Intake Manifold

runners

Air & Fuel Induction

System
by Muhammad Ayub, Lecturer, MED, UOL Chapter 5 1
Contents:
• Intake Manifold
• Air Intake and Fuel Addition in SI Engines • Intake Valves
• Fuel Injection Systems and Volumetric Efficiency • Variable Valve Event Control: Events are
• Throttle Body Injection (TBI) • Timing for Valve Opening and Closing
• Multiport fuel Injection (MPFI)
• Duration
• Gasoline Direct Injection (GDI)
• Lift
• Factors affecting Volumetric Efficiency of SI Engines
• Supercharging and Turbo-charging
• Fuels & Volumetric Efficiency
• Valve Overlap • Dual Fuel Engines
• Fluid Friction Losses • Intake for CI Engines
• Condition of Chocked Flow
• Closing intake valve after BDC
• Air Intake System Tuning
• Exhaust Residual
• EGR

by Muhammad Ayub, Lecturer, MED, UOL 2

Intake Manifold
Air inlet manifold or intake manifold is the part of an engine that supplies the
air / (fuel/air mixture) to engine through pipes to each cylinders, called runner.

Air Filter – Butterfly Valve - Intake Manifold – Runners

AIR INTAKE SYSTEM:

• Air enters the intake manifold by passing through air filter.
• It then passes through butterfly valve and enters in intake manifold.
• Intake manifold distributes air to each cylinder through runners.
• Air passes from runners through valves to combustion chamber.

In modern SI engines butterfly valve is getting removed and quantity of air flowing into cylinders is controlled
directly by the opening of valves.
by Muhammad Ayub, Lecturer, MED, UOL 3
Intake Manifold – DESIGN
REQUIREMENTS
DESIGN ELEMENTS:

• The intake manifold is a system to deliver air to the engine through pipes to each cylinder, called runners.

• In conventional SI engines Air intake quantity is controlled by butterfly valve located at the upstream end. In carburettor SI engines throttle is incorporated in the carburettor.

• The amount of air and fuel in one runner length is about the amount that gets delivered to one cylinder each cycle.

DESIGN REQUIREMENTS:

• Improve Volumetric Efficiency

• HIGH ENGINE SPEED REQUIREMENTS: The inside diameter of the runners must be large enough to reduce flow resistance and improve volumetric efficiency.

• LOW ENGINE SPEED REQUIREMENT: The inside diameter must be small enough to assure high air velocity and turbulence, which enhances its capability of

carrying fuel droplets and increases evaporation and air fuel mixing.

• The length of a runner and its diameter should be sized together to equalize, as much as possible, the amount of air and fuel that is delivered to each separate cylinder.

• Modern and advanced engines have active intake manifolds with the capability of changing runner length and diameter for different engine speed.

by Muhammad Ayub, Lecturer, MED, UOL 4

Intake Manifold
DESIGN REQUIREMENTS
• Minimize Flow Resistance:
• No sharp bends in runners
• Smooth wall surfaces inside
• Intake Manifold may be heated – to expedite vaporization of fuel
• Use hot engine coolant on the walls of manifold
• Make it in close thermal contact with exhausts manifold.

by Muhammad Ayub, Lecturer, MED, UOL 5

Intake Manifold
Runners

Camshaft

Valves directly
operated by camshaft
Intake Runners Clearance
Volume

Pistons

Connecting
Rods

Crankshaft

by Muhammad Ayub, Lecturer, MED, UOL 6

Intake Manifold

Runners

Intake Valve

Exhaust
Valve
V –Type Engine with SOHC
Clearance Volume

by Muhammad Ayub, Lecturer, MED, UOL 7

Intake Manifold

Runners

by Muhammad Ayub, Lecturer, MED, UOL 8

Type of Fuel Injection System
Air Intake Butterfly Valve Butterfly Valve
Air Intake Air Intake

Butterfly Valve Common Rail

Fuel Injector
Air Intake Manifold Air Intake Manifold
Common Rail

Fuel Injector Fuel

Injector

A. Throttle Body Injection (TBI) B. Multiport Fuel Injection (MPFI), C. Gasoline Direct Injection (GDI)
by Muhammad Ayub, Lecturer, MED, UOL 9
Single-Point or Throttle Body Injection
The first and simple kind of Fuel Injection was the Single-Point injection. Here
the carburetor is replaced by one or two fuel injector nozzles in the throttle
body, which is the throat of the engine’s air intake manifold

Multiport Fuel Injection (MPFI)

Multi-point Fuel injection a separate injector nozzle is devoted to each
cylinder, right outside its intake port, due to which the system is also called
Port Injection System

Direct Injection
Direct Injection injects fuel straight into the combustion chambers, past the
valves. Direct Injection system is common in diesel engines and is beginning to
pop up in gasoline engine designs, sometimes called DIG for Direct Injection
Gasoline. Fuel proportioning is still more accurate than in the other injection
system.

by Muhammad Ayub, Lecturer, MED, UOL 10

Intake Manifold
TYPES OF FUEL INJECTION SYSTEM
1. Carburetor / Throttle Body Injection
SI ENGINES 2. Multiport Fuel Injection System
FUEL ADDITION 3. Gasoline Direct Injection

• Fuel is added in the intake system:

