Chapter 6

Fuel and combustion

Fuel
Any substance consists principally of carbon and hydrogen (hydrocarbons) and easily
burning with air and give sufficient amount of energy.
Fuel composed mainly of

5% of fuel is :
95% of fuel is carbon and hydrogen.
• metals(Fe, Pb, …),
• sulfur,
• gases(O2, CO2…)
Hydrocarbons in fuel • impurities.

Paraffin's Naphthenes (alicyclic compounds Aromatic

(e.g.,cyclohexane) it is cyclic unsaturated
it is saturated
compounds, having
compounds, having
Olefins it is Unsaturatedcompounds,eg. low heat value such as
high heat value such
ethylene . benzene.
as methane and (-C=C-)
ethane.
C-C-C-C-C They have low heat value
Classification of
fuel

Solid fuel Liquid fuel Gaseous liquid

as coal, coke…… as gasoline, kerosene….. as liquefied natural gas (LNG)
and liquefied petroleum gas
(LPG)

LNG Tanker
Petroleum refining processes

C50 to C70
Properties of fuel
1. Specific gravity
2. Viscosity
3. Calorific value
4. Surface tension
5. Pour point
6. Flash point
7. Spontaneous ignition temperature
8. Carbon to hydrogen ratio
9. Sulfur content
10. Ash content
Properties of fuel

1. Specific gravity
⚫ Specific Gravity = relative density
⚫ It is the ratio between the density of the fuel at a specific temperature
to the density of water at the same temperature.
⚫ OR
⚫ It is the ratio between the weight of a given volume of the fuel at a
specific temperature to the weight of same volume of water at the
same temperature.

sp.gr. = density of the fuel

density of the water = weight of a given volume of the fuel
weight of a given volume of the water at specific temp.

the sp.gr is a measure of the percent of paraffin's

⚫ sp.gr ,  % paraffin's ,  bad ignition (incomplete combustion).
⚫ sp.gr  ,  % paraffin's ,  good ignition (complete combustion).
Properties of fuel

2. Viscosity
It’s the resistance of fluid to flow (a measure of the internal friction)
⚫ Liquids which flows freely is said to have low viscosity.
⚫ Liquids which have sluggish flowing is said to have high viscosity.
Viscosity
Dynamic viscosity: Kinematic viscosity:
is the force existing when a layer of fluid of unit is the dynamic viscosity divided by
area is moving at a unit velocity relative to density of fluid
similar layer at a unit distance apart and Kinematic viscosity (Ɣ)= µ /  ;
parallel to the original layer. : is the density of fluid
If force is measured in dyne, viscosity will be in Unit : cm2/sec or stoke
poise.
It is related to dynamic force Dyne= g.cm.s-2
µ = (force/area)(distance/velocity)
= (Dyne.sec/cm2) or poise

Viscosity   % paraffin's ,  bad ignition (incomplete combustion) (large particle size)

Viscosity   % paraffin's ,  good ignition (complete combustion) (small particle size)

Properties of fuel

3. Calorific value CV
It’s the amount of heat evolved by burning the unit mass of fuel with oxygen.

the amount of heat released by a unit weight or unit volume of a substance during
complete combustion

Unit: (MJ/kg) or (J/g) or (Cal/g) or (Btu/lb)

BTU or Btu (British Thermal Unit) is the amount of heat energy needed to raise the
temperature of one pound of water by one degree F.

The heat of combustion for fuel is expressed as the HCV (GCV) or LCV (NCV).

HCV = Higher calorific value = gross CV

LCV = Lower calorific value = actual or net CV
Due to presence of hydrogen in fuel its burning is associated with
water vapor formation and decreasing the heat content

(C, H) + O2 → CO2 + H2O + heat

A compound composed to produce carbon
of carbon and hydrogen dioxide, water
reacts with the oxygen and heat

Higher calorific value (HCV) or (GCV) is defined as the amount of heat evolved
when a unit weight (or volume in the case of gaseous fuels) of the fuel is completely
burnt and the products of combustion cooled to the normal conditions (with water
vapor condensed as a result). The heat contained in the water vapor must be recovered
in the condensation process.

