TECHNOLOGICAL UNIVERSITY OF THE PHILIPPINES VISAYAS

Capt. Sabi St., City of Talisay, Negros Occidental

College of Engineering
Office of the Program Coordinator

LEARNING MODULE WEEK 1-4

ECE 233: BASIC ELECTRONICS

DEPARTMENT OF ELECTRONICS ENGINEERING

PREPARE BY:

. ______RICARDO B. ABARING, JR__________

2021

This module is a property of Technological University of the Philippines Visayas and intended
for EDUCATIONAL PURPOSES ONLY and is NOT FOR SALE NOR FOR REPRODUCTION.
VISION

The Technological University of the Philippines shall be the premier state university
with recognized excellence in engineering and technology at par with leading universities in
the ASEAN region.

MISSION

The University shall provide higher and advanced vocational, technical, industrial,
technological and professional education and training in industries and technology, and in
practical arts leading to certificates, diplomas and degrees.
It shall provide progressive leadership in applied research, developmental studies in
technical, industrial, and technological fields and production using indigenous materials; effect
technology transfer in the countryside; and assist in the development of s mall-and-medium
scale industries in identified growth center. (Reference: P.D. No. 1518, Section 2)

QUALITY POLICY

The Technological University of the Philippines shall commit to provide quality higher
and advanced technological education; conduct relevant research and extension projects;
continually improve its value to customers through enhancement of personnel competence and
effective quality management system compliant to statutory and regulatory requirements; and
adhere to its core values.

CORE VALUES

T - Transparent and participatory governance

U - Unity in the pursuit of TUP mission, goals, and objectives
P - Professionalism in the discharge of quality service
I - Integrity and commitment to maintain the good name of the University
A - Accountability for individual and organizational quality performance
N - Nationalism through tangible contribution to the rapid economic growth of the
country
S - Shared responsibility, hard work, and resourcefulness in compliance to the mandates
of the university

This module is a property of Technological University of the Philippines Visayas and intended
for EDUCATIONAL PURPOSES ONLY and is NOT FOR SALE NOR FOR REPRODUCTION.
COURSE DESCRIPTION

In compliance to the policies, standards and guidelines issued by the Commission on Higher
Education (CHED) promulgated in CHED Memorandum Order 97 series of 2017 dated
December 4, 201 for Bachelor of Science in Mechanical Engineering (BSME) Program
effective academic year 2018-2019.

Annotated as follows:

The ultimate goal of this subject is to uncover the fundamentals of electronics. In this regard,
the subject hopes to deal with but not limited to the study of outlines topics mentioned
hereunder.

The course will cover the fundamentals of basic electronic circuits and key components: their
device characteristics, mathematical modeling and representation and behavioural patterns as
well as the extension of the circuit analysis techniques. The course also provides a light
introduction to the actual circuit design, construction, test, and measurement, giving the
enthusiast a jumping-off point for advance study in electronics. In addition, the course
highlights some key concepts of semiconductors and semiconductor devices (like transistors).
Finally, the lessons conclude with a look at some applications of the principles discussed
throughout the course.

The lessons are designed to serve students with a variety of backgrounds, and they require only
a minimal level of mathematical aptitude (some algebra is helpful but not necessary to
understand the main ideas of the course).

This module is a property of Technological University of the Philippines Visayas and intended
for EDUCATIONAL PURPOSES ONLY and is NOT FOR SALE NOR FOR REPRODUCTION.
Each lesson provides a sufficient background to help novices understand the principles that
underlie the operation of electronic circuits analogy. The course can serve as a review of the
basic concepts of circuit theory or as a starting point for a more in-depth study of particular
areas of interest, such as semiconductor devices, complex electronic networks, circuit design,
and hobbyist electronics. These basic ideas will form the core component of the course. In
general, the following will be outlined namely:

1. Introductory principles underlying electron flows in materials particularly

semiconductor, History of electronics from vacuum tubes to large scale,
classification of electronic signals, digital and analog, role of A/D and D/A
converters, electronic components, symbols and identifications,
semiconductivity.
2. Electronics metering devices and measurements, The Volt-Ohm-Ammeter,
Electronics symbols, Electronics Parametrs and Types of Gains
3. PN Junction analogy. Principles of PN current conduction, Semiconductor
materials- intrinsic and extrinsic types, Ideal Diode,
4. Terminal characteristics of diodes, p-n junction under open circuit condition
p-n junction under forward bias and reverse bias conditions p-n junction in
breakdown region
5. Diode circuits: diode circuits and characteristics, model, and behavior in
relation to the circuits and analysis.
6. Diode applications such as rectifiers, clipping, clamping, voltage doubling,
voltage tripling, voltage multipliers, and many more.
7. Types of Diodes
8. Principles and analogy of Bipolar Junction Transistors (BJT), physical
structure of the BJT, Physical structure and operation modes
9. Active region operating transistors, circuit representation, types of
transistor dc and ac biasing and transistor ratings.
10. Biasing the BJT: fixed bias, emitter feedback bias, collector feedback bias
and voltage divider bias
11. BJT standard packaging, BJT test and measurements, DC and AC BJT
circuit testing and switching circuits
12. Types of BJT circuit amplifiers, The CB, CE and CC amplifiers
13. Types of BJT cascading circuit applications
14. Field Effect Transistors and Circuits: MOSFET characteristics and model,
biasing techniques, circuit symbol, analog MOSFET amplifier.

COURSE OUTCOMES

After studying this course, students will be able to:

1. Appreciate the significance of electronics in different applications,
2. Understand the applications of diode in rectifiers, filter circuits and wave shaping,
3. Apply the concept of diode in rectifiers, filters circuits
4. Design simple circuits such as regulated low voltage power supplies, BJT amplifiers
(inverting and non inverting),

This module is a property of Technological University of the Philippines Visayas and intended
for EDUCATIONAL PURPOSES ONLY and is NOT FOR SALE NOR FOR REPRODUCTION.
GENERALLY, after completing and fulfilling satisfactorily the requirements of the subject,
students are expected to provide the following:

1. Knowledge and understanding of the basic concepts and principles of electronics;

2. Ability to use simple electronic devices to build and test simple electronic systems;
3. Problem-solving skills through the use of the design process;
4. Preparedness for further advance study in electronics; and

SPECIFICALLY, At the end of this course, the student will be able to:

• Analyze and understand the concept of different kinds of electronics devices’ and
• Describe the working principles of basic electronics device

GENERAL GUIDELINES/HOUSE RULES

The general conduct of the shall be based from TUPV student handbook as it provides the legal
basis of the implementing rules of guidelines of the university. That is applicable based on the
duly approved official calendar for school year 2021 -2022. With minor adjustments to the
methodology of instruction during this time of pandemic where physical contact is strictly
prohibited. The major adjustment in as far as the conduct and methodology of the subject shall
be limited to blended learning concept through online instruction and modular approach.

As this is therefore a guided instructional method, and shall continue to follow the mentioned
strategies in the College of Engineering of Technological University of the Philippines Visayas.

In response to this strategy, the approved Modular Material Committee, whose main objective
is to and shall strongly reinforced the online (internet) instruction using the chosen learning
platform duly approved by the College of Engineering and Electronics Engineering
Department..

