BT451: CONSTRUCTION OF

METAL SRUCTURES
Joe Kingsley Hackman MSc,ICIOB,MGIOC,ABEng.
Kwame Nkrumah University of Science and Technology
College of Architecture and Planning
Department of Building Technology
QUIZ I

1. State 5 advantages of advantages of Steel Framing

2. State the primary role of the Steel Fabricator
3. Briefly explain 4 Factors for steel selection
4. Briefly explain 4 factors that are considered by Clients in material
selection
Unit outline
 Introduction to Metal Structures
 Metals as Construction Materials
 Structural building frames
 Design and Construction considerations
 Setting Out Metal Structures
 Metal Components/Elements
 Temporary Works in Metals
Lecture: 1
Introduction to metal
structures

Brief history of metal framed buildings

The Project Team
Construction forms
Lecture 2

Metals as Construction Material

Compulsory Readings
• Mitchell’s Structure and Fabric part 1. 7th edition. Read Chapter 1 and 6.
Take notes from sub-section 1.3 pg. 5-7.
• Also read Structure & Fabric part. 2. 7th edition. Chapters 4 and 9.
Specifically take notes from sub-section 9.5.3 pg334-340
Brief History of Metal Structures
 Structural steel was the preferred structural material in Europe and
the United states until the advent of the second world war which led
to a shortage of the raw materials for steel production that led to the
use of in situ concrete frames.
 Steel has been used for more than 150 years in shaping the built
environment.
 Although the idea of steel conjures up images of a heavy or
cumbersome material, the steel used in residential construction is
quite the opposite. Cold-formed steel (CFS) is lightweight, easy to
handle, cost effective, and a high quality alternative to traditional
residential framing materials. CFS offers the builder a strong,
dimensionally stable, easy-to-work framing system whose use can be
traced back to 1850.
Growth in Popularity
In the late 1920s and early 1930s cold-formed steel entered the building
construction arena with products manufactured by a handful of
fabricators. Although these products were successful in performance,
they faced difficulties with acceptance for two reasons:
(1) there was no standard design methodology available, and (2) cold-
formed steel was not included in the building codes at that time. Many of
the CFS applications were unable to be used due to the lack of design
methodology and product recognition Between 1979 and 1992 the
number of steel-framed homes saw a substantial increase.
Cold-formed steel framing was used in 5% of housing starts in the U.S. in
1993. This percentage increased to 8% in 2000 and had reached 12% in
2005. The emphasis has been on single-family homes in the Sunbelt and
on multi-family homes in the north.
Brief history ct’d
 The popularity of steel framing in the Sunbelt is expected to
continue to increase rapidly because of the concern over
termites, decay, and high winds. Urban areas and fire hazard
districts are also expected to show a growing interest in steel
framing.

 Today both in situ and precast concrete are used and a comparison
must be made before any particular framing medium is chosen.
Client’s Preference
 In most cases the project team will guide the client in selecting the
material for the project, however, the following factors must be
considered;
 Affordability/cost
 Technological know-how
 Corporate image
 Availability of material
Steel Vs Concrete.
 The major factors to be considered in selecting either steel or concrete
are:
 Site costs:
 the important considerations are, speed of construction, early returns on investment(ROI).
The possibility of the general contractor to start construction of the foundations in
preparation for the erection of the frames in respect of prefabrication is important.
Furthermore the sectional sizes in steel are smaller than in situ concrete members. Another
consideration is that factory conditions allows high quality control.
 Construction costs:

 Design must consider the availability of labor. In respect of steel, the use of unskilled labor
using competent persons for supervision is possible while In the case of in situ concrete, the
cost of formwork as well as striking times must be considered as well as using skilled labor
for concreting. Generally, the maneuverability on site can influence the framing method
used.
 Maintenance cost:
 Due to corrosive properties, steel will require some form of corrosion protective methods.
Concrete, timber & steel
 Timber; max 5 storey buildings can be constructed.
 Concrete; may be used in-situ, or by pre casting. Concrete requires
skilled craftsmen, formwork, strong site supervision, strict quality
control, is affected by the weather and steel fixed may be dislodged
during concreting.
 Metals; aluminum alloys, copper etc may not be suitable for multi-
storey structures. Steel is suitable for all type of structures. Quality
control is assured during manufacturing.
Steel Vs. Concrete
 Concrete;- is generally good in compression, is fire resistant, will take the
shape of its mould thus can be used to achieve several geometrical
shapes, but requires well organized team for mix design, formwork, steel
fixing quality control, and concreting.
 Steel;- quality can be easily monitored during manufacture, speed of
construction is achieved by the use of semi-skilled labor, JIT principles
can be applied, Large clear spans is easily achieved, is not affected by
the weather, easy to maintain, alteration and extension with freedom of
layouts.
Steel Vs. Concrete
 Concrete;-
 good in compression, is fire resistant, will take the shape of its mould thus
can be used to achieve several geometrical shapes, but requires well
organized team for mix design, formwork, steel fixing quality control, and
concreting.
 Steel;-
 quality can be easily monitored during manufacture, speed of
construction is achieved by the use of semi-skilled labor, JIT principles can
be applied, Large clear spans is easily achieved, not affected by the
weather, easy to maintain, alteration and extension with freedom of
layouts.
Concrete selection
 Concrete is
 Good in Compression
 Fire Resistant
 Takes the shape of its mould
But Requires
 Well organized team of engineers, craftsmen for formwork, skilled
labor, and steel fixers etc
 Special skills for concrete mix design
 Knowledge of formwork logic
 Strict quality control on site for in-situ works
 Affected by the vagaries of the weather
 Cost of temporary works may be high but will not constitute
permanent part of the structure (i.e. Formwork)
Factors for steel selection
 Aesthetic appeal
 - Several geometrical shapes could be achieved and exposed to
view and can be located and decorated to achieve several
effects while allowing easy maintenance. Furthermore it allows
for the use of any available cladding systems and finishes.
 Economy
 - Cost of steel as well as construction can be reduced through
higher productivity under factory conditions and fabrication
components using standard sections
 Quality
 - The assured quality of steel and the ability to fabricate in the
factory leads to precise components.
 Flexibility-
 The internal layout of the building can easily be changed to
satisfy demands without or change of use without affecting
the strength and stability of the building.
Factors for steel selection cont’d