1. Before the manifold (Throttle Body Fuel Injection System - TBI)
2. In the manifold system
At the end of runners, at the back of Intake Valve - just before entering cylinder (Multi Port Fuel Injection -
MPFI)
3. Directly into each cylinder (Gasoline Direct Injection Engines (modern trend) – GDI)
Characteristics of Carburettor or Throttle Body Injection – TBI
• Advantage of early fuel addition in the upstream:
• Further upstream fuel is added, has more time there is to evaporate and mix with air.
• Disadvantages of early fuel addition in intake manifold:
• Volumetric efficiency is reduced as fuel droplet replaces incoming air.
• Cylinder to cylinder AF consistency may not be achieved

by Muhammad Ayub, Lecturer, MED, UOL 11

SI ENGINES
Intake Manifold – Early Fuel Addition (Characteristics of TBI or
Carburettor Engines)
How AF inconsistency in each cylinder is produced ?
Fuel Flows in three ways in the manifold:
1. Fuel Vapours mix with air and flow with it.
2. Very small droplets are carried with air
3. Through thin film along the walls of the manifold
1. Fuel Vapour Flow: They mix with air and flow with it – ideal case
2. Fuel Droplet Flow:
• Smaller fuel droplets are carried by air and follow streamlines in better manner as compare to larger droplets.
• Larger fuel droplets – higher mass inertia :
• will not always flow as same speed as air
• Will not flow around corners and diverge
3. Thin Liquid Film of Fuel:
• Film occurs because gravity separates some droplets from flow and other droplets strike the wall where runners execute a corner
• The liquid manifold makes it difficult to have precise throttle control
• If throttle position is changed quickly, air flow rate will change but time rate of change of fuel flow will be slower due to this
liquid wall film.

by Muhammad Ayub, Lecturer, MED, UOL 12

SI ENGINES
Intake Manifold – Early Fuel Addition (Characteristics of TBI or Carburettor Engines)
How AF inconsistency in each cylinder is produced ?
• Gasoline consists of a number of molecules of different chemical composition and makeup. These gasoline components evaporate at different

temperatures and at different rates.

• Because of this composition of vapour in the air flow will not be exactly the same as that of the fuel droplet carried by the air or liquid film on the manifold

walls. (early evaporated molecules in 1st runner and late evaporated molecules in last runners)

• Different Air Fuel Mixture with different composition and air fuel ratio in different cylinders. (Inconsistency in AF ratio and composition)

AFFECTS of INCONSISTANT AF RATIO AND COMPOSITION:

• Possibility of knock problem will be different in each cylinder. Minimum octane number that can be used will be dictated by the worst cylinder (cylinder with greatest knock problem).

• This problem will be further complicated by the fact that the engine is operated over a range of throttle settings: Part throttle – lower pressure – change in evaporation rate.

SOLUTION:

• MULTIPOINT PORT FUEL INJECTION OR

• DIRECT INJECTION

by Muhammad Ayub, Lecturer, MED, UOL 13

Volumetric Efficiency – Measure of Effectiveness of Engine’s
Induction System

The intake system: Air Inlet - Air Filter - Carburettor with Butterfly Valve / Throttle Body (In SI engine) -

intake manifold - intake port (runner) - intake valve

The Air Intake System, by using butterfly valve of throttle body and intake, restricts the amount of air which

an engine of given displacement can induct.

• Volume flow rate of air into the intake system divided by the rate at which volume is displaced by the piston.

ηv = (dma /dt )/ ρa,i Vd N

• Volumetric efficiency measure measures the effectiveness of an engine’s induction process.

ηv = ma / ρa,i Vd
by Muhammad Ayub, Lecturer, MED, UOL 14
Volumetric Efficiency of SI Engine
MAXIMUM Volumetric Efficiency in the intake of any engine is desirable:

Volumetric Efficiency varies with engine speed - MAXIMUM at certain engine speed - DECREASING at both

higher or lower engine speeds.

Factors affecting volumetric efficiencies are:

• Fuel • Chocked Air Flow

• Heat Transfer – High Temperature • Closing Intake Valve After BDC
• Valve Overlap • Intake Turing

• Fluid Friction Loses • Exhaust Residual

• EGR

by Muhammad Ayub, Lecturer, MED, UOL 15

Affect of Fuel Addition (Fuel Injection System type) on
Volumetric Efficiency of Engine

In naturally aspirated (non Direct Injection) engines, volumetric efficiency will always be less than 100% because:
• Fuel will be added and volume of fuel vapours will displace incoming air.

• This type of fuel, how and when added will affect volumetric efficiency
• Earlier in the intake manifold fuel is added either through carburettor or through throttle body, lesser is the volumetric efficiency

• In Multipoint Port Fuel Injection fuel is added at the intake valve port. Its volumetric efficiency will be better as no air is

displaced until after intake manifold.

• Fuel Evaporation does not take place until the flow is entering the cylinder at the intake valve.

• Direct Injection Engines (Fuel is injected directly into the cylinder) experience no volumetric loss due to fuel evaporation.
• Manifolds can have larger diameters runners.

• High velocity and turbulence is not required for evaporation of fuel.

