
= ∫ d(mv) = ∫(mdv + vdm)v
0 dt

K = ∫(mv dv + v 2 dm)

We already showed above that, mvdv + v 2 dm = c 2 dm. Substituting this result in the kinetic energy
expression, we get,
m
K = ∫ c 2 dm
m0
m
2
K = c ∫ dm
m0

K = mc 2 − m0 c 2
This is the relativistic equation for kinetic energy of a body moving with a velocity v. Also, if we take E =
mc 2 as the total energy of the body then the above equation may be written as
E = mc 2 = m0 c 2 + K
When the body is at rest, v = 0 and so K = 0. Thus, the rest energy is, E0 = m0 c 2. Thus, we can write,
E = E0 + K
Thus, if a body with mass m0 is moving with velocity v, the total energy of the body is given by,

2
m0 c 2
E = mc =
2
√1 − v 2
c
This is the famous Einstein’s Mass-Energy relation.

Problem with Einstein’s Mass-Energy relation: Massless particles

2
m0 c 2
E = mc =
2
√1 − v 2
c
m0 v
p = mv =
2
√1 − v 2
c
When the mass of the body m0 = 0 and v < c then the momentum and total energy are also zero. A massless
particle with a speed less than that of light can have neither energy nor momentum.
When m0 = 0 and v = c, E = 0/0 and p = 0/0 which are indeterminate: E and p can have any values. The
above two equations are consistent with the existence of massless particles that possess energy and momentum
provided that they travel with the speed of light.

Einstein’s Energy-Momentum Relation

We want to derive a more general equation that not only incorporates the relativistic motion of a massive
particle but also applicable for massless particles.
By squaring the energy and momentum relations, we can write,

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2
m20 c 4
E =
v2
1− 2
c
m20 v 2 c 2
p2 c 2 =
v2
1− 2
c
Subtracting p2 c 2 from E 2 , we get,

2
m20 c 4 m20 v 2 c 2
2 2
E −p c = −
v2 v2
1− 2 1− 2
c c
c2 v2
2
E −p c =2 2
m20 c 2 ( 2 − ) c2
c − v2 c2 − v2

2 2 2 2 4
c2 − v2
E −p c = m0 c ( 2 )
c − v2
E 2 − p2 c 2 = m20 c 4

E = √p2 c 2 + m20 c 4

This is the Einstein’s Energy-Momentum relation. This is applicable for massless particle also.

Concept of Massless Particles

Can a massless particle exist? To be more precise, can a particle exist which has no rest mass but which
nevertheless exhibits such particle like properties as energy and momentum? In classical mechanics, a particle
must have rest mass in order to have energy and momentum, but in relativistic mechanics this requirement
does not hold.
For particle with mass m0 = 0, we get,
E = pc
• They always travel at v = c, at the speed of light.
• They have momentum despite zero rest mass. (p = E/c)
In fact, mass-less particles of two different kinds - the photon and the neutrino have indeed been discovered
and their behavior is as expected. Light exerts radiation pressure due to p = hν/c. Used in solar sails for
spacecraft propulsion.

Special Theory to Classical: Low Speed Limit

Consider the Einstein’s mass energy relation (for massive body). The kinetic energy of the body is given by,

2 2
m0 c 2
K = mc − m0 c = − m0 c 2
2
√1 − v 2
c
1
K = m0 c 2 ( − 1)
√1 − v 2 /c 2
For low-speed limit, we can use v/c ≪ 1. Then we can use the binomial approximation, (with |x| ≪ 1)
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(1 + x)n ≈ 1 + nx
Using the binomial approximation in the kinetic energy expression, we get,
1/2
2
v2
K = m0 c ((1 − 2 ) − 1)
c

2
1 v2
K = m0 c (1 + 2 − 1)
2c
1
K = m0 v 2
2
At low speed, the relativistic expression for the kinetic energy of a moving body reduces to the classical
expression.

