Liquid Fuels
Physical Properties
Liquid Fuels
Heating Value
Volatility
Density/Gravity
Viscosity
Flash point
Fire Point
Cloud & Pour Point
Conradson Carbon Residue
Reid Vapour Pressure
Corrosion Test
Sulfur
Octane Number/ Cetane Number
2
Heating Value Estimates for
Petroleum Fuels
Heating values are estimated from the API
gravity,
H g 42,860 93 API 10 ( kJ / kg )
H n 0.7190 H g 10,000 (kJ / kg )
where Hg is the gross (high) heating value
and Hn is the net (low) heating value.
Properties of Liquid
Fuels
Density
• Ratio of the fuel’s mass to its volume at 15 oC,
• kg/m3
• Useful for determining fuel quantity and quality
4
Liquid Fuels
Specific gravity
• Ratio of weight of oil volume to weight of same
water volume at a given temperature
• Specific gravity of water is 1
• Hydrometer used to measure
Table Specific gravity of various fuel oils
Fuel oil LDO Furnace oil LSHS (Low Sulphur
type (Light Diesel Oil) Heavy Stock)
Specific 0.85-0.87 0.89-0.95 0.88-0.98
Gravity
5
Liquid Fuels
Viscosity
• Measure of fuel’s internal resistance to flow
• Most important characteristic for storage and use
• Decreases as temperature increases
Flash point
• Lowest temperature at which a fuel can be
heated so that the vapour gives off flashes when an
open flame is passes over it
• Flash point of furnace oil: 66oC
6
Typical Units
Centipoise (cP) was the popular unit of
dynamic viscosity.
1 cP 1 mPa s
Centistoke (cSt) was the popular unit of
kinematic viscosity.
1 cSt 1 mm 2 / s
Reporting of Viscosity
Kinematic viscosity () is reported as,
where is absolute (or dynamic)
viscosity, and is the fluid mass density.
Table SAE Motor Oil
Classification
Cloud and Pour Points
Cloud point is the temperature at which
crystals begin to form in the fuel.
Pour point is the temperature at which the
fuel ceases to flow. Indication of
temperature at which fuel can be pumped
Cloud point are typically 5 to 8 C higher
than pour point,
Not an issue for gasoline.
Values are important for diesel.
Fundamental Definitions
Calorific value
Amount of heat librated by the combustion of
unit quantity of fuel. kcal/ kg , kcal / m3
Gross Calorific Value (G.C.V) or HCV
heating value measurement in which the
product water vapour is allowed to condense
Net Calorific Value (N.C.V) or LCV
heating value in which the water remains a
vapor and does not yield its heat of vaporization
HHV = LHV + (mwater /mfuel)ʎwater
Liquid Fuels
Calorific value
• Heat or energy produced
• Gross calorific value (GCV): vapour is fully
condensed
• Net calorific value (NCV): water is not fully
condensed
Fuel Oil Gross Calorific Value (kCal/kg)
Kerosene 11,100
Diesel Oil 10,800
Furnace Oil 10,500
12
Liquid Fuels
Sulphur content
• Depends on source of crude oil and less on the
refining process
• Furnace oil: 2-4 % sulphur
• Sulphuric acid causes corrosion
Ash content
• Inorganic material in fuel
• Typically 0.03 - 0.07%
• Corrosion of burner tips and damage to
materials /equipments at high temperatures 13
Liquid Fuels
Carbon residue
• Tendency of oil to deposit a carbonaceous solid
residue on a hot surface
• Residual oil: >1% carbon residue
Water content
• Normally low in furnace oil supplied (<1% at
refinery)
• Free or emulsified form
• Can damage furnace surface and impact flame
14
Example
What is the air/fuel ratio and the
exhaust products when ethanol is
used as an engine fuel?
Solution
C2 H 6O 3O2 11.28 N 2 11.28 N 2 2CO2 3H 2O
1(46) 3(32) 11.28(28) 11.28(28) 2(44) 3(18)
1 2.087 6.866 6.866 1.913 1.174
A / F (2.087 6.866) / 1 8.95
Calculate the Stoichiometric Air ?
Calculate the theoretical CO2
content in flue gases ?
Four stroke cycle theory
Intake stroke
Piston moving down
Intake valve open
Exhaust valve closed
Four stroke cycle theory
Compression stroke
Piston moving up
Intake valve closed
Exhaust valve closed
Four stroke cycle theory
Power stroke
Piston moving down
Intake valve closed
Exhaust valve closed
Four stroke cycle theory
Exhaust stroke
Piston moving up
Intake valve closed
Exhaust valve open
Engine measurements
Bore
• Diameter of cylinder
Stroke
• Distance between TDC & BDC
Engine measurements
Displacement per cylinder
• r² S
Displacement for the engine
• Disp per cylinder times the
Number of cylinders
Engine measurements
Compression ratio
D + CV
CV
To calculate clearance volume
D .