 Carefully selected strength and size will lead to

reduction in foundation cost.
 Dimensional stability-
 Factory quality control enables that standard wall
systems may be used without affecting dimensional
stability.
 Trouble-free construction-
 The construction work will not be affected by weather
since floors, and roofs can be quickly erected to
provide enclosure and work can be carried out
smoothly without the effects of the weather.
Advantages of Steel Framing
• Consistent Material Quality
• Non-Combustible Material
• Dimensionally Stable in any Climate
• Insect Resistance and steel will not Rot
• Engineering not required for common home designs (see
Prescriptive method:
IRC 2003)
Environmentally Friendly
The Steel Framing Alliance claims that cold-formed steel framing is an
environmentally
friendly building system because:
• Steel is recyclable, using old cars, buildings, bridges, steel cans, etc.
• Steel is the world’s most versatile material to recycle.
• Yearly, steelmakers recycle about 500 million tons of steel world-wide.
• It takes at least 60% less energy to produce steel from scrap than it does
from iron
ore.
• It takes about 6 old cars to produce enough steel to frame a basic
residential
dwelling.
Advantages and Disadvantages of Steel as
Construction Material
 Major advantages of steel are:
 Strength
 Quality
 Economy
 Versatility
 Adaptability
 Appearance
 Major disadvantages of steel are:
 Weak in Fire
 Steel corrodes
 Difficult to handle if Management is not efficient
The Project Organisation Team

 The Client
 The Architect
 The Consulting Structural Engineer
 The Steel Fabricator
 The Contractor
The client

Engages the Architect and approves the scheme that meets his needs
for Time, Cost, Quality, Function and Aesthetics considerations.
He/she pays for the entire cost of the project.
The Design and Construction Team
 The major team members are;

 The architect
 Produces for the client the general layouts and visualizations of the
planned structure with approximate cost for the various schemes

 The consulting structural engineer

 Carries out the detailed analysis of the structure. He/she then
prepares drawings called ‘framing plans’ based on his structural
analysis and selects standard steel members whose section
properties meet the design requirements, and later checks the
erection arrangements and the connections to ensure compliance
with fixity of each joint during erection. He also produces a further
set of drawings showing stanchion base layout and column
schedules
Note!
 The steelwork fabricator
 Prepares detailed design of each connection called
‘shop details’ based on the engineer’s framing plans
and either supply and erect on site or supply only
based on contractual arrangement and price the work
on cost per tonne of steel
 The main contractor.
 The main contractor may be appointed to carry out the
entire construction works or rely on sub contractors for
various sections. Alternatively he may appoint the
fabricator on supply only basis. in some instances the main
contractor’s main task may be that of providing the
foundation bases in the correct positions and to the correct
levels with the necessary holding down bolts.
Interlude

take

5 mintes break
Lecture 2

Compulsory reading
Read!
• Mitchell’s Structure and Fabric part 1. 7th Ed. Read Chapter 1. Take
notes especially from sub-section 1.3 pg. 5-7.
• Also read Chapters 6 later, taking notes from entire chapter.
Construction forms
Solid
Skeleton
Surface
Basic Types of Structure
The form of buildings and their environmental performance is
dictated by the basic type of structure. In the past this depended on
the Materials and Technology available to the builders. For example
the Greeks were limited to the Post and Lintel Style by the use of
Timber and Marble.
Structural Forms