And that, to reinforce this approved platform, the Class officers of this section are hereby
directed to open an account on popular social media apps in form of chat or messenger account.
This group chat account shall be agreed by the majority of the students under a particular
section. This referred account will hosted by your professor, where a regular online session of
follow-ups and to post feedbacks and other related information.

This module is a property of Technological University of the Philippines Visayas and intended
for EDUCATIONAL PURPOSES ONLY and is NOT FOR SALE NOR FOR REPRODUCTION.
Furthermore, the modular lesson material, evaluation and assessment concerns shall posted
regularly (or even weekly) to the approved platform as it is purposely intended to provide major
open-source of instructional material over the conduct of the subject the ELX 233 and shall
follow chronologically according to outlined topics in the revised syllabi.

For additional supplementary submission of supporting partial documents, whenever

applicable, students are to be advice to submit the required documents such as research work,
reaction paper and or related explanation to the email address of :

For ME 2A send email to >>>>>>>>>>> [email protected]

For ME 2B send email to >>>>>>>>>>> [email protected]
For ME 2C send email to >>>>>>>>>>> [email protected]
For ME 2D send email to >>>>>>>>>>> [email protected]
For ME 2E send email to >>>>>>>>>>> [email protected]

using the format described immediate below:

For submission of supplementary materials via email:

Each student shall be assigned with unique coded file names to ease the online submission and
sorting during the supporting documents and materials for any related activities and school
works. And should follow STRICTLY the format as shown in Figure 0-1.

Figure 0-1. Format for your filename to be submitted regularly as required. Please read
the rules and regulation.

Refer to following example for your reference in Figure 0-2: (use all CAPITAL LETTERS)

This module is a property of Technological University of the Philippines Visayas and intended
for EDUCATIONAL PURPOSES ONLY and is NOT FOR SALE NOR FOR REPRODUCTION.
Figure 0-2. Example of filename for submission Online
For neoLMS-Phil platform entry:

All enrolled students to ELX 233 are strongly enjoined to enlist and enroll themselves before
the neoLMS platform to be opened with correct format of their legal name and at the same time
their respective user’s name, basing on the following format of:

FAMILY NAME, Given Name, Suffix, Middle name initial

The format shall be strictly as follows:

CAPITAL FAMILY NAME, Sentence like given name, Sentence like suffix (if there is)
and Capital letter middle initial , example:

User’s name: DELA CRUZ, Juan, Jr., T.

Note: You are enjoined to post your close-up 1” X 1” ID picture in the neoLMS.

For GROUP CHAT account/entry:

Create Group Chat account (preferably use the messenger account of facebook) solely for the
purpose of class interactions, instructions, follow-up sessions and feedbacks. Each student shall
open, create and use the same users name account for the purpose of easy identification in
social media Group Chat account.

Example:

User’s name: DELA CRUZ, Juan, Jr., T.

Please be advice that all are required to attend the scheduled follow-up session whenever
possible that shall be announce earlier on the chosen social media platform or any prescribe
platform and shall observe the following decorum:

This module is a property of Technological University of the Philippines Visayas and intended
for EDUCATIONAL PURPOSES ONLY and is NOT FOR SALE NOR FOR REPRODUCTION.
1. During the course of social media interaction – students shall not post “emoticon”
such as;

2. During the course of social media interaction, students are encourage to respond in a
mature and ethical manner;
3. Observe, deadline as posted in neoLMS account of the students , and

4. Completely read and follow the details of respective instructions as posted in the
neoLMS assignments

GRADING SYSTEM

The legal basis of our grading system for this subject ELX 233: Basic Electronics, shall
continue to adhere all the provisions of the Implementing Rules and Regulations of Grading
systems as stated in your official Technological University of the Philippines Visayas
Student Handbook.

ECE522C– SUBJECT DETAILS AND SCHEDULE OF TOPICS

Subject No. : ELX 233 Total No. of Units : 3

Subject Title : BASIC ELECTRONICS
Students : Third year standing Total No. of Hours/wk.: 6.25
Lect. (Hrs/wk): 2.50
Lab. (Hrs/wk): 3.75

This module is a property of Technological University of the Philippines Visayas and intended
for EDUCATIONAL PURPOSES ONLY and is NOT FOR SALE NOR FOR REPRODUCTION.
GENERAL LEARNING REFERENCE

Ref erenc e Books an d Recomm ended Mat eri al s

1. 1. Robert Boylestad and Louis Nashelsky, “Electronic Devices and Circuit Theory”
PHI; 8th Edition.200
2. 2. Thomas L. Floyd, “Electronic Devices” 8th Edition, Pearson Education, Inc.,
2007
3. 3. A.S. Sedra and K.C. Smith, “Microelectronic Circuits”, 6th Edition, Oxford
University Press, 2006
4. Steven Karris, Electronic Devices and Amplifier Circuits with MATLAB
Applications, Orchard Publications 2005
5. Adel S. Sedra and Kenneth C Smith ,“Microelectronics Circuits,” 4th Ed, Oxford
University Press New York, 2002
6. John Okyere Attia, Electronics and circuit analysis using MATLAB, CRC Press LLC,
2000

LEARNING GUIDE

Week No.: __1_

TOPIC/S

• Mission and vision statement of Technological University of the Philippines

Visayas
• Legal Basis of TUPV as a premier institution
• History Brief
• Pronouncement of TUPV Mission, vision, and rationale

LEARNING OUTCOMES

Upon completing this week 1 topics, students are able to:

1. Understand the revisit and understand the educational objectives and

responsibility of the institution .
2. Understand the legal basis of the institution

CONTENT/TECHNICAL INFORMATION

INTRODUCTION TO THE SUBJECT:

This module is a property of Technological University of the Philippines Visayas and intended
for EDUCATIONAL PURPOSES ONLY and is NOT FOR SALE NOR FOR REPRODUCTION.
Greetings;

We call ourselves the TUPVians, and we are proud of being one. Since we value the
technological education and welcome often major citation to be considered as a premier
institution.

Needless to say that we have to be repeatedly reoriented and refreshed the fundamental
existence of our institution, the “Technological University of the Philippines Visayas”. Once
again this subject gives us another opportunity to revisit the rationale of the institution.

HISTORY BRIEF OF ‘TECHNOLOGICAL UNIVERSITY OF THE PHILIPPNES

TUP has its main campus in Manila and satellite campuses in Taguig, Cavite, Visayas,
Batangas, and Quezon
The 1901 Act No. 74 of the United States Philippines Commission established the Manila
Trade School (MTS) near Ateneo de Manila in Intramuros. In 1910, the Manila Trade School
was renamed as the Philippine School of Arts and Trades (PSAT), and again in 1959 as the
Philippine College of Arts and Trade (PCAT). From 1959 to 1978, PCAT pioneered programs
in engineering technology and industrial teacher education. On July 11, 1978, by virtue of
Presidential Decree No. 1518, the Philippine College of Arts and Trades was converted into
the Technological University of the Philippines.