CR-1
Abnormal Combustion in SI Engine
Knock is the term used to describe a pinging noise emitted from a SI engine
undergoing abnormal combustion.
The noise is generated by shock waves produced in the cylinder when
unburned gas autoignites.
Knock in SI engines.
Octane Ratings
Octane is a measure of gasoline’s
resistance to “knock.”
“Knock” is the uncontrolled release
of energy when combustion initiates
somewhere other than the spark
plug.
Symptoms of engine “knock” include
an audible “knocking” or “pining”
sound under acceleration.
Causes of Engine Knock
Knock is caused when the temperature in the
cylinder reaches the self ignition temperature
(SIT) of the end gases.
The end gases do not readily ignite, rather
there is an ignition delay caused by pre-flame
reactions.
Engine knock is more prevalent under
conditions that include:
Lean air/fuel ratios
High compression ratios
How to Reduce Engine
Knock
Use gasoline with higher octane
ratings – these ratings are
associated with gasoline that has
few straight chain carbons have
longer ignition delay times.
Octane Rating Measurement
Procedure developed by the
Cooperative Fuels Research
Committee (CFR).
The committee proposed a single
cylinder SI engine to measure octane
– the CFR engine has an adjustable
compression ratio.
Engine is driven at a constant speed
with an electric motor.
Octane Rating Measurement
Octane ratings are obtained by
comparing fuel in question to iso-
octane (Octane Rating of 100) and
heptane (Octane Rating of 0).
CR is adjusted until “knocking” is
detected with fuel being tested.
Blends of iso-octane and heptane are
tested until the same level of knock is
obtained.
Octane rating is % of iso-octane in test
blend which gives same level of knock
as produced by the actual fuel sample.
Fuel Knock Scale
To provide a standard measure of a fuel’s ability to resist knock, a scale has
been devised by which fuels are assigned an octane number ON.
The octane number determines whether or not a fuel will knock in a given
engine under given operating conditions.
By definition, normal heptane (n-C7H16) has an octane value of zero and
isooctane (C8H18) has a value of 100.
The higher the octane number, the higher the resistance to knock.
Blends of these two hydrocarbons define the knock resistance of intermediate
octane numbers: e.g., a blend of 10% n-heptane and 90% isooctane has an
octane number of 90.
A fuel’s octane number is determined by measuring what blend of these two
hydrocarbons matches the test fuel’s knock resistance.
Octane Number Measurement
Two methods have been developed to measure ON using a standardized
single-cylinder engine developed under the auspices of the Cooperative Fuel
Research (CFR) Committee in 1931.
The CFR engine is 4-stroke with 3.25” bore and 4.5” stroke, compression
ratio can be varied from 3 to 30.
Research Motor
Inlet temperature (oC) 52 149
Speed (rpm) 600 900
Spark advance (oBTC) 13 19-26 (varies with r)
Coolant temperature (oC) 100
Inlet pressure (atm) 1.0
Humidity (kg water/kg dry air) 0.0036 - 0.0072
Note: In 1931 iso-octane was the most knock resistant HC, now there are
fuels that are more knock resistant than isooctane.
Octane Number Measurement
Testing procedure:
• Run the CFR engine on the test fuel at both research and motor conditions.
• Slowly increase the compression ratio until a standard amount of knock
occurs as measured by a magnetostriction knock detector.
• At that compression ratio run the engines on blends of n-heptane and
isooctane.
• ON is the % by volume of octane in the blend that produces the stand. knock
The antiknock index which is displayed at the fuel pump is the average of
the research and motor octane numbers:
RON MON
Antiknock index
2
Note the motor octane number is always lower because it uses more severe
operating conditions: higher inlet temperature and more spark advance.
The automobile manufacturer will specify the minimum fuel ON that will resist
knock throughout the engine’s operating speed and load range.
Fig. CFR Engine
Octane Ratings
CFR developed initial method (Motor Octane
Number – MON).
ASTM developed a new method (Research
Octane Number – RON).
RON octane ratings are 8 points low than MON
for most gasoline.
Most retailers report the Anti-Knock Index
which is an average of MON and RON.
Octane ratings of fuel are adjusted for
elevation – lower atmospheric pressure
reduces the tendency for engine knock to
occur.
