TOPIC 5: ELECTRICAL MACHINES 1 Electrical machines are used to convert energy from one form to another i.e. electrical to mechanical or mechanical to electrical. Machine used to convert from mechanical to electrical is called a generator and a machine ‘ used to convert from electrical to mechanical is called a motor, t Machines can be classified by the type of power they use ie. A.C or D.C current : NB\\ our centre of interest here is how we can use electrical power therefore we are going to. sturdy motors. a \ 7 A.C. MOTORS They are designed to operate on alternating current. eo Construction: 4 (E== ‘Ana.c. motor has three basic parts: stator, rotor and end shields i, THESTATOR It is the stationary part of the motor and has three main parts: Outer frame: it’s the outer body of the motor whose function is to support the stator core and to protect the inner parts of the machine made of cast iron. carries the alternating magnetic field which produces hysteresis and eddy Stator cor imize these losses, high grade silicon steel stamping are used to build current losses. to the core. the stampings are assembled under hydraulic pressure and are keyed to the outer frame. The stampings are insulated from each other by a thin varnish layer. The thickness of 1» the stamping usually varies from 0.3 to 0.5 mm, slots are punched on the inner periphery of the stamping to accommodate stator windings. Stator windings: the stator core carries a single phase winding which is usually supplied from a single phase A.C. supply system. The terminals of the windings are connected to the terminal box of the machine. The stator of the motor is wound for definite number of poles as per the need of speed, ’ ii, THEROTOR \Ws the rotating part of the motor, the rotor slots are usually not parallel to the shaft but are skewed. Skewing of rotor has the following advantages: "reduces humming thus ensuring quite running of the motor. {tresults in a smoother torque curves for different positions of the motor. {reduces the magnetic locking of the stator and rotor . "increases the rotor resistance due to the increased len There are two types of rotors: Wound rotor: ith of the rotor bar conductors. itconsists of a cylindrical core of steel laminations with longitudinal slots around the circumference. The slots hold coils of insulated co} Per wire which forms the rotor windings. SINGLE PHASE MOTORS, This kind of motors are found in household appliances eg. refrigerators, fans, vacuum cleaners, food mixers ec, the motors usually have an outp ut of less than one horse Power or one kilowatt hence called fractional motors, Classification of single phase motors1) Single-phase induction motors *- split-phase type © capacitor type * shaded-pole type 2) A.C. series motor or universal motor 3) Repulsion motors © Repulsion-start induction-run motor * Repulsion-induction motor 4) Synchronous motors © Reluctance motor «Hysteresis motor Methods of making single phase motor self-starting A single phase induction motor is inherently not self-starting because it produces a revolving magnetic field instead of rotating field. Some methods then are required to make it self-starting which is achieved by converting a single phase supply into two phase supply by using ad additional winding which may or may not be disconnected once the motor start and pick up the speed or by creating another field by induction using short circuiting band or ring. Single phase induction motors are classified and named according to the method employed to make them self-starting. The classifications are: split-phase motors they are started by two phase motor action through the use of an auxiliary or starting winding. Capacitor motors they are started by two-phase motor action through the use of an auxiliary winding and a capacitor. Shaded-pole motors they are started by the motion of the magnetic field produced by means ofa shading coll around a portion of the pole structure ‘SPLIT PHASE MOTOR Itis also known as resistance start induction motor. the main parts of the motor are frame, squirrel cage rotor, two end shields and centrifugal switch mounted on the rotor shaft. The stator of themotor contains two sets of insulated windings which are connected in parallel to a single phase supply. One set of the winding is called running winding therefore has low resistance and high Inductive reactance the other set of winding is called the starting winding which is made of ‘relatively fewer turns of small diameter copper re therefore has high resistance and low Inductance and is placed at the top of the running winding, In aresistive circuit, the current and voltage are always in phase, The current builds up and fall simultaneously with the voltage. in an inductive circuit the curr ent and the voltage are out of Phase, Current lags voltage nearly 90 electrical degrees, Since the starting winding has high resistance and low inductive eactance, the current flowing ‘through its nearly in phase with the applied voltage. in the running winding because of its high iductance and low resistance the current lags the ap plied voltage by nearly 90 electrical degrees. “The magnetic field in the stationary winding builds u ip to a high value ahead of the magnetic field of the running ng. the two windings as a result produce a rotating magnetic field, Main 1s Ip winding (M) Starting winding (S) Operation Having current in starting and running windings being nearly 90° out phase of a rotating magnetic fleld is produced. The rotating magnetic feld travels at synchronous speed [speed of revolving field]. As it travels it cuts the squirrel cage rotor bars winding and induces current in them, The induced current creates a rotor magnetic field to produce the torque which causes