Lower calorific value (LCV) or (NCV) is defined as the amount of heat evolved
when a unit weight (or volume in the case of gaseous fuels) of the fuel is completely
burnt and water vapor leaves with the combustion products without being condensed.

HCV = LCV + Latent heat of condensation of water

The difference between LCV and HCV (or Lower and Higher Heating Value, or
Net and Gross) is clearly understood by all energy engineers. There is no ‘right’ or
‘wrong’ definition. The numerical difference between the two is the latent heat of
condensation of the water vapour in the combustion exhaust gas, which in turn
depends on the hydrogen content of the fuel being burned. The difference is
minimal for coal, significant for natural gas and largest for pure hydrogen fuel.
So you have to do the conversion calculation for the specific case. Unfortunately,
for historical reasons, the natural gas (public supply) and coal industry (inc’ coal-
fired power stations) have grown up using HCV, while engines (all fuels, inc’
diesel) and gas turbines have ended up using LCV basis, giving slightly higher
nominal % efficiencies for those products. This is not about ‘salesmen and spin’,
it’s just engineers using different bases.
Properties of fuel

4. Surface tension
“The molecules inside the liquid are affected by attraction forces in all direction
by other molecules (inside the liquid ). However, molecules at the surface are
pulled downward and sideways by other molecules, but not upward away from
the surface. Thus, the surface layer will be in tension state and affected by
surface tension forces”. Thus the liquid’s surface try to decrease its area to
decrease this surface tension (by taking the ball or the drop shape).
“It is the work (erg. cm-2 ) or energy required to stretch or increase the
surface area of liquid by 1 cm2 ”
Intermolecular forces , surface tension increases 

⚫ Higher surface tension (cohesive force higher

than adhesive force) lead to bad ignition

⚫ lower surface tension (cohesive force lower

than adhesive force) lead to good ignition.
Properties of fuel

5. Pour point
The pour point of a liquid is the highest temperature at which it becomes
semi solid and loses its flow characteristics

it can become the determining factor in selecting one lubricant from among
a group with otherwise identical properties.
Properties of fuel

6. Flash point (F.P)

⚫ The temperature at which the fuel oil will form enough amount of
flammable mixture to ignite with air in presence of flame.
⚫ Flash point give good indication for volatility of fuel, storage condition,
safety
⚫ Flash point is inversely proportional with the fuel volatility.
⚫ Gasoline(F.P)= 22 C°
⚫ Diesel oil(F.P)= 65 C°
⚫ Low flash point → volatile fuel → good ignition → High CV
Flash
Point
Test
Properties of fuel

7. Spontaneous ignition temperature (S.I.T)

⚫ The temperature at which the fuel starts to
ignite with air without flame or spark.
⚫ S.I.T is much greater than F.P.
⚫ Gasoline(F.P)= 22 C°
⚫ Gasoline(S.I.T) = 260 C°
Properties of fuel

8. Carbon to hydrogen ratio

⚫ An increase of the carbon than hydrogen
associated with decrease the percent of
paraffin's and increase Sp.gr, viscosity and
decreasing the C.V which tends to bad ignition.
C-C-C-C-C

⚫ Higher percent of carbon give black smoke (C)

during ignition.
⚫ (C/H) , Oil quality & price .
Properties of fuel

9. Sulfur content

⚫ Sulfur in fuel refers to free sulfur and its

compounds such as thioether CH3-S-CH3,
mercaptens CH3-SH, hydrogen sulfide H2S.
⚫ Presence of sulfur in fuel associated with
formation of sulfur oxide gases (which react
with water or dew )‫ (الندى‬forming sulfuric acid
and tends to air pollution and formation of
strong corrosive environment.
HO
⚫ S + O2 → SO3 2
H2SO4
⚫ S , Oil quality & price .
Air Pollution
Properties of fuel

10. Ash content

⚫ Refers to non combustible material present in

fuel.
⚫ Ash in fuel present as all inorganic compound
such as metals(Al, Ca, Fe, Mg, Ni, V, Na, …) ,
metal oxides and inorganic salts.
⚫ Percent of ash in normal liquid fuel is about 0.1%.
⚫ Separation of ash is uneconomically process.
⚫ % Ash , Oil quality & price 
Parameter Good fuel Bad fuel

good ignition bad ignition

complete combustion incomplete combustion
small particle size Large particle size