Solid construction has

loadbearing walls that carry the
entire building load to the
foundation the walls encloses
and partitions the building as
well.
Skeleton structure has a
framework of columns and
beams that carry the loads of
the building to isolated pad
foundation. This allows any
form of non-loadbearing walls
to be used for enclosure and
partitioning.
Form of Construction
 The three most popular construction forms are:
 Solid Construction
 Skeletal Construction
 Surface Construction
Solid Construction
 From the cave, to the load-bearing dried mud and hut, to the brick
and stone solid construction of the past, were natural evolutionary
steps. The builders realized the value of massive construction, not
only in terms of durability, the ability to withstand heavy loads and
the resultant security in a hostile world, but also in terms of
comfort. The thick walls not only provided support for the load and
formed the enclosure but reduced the rate of heat gain from the
sun’s radiation in hot climates and the rate of heat loss in cold
climates but also provides good insulation from Noise, and good Fire
Resistance.
 Openings for doors and windows at first was limited by size of stone
lintel, then developed through the invention of the corbel and the
arch.
Solid Construction
Skeletal Construction
 It is this form of construction which is suitable for metal framed
construction
 Skeletal structures developed traditionally where materials such as timber
were available, but few early buildings of this materials have survived.
The Egyptians and the Greeks used the principle of the Post and Lintel
stone, but the inability of this material to resist tension limited the span
of the lintels and beams to that of an individual piece of stone.
 The introduction of materials capable of resisting tension such as iron,
steel and reinforced concrete made possible the development of
increasingly large skeletal structures, the loads being carried to the
grounds by relatively strong materials over relatively long spans. The walls
lost their natural function and became panels of limited size, and
consequence relatively light-weight: doors and windows were easily
incorporated in these panels. In fact most modern buildings other than
domestic are this type. The loads of the buildings are conveniently carried
at points through beams and columns to the isolated pad foundations.
Skeleton Structures
 These consists essentially of pairs of columns with members spanning
between them, spaced apart to enclose the volume of the building.
 They are classified as:
 Building frame
 This is composed of columns and horizontal beam for single storey and multi-
storey buildings
 Shed frame
 Is composed of columns and roof truss for single storey buildings
 Portal or Rigid frame
 Is composed of columns and horizontal or pitched beams for single-storey
buildings, the characteristics of this type of frame being the rigid connection
between the columns and the spanning member.
Skeletal Construction
Surface Construction
 Surface structures are those in which the load-bearing membrane
both defines and encloses the space and provides support. It can be
constructed of most structural materials such as reinforced and
timber being the most commonly used.
 The ordinary load bearing wall commonly used in house
construction is a form of surface structure, but where built of blocks
and bricks, it has little tensile strength and its stiffness as a
membrane is not significant. The same element in the form
reinforced concrete wall, if used in conjunction with reinforced
concrete slab floor, will constitute a stiff box-like cellular structure
known as ‘box frame’ and used very effectively in multi-storey
cellular buildings such as flats or maisonettes.
Typical Surface Structure
THANK YOU
Lecture 2:
Metals as
Construction
Material
Why metals in construction?
Metal production processes
General Characteristics of metals
Fire and corrosion protection
General
characteristics of
Metals
The production of ferrous metals
Introduction
 Iron and Steel is by far the most important of the metals used in the
construction industry
 Ferrous metals-
 Includes all forms of iron and steel
 Its chemical composition and internal structure are accurately controlled during
manufacture
 Its strength and other mechanical properties can be determined with high degree of
certainty/reliability
 They are delivered to site as finished products ready to be installed, with inspection and
testing complete.
 Concrete is partially manufactured during installation at the construction site. Therefore
quality control is achieved on site.
Some common terms in Metal production
 Rolling
 Consists of compressing and shaping an ingot into a useful shape by squeezing it
through a succession of rollers, each succeeding sets of rollers squeezing the
material smaller in cross section and closer to the final shape.
 Extrusion
 Consists of forcing a billet of hot plastic steel through a die of the desired shape to
produce a common length of material of reduced cross section in the shape of the
die.
 Drawing
 Consists of pulling steel through a small die to form a wire or a rod of round,
square, or other section. Steel is hot rolled to form a rod of a size not much longer
than the shape to be drawn. It is then finished by cold drawing.
 Forging
 Consists of deforming steel by pressure or blows into desired shape. The forging
may be made from an ingot or from a rolled shape. The steel is usually heated to a
semi solid state at a temperature over 1090oC. In some cases it is forged cold.
Some common terms Ctd
 Normalizing
 Consists of heating the steel to a temperature of about 815oC or higher, depending
on the type metal and cooling several hundred degrees slowly in air. This process
increases uniformity of structure
 Annealing
 Consists of heating steel to a temperature slightly lower than for normalizing and
cooling it several hundred degrees very slowly, usually in a furnace.
 Quenching
 Consists of cooling steel very rapidly in oil, water, or brine fro a temperature of
about 815oC. Quenching increases hardness and strength, but reduces ductility
and toughness.
 Tempering
 Consists of reheating the quenched steel to a temperature of 150 to 650oC and
cooling in air to reduce the residual stresses and increase ductility. Heating to the
lower temperature range produces greater hardness, strength, and wear
resistance, while higher heat produces greater toughness
Structure and composition of Iron and Steel
 The grains/crystals of metals can be distinguished under microscope.
The grains are formed as the metals passes from the liquid to the
solid state.
 Structural steel includes rolled shapes and plates used in structural frames,
connectors, plates or bracing needed to hold the frames in place
 Ferrous metals are seldom damaged during transportation because of its
strength and hardness
 It can’t easily be damaged on site once it leaves the fabrication shop
 It’s strength depends on the way the metal is cooled and by the way the
metal is given its final shape
 The extent to which the atoms can move and still return to their original
position is the limit of elastic deformation.
 The strength of metal depends on the cohesion of the atoms in each crystal
and cohesion between adjacent crystals.
The Production of Ferrous Metals
 First a low grade of iron is produced in a continuously operating
furnace called the ‘blast furnace’.
 Iron ore, Coke and Limestone are loaded continuously at the top.
 Iron ore is a oxide of iron found in nature mixed with rock or soil
called ‘gangue’
 Coke is produced by heating coal to drive the impurities out. It burns
with greater heat than coal.
 Limestone is a type of rock hat occurs in nature. Burning coke and
supporting the combustion with a strong blast of hot air melts the iron
ore and limestone at a temperature of about 815oc
 The heat melts the iron, frees it of oxygen and forms carbon monoxide
gas, which imparts carbon to the liquid iron
Production Ctd
 Melting permits separation of iron from gangue which combines with
molten limestone to form slag.
 Since iron is much heavier than slag, so there is a natural separation
of the two as they melt.
 Iron flows to the bottom of the furnace and molten slag floats on the
iron. Iron is removed from the top near the bottom and slag from a
tap slightly higher.
 The iron flows into molds and is allowed to solidify into shapes called
‘pigs’ or it is taken in a ladle while still liquid to be refined into steel
or a better grade of iron.
 In either case, the product of the blast furnace is called ‘Pig Iron’
 Note! Pig Iron is not useful for construction because it is weak and brittle,
although it is very hard.
What is Iron?
 Iron refers to a ferrous metal that is of a higher quality than pig iron.
 To produce useful iron or steel, a second melting is needed for further
purification
 NOTE! The removal of most traces of impurities from pig iron makes it
suitable for construction. It is highly resistance to corrosion, highly ductile
and readily machined.
 Cast Iron is a general term denoting ferrous metal composed primarily of
iron, carbon and silicon and shaped by being cast in mold.
 Wrought Iron-
 Is a highly refined iron with slag deliberately incorporated but not in
chemical union with iron. Pig iron is re melted in small furnace to make
the cast metal
What is Steel?
 Steel is defined as a chemical union of iron and carbon. (Carbon is
therefore, less than 2percent by weight)plus other elements
 In this case pig iron is further oxidized in another furnace at about 1650oC
to produce steel.
 Carbon is the key element in controlling the properties of ordinary steel
called ‘carbon steel’
 Strength and hardness increases with an increase in carbon up to about
1.2 percent. Brittleness increases and ductility decreases as carbon
increases
Quality of Steel
 Tensile strength
 The mechanical tests for steel include;
 Tension
 Bending
 Hardness &
 Impact
 For structural
 Tension or tensile test is most important
The Purchaser of steel
 The purchaser may specify that the test be performed on the steel from
the furnace, after rolling or after fabrication.
 Specimens for testing are poured separately as an ingot is being made or
are cut from the waste material of a rolled member.
 NOTE!
 Tensile stress is calculated by dividing the force by the original cross sectional area.
 Strain – is calculated by dividing the increase in distance between the marks by the
original 50mm distance.
Interlude

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5 mintes break
Cold formed
Sections
Videos
Manufacturing Process
Cold-formed steel products begin as a very large coil of steel. These coils may weight
up to 13 tons.
After the hot coil has been rolled to the desired thickness and after it has cooled, the
ribbon of steel passes through a series of rollers to form the desired products:
Cold Formed Steel Profiles

