Physics 1200

Lecture 23
Fall 2024
Relativistic Momentum and Energy, Energy and
Mass Units, Nuclear Energy

1
Momentum in Relativity
• Einstein argued that the principle of conservation of momentum, as
originally introduced in classical (Newtonian) mechanics, must also hold
true in the special theory of relativity.
➢ He showed that conservation of momentum occurs in all inertial frames, so
long as the momentum of an object is defined as
𝒑 = 𝛾𝑚𝒗 ,
𝒑 = the relativistic momentum of an object in a reference frame where it
has velocity 𝒗 .
𝑚 = the mass of the object,
1
𝛾= is the Lorentz factor of the particle moving at speed 𝑣 = |𝒗|.
𝑣 2
1−
𝑐

2
Momentum in Relativity (2)
• The mass 𝑚 is sometimes referred to as the “rest mass” of the object.
➢ This is an obsolete terminology used in older textbooks. We will just identify it by
what it is – the mass of the object. Sometimes it may be called the “invariant
mass.”
• Derivation of relativistic momentum expression can be carried out in
several equally valid ways:
1. Study collisions of particles in linked inertial reference frames, using Lorentz
transformation for the velocities measured in the different frames. Einstein
found that total system momentum was conserved during the collision, so
long as the momenta of the particles were expressed by the form given on
the preceding slide.
2. Introduce quantities known as “four-vectors” (a four-component vector with
3 space-like dimensions + 1 time-like dimension). This is the easiest and most
natural way to find the form of the relativistic momentum. This concept is
slightly beyond what is normally studied in Physics 1200.

3
Momentum in Relativity (3)
• The relativistic momentum ( 𝒑 = 𝛾𝑚𝒗 ) also preserves Newton’s 2nd law
in its general form:
𝑑𝒑
=𝑭 .
𝑑𝑡
𝑣
• For ≪ 1, 𝛾 ≈ 1, and 𝒑 ≈ 𝑚𝒗 . ∴ In the low-speed limit we recover
𝑐
classical Newtonian mechanics.
• When proving conservation of momentum in relativity theory, Einstein
showed that conservation of energy also resulted.
➢ It turns out that there is a relativistic Lorentz transformation for energy and
momentum, completely analogous to the relativistic Lorentz transformation for
spacetime coordinates. The momentum and energy conservation principles
together are more appropriately seen as “conservation of momentum-energy.”

4
Relativistic vs. Classical Momentum

• Shown is a graph of the magnitude

of the relativistic momentum of a
particle of mass 𝑚 as a function of
speed 𝑣.
• Also shown is the magnitude of the
Newtonian momentum (𝑝 = 𝑚𝑣),
which gives correct results only at
speeds 𝑣 ≪ 𝑐.

5
Kinetic Energy in Relativity
• The expression for kinetic energy can be derived from the Work-Kinetic Energy
Theorem, which is still valid for all inertial reference frames.
• Work-Kinetic Energy Theorem:
Δ𝐾 = 𝑊𝑛𝑒𝑡 = ‫ 𝒓𝑑 ⋅ 𝑡𝑒𝑛𝑭 ׬‬.
For an object initially at rest, 𝐾0 = 0, and Δ𝐾 = 𝐾.
𝑑𝒑 𝑑 𝛾𝑚𝒗
Using Newton’s 2nd law, 𝑭𝑛𝑒𝑡 = = ,
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡
𝑑 𝛾𝑚𝒗 𝑑 𝛾𝑚𝒗 𝑑𝒓 𝑑 𝑚𝛾𝒗 𝑑𝒗 𝑑𝛾
𝐾= ‫׬‬ ⋅ 𝑑𝒓 = ‫׬‬ ⋅ 𝑑𝑡 = ‫׬‬ 𝒗 ⋅ 𝑑𝑡 = 𝑚 ‫𝛾 ⋅ 𝒗 ׬‬ +𝒗 𝑑𝑡
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡
2 2 𝑣 𝑣 2 𝑣 2
= 𝑚 ‫ 𝒗𝑑 ⋅ 𝒗 𝛾׬‬+ 𝑚 ‫𝛾 ׬ 𝑐𝑚 = 𝛾𝑑 𝑣 ׬‬ 𝑑 + 𝑚𝑐 ‫׬‬ 𝑑𝛾
𝑐 𝑐 𝑐
𝑣′
2 𝑣/𝑐 𝑐 𝑣′ 𝛾 1
= 𝑚𝑐 ‫׬‬0 𝑑 + 𝑚𝑐 2 ‫׬‬1 1 − 𝑑𝛾 ′
2 𝑐 𝛾′2
𝑣′
1−
𝑐

⇒ 𝐾 = 𝛾 − 1 𝑚𝑐 2 . Relativistic kinetic energy.