HCV (LCV)  
% Paraffin  
C/H  
Sp. gr.  
Viscosity  
Surface Tension  
Pour point X or  
F.P. or ( 1/Volatility)  
S.I.T (>> F.P)  
Sulfur content  
Ash%  
II- Fuel & Combustion
• In combustion reactions, rapid oxidation of combustible elements of fuel
occur and produce combustion products and release energy.
• The three major combustible chemical elements in most common fuels are
C, H, and S.
• Although sulfur is usually a relatively unimportant contributor to the
energy released, it can be a significant cause of pollution and corrosion.

Internal
Combustion
Engine

2014 - II 22
Combustion Reactions
1. Complete combustion of carbon:
C + O2 → CO2 + Heat (33.7 Mega joule/kg).
2. Incomplete combustion of carbon :
C + 1/2 O2 → CO + Heat (10.5 Mega joule/kg).
3. Hydrogen Combustion:
H2 + 1/2O2 → H2O + Heat (65.4 Mega joule/kg).
4. Sulfur combustion:
S + O2 → SO2 + Heat (9.11 Mega joule/kg).

2014 - II 23
Deduce the complete combustion equation of Carbon ?
C + O2 → CO2 + Heat (33.7 Mega joule/kg).
1mole 1mole 1mole 1H

(At.wt*1) (M.wt*1) (M.wt*1) 12C

14N
(1*12) (1*2*16) (1*(12+2*16))
16O
12kg 32kg 44kg 32S
Divide all masses by 12 (the smallest value):
1kg 8/3 kg 11/3 kg
1kg C + 8/3 kg O2 → 11/3 kg CO2 + (33.7 MJ/kg)

Deduce the incomplete combustion equation of Carbon ?

C + ½ O2 → CO + Heat (10.5 Mega joule/kg)
1mole ½ mole 1mole
12kg 16kg 28kg
Divide all masses by 12:
1kg 4/3 kg 7/3 kg
1kg C + 4/3 kg O2 → 7/3 kg CO + (10.5 MJ/kg)
2014 - II 24
Deduce the combustion equation of Hydrogen ? 1H
12C
H2 + ½ O2 → H2O + Heat (65.4 MJ/kg).
14N
1mole ½ mole 1mole 16O
2 kg 16 kg 18 kg 32S
Divide all masses by 2:
1kg 8 kg 9 kg
1kg H2 + 8 kg O2 → 9 kg H2O + (65.4 MJ/kg)

Deduce the combustion equation of Sulfur ?

S + O2 → SO2 + Heat(9.11Mega joule/kg).
1 mole 1 mole 1 mole
32kg 32 kg 64kg
Divide all masses by 32:
1kg 1 kg 2 kg
1kg S + 1 kg O2 → 2 kg SO2 + (9.11 MJ/kg)

2014 - II 25
Comparison between combustion of carbon, hydrogen, sulfur ?

Carbon Carbon
Hydrogen Sulfur
complete incomplete

Combustion reactions

Amount of
oxygen needed
to burn 1 kg of 8/3 kg 4/3 kg 8 kg 1 kg
the combustible
component
Amount of heat
33.7 MJ 10.5 MJ 65.4MJ 9.11 MJ
released
combustion
CO2 CO H 2O SO2
Products
Environmental Toxic and Pollutant and
pollutant No impact
impact pollutant corrosive.
2014 - II 26
Deduce the combustion equation of methane ? 1H
CH4 + 2 O2 → CO2 + 2 H2O + Heat 12C
16 kg 64 kg 44 kg 36 kg 14N
Divide all masses by 16: 16O
1kg 4 kg 11/4 kg 9/4 kg 32S
1kg CH4 + 4 kg O2 → 11/4 kg CO2 + 9/4 kg H2O + Heat
Deduce the combustion equation of ethane?
C 2H 6 + 7/2 O2 → 2CO2 + 3 H2O + Heat
((2*12)+(6*1)) ((7/2)*2*16) (2*(12+(2*16))) (3*((2*1)+16))
30kg 112kg 88kg 54kg
Divide all masses by 30:
1kg 3.73 kg 2.93 kg 9/5 kg
1kg C2H6 + 3.73 kg O2 → 2.93 kg CO2 + 9/5 kg H2O + Heat
Deduce the combustion equation of propane?
C 3H 8 + 5 O2 → 3CO2 + 4 H2O + Heat
44kg 160kg 132kg 72kg
Divide all masses by 44:
1kg 3.63 kg 3 kg 1.6 kg
1kg C3H8 + 3.63 kg O2 → 3 kg CO2 + 1.6 kg H2O + Heat
Deduce the combustion equations of methanol, ethanol & propanol ?27
1H
12C
Deduce the combustion equation of methanol ?
→ CO2
14N
CH3OH + 3/2 O2 + 2 H2O + Heat
16O
32 kg 48kg 44 kg 36 kg
32S
Divide all masses by 32:
1kg 1.5kg 1.375 kg 1.125 kg
1kg CH3OH + 1.5 kg O2 → 1.375 kg CO2 + 1.125kg H2O + Heat