Studs & joists, tracks, U-channels, Furring

channels
However, the basic cold-formed C-shape is by
far the most common component:
Steel Framing Components
The steel component known as the structural
“C” is the predominant shape for framing
floors, walls, and roofs.
The primary difference from one use to
another is the thickness of the steel and the
depth of the member.
Span ranges for lightweight sections
Cold formed metal profiles
Interlude

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5 mintes break
Corrosion and Fire
Protection
Scope:
Corrosion protection
Fire protection
Factors to consider before providing
protection.
 Corrosion Protection; consider,
 Location –
 is it coastal?
 Is it industrial?
 Fire; - this can be considered as:
 Passive or Active Protection.
 Important factors are;
 Type of structure,
 occupants,
 means of escape,
 Prevention of fire and spread of fire as well as
 structural safety during fire.
Corrosion Protection
 The first question to ask is:
 Where is the structure located?
 Is it coastal?
 Industrial?
 Type of Metal
 Cost
 Availability of resources and know-how
 Exposure
Corrosion Protection Methods
 Depends on;
 Exposure
 Expected life
 Environment
 Cost
 Shop or Site treatment
 Size or shape of member
Protective Coatings
 Basically we have
 Paint based protection
 Metal based protection
Preparation of the metal surface is very important.
The removal of dirt and mill scale is the most essential aspect of the
protection i.e., wire brushing, blast cleaning using grit, or
mechanical rotary wire brushing.
Steel Painting
 Steel is painted in the fabricating shop with a “Shop Coat” of paint having
the required dry film thickness in mils (one hundred of an inch)
 The ‘shop coat’ is the prime coat of the protective paint system and will
not protect against corrosive atmosphere nor against prolonged exposer to
normal atmosphere. It is meant to protect the steel until it is erected and
painting can be completed.
 NOTE!
 The steel must be cleaned by wire brushing before painting
Paint based Protection
 Usually applied in layers.
 Type of paints include bituminous, epoxy, vinyl etc.
 Coats;
 First coat-
 provides sound base to receive the protection.

Second coat.-
builds thickness i.e. 3 coats of 5 mm thick.
Third coat.-
Finishing coat-is the first line of defense. It provides
the finish and colour.
Metal based protection
 The method is basically by submerging in bath of acid as
preparation. This is especially useful if metal is to be galvanized
using hot dip process.
 Methods; Zinc
Aluminum
Zinc : -hot dipping of the steel member in molten zinc. Spraying using
special spray gun which is automatically fed using zinc tread.
Aluminum: -applied only by spraying.
Corrosion protection Ctd
 Weathering steel: - these come in brand names such as Cor-tan,
State vest etc. These produces initial rust layer that prevents further
corrosion.
 ***Detailing: - good detailing is very important to ensure that
moisture is not trapped behind finishing that aids in corrosion.
Fire Protection
Basically we have two principles of fire
protection as: -
 Passive – achieved by fire resisting construction to delay spread of
fire and maintain structural stability for a considerable period to
enable occupants to escape including safe evacuation of life and
property.
 Active: - automation such as sprinklers, smoke detectors,
heat/smoke sensors that provides early warning in the event of fire.
Fire Protection of steel
 The load bearing capacity of a steel member is gradually reduced as
its temperature rises. At a temperature of about 550 degrees Celsius
a loaded member starts to bend. Fire protection is not designed to
prevent steel members from reaching this temperature, but to delay
the loss of bearing capacity long enough for complete evacuation of
all the building occupants (including firemen) and, in some cases,
removal of especially valuable or important contents.
 In most cases the fire protection is applied to the steel after erection
of the frame, and takes the form of an insulating barrier which slows
down the transfer of heat.
The Form of Fire Protection to Steel
 Basically the protection may take the form of:
 Solid
 Profile or
 Hollow

• Protection techniques:
Encasing in in-situ concrete
Sprayed protection
Board protection
Pre-formed casings
Intumescent coatings
Water-filled frames
Types of protection
Encasing in In-situ Concrete
Board Protection
Sprayed Protection
Water-filled Protection
THANK YOU
Lecture 3: Structural steel
Frames
Scope:
Introduction
Standard steel sections
Structural Steel Connections
Frame erection
Introduction
In metal framing, the individual members are beams and columns. These are
usually prepared (fabricated) off-site and erected on-site using standard
sections. Since the quality of metal is controlled during manufacture,
Design
considerable reduction of on-site construction period is reduced.
Fabrication
Supply
Erection
Lecture 2