6
Kinetic Energy in Relativity (2)
• In the derivation we used the relations
1 𝑣 2 1
𝛾= ⇒ =1 − , with 𝛾 = 1 for 𝑣 = 0,
𝑣 2 𝑐 𝛾2
1− 𝑐

and 𝑑 𝒗 ⋅ 𝒗 = 𝑑(𝑣 2 ) ⇒ 2𝒗 ⋅ 𝑑𝒗 = 2𝑣𝑑𝑣 .

𝑣 2 1 1 𝑣 2
• For ≪ 1, ≈1+ .
𝑐 𝑣 2 2 𝑐
1− 𝑐

1 𝑣 2 1
In that limit, 𝐾 = 𝛾 − 1 𝑚𝑐 2 ≈ 1+ − 1 𝑚𝑐 2 = 𝑚𝑣 2
2 𝑐 2

∴ The low-speed limit of relativistic kinetic energy is classical

Newtonian kinetic energy!

7
Kinetic Energy in Relativity (3)

• Graph of kinetic energy of a

particle of mass 𝑚 as a function
of speed 𝑣.
• Also shown is the Newtonian
prediction, which gives correct
results only at speeds 𝑣 ≪ 𝑐.

8
Rest Energy and Total Relativistic Energy
• The rest energy of an object is defined as
𝐸0 = 𝑚𝑐 2 .
• The total relativistic energy of an object is
𝐸 = 𝐾 + 𝐸0 = 𝐾 + 𝑚𝑐 2 = 𝛾 − 1 𝑚𝑐 2 + 𝑚𝑐 2 = 𝛾𝑚𝑐 2 .
(Note: this relation doesn’t include any potential energy the object
might have.)
• In the frame that an object is at rest, 𝛾 = 1, and 𝐸 = 𝐸0 .
• Rest energies for some fundamental particles:
➢ Electron: 𝑚𝑒 = 9.11 × 10−31 kg ⇒ 𝑚𝑒 𝑐 2 = 8.19 × 10−14 J .
➢ Proton: 𝑚𝑝 = 1.67 × 10−27 kg ⇒ 𝑚𝑝 𝑐 2 = 1.50 × 10−10 J .

9
Energy-Momentum Relation
1
• Using relations 𝒑 = 𝑝 = 𝛾𝑚 𝒗 = 𝛾𝑚𝑣 , 𝐸 = 𝛾𝑚𝑐 2 , and 𝛾 = , find
𝑣 2
1− 𝑐
𝑝 𝛾𝑚𝑣 𝑝𝑐 𝑣 𝑝𝑐 2 𝑣 2 1
= ⇒ = ⇒ = =1−
𝐸 𝛾𝑚𝑐 2 𝐸 𝑐 𝐸 𝑐 𝛾2
2 2
2 𝐸 𝛾𝑚𝑐 2
⇒ 𝑝𝑐 = 𝐸2 − = 𝐸2 − = 𝐸 2 − 𝑚𝑐 2 2
.
𝛾 𝛾

⇒ 𝐸 2 = 𝑝𝑐 2
+ 𝑚𝑐 2 2
.
(Relativistic energy-momentum relation.)
➢ For objects with no mass, 𝑚 = 0, find 𝐸 = 𝑝𝑐. This result will be applied to
electromagnetic light quanta (photons), which were proposed by Einstein (1905)
to explain the phenomenon known as the photoelectric effect. (Discussed in next
class.)
𝑝
➢ For extremely relativistic objects, 𝑚𝑐 ≫ 1, and 𝐸 2 ≈ 𝑝𝑐 2 , which is equivalent to
saying 𝐸 ≈ 𝑝𝑐 for those objects as well.

10
Applications of Relativity Theory
• The theory of relativity is the
fundamental and correct formulation
of the laws of physics. However, for
many terrestrial, day-to-day situations,
the low-speed Newtonian limit of
relativistic theory is sufficient in dealing
with those situations.
• There are many situations, though,
where Newtonian physics is not
adequate. For those cases, relativistic
theory must be used.
➢ Many astrophysical/space
environments have particle speeds or
energies such that Newtonian physics
is inapplicable.
➢ Shown is Centaurus A, which is a distant galaxy emitting a pair of relativistic jets.
Gaseous streams of particles are being ejected by its active galactic nucleus (AGN
– basically a supermassive black hole surrounded by an accretion disk) at speeds
comparable to 𝑐. Due to relativistic motions, free electrons in the jets emit radio
waves, visible light, x-rays, and gamma rays.
11
Applications of Relativity Theory (2)
➢ Terrestrial technologies such as GPS. Due to high orbital speeds of GPS
satellites with respect to the surface of the Earth, must use special relativistic
time-dilation effect in their position calculations. General relativistic
(gravitational) time-dilation also needs to be considered.