the rotor to rotate. For this kind of motor to start both starting and windii 18S must be energized on starting. if only one winding is energized the stator windings produce a pulsating magnetic field, The rotor 4_ then fails to rotate and only produce a humming sound. This usually caused by a defective centrifugal switch which does not close contacts points when the motor stops, ‘% When the motor reaches about 75% of synchronous speed, the centrifugal switch opens the circuit of the starting winding. The motor then operates using the running winding and continues to accelerate till it reaches the normal speed. The normal speed of the motor is below the Synchronous speed and depends upon the load on the motor. [centrifugal switch is speed operated). ‘% The direction of rotation of the motor is always from a given starting winding pole to adjacent ‘running winding pole of the same polarities, To reverse the direction of rotation of the motor, the terminals of the starting windings are interchanged, ‘% The starting torque of the motor is relatively poor because the phase difference between the two Currents is between 30 to 50 electrical degrees. To achieve a good starting torque these currents should be 90 electrical degrees which is not practical. ‘% Resistance start motors are mostly found in domestic appliances such as washing machine and refrigerators. CAPACITOR START MOTORS There are two types of capacitor start motors: - capacitor start induction run and capacitor start capacitor A) Capacitor start induction run In this motor an electrolytic capacitor is connected in series with the starting winding and both are disconnected from the circuit when the motor attains 75% of the rated speed with the aid of the centrifugal switch. windi @ “he running winding ofthis motor is embedded in iron and therefore highly the running wit Operat ase there ductive. A capacitor of suitable size connected in series withthe starting winding cause, inductive. A capaci ze considerable phase difference between these currents in the two windings. The phase difference between these currents gives the motor a high startir 1g torque. The motor is essentially a constant speed machine and is used for light industrial work, office and domestic applications where better starting torque is required e.g, compressors, large fans and pumps, The power rating of such motors lies between 120W to 75KW. Reversing the direction: reverse the capacitor polarities Dia 8) Capacitor. start capacitor- run motor This motors identical to a capacitor-start motor except that starting winding is not opened after Starting so that both the windings remain connected to the supply when Funning as well as at Starting. There are two types of capacitor start capacitor run motors: Main A 2 Ia weeing 1s Staring vo fgg & Rotor c @ w@ ingle capacitor Cis used for both starting and running as » single capacitor motor: shown in Fig. () above, optimum starting 2rd remains nthe chet during starting 6The starting capacitor C1 is disconnected when the motor approaches about 75% of synchronous speed. The motor then runs as a single-phase induction motor. ‘The motor is smooth running, produces high constant torque and high efficiency. Since the motor is vibration free it can be used in hospitals, studios and other places where silence is important. SHADED POLE MOTOR I's a kind of split phase motor which does not have the starting winding, centrifugal switch or starter mechanism the rotor is squirrel cage type, a short circuiting ring is mounted around about a third of the pole area of each stator pole. The area covered by the ring is called the shaded pole and the ring is called the shading coil. A two pole shaded motor Allthe poles are shaded on the same side and the shading coil s made of low resistance copper. When the supply is switched on there isa transformer effect with the shading ring as short circuited secondary, This causes the flux under the shaded portion of the pole lag behind the unshaded pole flux and so produce a two phase rotating field. Ths is sufficient to start the rotor but the field is weak therefore the starting torque will be poor. The starting torque of shaded pole motor is low and this makes the motor to have a power rating of less than 750W, mostly used to drive small fans, toys hair driers etc. which requires low starting torque and constant speed. The direction of the motor can be reversed by removing the stator from the motor and turning round all the shaded poles into the opposite of the original side during re-assembly.SERIES OR UNIVERSAL MOTOR This motor is designed to operate on either single phase A.C. current or D.C. current. Construction: ‘The stator is made of steel laminations securely held together and bolted to frame. The rotor Consists of a cylindrical core of steel laminations with longitudinal slots into which insulated copper windings are wound. The windings are wound in such a way that they create two ‘Opposite poles in the stator. The rotor windings are connected to commutator segments, two carbon brushes moves on the commutator and are connected to the field winding. The stator and the rotor are connected in series as shown inthe diagram. When the motor is connected to a single phase a.c. source the same amount of current flows through both the field and rotor windings. The magnetic field set up inthe rotor will have the same polarity asthe poles close to it the two like poles will repel and produce torque and the rotor start to rotate, Universal motors are variable speed motors where the speed depends on the apptied voltage and the load. The motor has very high starting torque.load connected, The direction of rotation may be reversed by reversing the field or armature. Applications (a) high-speed vacuum cleaners | (b) sewing machines (c) electric shavers (4) drills {e) machine tools e.g. grinders SINGLE-PHASE REPULSION MOTOR A repulsion motor is similar to an a.c. series motor except that: > brushes are not connected to supply but are short-circuited as shown on the figure Consequently, currents are induced in the armature conductors by transformer action. > The field structure has non-salient pole construction. By adjusting the position of short- circuited brushes on the commutator, the starting torque can be developed in the motor. 