Compulsory reading

Read!!!
• Mitchell’s Structure and Fabric part 1. 7th Ed. Read Chapter 6. study
carefully the construction methods for Hot-rolled steel connections and
Cold-formed steel sections. Practice freehand sketching of the
construction details Take good notes especially on welding, bolting and
riveting.
Introduction to standard sections
 Structural steel frames are constructed using standard steel sections.
 The major sections being (see figures);
 Universal beams
 Joists
 Universal columns
 Channels
 Angles T beams
 Castellated Universal sections
Standard Steel
sections
Serial sizes
Castellated
Universal sections
connections
Try naming the standard sections.
Standard steel sections
Universal sections (see Figures)
 Universal beams:
 These have tapered or parallel flanges and are designated by their serial size x mass in kilogram
per meter run. The serial size is only approximate width and breadth.
 Joists:
 These are a range of small size beams which have tapered flanges and are useful for lintels and
small frames around openings. In the case of joists the serial size is the overall nominal dimensions
 Universal columns:
 These members are rolled with parallel flanges and are designated in the same manner as
universal beams. It is possible to design column sections to act as beams and conversely as
columns.
 Channels:
 These are rolled with tapered flanges and can be used for trimming and bracing members or as a
substitute for joist sections.
 Angles:
 Theses are light framing and bracing sections with parallel flanges.
 T bars:
 Are used for the same purpose as angles and are available as rolled sections with a short or long
stalk or alternatively they can be cut from a standard universal beam or column.
Castellated Universal Section
Castellated Universal Sections
 These are formed by flame cutting a standard universal beam or
column section along a castellated line; the two halves so produced
are welded together to form an open web beam.
 This produces one and half times the depth of the section from which
it was cut. This increases in depth and gives greater resistance to
deflection without adding extra weight but will reduce the clear
headroom under a beam unless the overall height of the building is
increased. It is economical when used to support lightly loaded floor
or roof slab and the void can be used for housing services.(see figure)
Framing plans interpretation
 The framing plan shows the floor by floor layout of steel members
noting the individual member sizes and the reactions to be resisted
at each point of support.
 Irrespective of the method used it must enable each member to be
identified in such a way that not only the type, serial size and weight
clearly marked but also its location in the structure.
 For example: there is a difference between a 305 x 165 x
40kg/UB and a 305 x 165 x 57 kg/UB. As can be noted
with respect of structural design, there is certainly a
difference between the steel sizes.
Further interpretation of the framing plan.
 Refer back to the framing plans shown earlier.
 Firstly, each column is numbered and shown in its correct orientation
according to the stanchion base layout.
 Each beam is represented by a single line which stops just short of its
support points, this is important to avoid confusion where, for
example a beam supports another beam as in the case of 301
supporting beams 252 and 304. along each beam is noted the serial
size, mass and type.
 E.g. 254x146(serial size) x 37kg(mass per metre) UB ( type of
section)
Typical framing plan
Stanchion base layout
What is shop
details?
Beam (shop detail)
Stanchions (shop details)
Cold formed Building Frames
 Skeleton frames may be built up with lipped-channel sections for all
members, although stanchions are often in I sections formed of two
lipped-channels resistance welded or bolted back to back or hollow-
section formed of two similar channels welded lip to lip.
 The ‘C’ sections may be used for columns and beams (see slides that
follows:)
Typical Cold formed Frames
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Structural steelwork connections
Connections between the members of a normal steel frame are made by means of welding and bolts
with angle cleats and plates. In structural steel frames are classified as either;
Shop connections or
Site connections
The connections can be made by using;
Bolts
Rivets or by
Welding
 Bolting – black bolts are the cheapest form of bolts available and are used mainly for secondary
beam connections. Bright bolts are much superior and of greater dimensional accuracy and are
sometimes called turned and fitted bolts. High strength friction grip bolts are manufactured high high
strength steels and are used in conjunction with high strength steel nuts and tempered washers.
These bolts are very superior and expensive but gives a fixing much tighter like welded connection.
 Rivets – these are seldom used these days. They have ben replaced by bolting and welding. They
come as cold or hot forged with a variety of shapes ranging fro an almost semi-circular or snap head
to a countersunk head.
 Welding – these are classified as either fillet or but welds. Site welding is discouraged as can be
dangerous.
Typical Stanchion on base plate
Structural steel frame concept
Bolted connections
Structural steel
connections

Introduction
Base connections
Beam to column connections
Column splices
Beam to columns connections
Study carefully this figure!
Study carefully this figure!
Stanchion base connections
 There are basically two forms namely:
 The slab/bloom base -
 Gusset base – this base is composed of a number of members which reduce
the thickness of the base plate and can be used to transmit a high bending
moment to the foundation
 In both methods a steel base plate is required to spread the load of
the column on to the foundation. The end of the column and the
upper surface of the base plate should be machined to give a good
contact when using the a bloom base. The base plate and the column
can be connected together using cleats or by fillet welding.
 The base is joined to the foundation by holding down bolts of the
correct diameter and size of plate washer which must be designed to
resist the uplift and the tendency of the column to overturn.
Stanchion base connections
Beam to column connections
 The beam to column connection can be achieved where the whole
load is transmitted to the column through seating cleat, but the usual
method employed is the semi-rigid connection where load is
transmitted from beam to the column by means of top cleats and/or
web cleats; for ease of assembly an erection cleat on the underside is
also included in the connection detail.
 A fully rigid connection detail which gives the greatest economy on
section sizes, is made by welding the beam to the column. (see
sketches)
Stanchion to beam connections
Column splicing
 These are made at floor levels but above the beam connections the
method used will depend upon the relative column section.(see
figure below)
Column splicing
Bolted connections
Beam to Beam connection
 The method used will depend upon the relative depths of the beam
concerned. Deep beams receiving small secondary beams can have a
shelf angle connection whereas other depths will need to be
connected by web cleats. (see figure below)
Beam to Beam connections
Typical Two Storey Steel Frame Office
Block at Business School, KNUST, Kumasi
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Setting out and Erection of
structural steel framed
buildings
Scope:
Stanchion base layout
Single storey erection
Multi storey erection
Framing plan
Typical Stanchion on base plate
Stanchion base layout
Stanchion base plate as template
Information to note
 Consider the;
 The correct orientation of stanchion bases
 Dimensions
 Bolt positions & projection above concrete level
 Base plate
 Formation level
Setting out the Click icon to add picture
stanchion positions
on the ground
The use of template matching the exact size
of the stanchion base and tracing it on the
ground is one of the simplest methods for
establishing the foundation of the steel
frame.
Important notes!
 The most important questions to ask is;
 How do you hold bolts in position and at correct level?
 How do you prevent the bolts from being displaced out of vertical during the
pouring of the concrete foundation?
Common faults to note!
Unaligned bolts are a common
mistake which must not be allowed
to happen.
Caution!
 It is important for the concrete contractor to agree with the
steelwork contractor the required level of the top of the foundation.
 The level of the top of the holding down bolts, that is how far the
bolt should project above the foundation.
 It is considered a good practice to allow not less than 50mm between
the top of the foundation and underside of the base plate for base
plate up to 0.75m square in area and 75mm are more for larger
plates to allow sufficient room to grout in the holding down bolt
pockets and the positioning of packs for leveling and lining the
stanchion after erection.
The Two Common Erection methods
 By use of holding down bolts
 By use of recess pocket in the foundation
 Holding down bolts method
 The bolts must be set into the foundation vertically.
 The specified embedded length must be maintained. This should be
done to allow sufficient lateral movement to facilitate the placing and
erection of the stanchion.
 Recessed pockets
 This is useful for light structures. In this method the base of the
pocket must be correct before the stanchion is erected as it cannot
be adjusted once in place. If the base level needs adjustment plastic
packs approximately 100mm square are embedded centrally and
leveled the method requires guys to be used.
Some remedies to minor faults
 The steelwork contractor must check the position and level of the top
of the foundations.
 Apart from complete alignment of the holding down bolts where it
will be necessary to cut the bolts off below the surface of the
foundation and set new bolts in drilled holes, minor errors can
usually be accommodated
 If the bolts are only slightly out of position, the receiving holes in the
base plate can be slotted or the plate extended with new holes in the
extension piece
 Bolts that are set too low, that is with insufficient length of thread for
the bolts, can be dealt with using either a screwed ferrule or butt
welding an extension piece on the bolt.
Fixing holding down
bolts