In 1999 TUP was designated a Center of Excellence in the AIMEICC Working Group on
Human Resource Development as certified by the Department of Trade and Industry. In the
same year, the University was awarded as a Center of Development (COD) by the Commission
on Higher Education (CHED) in Electrical Engineering (Category 2), Mechanical
Engineering (Category 1), and Civil Engineering (Category 1). In 2002, the Colombo Plan
Staff College for Technician Education (CSPC) presented a plaque of recognition to TUP as a
Center of Excellence in Graduate Fellowship Programme for Technological, Technical,
Industrial and Vocational Education. The Association of Overseas Technical Scholarship
(AOTS) based in Japan awarded TUP as a Center of Excellence.

TECHNOLOGICAL UNIVERSITY OF THE PHIL. VISAYAS BRIEF HISTORY

The Technological University of the Philippines (TUP) - Visayas was established in 1977 as
one of the three prototype technician institutes/projects of the National Government. TUP-
Visayas was then known as the Visayas Technician Institute (VTI).
In 1978, the Philippine College of Arts and Trades (PCAT) in Manila was converted into
the Technological University of the Philippines (TUP) and was designated as the apex
of technology education. Accordingly, the VTI was placed under the management of the TUP.
In 1985, the VTI was renamed into the Technological University of the Philippines – Visayas.

Today, the TUP-Visayas is one of the top providers of engineering education in the country,
producing top notchers in the Professional Licensure Examination given by the Professional
Regulation Commission (PRC).

This module is a property of Technological University of the Philippines Visayas and intended
for EDUCATIONAL PURPOSES ONLY and is NOT FOR SALE NOR FOR REPRODUCTION.
THE INSIGHTS:

VISION STATEMENT
The Technological University of the Philippines shall be the premier state university with
recognized excellence in engineering and technology at par with leading universities in the
ASEAN Region.

MISSION STATEMENT
The University shall provide higher and advanced vocational, technical, industrial,
technological and professional education and training in industries and technology, and in
practical arts leading to certificates, diplomas and degree.
It shall provide progressive leadership in applied research, developmental studies in technical,
industrial, and technological fields and production using indigenous materials; effect
technology transfer in the countryside; and assist in the development of small-and-medium
scale industries in identified growth centers. (Reference: P.D. No. 1518, Section 2)

QUALITY POLICY
The Technological University of the Philippines shall commit to provide quality higher
and advanced technological education; conduct relevant research and extension projects;
continually improve its value to customers through enhancement of personnel competence and
effective quality management system compliant to statutory and regulatory requirements; and
adhere to its core values.

CORE VALUES
T - Transparent and participatory governance
U - Unity in the pursuit of TUP mission, goals, and objectives
P - Professionalism in the discharge of quality service
I - Integrity and commitment to maintain the good name of the University
A - Accountability for individual and organizational quality performance
N - Nationalism through tangible contribution to the rapid economic growth of the
country
S - Shared responsibility, hard work, and resourcefulness in compliance to the mandates
of the university

GOALS AND OBJECTIVES

Goal No. 1 - Quality and Responsive Curricular Offerings

This module is a property of Technological University of the Philippines Visayas and intended
for EDUCATIONAL PURPOSES ONLY and is NOT FOR SALE NOR FOR REPRODUCTION.
Provide quality and responsive academic programs relevant to the needs of time
integrating values on lasting peace and the rule of law, integrity in governance,
environment protection, climate change adaptation and mitigation, as well as other thrust
in the national agenda.

Goal No. 2 - Excellence in Engineering and Technology Research

Conduct researches on technology and technology education and related fields that shall
contribute to the enhancement of the quality of life, sustainable economic growth,
environment protection and climate change adaptation and mitigation.

Goal No. 3 - Leadership in Community Services

Provide a relevant extension program in technology, technology education and livelihood
skills towards poverty reduction and empowerment of the poor and marginalized sectors
of society.

Goal No. 4 - Strengthening Capability and Competence

Build a pool of highly qualified, competent and multi-skilled faculty and staff to produce
globally competitive graduates who are expected to contribute to rapid and sustained
economic growth of country.

Goal No. 5 - Modernized University System and Efficient Management System of

Resources to Support Expansion
Upgrade its physical plant and facilities needed to maintain excellence and implement
aggressive, efficient, and effective management of organizational resources and
processes through transparent, accountable and participatory governance.

Goal No. 6 - Increased Financial Viability

Formulate and implement viable/relevant production activities/business ventures
including technology transfer and commercialization using University's available
human/material resources that will generate income to support instruction, research and
extension programs.

Goal No. 7 - Enhanced Network and Sustained Collaboration Initiatives

Strengthen institutional collaboration and synergy through enhanced networking and
shall establish, expand and sustain partnerships with both government and private
sectors, industries and scientific organizations on academic endeavors locally and
internationally.

FROM VTI TO TUPV

In December 1969, President Marcos issued an Executive Order creating the Presidential
Commission to Survey Philippine Education (PCSPE) for the purpose of analyzing and

This module is a property of Technological University of the Philippines Visayas and intended
for EDUCATIONAL PURPOSES ONLY and is NOT FOR SALE NOR FOR REPRODUCTION.
recommending ways to improve the performance of the Philippine Educational System. When
the study revealed that the country was faced with the shortage of middle level manpower, the
President issued Presidential Decree 6-A which called for, among other things, the creation of
a special project unit to supervise, implement and evaluate the educational development
programs.

The project unit created was the Educational Development Projects Implementing Task Force
(EDPITAF). The task force negotiated and signed Credit Agreement No. 349PH with the
International Development Association and the World Bank as the funding institution for
$12.7M which paved the way for the establishment of three TECHNICIAN INSTITUTES and
ten Regional Manpower Training Centers in strategic locations in the country.

Under the INSTITUTES Project was the establishment of two Technician Institutes, namely;
Bacolod Technician Institute (which was later on renamed Visayas Technician Institute) for
the Visayas, the Manila Technician Institute for Luzon; and the upgrading of the facilities and
selected faculty of the Iligan Institute of Technology under the Mindanao State University for
the Mindanao area.

The loan amount intended for the INSTITUTES Project was used to construct the buildings
and purchase the equipment of the three technician institutes. The original buildings of Visayas
Technician Institute (VTI) cost P5.5M while the equipment was worth P7.2M.Portion of the
loan was also spent for the training of the core faculty of the three institutes, including the cost
of technical assistance provided by technical experts and their local counterparts.

The core faculty of the institutes were trained in Manila by a consortium of schools headed by
Don Bosco Technical College and a consortium of industries for about three years (from 1974
to 1977). It was this group of faculty together with the foreign and local technical experts who
developed the original curriculum of the Technician Institutes.

Visayas Technician Institute opened its doors in June of 1977 with 196 students from the
different provinces in the Visayas.

On January 1, 1978, President Marcos issued Letter of Instruction No. 654 directing the
establishment of the Manila and the Visayas Technician Institutes and the upgrading of the
technician program of MSU-Iligan Institute of Technology as prototype schools in order to
ensure the promotion of technician education in the country.

On December 28, 1978, the President issued Letter of Implementation No. 79 (LOI 79),
directing the establishment of the National Polytechnic System (NPS) through the integration
of state-supported institutions in the Philippines. The Technological University of the
Philippines (formerly Philippine College of Arts and Trades) became the umbrella institution.
Visayas Technician Institute came under the administrative supervision of the Technological
University of the Philippines (TUP).