• Can be operated cool which will further increase density of air.

by Muhammad Ayub, Lecturer, MED, UOL 16
Affect of Fuel Addition on
VOLUMETRIC EFFICIENCY

VOLUMETRIC EFFICIENCY
Gasoline Direct Injection > Multipoint Port Fuel injection > Throttle Body Injection

by Muhammad Ayub, Lecturer, MED, UOL 17

Alternate Fuel (Liquid Fuels) and
VOLUMETRIC EFFICIENCY
AIR FUEL RATIO AND VOLUMETRIC EFFICIENCY:

• Fuels with smaller air fuel ratio will lower Volumetric Efficiency,

AF for Alcohol (9:1), AF for Gasoline (14.7:1)

EFFECT OF FUEL’S HEAT OF VAPORIZATION ON VOLUMETRIC EFFICIENCY:

• Fuel with high heat of vaporization will cause evaporation cooling. This will regain some of this lost
efficiency. This cooling will create denser air fuel flow for a given pressure allowing more air to enter
the system.

Alcohol has high heat of vaporization, so some efficiency lost due to AF is gained back again.
by Muhammad Ayub, Lecturer, MED, UOL 18
Gaseous Fuels (Methane and Hydrogen)
and their effect on VOLUMETRIC EFFICIENCY

Gaseous fuels displace more incoming air than liquid fuels which are only partially
evaporated in the intake system.

• Gasoline: Assumed fuel vapour pressure in the intake system is 1% to 10% of total
pressure

• Gaseous Fuel or Alcohol: Assumed fuel vapour pressure is greater than 10% of the
total.

Intake manifold can be operated cooler for gaseous fuel as no vaporization is required.
Some Volumetric efficiency is regained.
by Muhammad Ayub, Lecturer, MED, UOL 19
Volumetric Efficiency and Heat Transfer
to incoming air fuel
• All intake systems are hotter than surrounding air temperature and will consequently heat the incoming air.

• Hotter Intake System – Heated air – Lower density of air – reduced volumetric efficiency.

• CARBURETTOR BODY AND THROTTLE BODY INJECTON SYSTEM: Intake system is purposely heated for

enhancing evaporation.

• Lower Engine Speed: Lower flow rate – more time in the intake manifold - reduced density – lower

volumetric efficiency

• Some engines have been tried inject small amounts of water into intake manifold. This improved

volumetric efficiency by increasing resulting evaporative cooling that occurs.

by Muhammad Ayub, Lecturer, MED, UOL 20

Valve Overlap
and Volumetric Efficiency
At TDC at the end of exhaust stroke and the beginning of the intake stroke both intake and exhaust valves are open
simultaneously for a brief moment.

AT HIGHER ENGINE SPEEDS (WOT):

Valve Overlapping improves volumetric efficiency

AT LOWER ENGINE SPEEDS (Part Load Conditions):

• Pressure in intake manifold is LOWER than atmospheric pressure (Lower Pressure) Exhaust Manifold Pressure > Intake Manifold Pressure

• Pressure at exhaust manifold is near atmospheric pressure. (Higher Pressure)

This high pressure at exhaust manifold causes Exhaust gas get carried back into the cylinder with the intake of air fuel charge,
displacing incoming air and lowering volumetric efficiency. This effect is greater at lower speeds when real time valve opening is
greater and intake manifold pressure is lower.

• Other factors affecting this problem are location of intake and exhaust valves and engine compression ratio.

by Muhammad Ayub, Lecturer, MED, UOL 21

Fluid Friction Loses and
Volumetric Efficiency
• Air moving through any flow passage restriction undergoes a pressure drop. Therefore pressure of the air entering cylinder is less than atmospheric

pressure and subsequently amount of air entering the cylinder is reduced.

• Viscous flow friction that affects the air as it passes through air filter, carburetor, throttle plate, intake manifold and intake valve reduces the

volumetric efficiency of the engine intake system.

• Viscous drag that causes the pressure lose, increases with the square of the flow velocity. This reduces volumetric efficiency with increasing engine

speed.

• Flow through inlet valve is also a great restriction.

• DEVELOPMENTS:

•
Limitations: Flow through intake valves
Plastic air inlet manifolds with smoother walls.

• Avoidance of sharp corners and bends Increase number of valves (two to three intake valves)

• Elimination of carburetor

• Close fitting parts alignment with no gasket protrusions

by Muhammad Ayub, Lecturer, MED, UOL 22
Chocked Flow

• As air flow is increased to higher velocities, it eventually reaches sonic

velocities at some point in the system. This causes chocked flow of the intake
system.

• Chocked flow condition is the maximum flow rate that can be produced in the
intake system regardless of how controlling conditions are changed.

• Chocked flow occurs in the most restricted passage of the system, usually at
the intake valve or in the carburettor.
by Muhammad Ayub, Lecturer, MED, UOL 23
Closing Intake Valve After BDC
Intake manifold pressure > Cylinder Pressure in intake stroke
Ideal time for closure is aBDC when intake manifold pressure = pressure inside cylinder
Speed Dependent Phenomenon, Variable Valve Timing Required

• The timing of the closure of the intake valve affects how much air ends up in the cylinder.
• Near the end of the intake stroke, intake valve is open and the piston is moving from TDC towards BDC. Air is pushed into the cylinder through
the open intake valve due to vacuum created by the additional volume being displaced by the piston.

• There is pressure drop in the air as it passes through the intake valve, the pressure inside the cylinder is less than the pressure outside the
cylinder in the intake manifold.

• this pressure differential still exists the instant the piston reaches BDC and air is still entering the cylinder. That’s why the closing of the intake
valve is timed to occur aBDC.