12
Applications of Relativity Theory (3)

• Nuclear and particle physics deal with particles at speeds and

energies where Newtonian physics will give incorrect results
when studying those phenomena.
• We will consider some nuclear phenomena as a specific
application of relativistic mechanics.

13
Energy Units

• Atomic and Nuclear Physicists and Engineers often use the energy
unit: electron-volt or eV.
• It is the energy that an electron gains when it is accelerated through a
potential difference of one volt.
• The electron volt is a good unit for atomic physics – binding energies
are of the order of 1 to 10 eV. For instance, the ground-state binding
energy of the hydrogen atom is 13.6 eV.
• Recall that, in SI units, 1 eV = 1.6 × 10−19 J.
• Nuclear reactions tend to occur on the mega-electron-volt or MeV
scale. 1 MeV = 106 eV.

14
Mass Units
• In addition to the SI unit of mass (kg), when dealing with nuclear
reactions scientists and engineers may also use the unit MeV/𝑐 2 .
• Convenient to use for energy calculations, especially for rest
energies, since rest energy
𝐸0 = 𝑚𝑐 2 .

• To convert from kg to MeV/𝑐 2 , use

𝑐2 𝑚𝑐 2 𝐸0
𝑚=𝑚 = = .
𝑐2 𝑐2 𝑐2

15
Example Problem 23.1
• The neutral pion (𝜋 0 ) is a subatomic particle that has a mass
𝑚𝜋0 = 2.406 × 10−28 kg. Calculate its mass in MeV/𝑐 2 .

𝑐2
𝑚𝜋0 = 2.406 × 10−28 kg
𝑐2
m 2 1eV 1MeV
2.406×10−28 kg 3×108
s 1.6×10−19 J 106 eV
=
𝑐2
MeV
→ 𝑚𝜋0 = 135
𝑐2

16
Example Problem 23.2
• The charged B meson is a subatomic particle that has a mass
𝑚𝐵𝑐 = 6276 MeV/𝑐 2 . Calculate (a) its rest energy, and (b) its
mass in kg.
MeV
(a) 𝐸0,𝐵𝑐 = 𝑚𝐵𝑐 𝑐 2 = 6276 𝑐 2 = 6276 MeV
𝑐2
6 1.6×10−19 J
= 6276 × 10 eV = 1.004 × 10−9 J.
1 eV
MeV 6276 MeV 1.004×10−9 J
(b) 𝑚𝐵𝑐 = 6276 2 = = 𝑚 2
= 1.12 × 10−26 kg.
𝑐 𝑐2 8
3×10 𝑠

17
Atomic and Nuclear Constituents
A partial list of constituents:
• Electron 𝑒 − (and positron 𝑒 + ):
MeV
➢ Mass 𝑚𝑒 = 9.11 × 10−31 kg = 0.511 = 0.0005486 u .
𝑐2
➢ Charge 𝑞𝑒 = −1.6 × 10−19 C = −𝑒 (= +𝑒 for positron).
• Proton 𝑝:
MeV
➢ Mass 𝑚𝑝 = 1.673 × 10−27 kg = 938.3 = 1.007 u .
𝑐2
➢ Charge 𝑞𝑝 = +1.6 × 10−19 𝐶 = +𝑒 .
• Neutron 𝑛 :
MeV
➢ Mass 𝑚𝑛 = 1.675 × 10−27 kg = 939.6 = 1.009 u .
𝑐2
➢ Charge 𝑞𝑛 = 0 C.
• Muon 𝜇:
MeV
➢ Mass 𝑚𝜇 = 1.88 × 10−28 kg = 105 = 0.1134 u .
𝑐2
➢ Charge 𝑞𝜇∓ = ∓1.6 × 10−19 𝐶 = ∓𝑒 (depends on type).
MeV
• Note: 1u = unified atomic mass unit = 1.660539 × 10−27 kg = 931.5 .
𝑐2
18
Nuclides and Isotopes

• The general format for an element El is 𝐴𝑍El

• For example, the most common isotope of chlorine has 𝐴 = 35, 𝑍 =
17, and is written 35
17Cl and usually pronounced “chlorine-35.”
• This name of the element determines the atomic number 𝑍, so the
subscript 𝑍 is sometimes omitted, as in 35Cl.