4 L ton wi Construction The field of stator winding is wound like the main winding of a split-phase motor and is connected directly to a single-phase source. The armature or rotor is similar to a d.c. motor armature with drum type winding connected to commutator (not shown in the figure). However, the brushes are not connected to supply but are connected to each other orreohe short-circuited. Short-circuiting the brushes effectively makes the rotor into a type of squirrel cage. The major difficulty with an ordinary single-phase induction motor is the I Starting torque. By using a commutator motor with brushes short-circuited, itis Possible to vary the starting torque by changing the brush axis. It has also better power factor than the conventional single-phase motor. Principle of operationin the direction indicated in Fig. (i)) and current flows through the two paths of the armature winding from brush A to brush B, However, because of the new brush positions, the greater part of the conductors under the N pole carry current in one direction while the greater part of conductors under S-pole carry current in the opposite direction. With brushes in the position shown in Fig, (i), torque is developed in the clockwise direction and the rotor quickly attains the final speed. ‘The direction of rotation of the rotor depends upon the direction in which the brushes are shifted. If the brushes are shifted in clockwise direction from the stator field axis, the net torque acts in the clockwise direction and the rotor accelerates in the clockwise direction. If the brushes are shifted in anti-clockwise direction as shown in Fig. below the armature current under the pole faces is reversed and the net torque is developed in the anti- clockwise direction. ‘Thus a repulsion motor may be made to rotate in either direction depending upon the direction in which the brushes are shifted. 4 L Characteristics a. Ithasa high starting torque and a high speed at no load. be. The speed which the repulsion motor develops for any given load will depend upon the position of the brushes. ¢. Incomparison with other single-phase motors, the repulsion motor has a high starring torque and relatively low starting current. REPULSION-START INDUCTION-RUN MOTOR uwThe machine is started as a repulsion motor with a corresponding high starting torg some predetermined speed, a centrifugal device short-circuits the commutator so that} machine then operates as a single-phase induction motor. The repulsion-start induction-run motor has the same general construction of a repulsioy Motor. The only difference is that in addition to the basic repulsion motor construction, iti equipped with a centrifugal device fitted on the armature shaft. When the motor reaches _ 75% of its full pinning speed, the centrifugal device forces a short-circuiting ring to come in Contact with the inner surface of the commutator. This short-circuits all the commutator bars. The rotor then resembles Squirrel-cage type and the motor runs as a single-phase induction motor. At the same time, the centrifugal device raises the brushes from the commutator which reduces the wear of the brushes and commutator as well as makes the operation quiet. Characteristics ® The starting torque is 2.5 to 4.5 times the full-load torque and the starting current is 3.75 times the full-load value. > Due to their high starting torque, repulsion-motors were used to operate devices such as refrigerators, pumps, compressors etc, Disadvantage: they pose a serious problem of maintenance of brushes, commutator arid the centrifugal device. therefore, manufacturers have stopped making them in view of the development of capacitor motors which are small in size, reliable and low-priced. REPULSION-INDUCTION MOTOR The repulsion-induction motor produces a high starting torque entirely due to repulsion motor action. When running it functions through a combination of induetion-motor and repulsion motor action. Construction Fig, below shows the connections of a 4-pole repulsion-induction motor for 230V operation. It consists of a stator and a rotor (or armature). 2> The stator carries a single distributed winding fed from single-phase supply. } The rotor is provided with two independent windings placed one inside the other. The inner winding is a squirrel-cage winding with rotor bars permanently short-circuited. Placed over the squirrel cage winding is a repulsion commutator armature winding. The repulsion winding is connected to a commutator on which ride short-circuited brushes. There is no centrifugal device and the repulsion winding functions at all times. Operation «When single-phase supply is given to the stator winding, the repulsion winding (i.e., outer winding) is active. Consequently, the motor starts as repulsion motor with a corresponding high starting torque. « Asthe motor speed increases, the current shifts from the outer to inner winding due to the decreasing impedance of the inner winding with increasing speed. Consequently, at running speed, the squirrel cage winding carries the greater part of rotor current. This shifting of repulsion motor action to induction-motor action is thus achieved without any switching