• When the piston reaches the BDC, it starts back towards TDC and in doing so, it starts compressing the air in the cylinder. Until the air is
compressed to a pressure equal to the pressure in the intake manifold, air continues to enter into the cylinder. This is the ideal time for valve
closure. (When the intake pressure is equal in intake manifold and inside cylinder.)
• If it is closed earlier air was still coming in and is unable to enter, resulting in loss in volumetric efficiency.

• If it is closed late, air compressed by the piston will force some air back out of the cylinder.

by Muhammad Ayub, Lecturer, MED, UOL 24

Closing Intake Valve After BDC
Intake manifold pressure>Cylinder Pressure in intake stroke
Ideal time for closure is aBDC when intake manifold pressure = pressure inside cylinder

• Ideal time for intake valve closing is dependent upon engine speed.

• HIGHER SPEEDS: Valve Should close late aBDC

• Greater pressure drop across intake valves due to higher flow rate of air.

• Reduced cycle time at higher speed aBDC

• LOWER SPEED: Valve Should close early aBDC

• Pressure differential will be less across valves.

• Pressure equalization will occur after BDC. Valve should close earlier.

• In older engines Valve Timing is not changed. So they are designed for best performance at certain point. Volumetric efficiency will

decrease at engine speed higher or lower than this.

• Modern Engines Variable Valve Timing To solve this issue to some extant.

• When 42 Volt electrical systems become standard, camshafts will be replaced by electrical valve actuators and there will be no such

issue. by Muhammad Ayub, Lecturer, MED, UOL 25

Intake Tuning

• Air enters intake manifold in pulsed manner creating pressure waves

which are reflected back from the end of the runner.

• Waves going in and reflected waves, when in phase, create

reinforced points, causing high pressure.

• If Higher pressure is created at the valves it causes more air to enter

into the cylinder. In such a case intake system is tuned.
by Muhammad Ayub, Lecturer, MED, UOL 26
Exhaust Residual
• During exhaust stroke not all the gases get pushed out of the cylinder by the piston, a small residual being trapped in the

clearance volume.

• This amount of residual depends upon:

• Compression Ratio

• Location of valves

• Valve Overlap

• Exhaust residual displaces some of the incoming air, reducing volumetric efficiency (of combustable fliud).

• Hot exhaust also heats up incoming gases, reducing their density and reducing their volumetric efficiency.

• However this above point may be counteracted as slightly by the vacuum created in the clearance volume when the hot

exhaust gas is in turn cooled by incoming air.

by Muhammad Ayub, Lecturer, MED, UOL 27

Exhaust Gas Recycling - EGR
In all modern engines and in many other engines:

• Exhaust gas is recycled (EGR) into the intake manifold to dilute the incoming air.

• REASON:

• Reduction in combustion temperature in the engine, producing less nitrogen oxide in the exhaust.

• RECYCLING RATIO:

• Upto 20% Exhaust gas will be diverted into the intake manifold, depending upon how the engine is operated.

• EGR Causes:

• Displacing some incoming air

• Heating up incoming air reducing air density.

Both above factors reduce volumetric efficiency.

by Muhammad Ayub, Lecturer, MED, UOL 28

Engine Crankcase Venting into Intake
Manifold

• Engine crank case are vented into the intake system, displacing some
of the incoming air and lowering the volumetric efficiency.

• Gas forced through the crankcase can amount to about 1% of the

total gas flow through the engine.

by Muhammad Ayub, Lecturer, MED, UOL 29

INTAKE VALVES

by Muhammad Ayub, Lecturer, MED, UOL 30

INTAKE VALVES
Types of Valves
Valve is a device that regulates or controls the fluid flow by opening or

closing of the fluid passageways.

Type of Intake Valves:

• Poppet Valves

• Rotary Valves

• Sleeve Valves

by Muhammad Ayub, Lecturer, MED, UOL 31

INTAKE VALVES - Types of Valves
Poppet Valve
• The valve seat in an IC Engine is the surface against which an intake or and exhaust valve rests during the portion

of the engine operating cycle when that valve is closed.

• Intake valves of most IC engines are poppet valves that are spring loaded closed and pushed open at the proper

cycle time by the engine camshaft.

• The distance valves open is called valve lift. It depends upon engine size and design. Valve lift may be

• a few mm to more than a centimetre.

• Usually 5mm to 10mm for an engine.

• Generally: lmax = dv/4

• lmax : Maximum Valve Lift

• dv : Diameter of the Valve

by Muhammad Ayub, Lecturer, MED, UOL 32

by Muhammad Ayub, Lecturer, MED, UOL 33
Sleeve Valves
Once used in aeroplane engines

by Muhammad Ayub, Lecturer, MED, UOL 34

Valves
• Valve and Valve Seat Material: Hard Alloy Steel or Ceramic

Working:

• Valves are connected to camshafts by hydro-mechanical or mechanical linkages.

Requirement:

• Valve should close with valve seat to avoid any pressure loss.

• Valve and valve seat should sustain extreme temperature conditions. (Intake valves are much cooler in temperature than exhaust

valves.)

• Open or close almost instantaneously at proper time

Impossible in Mechanical System. Slower opening and closing is done to avoid wear, noise and chatter.

FUTURE SOLUTION:

• 42V battery system using electronic actuators for opening and closing of valve.
by Muhammad Ayub, Lecturer, MED, UOL 35
Valve Mechanism Technologies -
Current
Over Head Valves (OHV): Valves and camshafts driving them are located in Over
Head block of the engine.