It is important to ensure that the

positions of the holding down
bolts are accurately established
within the foundation concrete.
The use of the formwork to
support the template is a very
good way of achieving this.
Erection of Steel framed structures-
Storey Buildings
Erection steel framed
structure Steel erection storey by storey
Erection of multi-storey structure

Steel erection bay by bay (1)

Steel erection bay by bay (2)
THANKS
FOR
YOUR
ATTENTI
ON
Lecture 4 :Design and
Construction considerations of
framed buildings
Scope:
General analysis of loadings and layout
Single storey building frames
Multi storey building frames
INTRODUCTION

Framed construction is basically composed of columns and

connecting beams which supports the floors. The layout of
columns can be economical when it is based on the grid
fashion. However, the grid pattern reduces the flexibility of
the use of rooms in times when there is a change in use.
Furthermore external appearance may be ordinary.
Design considerations
 After the Architects layout and aesthetics considerations of the
proposed structure, the Consulting Structural Engineer carries out
analysis of the frame and produce a series of drawings including:
 Framing plans
 Stanchion base layout
 Column schedules etc.
 This is a table that identifies the columns as shown on the framing plans with
all relevant information including serial sizes.
NOTE! The steel fabricator prepares the
‘shop details’ based on the engineers
framing plans.
Achieving Minimum Cost in Steel
Construction
The cost of fabricating and erecting a steel frame can be reduced considerable if:
 The frame uses the minimum number of steel section sizes. The structural
economy may suffer slightly but the resulting job is more economic due to
increased repetition and more standardized purchasing.
 Total fabrication cost are reduced even at the expense of additional weight. A
lightweight but complex of roof truss, for example can prove more expensive
than a much heavier portal frame which has little fabrication content.
 Higher grade steel is used whenever possible to save weight. Grade 50 steel for
example costs approximately 8% more than grade 43 steel, but will save 18% in
weight.
 Connection details are standardized. The use of standard cleats, brackets etc
and maintaining bolt diameters and spacing speeds up fabrication, and reduces
‘search time’ on site. When welding is used, fillet welds are generally cheaper
than butt welds due to reduced preparation time. It is worth noting that High
Strength Friction Grip (HSFG) bolts are expensive and should be used where
vibration is likely to occur, or where no movement on the joint can be tolerated.
Type of roof
Simply supported frames
Portal framing
Flat or Pitched?
Flat Roof
Pitched Roof
Note!
 A beam simply supported by two columns is not capable of resisting
lateral forces unless it is braced. If the joints connecting the columns
and beams are capable of resisting both forces and moments, then
the assembly becomes a rigid frame. Applied loads produced axial,
bending and shear forces in all members from rotating freely. In
addition, vertical loads cause a rigid frame to develop horizontal
thrust at its base. A rigid frame is statically indeterminate and rigid
only in its plane.
The effects of loads on simply supported
frame
Wind Loads
Portal frames
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Design
considerations for
multi storey
structures
The structural analysis includes providing support for
uninterrupted floor space.
Design considerations
 Some of the major considerations in design includes:
 Achieving an economic structure
 Achieving maximum usable floor space.
 Ensuring a layout that allows flexibility for changing uses of the building.
 Ensuring resistance to wind pressures.
 Ensuring resistance to seismic effects
 Providing structural stability
 Ensuring economic structure.
 Ensuring effective support for the floors
 Ensuring faster construction
 Achieving early returns on investment(ROI)
Stiff core
Semi-rigid frame
Suspended Floors
Achieving economic structure in metal
frames
Economy;
For economic design, it is advisable to
work on what is known as the ‘grid system’
where stanchions are placed at equal centers
for the length and breadth of the building.
The distances from center to center of the
stanchions in the length can differ from the
distance between those in the breadth of the
building.
Achieving flexibility of layout
 In respect of multi-storey framed structures, the uninterrupted floor space can be achieved by constructing;
 Internal reinforced concrete core;
 The core is constructed using slip-form techniques, the core being used
to house lifts, stairs, and service shafts. NOTE! The core occupies an
average of 20% the total floor space.
 Hull core;
 A rigid diagonally braced framework is provided on the exterior of the
structure acts with the central core to form a rigid structure.
 Cantilever beams;
 Beams are cantilevered from the central core thus, the floor becomes
free. Pure cantilever beams can limit the size of structure in terms of
economy, in this response a ‘propped cantilever’ beam is adopted as an
alternative support.
 Suspended columns;
 This is another method for providing column-free space. In this case, the
column is suspended from a steel beam from the ore which acts as ties,
the floors thus spans between the beams.
General Consideration for Design and Construction

 Generally consideration is given to;

 Structural Safety
 Vertical circulation
 Usable rental space
 Wind Loads
 Seismic Effects
 Lateral Stability
Resisting wind pressure
 Lateral restraint is required for all High Rise Structures. This can be
achieved by providing;
 Shear walls;
 These are walls incorporated into the structure by the use of solid infill
panels between columns, or by constructing the structure using walls in place
of columns. A common arrangement is to se shear walls at two opposite ends
with a core in the centre or two parallel walls running the length o the
structure at right angles to the end walls to form a corridor.
 Bracing;
 An ‘X’ and ‘K’ bracing can be provided at locations where they are needed to
resist wind pressures
Major structural configurations
Structural Configurations
Vertical Circulation Vs Usable Floor
space?
Efficient and Economic Steel framing
 Economy and efficiency in steel framing can be achieved when;
 The girder and beam supports are laid out along regular grid
 Resistance to lateral wind or earthquake forces are provided for by
the use of
 Shear walls,
 Diagonal bracing, or
 Rigid framing with moment resisting connections.
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Lecture 5: Single storey
framed buildings
Single Storey Metal Structures –General Principles
Simply Supported Structures
Portal framed Structures
Introduction
 In framed construction, the walls are relieved of the task of carrying
loads from the rest of the structure and therefore can be thin and
lightweight. This is a factor that has become increasingly significant
with growing height of structure which has resulted in many
developments in he field of external cladding and infill panels for
framed buildings.
INTRODUCTION