Cetane Ratings
Cetane rating are an indication of the
fuel’s anti-knock resistance for CI
engines.
Fuels with high cetane ratings are
created by increasing the proportion
of long chain molecules, thereby
reducing the ignition delay.
Fuels with high Octane Rating have
low cetane ratings!
Cetane Ratings
CFR cetane rating process is similar to
the Octane process with a couple of
differences:
Cetane and Alpha methyl naphthalene
are the reference fuels.
Cetane is given a cetane number of 100.
Alpha methyl naphthalene has cetane
rating of zero
Heptamethylnonane has a cetane rating
of 15.
Effect of Cetane Rating
If cetane rating is too low, the ignition
delay results in hard starting
(combustion after piston is moving
downward) and characteristic ”white
smoke.”
High cetane ratings start the combustion
process to soon, and some of the fuel is
not volatized and does not burn.
“Black smoke” in heavily loaded engines
is a symptom of high cetane ratings.
Minimum cetane rating for CI engines is
40 according to SAE.
Commercial fuels seldom exceed 50.
Cetane rating should never exceed 60.
Table : limiting values for
diesel fuels.
Cetane Ratings and CI
Engines
Octane rating is not a good way to predict
“knock” in CI engines.
Combustion in diesel engines consists of a
two part delay – physical and chemical.
Physical - the fuel is injected and
atomized.
Chemical - process proceeds with a pre-
flame chemical reaction, similar to that of
SI engines.
Altering Knock in CI Engines
Ignition delay controls the relative
release of energy between the two
phases of combustion – a longer
delay results in more energy
produces in the pre-mix phase.
Since “knock” occurs when more
energy is released at the start of
combustion, it follows that “knock” is
reduced with short delay periods.
Distillation Tests
100 ml sample is distilled.
Fuel temperature is recorded for first
condensed drop (boiling point), and then
at 10 ml intervals during the distillation
process.
T10, T50 and T90 temperatures are important
to engine characteristics which include
ease of starting, warm-up, and crankcase
dilution and fuel economy, respectively.
Fig. Fuel distillation
apparatus.
Adjusting Distillation
Temperatures
Gasoline sold during the winter must
be more volatile for easy starting in
the winter.
Gasoline sold for use in high
elevations must be less volatile to
avoid “vapor lock” in the summer.
Volatility is adjusted by adding
butane and lighter hydrocarbons.
Adjusting Distillation
Temperatures
For diesel engines:
Low T10 values aids cold weather
starting.
Low T50 values minimize smoke and
odor.
Low T90 values reduce crankcase dilution
and improve fuel economy.
Fig. 5.11: Distillation curves.
Fuel Viscosity
Viscosity is a measure of the flow
resistance of liquid.
Fuel viscosity must be high enough
to insure good lubrication of injection
pump mechanisms in CI engines.
Fuel viscosity must be low enough to
insure proper atomization at the time
of injection.
Fuel Impurities - Sulfur
Sulfur oxides – can convert to acids
which corrode engine parts and
cause increased wear.
Assessed by immersing copper strip
in fuel for three hours, then
comparing corrosion to standard
strips.
Fuel Impurities - Ash
Ash – small solid particles or water-
soluble metals found fuels.
Defined as un-burned fuel residue
left behind.
Can cause accelerated wear of close-
fitting injection system parts.
Fuel Impurities – Water and
Sediment
Moisture can condense in fuel
storage tanks, or seep in from
underground leaks.
Fuel should be bright and clear, and
visibly free of water and sediment.
Fuel Impurities - Gum
Gum can form in gasoline, leaves
behind deposits on carburetors.
Gum is dissolved by gasoline – more
prevalent in gasoline that is made by
cracking.
Antioxidants are now added to both
diesel and gasoline to extend storage
life without gum formation.
Fuel Additives
Until 1970, gasoline contained TEL
(tetraethyl lead). TEL was used as
an octane booster.
MTBE (methyl tertiary butyl ether) is
often substituted as an octane
booster – could be phased
out/banned by EPA soon.
Table 5.5: Gasoline
additives
Fuel Storage
Fuels classified according to
flammability – gasoline is more
dangerous with a flash point of -40 C.
Major concern with regard to
environmental contamination
Lubricating Oil Additives
Distillation Temperatures
30 to 230 C for Gasoline
230 to 370 C for Diesel
Most refineries utilize “cracking units”
where catalysts at high temperatures
and pressures crack the larger
hydrocarbon molecules into smaller ones
shifting production towards gasoline.
Fractionating towers allow smaller
molecules to condense out at cooler
temperatures in the upper portion of the
tower.