The closer the camshaft is mounted to the stem of the valves, the greater is
the efficiency of the engine.
• SOHC: Single Over Head Camshaft

Once camshaft driving intake and exhaust valves

• DOHC: Dual Over Head Camshafts

Separate Camshafts for driving Intake Valves and Exhaust Valves

by Muhammad Ayub, Lecturer, MED, UOL 36

Valve Opening and Flow Rates
• The distance valves open is called valve lift. It depends upon engine size and design. Valve lift may be

• a few mm to more than a centimetre.

• Usually 5mm to 10mm for an engine.

• Generally: lmax = dv/4

• lmax : Maximum Valve Lift

• dv : Diameter of the Valve

• Angle of the valve surface with angle seat is designed to give minimum flow restriction.

• As air flows around corners, the streamlines separate from the surface and the actual cross-sectional area of flow is less than the flow passage area.

• Ratio of actual flow area with flow passage area is called valve discharge coefficient

• CDv = Aact / A pass

• Passage Area of the Flow is:

• Apass = PI dv l

• Shape and angle of valve surfaces are something designed to give special mass flow pattern to improve overall engineby
efficiency.
Muhammad Ayub, Lecturer, MED, UOL 37
DOHC

by Muhammad Ayub, Lecturer, MED, UOL 38

Intake Valve Opening
• Intake valves offer the greatest restriction to incoming air in most engines. This is especially true at higher
engine speeds.

• Equation for finding minimum valve area is:

• Ai = CB2 [(UP)max / Ci ] = (PI/4)dv2

Where:

C = constant having value of about 1.3

B = Bore

(UP)max = average piston speed at maximum engine speed

Ci = Speed of sound at inlet condition

dv = diameter of the valve

Ai is the total inlet valve area for one cylinder, whether it has one, two or three intake valves.
by Muhammad Ayub, Lecturer, MED, UOL 39
Engine Head Design Requirement
Engine head has to accommodate following:
• Space for Intake Valves
• Space for Exhaust Valve
• Spark Plug
• Fuel Injector (in Direct Injection Engines Only)
On many newer engines with OHV and small fast burn combustion chamber engines there is not enough room in engine head
to accommodate intake valve satisfying earlier mentioned equation, exhaust valves and spark plug. Therefore most engines
are built with:
• 2 to 3 intake valves
• 2 Exhaust Valves
• 2 to 3 smaller valves give more flow area and less flow restriction than 1 intake valve. Thus improving volumetric efficiency.
• Multiple valves also reduce valve size, requiring lighter springs and reduced force on linkages.
• However design of camshafts and linkages with multiple valves becomes extremely complex.

by Muhammad Ayub, Lecturer, MED, UOL 40

Intake Valves

FORD ECOBOOST 3.5 Liter

Turbocharged,
Direct Injection
V6 engine

Fuel Injector for Direct

Injection Engine

Spark Plug

by Muhammad Ayub, Lecturer, MED, UOL 41

Different Valve Configurations

2 Valves / cylinder 4 Valves per cylinder 5 valves per cylinder

by Muhammad Ayub, Lecturer, MED, UOL 42

5 Valves per cylinder

by Muhammad Ayub, Lecturer, MED, UOL 43

Engine Design with Multiple Air Intake
Valves
Some Multivalve engines are designed in such a way that:

• low speeds:

• only one intake valve opens

• One Valve Opens completely and other valve opens partially (small valve lift).

• High speed: Less time for air to enter, require more inlet flow area

• All two or three valves open with maximum valve lift

• Valve Opening Timing for all two or three valves may be different.

This gives increased control over air flow.

Modern Engines are equipped with variable valve timing as well to enhance volumetric efficiency. (refer to earlier topic of closing intake valve aBDC)

• At low speed valve will close early aBDC

• At high engine speed valve will close at later position aBDC. (Upto 200 later) to avoid lowering volumetric efficiency.

by Muhammad Ayub, Lecturer, MED, UOL 44

Valve Opening and Closing Timings
• Reverse flow can occur:
• Near TDC During Intake and Exhaust Valve Overlap

• If Intake Valve is closed late aBDC.

• Intake Valve Opening Timing: 10 to 25 bTDC

• Should be totally open at TDC to get maximum air flow during intake stroke

• Intake Valve Closing Timing: 40 to 50 aBDC

• If Variable Valve Timing is not used correct point of timing is set for only one speed. This causes increased
volumetric efficiency loses at higher or lower engine speeds.

• In Variable Valve Timing valve opening and closing timing can be varied match engine speed requirements.

by Muhammad Ayub, Lecturer, MED, UOL 45

by Muhammad Ayub, Lecturer, MED, UOL 46
Variable Valve Timings
VARIABLE VALVE TIMING AND LIFT:
More than one cam-lobes are used for actuating valves. At lower speeds smaller cam lobes actuate valves. At higher speeds larger lob actuates
all the valves. This provides Two (or more) valve timing settings for two (or more) discrete engine speeds.
This technology controls:
•Valve Timing: The cam lobes have different opening and closing points.
•Valve Opening Duration: has more wider cam lobe (more valve opening duration)
•valve lift : Other cam lob is bigger in size (Controlling lift)

TECHNOLOGY Names:
• VTEC – Honda
• VVTi-L – Toyota
• MIVEC – Mitsubishi

VARIABLE VALVE TIMING:

Cam shaft timing with respect to crank shaft is adjusted to match the requirement.
• Valve Opening Timing can be virtually continually varied.
• No control over:
• Valve Lift
• Valve Opening duration

• VVTi - Toyota
• Super VANOS – BMW
• Variocam - Porsche
by Muhammad Ayub, Lecturer, MED, UOL 47
Valve Event Modulation
• Valve Overlap Control

• Variable Valve Timing

• Discrete Variable Valve Lift

• Intake Valve Closing (Intake Cam Phasing)

• Valve Event Modulation

• Continuously Variable Valve Lift (CVVL)

by Muhammad Ayub, Lecturer, MED, UOL 48

Superchargers and Turbochargers
• Superchargers and turbochargers are compressors mounted in the
intake system and used to raise the pressure of the incoming air.
Result is more air and fuel entering into the system.
• Super chargers are mechanically driven off the crankshafts.
• Turbochargers are powered by the turbine mounted on the exhaust
flow of the engine.
• This added air and fuel creates more power during the combustion
and net output of the engine is increased.

by Muhammad Ayub, Lecturer, MED, UOL 49

Superchargers

The pressure increase is generally somewhere between 20kPa to 50kPa

with most engines on the lower end of this scale.
• At least one automotive manufacturer has developed a high pressure super
charger (ΔP = 280 kPa) to use with variable compression engine.

by Muhammad Ayub, Lecturer, MED, UOL 50

Turbochargers
• Superchargers and turbochargers are compressors mounted in the intake system and used to
raise the pressure of the incoming air.
• Turbochargers are powered by the turbine mounted on the exhaust flow of the engine.
• However turbine in the exhaust flow causes restricted flow, resulting in:
• Slightly higher pressure in the cylinder exhaust port.
• This reduces slightly the engine power output.
• Turbochargers:
• have generally lower specific fuel consumption rates.
• Produce more power
• Friction power lost remains about the same.
• It is necessary to run the turbines at very high speeds so that enough power is produced to run the
compressor.
• Speeds of 100,000 to 130,000 rpm are common.
• High speeds and high exhaust temperature create corrosive environment requiring turbochargers to be
made up of special materials and concerns for long term reliability.

by Muhammad Ayub, Lecturer, MED, UOL 51

Turbochargers

by Muhammad Ayub, Lecturer, MED, UOL 52

Turbochargers
• Disadvantage:
• Turbolag – It occurs with sudden throttle change (from low to high); if throttle is opened quickly to accelerate the vehicle, the turbocharger will not respond quickly. Because it
takes several revolutions to change exhaust flow rate and to speed up the rotor of the turbine.

• Light weight ceramic rotors reduce turbo lag for being lightweight, having low mass and inertia and having ability to withstand high temperature.

• Most turbochargers are equipped with an after cooler to again lower the compressed air temperature.

• Some Modern turbochargers have variable blade angle which can be adjusted to give maximum efficiency for any air flow rate when engine speed or load is
changed.

COMPRESSORS:

• Radial flow centrifugal compressors turning at high speed are generally used on automobile size engine.

• On very large engines , axial flow compressors are used because of their greater efficiency at the higher air flow rates.

• Isentropic efficiency of a compressor is defined as:

(ηs )comp = (Wc) isen / (Wc) act

by Muhammad Ayub, Lecturer, MED, UOL 53

Turbochargers
(ηs )turbo = (Wt) act / (Wt) isen

by Muhammad Ayub, Lecturer, MED, UOL 54

Stratified Charged Engines AUDI:
and Dual-Fuel Engines TFSI Turbo Fuel Stratified Injection

• Stratified Charged Engines have different AF ratio at different locations within

combustion chamber

• Combustion Chamber filled with very lean mixture but there is rich mixture around
spark plugs. Rich mixture ignites readily and is desired around sparkplug.

• Strong flame created around spark plug, which was initiated by spark plug, burns
this very lean mixture.

• Combination of multiple valves and multiple fuel injectors along with flexible
valve and injection timing are used to accomplish the desired results.

Stratified Charged Engines with No Throttle:

• Some stratified charge SI engines are

by Muhammad operated
Ayub, with no throttle, which raises the
Lecturer, MED, UOL 55
Dual Fuel Engines
For various technical and financial reasons (Diesel Cost
too high), some engines are designed to operate using
a combination of two fuels:
• Large Diesel Engines are run on combination of
methane and diesel oil.
• Methane is main fuel – cheap
• Small amount of Diesel is injected at the proper
cycle time.
• This ignites in normal manner and initiates
combination in the methane-air mixture filling the
cylinder.
• Combination of fuelbyinput systems are needed on
Muhammad Ayub, Lecturer, MED, UOL 56
Air Induction System for CI Engine

• CI Engines are operated un-throttled & power is controlled by the amount of fuel
injected into the combustion chamber during each cycle.

• This, because of removal of butterfly valve, allows high volumetric efficiency during all engine
speeds as there are least restrictions in air induction system in CI Engine.

• Since fuel is added only in combustion chamber late in compression stroke, and air
and fuel have separate passages, volumetric efficiency is more.

• Diesel Engines may be turbocharged, this further enhances volumetric efficiency,

by Muhammad Ayub, Lecturer, MED, UOL 57

Air Induction System for CI Engine
• In CI engines Fuel is injected at about 200 bTDC, directly into combustion chamber.