19
The Strong Nuclear Force

• The nuclear force binds protons and neutrons together. It is an

example of the strong interaction.
• Important characteristics of the strong nuclear force:
➢ It does not depend on charge. Protons and neutrons are bound. It has a
short range, of the order of nuclear dimensions.
➢ Because of its short range, a nucleon (i.e., a proton or neutron) only
interacts with those in its immediate vicinity.
➢ It favors binding of pairs of protons or neutrons with opposite spins (=
an intrinsic angular momentum of elementary particles) and with pairs
of pairs (a pair of protons and a pair of neutrons, each pair having
opposite spins).

20
Nuclear Binding Energy
• Energy must be added to a nucleus to separate it into its individual
protons and neutrons, the total rest energy 𝐸0 of the separated
nucleons (i.e., protons and neutrons) is greater than the rest energy
of the nucleus.
• ∴ Rest energy of a nucleus is = 𝐸0 −𝐸𝐵 .
• Added energy needed to separate the nucleons is called the binding
energy 𝐸𝐵 :
𝐸𝐵 = (𝑍𝑀𝐻 + 𝑁𝑀𝑁 − 𝐴𝑍𝑀)𝑐 2 ,
𝑀𝐻 = mass of atomic hydrogen,
𝑀𝑁 = mass of a neutron,
𝑁 = 𝐴 − 𝑍 = number of neutrons in the nucleus, and
𝐴
𝑍𝑀 = mass of the neutral atom containing the nucleus of
atomic number 𝑍 and isotope mass number 𝐴.

21
Nuclear Binding Energy Per Nucleon
As A Function of Atomic Mass Number 𝑨

• The larger the

binding energy
per nucleon, the
more stable the
nucleus. (Stronger
“glue” holding the
nucleus together.)

22
Nuclear Stability

• Among about 2500 known nuclides,

fewer than 300 are stable.
• The others are unstable structures
that decay to form other nuclides
by emitting particles and
electromagnetic radiation, a
process called radioactivity.
• The stable nuclides are shown by
dots on a Segrè chart (shown),
where the neutron number N and
proton number (or atomic number)
Z for each nuclide are plotted.

23
Nuclear Reactions
• A nuclear reaction is a rearrangement of nuclear components due to
bombardment by a particle rather than a spontaneous natural process.
• The difference in masses before and after the reaction corresponds to
the reaction energy.
• If initial particles A and B interact to produce final particles C and D,
A+B→C+D,
the reaction energy 𝑄 (also known as the 𝑄-value) is defined as:
𝑀A 𝑐 2 + 𝑀B 𝑐 2 = 𝑀C 𝑐 2 + 𝑀D 𝑐 2 + 𝑄
⇒ 𝑄 = 𝑀A + 𝑀B − 𝑀C − 𝑀D 𝑐 2 (Reaction energy).
➢ When 𝑄 is positive, the total mass decreases and the total kinetic energy
increases. Such a reaction is called an exoergic reaction.
➢ When 𝑄 is negative, the mass increases and the kinetic energy decreases,
and the reaction is called an endoergic reaction.

24
Nuclear Fission

• Nuclear fission is a decay process

in which an unstable nucleus
splits into two fragments (the
fission fragments) of comparable
mass.
• Shown is the mass distribution
of the fission fragments from
the fission of 236U*.

25
Nuclear Fission
• Very heavy nuclei (𝐴 > 62 )
can break apart, releasing
energy.
• Fission of a uranium nucleus,
triggered by neutron
bombardment, releases other
neutrons that can trigger more
fissions, suggesting the
possibility of a chain reaction
(shown).
• The chain reaction may be
made to proceed slowly and in
a controlled manner in a
nuclear reactor, or explosively
in a bomb.

26
Nuclear Fusion
• Light nuclei (𝐴 < 62) can combine (that is, fuse) and release energy.
➢ Electric (Coulomb) repulsion makes it hard to get them close enough to
each other for fusion to be possible. The probability of nuclei fusing is
therefore low.
➢ Stellar interiors, however, are dense enough that nuclei are on average
close enough that even low-probability fusion events can occur over
time.
• Fusion reactions release energy for the same reason as fission reactions:
the binding energy per nucleon after the reaction is greater than before.
• The figure below illustrates the proton-proton (“p-p”) chain, which is the
main energy source in our sun.

27