arrangement. © Itmay be seen that the motor starts as a repulsion motor. When running, it functions. through a combination of principle of induction and repulsion; the former being predominant. BCharacteristics (i) The no-load speed of a repulsion-induction motor is somewhat above the synchron speed because of the effect of repulsion winding. However, the speed at full-load is sligl less than the synchronous Speed as in an induction motor. (il) The speed regulation of the motor is about 6%. (iii) The starting torque is 2.25 to 3 times the full-load torque; the lower value being for large motors, The starting current is 3 to 4 times the full-load current. This type of motor is used for applications requiring a high Starting torque with essentially a constant running speed. The common sizes are 0.25 to HP. The most commonly used types are: (i) Reluctance motors (ii) Hysteresis motors RELUCTANCE MOTOR "tis a single-phase synchronous motor which does not require d.c. excitation to the rotor. Its operation is based upon the following principle: Construction@ us reluctance motor) consists of: A reluctance motor (also called synchrono\ ry winding to produce 2 (i) a stator carrying a single-phase winding along with an au synchronous-revolving magnetic field. ving unsymmetrical magnetic construction. Ths is achieved by (ii) a squirrel-cage rotor ha symmetrically removing some of the teeth from the squirrel cage rotor to produce salient s on the rotor. As shown in Fig. (i) abov ‘alient poles created on the rotor must b eA salient poles have been produced on the pole e equal to the poles on the stator. rotor. The s Note that rotor salient poles offer low reluctance to the stator flux and, therefore, become strongly magnetized. Operation {i) when single-phase stator having an auxiliary winding is energized, a synchronously- revolving field is produced. The motor starts as @ standard squirrel-cage induction motor and will accelerate to near its synchronous speed. (ii) As the rotor approaches synchronous speed, the rotating stator flux will exert reluctance ‘oles tending to align the salient-pole axis with th ere its salient poles lock with the poles of the torque on the rotor pi axis of the rotating field. The rotor assumes a position wh¢ revolving field shown in fig ii above (i) Consequently, the motor will continue to run at the speed of revolving fluxi.., at the synchronous speed. 15(ii) When we apply a mechanical load, the rotor poles fall slightly behind the stator poles, while continuing to turn at synchronous speed. As the load on the motor is increased, the ‘mechanical angle between the poles increases progressively. Nevertheless, magnetic attraction keeps the rotor locked to the rotating flux. If the load is increased beyond the amount under which the reluctance torque can maintain synchronous speed, the rotor drops out of step with the revolving field. The speed, then, drops to some value at which the slip is sufficient to develop the necessary torque to drive the load by induction-motor action. Characteristics (i) These motors have poor torque, power factor and efficiency, (ii) These motors cannot accelerate high-inertia loads to synchronous speed, (ii) The pull-in and pull-out torques of such motors are weak. Advantage: The reluctance motor is cheaper than any other type of synchronous motor. Application: They are idely used for constant-speed applications such as tit signaling devices etc. HYSTERESIS MOTOR Itis a single-phase motor whose operation depends upon the hysteresis effect ie, magnetization produced in a ferromagnetic material lags behind the magnetizing force. Construction It consists of: (i) a stator designed to produce a synchronously-revolving field from a single-phase supply. This is accomplished by using permanent-split capacitor type construction. Consequently, both the windings (i.e., starting as well as main winding) remain connected i the circuit during running operation as well as at starting, The value of capacitance is so adjusted as to result in a flux revolving at synchronous speed. (li) a rotor consisting of a smooth cylinder of magnetically hard steel, without winding or teeth. Operation 16» aan when the stator is energized from a single-phase supply, a synchronously revolving jeld (assumed in anti-clockwise direction) is produced due to split-phase operation. (ii) The revolving stator flux magnetizes the rotor. Due to hysteresis effect, the axis of ind the axis of stator field by hysteresis lag angle 2 as magnetization of rotor will lag behi shown in Fig. below the starting torque ye rotor is stationary, Thus the rotor and stator poles are locked. If the produced is given by: Tse gs grsina. where os= stator flux. r= rotor flux. From now onwards, the rotor accelerates to synchronous speed with a uniform torque. r continues to run at synchronous speed and (iii) After reaching synchronism, the moto! red by the load. adjusts its torque angle so as to develop the torque requ Characteristics 1 synchronize any load which it can accelerate, no matter how (i) Ahysteresis motor ca 1¢is uniform from standstill to synchronous speed. great the inertia. It is because the torqu {ii) Since the rotor has no teeth or salient poles or winding, a hysteresis motor is inherently quiet and produces smooth rotation of the load. 7(iil) The rotor takes on the same number of poles as the stator field. Thus by changing the number of stator poles through pole-changing connections, we can get a set of synchronous speeds for the motor. Applications Due to their quiet operation and ability to drive high-inertia toads, hysteresis motors are particularly well suited for driving (i) electric clocks (ii) timing devices (iii) _ tape-decks from-tables and other precision audio-equipment.