This module is a property of Technological University of the Philippines Visayas and intended
for EDUCATIONAL PURPOSES ONLY and is NOT FOR SALE NOR FOR REPRODUCTION.
TUPV TIMELINE

This module is a property of Technological University of the Philippines Visayas and intended
for EDUCATIONAL PURPOSES ONLY and is NOT FOR SALE NOR FOR REPRODUCTION.
LEARNING GUIDE

Week No.: __2__

TOPIC/S

REVIEW ON TYPES OF CARBON RESISTORS

RESISTOR’S PACKAGING
LINEAR RESISTORS
NON-LINEAR RESISTORS

LEARNING OUTCOMES

Upon completing this week 2 topics, subject are able to:

1. Review how Carbon resistors are color coded
2. Familiarize various resistor’s packaging
3. Understand various types of linear resistors
4. Understand types of Non-linear resistors
5. Explain the characteristics of non-linear resistor
6. Explain the principle of operations of various type of non-linear resistors

CONTENT/TECHNICAL INFORMATION

Resist is the word which means “to oppose”. Resistance is the electrical property on the
opposition to the flow of electrons of current in the circuit or in a conductor or a semiconductor.
A Resistor is an electronic component which has the property of resistance.

Resistors come under passive electronic components and are extensively used in electronic
circuits. So important are these components that it may be virtually impossible to build an
electronic circuit without involving resistors. Basically the function of a resistor is always to
oppose the flow of current through it and the strength of this opposition is termed as its
resistance. German physicist, Sir G.S. Ohms was able to discover a definite relationship
between voltage, current and resistance. According to him a potential difference or a voltage
(V) across a resistor (R) is proportional to the instantaneous current (I) flowing through it and
is given as:

This module is a property of Technological University of the Philippines Visayas and intended
for EDUCATIONAL PURPOSES ONLY and is NOT FOR SALE NOR FOR REPRODUCTION.
Where:
R is the constant of proportionality meaning “linear” and is known as the
resistance of the resistor. This is only true to linear resistors.

FUNCTION OF RESISTORS IN ELECTRONICS

In electronic circuits, resistors play an important role, which generally, to limit the
current and provide only the required biasing to the vital active parts like the active
circuits such as diodes, transistors and the Integrated Circuits.

We will try to find out what is the function of a resistor in electronics through the
following illustrations:

1. The most popular is the Transistor Biasing:

Where A transistor basically needs a small base voltage ( for silicon >0.7V and for
germanium > 0.25V) to make a large voltage flow through its collector/ emitter
terminals. But the base of a transistor is quite vulnerable to high currents, so a resistor
is incorporated here to limit the current and provide a safe biasing voltage. The value
of the base resistor of a transistor may be calculated through the below given formula:

R = (Vcc – 0.75) (hfe )/ Ibf

Here: V = source voltage to the base resistor,
I = the collector load current,
hfe = forward gain of a transistor
0.75 = minimum transistor biasing voltage.

2. Light Emitting Diode (LED) Current Limit: Just like

transistors, LEDs too are very sensitive to high currents.
A resistor when placed in series with the LEDs regulates
a proper flow of current through them. To calculate the
value of a series LED resistor, the following formula may
be used:

R ={ V – ( N) (VLED)} / I

Where R = Series LED resistor,

V = supply voltage,
N = number of LEDs in series,
V(LED) = forward voltage of the LED used,
I = current through the LEDs (10mA optimum).

This module is a property of Technological University of the Philippines Visayas and intended
for EDUCATIONAL PURPOSES ONLY and is NOT FOR SALE NOR FOR REPRODUCTION.
3. Resistor in In Timing Circuits: The timing components
used in timer and oscillator circuits always incorporate a
resistor and a capacitor. Here the time taken to charge or
discharge a capacitor constitutes the basic time pulse or
trigger for the circuit. A resistor is effectively used to
control this charging and discharging process and its value
is varied to obtain different time intervals.

4. Resistor for Surge Protection: The initial switch ON of a power supply may at times
inflict a dangerous voltage surge into an electronic circuit, damaging its critical
components. A resistor when introduced in series with the supply terminals of the
circuit helps in checking the sudden rise in voltage and averting a possible harm. These
resistors are generally of low values so that the over all performance of the circuit is
not affected.The above basic examples must have provided you sufficient knowledge
regarding the use of resistors in electronic circuits and helped you to understand what
is the function of a resistor. For further information, feel free to add your comments
(comments need moderation and may take time to appear).

5. Divide Voltage. When a resistor and another component, such as a bulb, are in series
in the circuit, the current flowing through the resistor and the bulb is the same, and the
sum of the respective voltages of the resistor and the bulb is equal to the total voltage
across the resistor and the bulb as a whole. At this time, the resistor functions as a
voltage divider.

6. Shunt Resistor. When a resistor and another component such as a bulb are connected in
parallel in the circuit, the voltage across the resistor is the same as the voltage across
the bulb, and the sum of the current flowing through the resistor and the current flowing
through the bulb is equal to the total current flowing through the resistor and the bulb.
At this time, the resistor functions as a shunt.

7. Impedance Matching. Impedance matching refers to the process of adapting the load
impedance to the internal impedance of the excitation source in order to obtain an
operating state of maximum power output during signal transmission. One of the
methods is to achieve the impedance change by changing the impedance. In this case,
the resistor plays its impedance matching function.

This module is a property of Technological University of the Philippines Visayas and intended
for EDUCATIONAL PURPOSES ONLY and is NOT FOR SALE NOR FOR REPRODUCTION.
8. Filtering. In the RC charging and discharging circuit composed of a resistor and a
capacitor in series, the switch S is initially connected to point B. As shown in the
following figure, there is no charge on the capacitor C, and the voltage across the two
ends is zero. Then, the switch S is placed at point A, and the power is turned on. The
capacitor is charged through the resistor R. When the charge across the capacitor
increases to the circuit balance, the power supply no longer charges the capacitor. After
the switch S is placed at point B, the capacitor begins to discharge, and the charge at
both ends is gradually reduced to zero. When the battery is no longer discharged, the
switch S is placed at point A to start charging. In this infinite loop of charging and
discharging, we call the function of the resistor R a filtering effect.
9. And many more.
COMMONLY USED RESISTORS
1. Potentiometer
A potentiometer is an electromechanical component that relies on the sliding of a brush
on a resistor to obtain an output voltage that is related to the brush displacement.
2. Synthetic Carbon Film Potentiometer:
The resistor body is made of ground carbon black, graphite, quartz and other materials
coated on the surface of the substrate. This process is simple and is the most widely
used potentiometer. The characteristics are high resolution, good wear resistance and
long life. The disadvantages are current noise, large nonlinearity, moisture resistance
and poor resistance stability.
3. Organic Solid Potentiometer:
The organic solid potentiometer is a new type of potentiometer. It is a method of heating
and pressing to press the organic resistor powder into the groove of the insulator.
Compared with carbon film potentiometers, organic solid potentiometers have the
advantages of good heat resistance, high power, high reliability and good wear
resistance. However, the temperature coefficient is large, the dynamic noise is large,
the moisture resistance is poor, the manufacturing process is complicated, and the
resistance value is poor. It is used to regulate voltage and current in electronic devices
that are miniaturized, highly reliable, and highly wear-resistant, as well as in AC and
DC circuits.
4. Metallic Glass Uranium Potentiometer:
The metallized uranium resistive paste is coated on a ceramic substrate by screen
printing according to a certain pattern and sintered at a high temperature. The
characteristics are: wide resistance range, good heat resistance, strong overload
capability, moisture resistance, wear resistance, etc. It is a promising variety of
potentiometers. The disadvantages are large contact resistance and current noise.
5. Winding Potentiometer:
The winding potentiometer is made by using a constantan wire or a nichrome wire as
a resistor and winding it around the insulating frame. The characteristics of the
winding potentiometer are small contact resistance, high precision and small
temperature coefficient. The disadvantages are poor resolution, low resistance and
poor high frequency characteristics. Mainly used as voltage divider, varistor, zero
adjustment and working point in the instrument.