Deduce the combustion equation of ethanol?

C2H5OH + 3 O2 → 2CO2 + 3 H2O + Heat
((2*12)+6+16) ((3)*2*16) (2*(12+(2*16))) (3*((2*1)+16))
46kg 96kg 88kg 54kg
Divide all masses by 46:
1kg 2.09 kg 1.91kg 1.17kg
1kg C2H5OH+ 2.09 kg O2 → 1.91 kg CO2 + 1.17 kg H2O + Heat

28
Deduce the combustion equation of propanol?
C3H7OH + 9/2 O2 → 3CO2 + 4 H2O + Heat
60kg 144kg
Divide all masses by 60:
1kg 2.4 kg
1kg C3H7 OH + 2.4 kg O2 → 3 kg CO2 + 1.6 kg H2O + Heat
Air supply
Air supply = amount of air added to combustion engine to burn the
fuel inside the engine.
(Air composition = 78.1% v/v N2 + 20.9% v/v O2 +  1% other constituents)
(Air composition = 75.5%wt/wt N2 + 23.2% wt/wt O2 +  1% other constituents)
Air supply = total amount of oxygen * (100/23)
Air supply = [O2 for C(complete) + O2 for C(incomplete) + O2 for H + O2 for S
- O in Fuel] * (100/23). (and ignoring the reaction between N2 and O2)
Amount of O2 = (% of element * conversion factor * wt. of the fuel)

Air supply = [(%C * %complete * 8/3) + (%C * %incomp * 4/3) + (%H* 8) + (%S * 1)
– (% O in fuel)] *(wt. fuel) * (100/23)
(and ignoring the reaction between N2 and O2)
Excess Air
Theoretical Air. (1)
Actual air added (1+X) X = (% of excess air)

Actual air added = (1+X)*Theoretical Air.

Example: calculate the actual air needed for the combustion of a fuel if the actual
supplied air exceeds the theoretical air supply by 40% (and Th. air is 5 kg)
Actual air = (1+X)*Theoretical Air. 30
Actual air = (1+ (40/100))*5 =7 kg
Example 1:
Calculate the Actual Air supply needed to burn 2 kg of the
fuel which consists of : 60%wt.carbon , 20%wt.hydrogen, 5%wt.sulfur,
5%wt.oxygen, 9%wt.water , 1%wt.ashes. If the combustion is 90% complete
& If the percentage of excess air is 40%.

Air supply = [%C * %complete * 8/3) + (%C * %incomp * 4/3) + (%H* 8) + (%S * 1)
– (% O in fuel)] *(wt. fuel) * (100/23)
Theo. Air supply = [(0.6*0.9*8/3) + (0.6*0.1*4/3) + (0.2* 8) + (0.05*1) – (0.05)] * 2*(100/23)
Theo. Air suppl. = [1.44 + 0.08 + 1.6 + 0.05 – 0.05]*2*(100/23) = 27.13 kg air