Single storey Metal structures are usually built for the following type of
structures:
 Residential Housing
 Industrial
 Leisure
 Retail
 Exhibition
 warehousing
Economic advantages
 Note!
 In the case of industrialized system building, however, the framed structure
can be economic even for small-scale building types.
 This is due to the economies deriving from large-scale production and to the
reduction in erection time and labor on site which should accompany the use
of prefabricated components
Design consideration
 Basically the construction is composed of columns and connecting
beams.
 The connecting beams supports the floors
 The floors can be;
 Insitu reinforced concrete
 Pre-cast concrete or
 Structural steelwork
 It is important to note that;
 The internal columns dictates the internal layout of rooms
 When changes in use are required, the columns affects the layout of
spaces/rooms
 I might affect external appearance, even though cladding can give an
interesting structure
 In respect of multi-storey structures, internal concrete core is favored
Some Advantages of framed structures
 Framed structures :
 Allows saving in floor space, particularly when internal structural supports
must be provided;
 Flexibility in plan and building operations because of the absence of
loadbearing walls at any level and
 Reduction of dead weight
NOTE!
It is important to note that framed structures does not necessarily have
economic advantage for every circumstance such as individual small scale
residential buildings.
It is however economical when the span of roof or floors becomes great
enough to necessitate double construction involving beams and trusses
applying concentrated loads at certain points on supporting structure which, in
solid construction, would require the provision of piers.
Walls – There are two basic types of studs:
• Structural “C” studs for interior and exterior load-bearing walls that range in
depth from 2½” to 8” to accommodate the necessary insulation thickness and
ranging in thickness from 0.034- to 0.071-inches depending on the anticipated
load.
• Drywall studs for non-load-bearing partitions that range in depth from 1⅝- to 6-
inches and metal thickness ranging from 0.01- to 0.034-inches.
The thermal efficiency of the steel-framed exterior walls may be increased by installing
insulation board on the exterior of the wall.
Simply supported
framing
Single storey frames
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Portal frames
One-pin
Two-pin
Three -pin
Typical Single storey steel structures
Single storey frames
Cold-Formed Steel-Frame Construction
The steel used in residential construction is quite the opposite of
the heavy and cumbersome hot rolled sections. Cold-formed steel
(CFS) is lightweight, easy to handle, cost effective, and a high
quality alternative to traditional residential framing materials. CFS
offers the builder a strong, dimensionally stable, easy-to-work
framing system whose use can be traced back to 1850.
In the late 1920s and early 1930s cold-formed steel entered the
building construction arena with products manufactured by a
handful of fabricators. Although these products were successful in
performance, they faced difficulties with acceptance for two
reasons:
(1) there was no standard design methodology available, and (2)
cold-formed steel was not included in the building codes at that
time. Many of the CFS applications were unable to be used due to
the lack of design methodology and product recognition
Framing Methods for residential development
There are three basic residential steel framing methods:
1. stick-built,
2. panelized, and
3. pre-engineered.
• Stick-built - Replace wood members with steel members (one-for-one
replacement). As shown below, the steel-framed non-load-bearing wall appears
very similar to that of a comparable wood-framed
wall.
• Panelized - Factory-assembled panels delivered to site and connected together.
The panelized approach represents an efficient approach for repetitive building
designs and, as a result, is a popular approach in hotel/motel construction and
other multi-unit applications.
• Engineered - Location and placement of framing members is engineered to take
advantage of steel’s properties. Spacing of framing members may increase to as much
as 8-feet with horizontal stabilizers.
CFS connections
Floor systems
Single beam
Double beam
Triple beam
Disadvantages of Framed Construction
 Internal columns dictates the internal layout of rooms.
 When changes in use are required, the columns affects the layout of
rooms
 The framing might affect external appearance, even though cladding
can give an interesting structure
 In respect of multi-story structures, internal Core is favored
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Watch Videos on Metal
Framed Housing
1 General framing principles
2. Metal Framed Housing
3. Metal Framed warehouse
4. Pre-engineered Metal framed housing
Lecture 6: Multi storey steel
structures
The evolution of tall buildings
General Principles of design and construction
Structural configurations
General classification of design solutions
The General
Scope:
principles
The Evolution of tall buildings
Why Build Tall?
-General Consideration for Design & Construction
-Structural Configurations
-Classification of Design and Construction Solutions
Skyscrapers
 In the modern sense, skyscrapers began to appear over a century ago,
however, it is only after World War 2 that rapid urbanization and
population growth created the need for the construction of tall
buildings.
 Impact of skyscrapers on the environment;
 Skyscrapers have transformed the skyline of cities
 Wealth
 Inhabitants collective ambitions.
 Notes;
 The overall spatial form
 Intricate detailing of the cladding systems are crucial in defining the architectural
expression and in placing the tower within the overall urban environment.
What is a Tall Building?

It is a building in which tallness strongly influences planning, design,

construction, and use.
It is a building whose height creates conditions different from those
that exist in “common buildings of a certain region and period.
Note: the important criterion is whether or not the design is
influenced by some aspect of “tallness”
Why Build Tall?
 Demand
 Population Growth
 Scarcity of Land
 Urbanization
 Economic
The evolution of building
tall
Giza in Egypt, the Mayam temples in Tikal, Guatamala and the Kutab
Minar in India are typical examples.
The evolution of
tall buildings
The trump city tower (1999)
Sears Tower
The Empire State Building (1931)
The world Trade Centre (1970s)
The Eiffel Tower (1889)
The Messeturn
Canery Wharf Tower
Natwest Tower
St Paul’s Cathedral
Construction objectives
 The property investor is motivated by the Return On Capital Invested
(ROI) including structural safety among others.
 Design/construction considerations are influenced by;
 The variety of solutions includes; safety and efficiency considering materials science,
CAD, Construction Technology, Structural systems, Behavior under imposed loads and
factors leading to the selection of solution.
Structural framing for Pentecost University in Accra
General Consideration for Design and Construction

