Class 2: Index Notation
In this class we will start developing index
notation, the key mathematical basis of
Relativity. We will also learn how to describe
flows of energy and momentum.
Class 2: Index Notation
At the end of this session you should …
• … know some examples of 4-vectors and tensors, objects
whose components transform between different inertial
reference frames using the Lorentz transformations
• … be developing some familiarity with index notation: the
difference between up- and down-indices, how one may be
converted into the other, and summation rules
• … understand how the density/flow of energy/momentum
may be described by the matter-energy tensor 𝑇"#
What is a 4-vector?
• A 4-vector is an array of 4 physical quantities whose
values in different inertial frames are related by the
Lorentz transformations
• The prototypical 4-vector is hence 𝒙𝝁 = (𝒄𝒕, 𝒙, 𝒚, 𝒛)
• Note that the index 𝜇 is a superscript, and can take
four values 𝜇 = 0,1,2,3 , one for each element
(e.g., 𝑥 4 = 𝑐𝑡). It doesn’t mean “to the power of”.
• We will meet subscript indices shortly!
Index notation
• When writing 𝑥 " to describe an
array of quantities, we are using
“index notation” – the convenient
mathematical approach for
calculations in Relativity
• For example, by the end of the
unit we will be encountering
equations like …
9 9 9 9 > 9 >
𝑅8"# = 𝜕" Γ8# − 𝜕# Γ8" + Γ"> Γ8# − Γ#> Γ8"
• Aaargh!
Index notation
• Good notation is always very important …
https://archive.org/details/methodoffluxions00newt
• We will spend time practising using index notation
Producing 4-vectors
• 4-vectors are useful, because we know how their
components transform between inertial frames
• Since the Lorentz transformations are linear, the
sum/difference of 4-vectors is also a 4-vector
• In particular, the difference in space-time co-
ordinates is a 4-vector, 𝒅𝒙𝝁 = (𝒄𝒅𝒕, 𝒅𝒙, 𝒅𝒚, 𝒅𝒛)
• New 4-vectors may also be obtained by
multiplying/dividing by an invariant, such as the
proper time interval 𝑑𝜏 or the rest mass 𝑚4
4-velocity and 4-momentum
DE F
• The 4-vector 𝑣"
= = (𝛾𝑐, 𝛾𝑢E , 𝛾𝑢J , 𝛾𝑢K ) is known as
DG
the 4-velocity of a particle with 3D velocity 𝑢 = (𝑢E , 𝑢J , 𝑢K )
• The 4-vector 𝑝" = 𝑚4 𝑣 " =
M
𝛾𝑚4 𝑐, 𝛾𝑚4 𝑢E , 𝛾𝑚4 𝑢J , 𝛾𝑚4 𝑢K = ( , 𝑝E , 𝑝J , 𝑝K ) is known
N
as the 4-momentum of a particle
• This immediately tells us how the energy and momentum of
a particle transform between frames:
𝑣𝑝E 𝑣𝐸
𝐸P = 𝛾(𝐸 − ) 𝑝EP = 𝛾(𝑝E − )
𝑐 𝑐
“Down” 4-vectors
• A “down” 4-vector in Special Relativity is obtained
simply by reversing the sign of the first component
of a 4-vector
• For example, a down 4-vector is 𝑥" = (−𝑐𝑡, 𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧)
• This will be a very useful device in calculations, as
we will now explore!
Invariants in index notation
• We have seen that a useful quantity in Special Relativity is the
space-time interval 𝑑𝑠 U = −𝑐 U 𝑑𝑡 U + 𝑑𝑥 U + 𝑑𝑦 U + 𝑑𝑧 U
• In index notation, this can be written as 𝑑𝑠 U = 𝑑𝑥4 𝑑𝑥 4 +
𝑑𝑥V 𝑑𝑥 V + 𝑑𝑥U 𝑑𝑥 U + 𝑑𝑥W 𝑑𝑥 W = ∑W"Y4 𝑑𝑥" 𝑑𝑥 "
• In index notation, this is abbreviated as 𝑑𝑠 U = 𝑑𝑥" 𝑑𝑥 "
• Greek indices which repeat on the top and bottom
of an expression are always summed from 0 to 3
• Note that we can use any letter to indicate a summed index –
𝑑𝑥# 𝑑𝑥 # and 𝑑𝑥> 𝑑𝑥 > are exactly the same!
Lorentz transformations
• The Lorentz transformations are written in index
notation as 𝒙′𝝁 = 𝑳𝝁 𝝂 𝒙𝝂
• This is “four equations in one”, since 𝜇 = 0,1,2,3
• Why?? The index 𝜈 appears on the top and bottom of
the R.H.S. so is summed, leaving a single up-index 𝜇
How can we make sense of “𝐿" # 𝑥 # ”??
“If in doubt, write it out …”
Lorentz transformations
• Let’s write it out explicitly:
W
𝑥′" = 𝐿" # 𝑥 # = _ 𝐿" # 𝑥 #
#Y4
𝜇=0→ 𝑥′4 = 𝐿4 4 𝑥 4 + 𝐿4V 𝑥 V + 𝐿4 U 𝑥 U + 𝐿4 W 𝑥 W
etc.