• Air is at high temperature because of compressive heating, self ignition occurs after fuel injection.

• There is very short duration for fuel to evaporate, mix with air, and then self-ignite. So combustion starts
shortly bTDC. At this time Fuel is still being injected, which keeps combustion occurring well into the power
stroke.

• Fuel with correct cetane number be used in an engine so that self-ignition initiates the start of combustion
at the proper cycle position.

• A distribution of fuel droplet size is desirable so that the start of combustion of all fuel particle is not
simultaneous, but is spread over a short period of cycle time.

• This shows the start of the pressure pulse on the piston and gives smoother engine operation. Time duration
of injection in a CI Engine is less than that in SI Engine
by Muhammad Ayub, Lecturer, MED, UOL 58
Air Induction System for CI Engine
Injection Pressure for CI Engine is much higher than that in SI engine. This is
because:
• Fuel in first injected very close to TDC in compression stroke and at that time pressure is very high.

• By the time the final fuel in injected, peak pressure during combustion is being experienced.

• Pressure should be high enough so that fuel spray will penetrate across the entire combustion chamber.

• Injection Pressures of 200 to 2000 Atmosphere are used with average fuel droplet size generally
decreading with increasing pressure.

• Orifice hole size of injectors is typically in the range of 0.2 to 1.0mm diameter.

• During Injection the mass flow rate of fuel through an injector is:

nit = CD An V 2 Pi 6 P
by Muhammad Ayub, Lecturer, MED, UOL 59
Air Induction System for CI Engine
• Total mass of fuel injected into on cylinder during one cycle is:

mf = CD An (2 ρf ΔP) ½ (Δ θ / 360N)

Where:
CD = Discharge coefficient of injector

An = flow area of nozzle orifice(s)

ρf = density of fuel

ΔP = Pressure differential across injector

Δ θ = crank angle through which injection takes place

N = Engine Speed
by Muhammad Ayub, Lecturer, MED, UOL 60
Air Induction System for CI Engine
• Pressure differential ΔP is about equal to injection pressure:

Pinj ≈ ΔP

It is desirable that the crank angle of rotation through which injection takes place be almost
constant for all speeds. To do this, as engine speed changes, requires that injection pressure be
related to speed as:

Pinj is proportional to N2

• To satisfy this can acquire very high injector pressure at higher engine speeds. On some
modern injectors, orifice flow area An can be varied some to allow greater flow at higher
speeds.
by Muhammad Ayub, Lecturer, MED, UOL 61
Air Induction System for CI Engine
It is desirable that the crank angle of rotation through which injection takes place
be almost constant for all speeds. To do this, as engine speed changes, requires
that injection pressure be related to speed as:

• Pinj proportional to N2

• To satisfy this can acquire very high injector pressure at higher engine speeds. On
some modern injectors, orifice flow area An can be varied some to allow greater
flow at higher speeds.

by Muhammad Ayub, Lecturer, MED, UOL 62

Air Induction System for CI Engine
Bigger Engines with Large Combustion
Chambers
• Bigger Engines has low air motion and turbulence within the cylinder.

• Injector is mounted neat the center of the chamber, often with five or six orifices to spray over
the entire chamber.

• Because of low turbulence, evaporation and mixing are slower and real time between start of
injection and start of combustion is longer.

• Engine speed is slower, so the injection timing in cycle time is about the same. Large Engines must
have very high injection pressures and high pressure velocity.

• With lower air motion and turbulence, high liquid spray velocity is needed to enhance
evaporation and mixing. High velocity is needed to assure that some spray reaches fully across
the large combustion chamber. by Muhammad Ayub, Lecturer, MED, UOL 63
Air Induction System for CI Engine
Bigger Engines with Large Combustion
Chambers
• Injectors with multiple orifices require higher pressure to obtain the same injection velocity and
penetration distance.

• Fuel velocity leaving the injector might be as high as 250m/sec. However viscous drag and
evaporation reduces this very quickly.

by Muhammad Ayub, Lecturer, MED, UOL 64

Air Induction System for CI Engine
Problem
An automobile has a 3.2 liter five cylinder, four stroke
cycle diesel engine operates at 2400 RPM. Fuel injection
occurs from 20 bTDC to 5aTDC. The engine has a
volumetric efficiency of 0.95 and operates with fuel
equivalence ratio of 0.80. Light diesel fuel is used.
Calculate:
• Time for one injection
• Fuel flow rate through injection
For One Cylinder for one cycle:
Vd = (0.0032 m3) / 5 = 0.00064 m3
by Muhammad Ayub, Lecturer, MED, UOL 65
Air Induction System for CI Engine
Problem
Mass of Fuel is:
ma = ƞv ρa Vd = (0.95) (1.81 kg/m3) (0.00064) = 0.000718 kg
Mass of air is:
mf = φ ma / (AF) stoich = (0.80) (0.000718 kg) / (14.5) = 0.0000396 kg

Engine Speed = 2400 (rev / min) / 60 (sec /min) = 40 rev / sec

Engine Time = 1/40 (rev/sec) = (60 sec/min) /(2400 rev/min) = 0.025 sec / rev
= (0.025 sec/rev) / (3600/rev) = 6.9 X 10-5 sec/degree