 Structural Safety
 Vertical circulation
 Usable rental space
 Wind Loads
 Seismic Effects
 Lateral Stability
Structural
configurations
Structural safety
Economic consideration
Height and depth restrictions
Planning regulations
Maximum usable/rentable space
Structural Safety
Seismic Effects
Resisting seismic effects
Lateral Stability
Vertical Circulation Vs Usable Floor
space
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CLASSIFICATION
 Structural efficiency
 Material
 Constructability
 Economic
 Use
 Serviceability
SELECTION OF STRUCTURAL SYSTEM
 The most efficient high rise, fully engage vertical gravity load resisting
elements in the lateral load subsystem to reduce overall structural
premium for resisting lateral loads.
Achieving the General requirements for Design and
Construction
 Structural Safety
 Vertical circulation
 Usable rental space
 Wind Loads
 Seismic Effects
 Lateral Stability
Multi storey structural systems
Compulsory Reading:
Information sources
Multi-Storey Structures
Structure and Fabric Pt 2 Chapter 4
Web Search: Hal Iyenga, Structural Engineer
Skidmore Owing and Merril
Ove Arup
Metal Structures
Watch Videos on Multi-
Storey Structures
1 General framing principles of multi structures
2. The Construction of Skyscrapers
Note!
 For multi storey structures, the major considerations include the type
of floor;
 The solutions to the floor problems include the construction of;
 Cantilever floors
 Propped cantilever beams
 Suspended columns
 The Core Structure
 The Hull Core
 Lateral restraints
 Shear walls
 Wind stresses
Lateral Restraint
 Lateral restraints are required to resist wind pressure. This can be
achieved by providing shear walls or bracing
 Shear Walls
 This can be incorporated in the structure by using solid infill panels between
columns in the traditional framed structures. Alternatively solid walls may be
constructed in place of columns. A common arrangement is to build shear
walls at two opposite ends with a core in the center or two parallel walls
running the length of the structure at right angles to the end of walls to form
a corridor. The shear walls may be constructed for flats and serve as dividing
walls into rooms. Walkways/access is provided by cantilevering the floor slab
beyond the face of the structure
Dealing with wind pressures
 A common way of dealing with wind pressure on framed structures is
to brace the external columns using diagonal bracing
 Hull Core Structures
 In this a rigid Braced Framework on the exterior structure called the
‘Hull’ acts with central core to form a rigid structure
THANKS
FOR
YOUR
ATTENTI
May you enjoy the Construction of Metal structures the same way that I do

ON JOE KINGSLEY HACKMAN

Lecture 7: Elements
of metal structures
Roofs
Stairs
Floors
Metal floor framing
Floors – Builders commonly opt for steel floor
joists ranging in depth from 6- to 12-
inches and steel thickness from 0.034- to
0.101-inches. Instead of using overlapped
joists
at a center support, a single length of steel
joist is commonly used to span continuously
Pre-cast Concrete Floor System
Metal floor decking system
ROOFS
 Compulsory reading;
 Structure and Fabric part 2, Chapter 8

 INTRODUCTION
 TYPES
 CONSTRUCTION METHODS
WALL SYSTEMS
 Scope:
 Performance requirements
 Fixing methods
 Types
 Conditions for selection
Wall systems for framed
buildings
Compulsory Reading;
Mitchell’s Structure and Fabric Part 2 7th Edition, Chapters 3,4,5,8, and
10
Type of walling systems
 Claddings;
 This spans between given points of support on the face of building thus eliminating
the necessity for a continuous background.
 Paneling;
 These are fixed to light framing
 Facings;
 These are bedded on rendered background they can be likened to glazed tiles.
 Curtain;
 These comprises of a frame or grid of members fixed to the face of a structures,
usually at each floor level.

 Profiled sheeting;
 Aluminum and steel sheeting are normally used for this type of walling. They span
between structural members.
Claddings
Panel wall system
Curtain walling
Facings
Profiled sheeting
Fixing Methods
Handling of precast
conponents
Transportation
Lifting to positions withing structure
Stairs
In-situ
Pre-cast
Metal
TEMPORARY
WORKS IN METALS
Introduction :
Earthwork Supports
Scaffolding
Formwork
Compulsory Reading: Mitchell’s Structure and Fabric Part 2 7 th Edition. Chapter. 10
Earth works support
Piling Trestle
Metal scaffold fittings

Metal scaffold fittings are either steel or aluminum and can be uses for tubular metals unless
otherwise specified differently by the manufacturer.
The major fittings used in metal scaffolding are:

Double coupler: the only real load bearing fitting used in scaffolding and is used to join
ledgers to standards.

Swivel coupler: composed of two single couplers riveted together so that it is possible to
rotate them and use them for connecting two scaffold tubes at any angle.
Putlog couplers: used solely for fixing putlogs or transoms to the horizontal ledgers.
Base plate: a square plate with a central locating spigot used to distribute the load from the
foot of a standard on to a sole plate or firm ground. Base plates can also be obtained with a
threaded spigot and nut for use on sloping sites to make up variations in levels.
Split joint pin: a connection fiting used to joint scaffold tubes end to end. A centre bolt
expands the two segments which grip on the bore of the tubes.
Reveal pin: fits unto the end of a tube to form an adjustable strut.\

Putlog end: a flat plate which fits on the end of a scaffold tube to convert it into a putlog.
Tubular Scaffold Fitttings/ parts
Putlog Scaffold
Metal Forms

Most steel formwork is achieved by the

use of proprietary systems which are
designed to meet standard
requirements by standardisation of
forms and by easy methods of securing
and bracing the positioned formwork.
Metal Forms

Most steel formwork is achieved by the

use of proprietary systems which are
designed to meet standard
requirements by standardisation of
forms and by easy methods of securing
and bracing the positioned formwork.
Wall Formwork
Beam Formwork
Column Formwork
Floor Shuttering
THANKS FOR YOUR
ATTENTION.

I surely believe you

will enjoy the
Construction of
Metal Structures as
much as I do.

Joe Kingsley Hackman ABEng,

ICIOB,MCIOC, MSc