𝜇=1→ 𝑥′V = 𝐿V 4 𝑥4 + 𝐿V V 𝑥V + 𝐿V U 𝑥U + 𝐿V W 𝑥W
• It is analogous to a matrix multiplication:
𝑐𝑡′ 𝛾 −𝑣𝛾/𝑐 0 0 𝑐𝑡
𝑥′ −𝑣𝛾/𝑐 𝛾 0 0 𝑥
= 𝑦
𝑦′ 0 0 1 0
𝑧′ 0 0 0 1 𝑧
"
𝑥′ 𝐿" # 𝑥#
Raising and lowering an index
• The transformation from an “up” to a “down” 4-
vector can be written as 𝒙𝝁 = 𝜼𝝁𝝂 𝒙𝝂 . Again, this is
“four equations in one”.
−1 0 0 0
• 𝜂"# is a matrix 0 1 0 0 that reverses the 1st sign
0 0 1 0
0 0 0 1
• This is known as lowering an index (𝑥 " → 𝑥" )
• Similarly, to raise an index we can write 𝑥 " = 𝜂"# 𝑥# ,
where 𝜂"# is the same matrix as above
• The same goes for 2D quantities, e.g. 𝐿"# = 𝜂"8 𝐿#8
Gradient transformations
• Consider a function of space-time co-ordinates 𝑓(𝑐𝑡, 𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧),
V ef ef ef ef
which has gradients at a point , , , . What are its
N eg eE eJ eK
gradients with respect to co-ordinates in 𝑆′, 𝑐𝑡 P , 𝑥 P , 𝑦 P , 𝑧 P ?
ef eE i ef
• By the chain rule: =
eEPF eEPF eE i
# eE i
• Since 𝑥# = 𝐿" 𝑥′" , we have = 𝐿" # (“if in doubt, write it
eEPF
ef # ef
out”) so = 𝐿"
eEPF eE i
• The gradient of a function transforms using the Lorentz
𝟏 𝝏𝒇 𝝏𝒇 𝝏𝒇 𝝏𝒇
transformations: 𝝏𝝁 𝒇 = , , , is a down 4-vector
𝒄 𝝏𝒕 𝝏𝒙 𝝏𝒚 𝝏𝒛
Matter and energy
• To develop General Relativity we need to describe
how matter-energy is distributed, and where it’s going
• This is achieved by an object known as the energy-
momentum tensor 𝑻𝝁𝝂 (at each point of space-time)
• For now, we can think of a “tensor” as a 2D matrix
• 𝑇"# has two indices because momentum has a
direction, but can also be transported in different
directions (e.g., a flux of 𝑥-momentum in the 𝑦-direction, if 𝑥-moving
particles are drifting in 𝑦)
Matter and energy
• It raises an immediate question: how does a quantity
with 2 indices transform between different inertial
reference frames S and S’?
• The Lorentz transformation of a 4-vector 𝑥 " :
𝑥′" = 𝐿" # 𝑥 #
• The Lorentz transformation of a 2D tensor 𝑇"# :
𝑇′"# = 𝐿" 9 𝐿#8 𝑇 98
Energy-momentum tensor
• Draw a box around a point in space-time containing a
bunch of particles carrying energy and momentum
• If the box contains 4-momentum 𝑑𝑝" and is moving
DE i 𝒅𝒑𝝁 𝒅𝒙𝝂
with velocity , we define 𝑻𝝁𝝂 =
Dg 𝒅𝑽 𝒅𝒕
• Note that 𝑇"# is a “Lorentz-transforming quantity”
because it is a product of two 4-vectors and a Lorentz
scalar (the space-time volume element 𝑑𝑉 𝑑𝑡)
• What are the different components of 𝑇"# ?
Energy density and flow
• 𝑇 44 is the energy density at a point
• 𝑇 4q = 𝑇 q4 (𝑖 = 1,2,3) is the flux of energy in the 𝒊-
direction or the 𝒊-momentum density (×𝒄)
• 𝑇 qu = 𝑇uq is the flux of 𝒊-momentum in the 𝒋-direction
or the flux of 𝒋-momentum in the 𝒊-direction
• Hence the tensor is symmetric, 𝑇"# = 𝑇 #"
• Let’s get a better sense of what 𝑇 qu means …
Energy density and flow
“The flux of 𝑖-
momentum in the
𝑗-direction”? What A B
does that mean??
• Consider two adjacent cubes of fluid A and B. In general A
exerts a force 𝐹⃗ on B through the interface 𝑑𝑆 (and B exerts an
equal-and-opposite force on A)
• 𝐹⃗ is equal to the rate at which momentum is pouring from A
into B, such that the flux of momentum is 𝐹⃗ /𝑑𝑆
• So 𝑇 qu is the force per unit area between adjacent elements
Perfect fluids
• Some forces, such as viscosity, act parallel
to the interface between fluid elements
• For a perfect fluid, we only consider forces
which act perpendicular to the interface,
such that 𝑇 qq = pressure 𝑃, and 𝑇 qu = 0
• For a non-relativistic perfect fluid,
𝜌𝑐 U 0 0 0
𝑇"# = 0 𝑃 0 0
0 0 𝑃 0
0 0 0 𝑃
• This applies to the Universe! (see later!)
Energy conservation
• We can express energy-momentum conservation
using the relation
𝜕" 𝑇"# = 0
• This is four equations in one again – 1 for energy and
3 for momentum
• It’s a local relation which applies at every point of
space-time