Time for Injection:

t = (25O / Injection) (6.9 X 10 -5 sec/degree) = 0.00173 sec/injection
Injection Rate:
mf = (0.0000396kg)/(0.00173sec) = 0.0229 kg/sec = 0.050 lbm/sec

by Muhammad Ayub, Lecturer, MED, UOL 66

Thank You
IMRAN A MUGHAL

by Muhammad Ayub, Lecturer, MED, UOL 67

Variable Valve Event

by Muhammad Ayub, Lecturer, MED, UOL 68

Valve Event Modulation

by Muhammad Ayub, Lecturer, MED, UOL 69

Valve Timing Control
Control over:
Valve Opening & Closing Timing

by Muhammad Ayub, Lecturer, MED, UOL 70

Variable Valve Timing
• Valve Opening and Closing timing can be adjusted.
• Valve Overlap can be controlled

• VVT is continuously adjustable with engine rpm

• Valve Overlapping can be controlled

by Muhammad Ayub, Lecturer, MED, UOL 71

by Muhammad Ayub, Lecturer, MED, UOL 72
by Muhammad Ayub, Lecturer, MED, UOL 73
Cam Switching
CAM SWITCHING

Examples:
VTEC by Honda
VVTL-I by Toyota
VARIOCAM by PORSCHE
MIVEC by Mistubishi

by Muhammad Ayub, Lecturer, MED, UOL 74

Discrete
Valve Timing
It controls:

• Valve Timing
• Valve Lift
• Valve Duration

But only for two specified speeds

by Muhammad Ayub, Lecturer, MED, UOL 75

Discrete
Valve Timing
Honda’s VTEC technology - first

discrete variable valve Lift (DVVL)

It controls:

• Valve Timing
• Valve Lift
• Valve Duration

But only for two specified speeds

Advanced form is combine VTEC and VVT

by Muhammad Ayub, Lecturer, MED, UOL 76

Honda
VTEC

by Muhammad Ayub, Lecturer, MED, UOL 77

• Variocam Plus – Porsche

by Muhammad Ayub, Lecturer, MED, UOL 78

Continuously variable
Valve Timing, Duration and Lift

by Muhammad Ayub, Lecturer, MED, UOL 79

Variable Valve Event and Lift Control

Examples:
VALVTRONIC with Double VANOS
by Honda
Multi-Air by Fiat

by Muhammad Ayub, Lecturer, MED, UOL 80

Valve Event Management System
• Some newer developments in VEM (Valve Event Management) technology include systems that offer continuously

variable lift and duration. Examples of continuously variable lift systems along with adjustable valve timing are:
• Nissan’s VEL,

• BMW’s Valvetronic,

• Fiat’s Multi-Air

• These systems attempt to operate throttle-less and rely on varying lift and timing to throttle the incoming air.

Throttle-less operation allows a reduction in pumping losses at part load, and thus reduces fuel consumption.

• However, these throttle-less approaches also generally result in slight variations in the very small valve lifts

necessary for idle operation even with well-controlled manufacturing tolerances. These small variations result in a

slightly different charge mass from cylinder to cylinder, causing somewhat rougher idle engine operation, which

is detrimental to customer satisfaction.

by Muhammad Ayub, Lecturer, MED, UOL 81

FIGURE 4.2 BMW Valvetronic.
SOURCE: Flierl et al. (2006).
Reprinted with permission from
SAE Paper 2006-01-0223,
Copyright 2006 SAE International.

by Muhammad Ayub, Lecturer, MED, UOL 82

by Muhammad Ayub, Lecturer, MED, UOL 83
Nissan’s Valve Event Lift - VEL

FIGURE 4.3 Nissan valve event and lift design. SOURCE: Takemura
et al. (2001). Reprinted with permission from SAE Paper 2001-01-
0243, Copyright 2001 SAE International.
by Muhammad Ayub, Lecturer, MED, UOL 84
Nissan 3.5 Liter Engine

by Muhammad Ayub, Lecturer, MED, UOL 85

Fiat
Multiair

by Muhammad Ayub, Lecturer, MED, UOL 86

by Muhammad Ayub, Lecturer, MED, UOL 87
by Muhammad Ayub, Lecturer, MED, UOL 88
Multi-Air Technology by FIAT

by Muhammad Ayub, Lecturer, MED, UOL 89

by Muhammad Ayub, Lecturer, MED, UOL 90
by Muhammad Ayub, Lecturer, MED, UOL 91
Valve Lift creating passage for air
flow Cylindrical Flow Area

by Muhammad Ayub, Lecturer, MED, UOL 92

Camless Engines – Electromagnetic
Drive
Infinite Control over:
Valve Opening & Closing Timing
Valve Lift
Valve Opening Duration

by Muhammad Ayub, Lecturer, MED, UOL 93

KOENIGSEGG GEMERA
1700 bhp

600bhp from 3 cylinder 2 liter engine

Remaining power from electric motors

by Muhammad Ayub, Lecturer, MED, UOL 94

Koenigsegg
Gemera
2.0 Liter 3 Cylinder
Free Valve Engine
producing 600bhp

by Muhammad Ayub, Lecturer, MED, UOL 95

KOENIGSEGG GEMERA
Free Valve Technology
Electronically controlled solenoid actuators provide infinite control in
valve timing lift and duration.

by Muhammad Ayub, Lecturer, MED, UOL 96

Hollow Valves – Mitsubishi Heavy Industries
https://www.mhi-global.com/products/detail/hollow_head_engine_valve.html

by Muhammad Ayub, Lecturer, MED, UOL 97