This module is a property of Technological University of the Philippines Visayas and intended
for EDUCATIONAL PURPOSES ONLY and is NOT FOR SALE NOR FOR REPRODUCTION.
6. Metal Film Potentiometer:
The resistor body of the metal film potentiometer may be composed of an alloy film, a
metal oxide film, a metal foil, and the like. It features high resolution, high temperature
resistance, small temperature coefficient, low dynamic noise and good smoothness.
7. Conductive Plastic Potentiometers:
DAP (diisopropyl phthalate) resistor paste is coated on the insulating body by special
process, heated to form a resistive film, or thermoplastically pressed DAP resistor
powder into the groove of the insulating substrate. The solid body formed inside serves
as a resistor. The characteristics are: good smoothness, excellent resolution, good wear
resistance, long service life, low dynamic noise, high reliability and chemical corrosion
resistance. Servo systems for space devices, missiles, aircraft radar antennas, etc.
8. Potentiometer With Switch:
There are rotary switch potentiometer, push-pull switch potentiometer, push-pull
switch potentiometer.
9. Pre-adjustable P[otentiometer:
The pre-adjustable potentiometer is in the circuit. Once it is debugged, the adjustment
position is sealed with wax and is not adjusted under normal conditions.
10. Straight-slip Potentiometer.
The resistance value is changed by straight-slip method.
11. Double-connected Potentiometers:
There are different-axis double-connected potentiometers and coaxial double-
connected potentiometers
12. Non-contact Potentiometer:
The non-contact potentiometer eliminates mechanical contact, has long life and high
reliability, and is divided into photoelectric potentiometer and magnetic sensitive
potentiometer.
13. Solid Carbon Resistors
A solid resistor is made by mixing a carbonaceous granule, a filler, and a binder.
Features: low price, but its resistance error, noise voltage is large, stability is poor.
14. Wire-wound Resistors
It is made of a high-resistance alloy wire wound on an insulating skeleton, and is coated
with a heat-resistant glaze insulating layer or an insulating varnish. The winding
resistance has a low temperature coefficient, high resistance precision, good stability,
heat and corrosion resistance, and is mainly used for precision high-power resistors.
The disadvantage is that the high-frequency performance is poor and the time constant
is large.
15. Thin Film Resistors
A certain resistivity material is vapor-deposited on the surface of the insulating
material by evaporation. Mainly as follows:
16. Carbon Film Resistors:
Crystalline carbon is deposited on a ceramic rod skeleton. Carbon film resistors are
the most widely used resistors due to their low cost, stable performance, wide resistance
range, low temperature coefficient and low voltage coefficient.

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for EDUCATIONAL PURPOSES ONLY and is NOT FOR SALE NOR FOR REPRODUCTION.
17. Metal Film Resistors:
The alloy material was vapor-deposited on the surface of the ceramic rod skeleton by
vacuum evaporation. The metal film resistor has higher precision than the carbon film
resistor, good stability, noise, and small temperature coefficient. It is widely used in
instrumentation and communication equipment.
18. Metal Oxide Film Resistor:
A layer of metal oxide is deposited on the insulating rod. Since it is an oxide itself, it is
stable at high temperatures, has thermal shock resistance, and has high load capacity.
19. Synthetic Film Resistance:
The conductive composition suspension is applied to the substrate, so it is also called
the film resistance. Because its conductive layer has a granular structure, it has high
noise and low precision, and it is mainly used to manufacture high voltage, high
resistance, small resistors.
20. Metal Glass Uranium Resistor
The metal powder and the glass uranium powder are mixed and printed on the substrate
by screen printing. Moisture resistant, high temperature, low temperature coefficient,
mainly used in thick film circuits.
21. Chip Resistor SMT
The chip resistor is a form of metallic glass uranium resistor. Its resistor body is a
highly reliable bismuth series of glass uranium material which is sintered at a high
temperature, and the electrode is made of silver-palladium alloy slurry. The utility
model has the advantages of small volume, high precision and good stability, and since
it is a chip component, the high frequency performance is good.
22. Sensitive Resistors
Sensitive resistors are resistors whose characteristics are sensitive to temperature,
voltage, humidity, light, gas, magnetic field, pressure, etc. The symbol of the sensitive
resistor is to add a diagonal line to the symbol of the ordinary resistor, and mark the
type of the sensitive resistor, such as: t. v.
23. Varistors:
There are mainly SiC and zinc oxide varistors, and zinc oxide has more excellent
properties.
24. Humidity Resistor:
It consists of a moisture sensitive layer, an electrode and an insulator. The humidity
sensitive resistor mainly includes a lithium chloride moisture sensitive resistor, a
carbon humidity sensitive resistor, and an oxide humidity sensitive resistor. Lithium
chloride humidity sensitive resistors decrease in resistance with increasing humidity.
The disadvantage is that the test range is small, the characteristics are not repeatable,
and the temperature is greatly affected. The disadvantage of carbon humidity varistor
is that the low temperature sensitivity is low, the resistance value is greatly affected by
temperature, and it is used less by aging characteristics. The oxide humidity sensitive
resistor has superior performance and can be used for a long time. The temperature
influence is small, and the resistance value is linear with the humidity change. There
are tin oxide, nickel ferrite, and other materials.

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25. Photoresistors:
Photosensitive resistors are electronic components whose electrical conductivity
changes with the change of light quantity. When a substance is exposed to light, the
concentration of carriers increases and the conductivity increases. This is the
photoconductive effect.
26. Gas Sensing Resistor:
The ASCII symbol for a Resistor is shown

Color Coding (We have covered this in EE223)

A process called color coding is used to determine the value of resistance for a resistor, just as
shown in the above figure. A resistor is coated with four color bands where each color
determines a particular value. The below table shows a list of values which each color indicates.

COLOUR DIGIT MULTIPLIER TOLERANCE

Black 0 100 = 1

Brown 1 101 = 10 1

Red 2 102 = 100 2

Orange 3 103 = 1000

Yellow 4 104 = 10000

reen 5 105 = 100000 0.5

Blue 6 106 = 1000000 0.25

Violet 7 107 = 10000000 0.1

Gray 8 108 = 100000000

White 9 109 = 1000000000

Gold 10-1 = 0.1 5

Silver 10-2 = 0.01 10

(none) 20

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The first two colored bands indicate the first and second digit of the value and the third color
band represents the multiplier (number of zeroes added). The fourth color band indicates the
tolerance value.