Mass Energy Relation vs Energy Momentum Relation

Mass Energy Relation: E = m0 c 2 /√1 − v 2 /c 2 : It is a special case for massive objects at rest or moving
slowly.
Energy Momentum Relation: E 2 = (pc)2 + (m0 c 2 )2 : It is the universal law essential for massless particles
like light, high energy collisions like in particle accelerator, relativistic quantum mechanics etc.

Applications of the Special Theory of Relativity

The Special Theory of Relativity (STR) is not just a theoretical framework—it has far-reaching practical
implications across physics and engineering.

Application in Particle Physics and Astrophysics:

1. When particles decay (e.g., Higgs boson → photons), we measure E and p to reconstruct invariant mass:

m0 = √E 2 − (pc)2 /c 2
2. Particle accelerators (LHC, Fermilab) rely on E = km0 c 2 and p = km0 c 2 to accelerate protons/electrons
to near-light speeds.
3. Charged particles in magnetic fields emit X-rays due to relativistic effects.
4. High-energy muons reach Earth’s surface only because time dilation extends their decay time.
5. Plasma beams moving at ~0.99c exhibit extreme Doppler boosting and superluminal motion (apparent FTL
due to relativistic velocity addition).

Application in Nuclear Physics:

1. In fusion/fission, energy release comes from mass defect (Δm = E/c 2 ), but momentum conservation
requires the energy momentum relation.
2. Energy released in nuclear fission (atomic bombs, reactors) and fusion (stars, hydrogen bombs) are
calculated.
3. Lifetimes of fast-moving particles (muons, pions) are predicted via time dilation.

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Application in Electromagnetism & Optics:
1. Frequency shifts in light from moving sources (e.g., redshift of galaxies) are calculated using relativistic
doppler effect.
2. A current-carrying wire’s magnetic field arises from length contraction of electrons (special relativity +
Coulomb force), unification of electromagnetism.
3. Shift in starlight, known as stellar aberration, is caused by the Earth's motion, a phenomenon discovered by
James Bradley in 1728 and later explained by the theory of special relativity (STR).
Fiber Optics & Signal Propagation: In dispersive media, light pulses can exhibit superluminal group velocities.

Application in Global Positioning System (GPS):

Satellite clocks tick 38 μs/day faster due to combined special relativity (velocity) and general relativity
(gravity), without corrections, GPS would accumulate ~11 km/day errors.

Application in Engineering & Technology:

1. Particle Beam Therapy (Cancer Treatment): Proton beams use relativistic energy deposition for precise
tumor targeting.
2. Electron Microscopes: Relativistic electrons increase resolution (de Broglie wavelength shrinks as v → c)
3. Synchrotron Light Sources are used in material science, biology, and chemistry for high-resolution imaging.
4. Graphene & Dirac Materials are used in high-frequency transistors, quantum computing, and ultra-fast
electronics.
5. Antenna Design: Time delays in antenna arrays must account for relativistic phase shifts for precise beam
steering. (Phase array antennas)
6. Radar Signal Processing: Moving target detection (e.g., fighter jets, missiles) requires relativistic Doppler
corrections to avoid false readings.
7. Quantum Communication: No-Communication theorem ensures quantum entanglement cannot transmit
information faster than light (preserves causality).

Application in Space Travel & Future Tech (Not yet): Interstellar travel concepts, relativistic rocket
equation etc.

Homework
• Explain: The photon has no rest mass but it has relativistic momentum and energy.
• Derive an expression for momentum of a photon with relativistic correction. (Sec 11.11, Physics for
Engineers)

Reference Books
1. Fundamentals of Physics: Halliday, Resnick and Walker
2. Concept of Modern Physics: Arthur Beiser.
3. University Physics with Modern Physics: Hugh D. Young and Roger A. Freedman.
4. Modern Physics for Science and Engineering: Marshall L. Burns.
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