& If the percentage of excess air is 40% of the theoretical air supply.
Actual air supply = (1+X)*Theoretical Air.
Actual air supply = (1+0.4)*27.13= 37.98 kg of air.
Example 2: calculate the air needed to burn 3 kg of fuel of (50% methane,
50% propane). If the excess of air is 30% of the theoretical air.
Oxygen needed to burn the methane:
CH4 + 2 O2 → CO2 + 2 H2O
1mole 2 mole 1mole 2 mole
16kg 64kg 44kg 36kg
Divide all masses by 16:
1kg CH4 + 4 kg O2 → 11/4 kg CO2 + 9/4 kg H2O
1kg 4 kg 11/4 kg 9/4 kg
(3*50%))kg ? kg

Oxygen needed to burn the methane in mix. = 3*0.5*4/1= 6 kg

Oxygen needed to burn the propane:
C3H8 + 5 O2 → 3CO2 + 4 H2O + Heat
1mole 5 mole 3 mole 4 mole
44kg 160kg 132kg 72kg
Divide all masses by 44:
1kg C3H8 + 3.63 kg O2 → 3 kg CO2 + 1.6 kg H2O
1kg 3.63 kg 3 kg 1.6 kg
1.5 kg ? kg
Oxygen needed to burn the propane =1.5*3.63/1= 5.445kg
•Total amount of theoretical air = ( 6 + 5.445) * (100/23) = 49.76 kg of air.
•Total amount of actual air = 49.76*(1+ 0.3) = 64.69 kg of air. 32
% element in a compound = (no. of atoms * atomic mass / M.Wt of
the compound)*100

Example 3
Deduce the air supply for 70% complete combustion of 2kg methanol ?
CH3OH = 12 + 4x1 + 16 =32
% C = 1x12/32 = 37.5 %
% H = 4x1/32 = 12.5 %
% O = 1x16/32 = 50 %

Air Supply = [(37.5/100)*8/3*(70/100) + (37.5/100)*4/3*(30/100) + (12.5/100)*8

-(50/100)] * 2 * (100/23) = 4.13 kg Air
Energy released by burning the fuel:
• Energy released = amount of energy produced due to combustion
of the fuel inside the engine (its unit is Mega (or million) joule).
• Total energy = [(E)C(complete) + (E)C(incomplete) + (E)H + (E)S ] * (wt. fuel)

Energy = [(33.7 * %C * %complete) + (10.5 * %C * %incomplete) + (65.4 * %H) +

(9.11 * %S)] * (wt. fuel) MJ

2014 - II 34
Example 1:
Calculate the heat energy released during burning of 2 kg of the fuel
which consists of : 60%wt. carbon , 20%wt. hydrogen, 5%wt. sulfur, 5%wt. oxygen,
9%wt. water , 1%wt. ashes. If the combustion is 90% complete?
Energy = [(33.7 * %C * %comp ) + (10.5 * %C * %incomp ) + (65.4 * %H)
+ (9.11 * %S)] * (wt. fuel)
Energy = [(33.7*0.6*0.9) + (10.5*0.6*0.10) + (65.4*0.2) + (9.11*0.05)] * 2
= 32.364 MJ

35
Homework
: calculate the air supply required to burn 5 kg of fuel of a
Brazilian car (30% methanol, 70% ethanol)? If the excess of air is
40% of the theoretical air? Then calculate the heat energy released?

Answer key:

O2 needed to burn CH3OH in fuel = 5*0.3*1.5/1 = 2.25 kg

O2 needed to burn C2H5OH in fuel =5*0.7*2.087/1= 7.3045kg

Total amount of theoretical air = ( 2.25 + 7.3045) * (100/23) = 41.5 kg of air.

Total amount of actual air = 41.5*(1+ 0.4) = 58.16 kg of air.

% C = [(0.3*12/32) + (0.7*24/46)]*100 = (0.1125 + 0.3652) *100 = 47.77%

% H = [(0.3*4/32) + (0.7*6/46)]*100 = (0.0375 + 0.0913) *100 = 12.88%
% O = [(0.3*16/32) + (0.7*16/46)]*100 = (0.15 + 0.2435) *100 = 39.35%

Energy = [(33.7 * %C * %complete) + (10.5 * %C * %incomplete) + (65.4 * %H) + (9.11 * %S)] * (wt. fuel)
Energy = [(33.7 * 0.4777) + (65.4 * 0.1288)] * (5) = 122.61 MJ

2014 - II 36