Tolerance is the range of value up to which a resistor can withstand without getting destroyed.
This is an important factor. The following figure shows how the value of a resistor is
determined by color code.

Example No. 1:

The five color band resistors are manufactured with tolerance of 2% and 1% and also for other
high accuracy resistors. In these five band resistors, the first three bands represent digits, fourth
one indicates multiplier and the fifth represents tolerance.Let us look at an example to
understand the color coding process.

Example 2: Determine the value of a resistor with a color code yellow, blue, orange and silver.

Solution: The value of yellow is 4, blue is 6, orange is 3 which represents

multiplier. Silver is ±10 which is the tolerance value.

Hence the value of the resistor is 46x103 = 46kΩ

The maximum resistance value for this resistor is
46kΩ or 46000Ω+10% = 46000+4600 = 50600Ω = 50.6kΩ
The minimum resistance value for this resistor is
46kΩ or 46000Ω-10% = 46000-4600 = 41400Ω = 41.4kΩ

After having gone through different details regarding resistors, we have some terms to learn.
Also we have to deal with different behaviors of a resistor for few types of connections.

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for EDUCATIONAL PURPOSES ONLY and is NOT FOR SALE NOR FOR REPRODUCTION.
BASIC ELECTRONICS ─ NON-LINEAR RESISTORS

There are many types of resistors according to the type of material used, the manufacturing
procedure and their applications. The classification is as shown below.

Linear resistors have linear VI characteristics and non-linear resistors has non-linear VI
characteristics. Non-linear resistors are the resistors whose voltage and current characteristics
vary non-linearly. The voltage and current values vary depending upon other factors like
temperature and light, but they may not be linear.

1. Thermistor

Thermal means temperature. In this resistor, the resistance varies with temperature. If heat
increases, the resistance decreases and vice versa. This is used for measurement and control
purposes.
The main types of thermistors are NTC and PTC.
NTC is Negative Temperature Coefficient and in such devices, the resistance
decreases as the temperature increases. These are used to protect the devices from over-
voltage conditions.
PTC is Positive Temperature Coefficient and in such devices, the resistance increases
as the temperature increases. These are used to protect the devices from over current
conditions.
The following figure shows an NTC thermistor, along with its symbol.

2. Photo Resistor

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Photo means light. In this resistor, the resistance varies with light. As light increases resistance
decreases and vice versa. This is also used for measurement and control purposes. It is also
called as LDR (Light Dependent Resistor)

3. Varistors

The resistance of a varistor, varies with the applied voltage. As the voltage increases, the
resistance decreases and if the voltage decreases, the resistance increases. It is also called as
VDR (Voltage Dependent Resistor).

LINEAR RESISTORS

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for EDUCATIONAL PURPOSES ONLY and is NOT FOR SALE NOR FOR REPRODUCTION.
A Linear resistor is one whose resistance doesn’t vary with the flow of current through it. The
current through it, will always be proportional to the voltage applied across it. Linear resistors
are further classified as Fixed and Variable resistors.

1. VARIABLE RESISTORS

Variable resistors are those whose values can be varied manually, according to the requirement.
A particular value of resistance is chosen from a range of resistance values, with the help of a
shaft connected. The symbol of a variable resistor is as shown below.

These resistors are better understood with the help of the classification we have. Variable
resistors are further divided into Potentiometers, Rheostats and Trimmers.

2. POTENTIOMETER

A Potentiometer is simply called as a Pot. This is a three-terminal resistor having a shaft which
slides or rotates. This shaft when operated forms an adjustable voltage divider. The following
figure shows an image of a Potentiometer.

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for EDUCATIONAL PURPOSES ONLY and is NOT FOR SALE NOR FOR REPRODUCTION.
A potentiometer also measures the potential difference (voltage) in a circuit. A path of
resistive material with resistance of low to high value is laid internally and a wiper is placed so
that it connects the resistive material to the circuit. This is mostly used as a volume controller
in TV sets and Music systems.

3. RHEOSTAT

A Rheostat can be simply called as a Wire wound resistor. A Resistive wire is wound around
an insulating ceramic core tightly. A Wiper slides over these windings. One connection is
made to one end of the resistive wire and the second connection is made to the wiper or the
sliding contact, to obtain the desired resistance.

The Rheostat is used to control current. These are mostly used in the speed control of heavy
motors. The resistance obtained by these is in the order of kilo ohms. Rheostats are mostly
available as single tube and double tube rheostats, as shown in the following figure.

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for EDUCATIONAL PURPOSES ONLY and is NOT FOR SALE NOR FOR REPRODUCTION.
As a variable resistance they are often used for tuning and calibration in circuits. Now-a-days,
the usage of rheostats was replaced by switching electronic devices, as rheostats have lower
efficiency.

4. TRIMMER

Trimmer is both a variable resistor and a potentiometer (measures potential difference). This
Trimmer Potentiometer is, in short called as Trim Pot. If these are used as variable resistors,
then they are called as Preset Resistors.

These trim pots are of different types such as single turn or multi turn. These are small variable
resistors used for tuning and calibration. Their life span is shorter than other variable resistors.

5. FIXED RESISTORS

Fixed resistors are one type of linear resistors. A resistor is said to be a fixed resistor, if its
value is fixed. The value of fixed resistor can’t be varied like a variable resistor as its value is
determined at the time of manufacturing itself. The following figures represent the symbol of
a fixed resistor.

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for EDUCATIONAL PURPOSES ONLY and is NOT FOR SALE NOR FOR REPRODUCTION.
The fixed resistors are classified into different types, depending upon their manufacturing
processes and the materials used in their manufacturing. The classification is as follows.

6. CARBON COMPOSITION

The Carbon composition resistors are a blend of carbon particles, graphite and ceramic dust
mixed with a binder substance like clay. This mixture is treated with high pressure and
temperature. After the whole thing is molded in a case, the leads are fixed.

Thermal mass of the carbon composition resistor is higher so as to withstand high

energy pulses.

These resistors have low stability and high noise which is a disadvantage.

Carbon composition resistors are used in Surge protection, Current limiting, and High voltage
power supplies.

7. WIRE WOUND

A Wire wound resistor is formed by wounding a wire made up of a resistive material around a
core. The metallic core acts as a non-conductive material while the resistive wire conducts, but
with some resistance. The image of a wire wound resistor is as shown below.

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for EDUCATIONAL PURPOSES ONLY and is NOT FOR SALE NOR FOR REPRODUCTION.
Usually a nichrome wire or a manganin wire is used to wind the core because they offer high
resistance. Whereas plastic, ceramic or glass is used for core.

Wire wound resistors are very accurate.

They work excellently for low resistance values and high power ratings.

These are the oldest type of fixed resistors, but are being used even now.

8. THICK FILM

The film resistors have a resistive layer on a ceramic base, whose thickness defines the type
they belong to. The thickness of resistive layer on thick film resistors is much higher than thin
film resistors. Thick film resistors are produced by firing a special paste, which is a mixture of
glass and metal oxides, onto the substrate.

There are three main types in thick film resistors like Fusible resistors, Cermet film resistors,
and Metal oxide film resistors.

9. FUSIBLE RESISTORS

The Fusible resistors are similar to wire wound resistors. But these resistors along with
providing resistance, act as a fuse. The image of a fusible resistor is as shown below.

In this resistor, the current flows through a spring loaded connection, which is placed closely
to the body of the resistor. The blob that is attached to the spring wire of the resistor takes the
heat generated by the resistor due to the current flow. If this heat is increased, the attachment
to the blob gets melted up and opens the connection.

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Hence we can say that, these resistors limit the current, but if the circuit power rating exceeds
a specified value, these resistors act as a fuse to open or break the circuit. The value of these
resistors is usually of less than 10 Ohms. These resistors are generally used in TV sets,
amplifiers and other expensive electronic circuits.

10. CERMET FILM RESISTORS

The Cermet film resistors are the film resistors made up of a special material called Cermet.
Cermet is a composite alloy made by combining Ceramic and Metal. This combination
provides the advantages in both of these materials like high temperature resistance and wear
resistance of ceramic along with flexibility and electrical conductivity of a metal.

A metal film layer is wrapped around a resistive material and is fixed in a ceramic metal or
cermet substrate. Leads are taken to make the connections easy while fixing on a PCB. They
offer high stability as temperature cannot affect their performance.

11. METAL OXIDE FILM RESISTORS

A Metal oxide film resistor is formed by oxidizing a thick film of Tin chloride on a heated
glass rod, which is a substrate. They have high temperature stability and can be used at high
voltages. These resistors have low operating noise.

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for EDUCATIONAL PURPOSES ONLY and is NOT FOR SALE NOR FOR REPRODUCTION.
Metal oxide film resistors differ with metal film ones only regarding the type of film coated.
Metal oxide is a metallic compound like tin with oxygen to form tin oxide, which is coated
as a film on the resistor. The resistivity of this resistor depends upon the amount of antimony
oxide added to the tin oxide.

12. THIN FILM

Thin film resistors have a resistive layer of width 0.1 micrometer or smaller on the ceramic
base. Thin film resistors have a metallic film that is vacuum deposited on an insulating
substrate.

Thin film resistors are more accurate and have better temperature coefficient and is more stable.
The thin film resistors are further divided into two types such as

Carbon film resistors

Metal film resistors

13. CARBON FILM RESISTORS

A Carbon film resistor is made by depositing a carbon film layer on a ceramic substrate. The
carbon film acts as the resistive material to the current and the ceramic substance acts as an
insulating substance. Metallic caps are fixed at both the ends and copper leads are drawn out.

The following figure shows the construction of a carbon film resistor.

The main advantages of these resistors are their high stability, wide operating range, low noise,
and low cost. The carbon film resistors are the most preferred ones over carbon composition
resistors due to their low noise.

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for EDUCATIONAL PURPOSES ONLY and is NOT FOR SALE NOR FOR REPRODUCTION.
14. METAL FILM RESISTORS

The film coating makes the difference between metal oxide film resistors and metal film
resistors. A thin film of metallic substance such as nickel chromium is used to coat the resistor
in a metal film resistor whereas a film of metal oxide like tin oxide is used to coat the resistor
in a metal oxide resistor.

Metal film resistors have low temperature coefficient of resistance, which means the
resistance is less affected by the temperature.

15. SURFACE MOUNT

These are being highly used since the introduction of surface mount technology. These can be
termed as chip resistors, which means a resistive layer integrated on a ceramic chip.

These surface mount resistors are very small when compared to the normal resistors and hence
occupy less space. They are effective and dissipate less heat. The invention of these resistors
has changed the look of a PCB (Printed Circuit Board) and reduced its size greatly.

The advantages of surface mount resistors are—

These are compact in size.
These are very stable.
They have good tolerance.
They are effective in reducing heat dissipation.

The following figure shows the images of surface mount resistors.

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LEARNING GUIDE

Week No.: __3_

TOPICS

COMMON METERING AND MEASURING INSTRUMENTS IN THE

STUDY OF ELECTRONICS .

TYPES OF COMMON MEASURING DEVICES USED IN THE STUDY

OF ELECTRONICS;

BASIC ELECTRONICS SYMBOLS AND FUNCTIONS

LEARNING OUTCOMES

Upon completing this week 3 topics, subject are able to:

7. Understand the common type of electronics metering devices

8. Explain the importance of metering instrument used in electronics;
9. To explain how to use this electronics instruments;
10. Familiarized on common Electronics graphic symbols
11. Learn the basic function/ application of common electronics components
12. Explain and initially discuss various common Electronics components.

CONTENT/TECHNICAL INFORMATION

Measuring devices
In Electronics, there are different types of electrical and electronic instruments that can
indicate or records some physical values that are said to be called meters.

A Meter is an instrument or a device that measures voltage, current, resistance, power,

capacitance, temperature, frequency, etc. Many types of electronic instruments measure these
electrical quantities accurately. Electronic Industries and Research labs use different measuring
instruments to design, diagnose errors and faults in the electrical system, and also to rectify it.

Measuring these quantities is important to determine the various aspects of the system. For
example, to measure the potential difference across the element, we use a voltmeter and the
amount of current flowing in the circuit ammeter measures the current.

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DIFFERENT ANALOG METER INSTRUMENTS
The instruments which are used to indicate the
value of electrical quantity when it is measured
are called indicating instruments. These
instruments have a pointer which moves over a
scale when an electrical quantity being
measured is passed through a particular meter.

Analog Instruments
The proper operation of electrical or electronic
instruments (analog) depends on the following
torques:
• Deflecting torque
• Controlling torque
• Damping torque

DEFLECTING TORQUE

The deflecting torque makes the pointer move away from the zero position to the desired
reading. It utilizes the physical effects of electric current or voltage to produce a mechanical
force which causes the deflection of pointer.
Controlling torque
Controlling torque limits the movement of the pointer. This torque ensures that the pointer does
not go beyond the range of scale by opposing the deflecting torque. The pointer comes to zero
when the deflecting and controlling torques are equal to each other.
There are two methods for controlling
torque:
1. Spring control method
2. Gravity control method
Spring control method
In this method, there are two phosphor
bronze springs are used and are attached to
the shaft or spindle. Springs should be
made of non-magnetic material of low
specific resistance. They are wounded in
the opposite direction to compensate
against temperature changes. The pointer
is also attached to the shaft.
Spring Control Method

The controlling torque is depending on the twisting of springs. When the moving system
deflected, spring twists in opposite direction. This results in producing a restoring torque
which is proportional to the angle of deflection of pointer.

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Hence, the pointer stops and comes to zero position when the deflection and controlling
torque are equal (Td=Tc).
Advantages:
• The scale is uniform
• It can be placed in any position
• The weight of the instrument is not heavier in as the springs are light weighted
Disadvantages:
• The accuracy will be lost if the springs get deteriorated
• Variations in temperature can affect the spring

GRAVITY CONTROL METHOD

Here weights are used to balance the
movement of pointe. A small adjustable
weight is attached to the spindle of the
moving system. Whenever a pointer
tends to move from its original position,
it produces a controlling torque due to
gravitational pull.

Another weight can also be added for

balancing and zero adjustments and this
is called balanced weight.
Advantages:
• Cheap
• The temperature can’t be affected
• It doesn’t deteriorate
Gravity Control Method
Disadvantages:
• Scale is non-linear
• It will increase the weight of the instrument
• The instrument needs to be in a vertical position

DAMPING TORQUE
Damping torque makes the pointer to return to zero position gradually after the measurement.
It minimizes the oscillations of the pointer. If there is no damping torque, then the pointer will
keep on moving to its final deflected position for some time before coming to rest, due to the
inertia of the moving system.

Thus, a force which is required to make the pointer comes to its original position is
called damping force.
The damping torque can be produced by the following methods:
1. Air-friction damping
2. Eddy current damping

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AIR-FRICTION DAMPING
There are two methods employed using air-friction damping.
a. In one method – It has an air chamber
and a light piston made of aluminium
which is attached to the moving
system.

The piston is placed inside the air chamber

which moves inside the chamber along
with the pointer and it is closed at one end.
When the piston moves inside the
chamber, the air inside the closed space is
compressed and the pressure of air is
developed which opposes the motion of
the piston. The change in the air pressure
when the piston moves provide a
necessary damping force. Air Friction Damping

This method is used in moving iron meter and it is simple and cheap. Care must be taken while
using this kind of instrument that the piston is not bent and it should not touch the walls of the
chamber because it will cause a serious error in the deflection while reading.
b. In the other method, a light vane which is made up of aluminum attached to the spindle
where a pointer is also attached. It moves in a quadrant shaped air chamber. When the
pointer moves, the vane also moves and compresses the air. The pressure of the
compressed air provides the necessary damping force to reduce the oscillations of the
pointer.
The vane displaces air and a damping force is created on the vane that produces a damping
torque on the spindle. When the spindle is at rest, the damping force is zero and when the
movement is quicker the damping force is greater.
The vane should not touch the chamber walls if it happened it will cause serious errors in the
deflection of pointer.

EDDY CURRENT DAMPING

Eddy currents are induced in the conductor due
to the change in the magnetic field produced by
the permanent magnet. This damping is used in
permanent magnet moving coil instruments.
There are two methods for producing eddy
current damping:
1. This method employs a permanent magnet
and a coil. The coil is wounded on a metal
former made of aluminium in which the
eddy current is produced when the coil
moves in the permanent magnetic field.

Eddy Current Damping by Aluminum Frame

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2. This method employs a conducting disc (non-magnetic material) made up of aluminum
attached to the spindle and
the pointer. When the
spindle moves, the disc also
rotates in the magnetic field.
The disc cuts the magnetic
lines of force of the
permanent magnet and
induces eddy current in it.
The induced eddy current
opposes the movement and
a damping force is
developed.
Eddy Current Damping by Aluminum Disc

TYPES OF ELECTRICAL AND ELECTRONIC INSTRUMENTS

There are different types of electronic measuring Instruments or meters for measuring
electrical quantities. They are:
• Voltmeter
• Ammeter
• Wattmeter
• Ohmmeter
• Multimeter
• Q-Meter

VOLTMETER
Analog Voltmeter .

The Voltmeter measures the potential difference between the two elements in a circuit. The
connection between the elements is in parallel because it has high resistance.

The parallel connection of voltmeter with the circuit element, the amount of current through
the voltmeter is very less. This stops the current through the circuit. Otherwise, it will not give
a proper reading. The units of Voltage is Volts (V).

There are two types of Voltmeter: Analog voltmeter and Digital voltmeter
The Analog meter induces torque by applying the voltage and the pointer moves over a scale. It
works on the principle of moving iron or moving coil meters. A digital voltmeter has a display
that gives a numerical result.

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AMMETER

An Ammeter measures the current flowing in the

circuit. The unit Electric current is Ampere (A).

An ammeter is a low impedance device. The connection

is in series and current is same in a series circuit
(measurand current passes through the circuit) and there
will be a voltage drop across it because of low
resistance. So that the meter can give an accurate
reading.

If the circuit is in parallel connection mode, it can cause

a short circuit. It works based on the principle of
moving iron or moving coil meters.

Analog Ammeter

WATTMETER

A Watt measures the power flowing in a circuit. It

does a complex job by measuring the voltage and
current in a circuit and multiplies it to give the value of
power. The unit of power is watts. The wattmeter
works based on the principle of electrodynamic and
moving coil meter.

Wattmeter

OHMMETER OR MEGGER

Ohmmeter or megger measure the resistance of an

element in a circuit. The unit of resistance is the ohm.
There are different meters are available: Milli ohmmeter,
Micro ohmmeter, Mega ohmmeter.

Milli ohmmeter measures low resistance, Whereas Micro

ohmmeter measures extremely low resistance, and Mega
ohmmeter measure high resistance. There are two types
of ohmmeters available: Series ohmmeter and shunt
ohmmeter. They work based on the principle of moving
coil meter.
Digital Multimeter

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A Multimeter is a multi-function measurement device. It can measure voltage, current, and
resistance. It is also known as VOM (volt-ohm-milliammeter). There are two types of
multimeters available: Analog multimeter and Digital multimeter. An Analog Multimeter is
based on the principle of moving coil meter.

To read the numerical measurements, Digital Multimeter has a digital display on which we
can read different values. The rotary switch points to particular electrical quantities and shows
the corresponding readings with units. Nowadays, a digital multimeter is widely used because
of its efficiency and faster reading.

LCR Meter or Q-Meter

The LCR meter (Q-Meter) measures the Inductance, Capacitance, and resistance in a circuit or
device. It also measures the phase angle when measuring the voltage and current through the
‘Device Under Test’ (DUT). Finally, the impedance calculation is taken from the phase angle.
There are two types of LCR meters. They are Hand-held and Benchtop. Handheld LCR meter
is easy to carry and maintain but less accurate. Whereas Benchtop meters are highly accurate
with additional features such as AC calibration of resistance, inductance, and capacitance. To
test sensors and components on PCB, an LCR meter is useful.

WHAT IS THE LOADING EFFECT?

The electrical measuring instruments draw power from the measurement circuit. This power
enables the circuit to operate in the correct manner. Depending on the power consumption, the
circuit condition may change and the loading effect takes place. In AC circuits, the instrument
impedance changes with the frequency and changes the loading effect.

This problem occurs in the voltmeter and shows error readings. To eliminate or reduce the
loading effect, use a voltmeter with higher sensitivity.

SUMMARY

Electronic Measuring Instruments measures parameters like voltage, current, resistance,

wattage, etc. They use moving coil and moving iron mechanisms as their working principle.
Different torques are responsible for the operation of the instrument.
The different types of electrical and electronic instruments are a voltmeter, ammeter,
wattmeter, ohmmeter, LCR meter, and a multimeter. The meter has a pointer which moves
over a scale whenever the quantity passes through the meter.

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for EDUCATIONAL PURPOSES ONLY and is NOT FOR SALE NOR FOR REPRODUCTION.
PART 2 – ELECTRONICS GRAPHIC SYMBOLS

An electronic symbol is a pictogram used to represent various electrical and electronic devices
or functions, such as wires, batteries, resistors, and transistors, in a schematic diagram of an
electrical or electronic circuit. These symbols are largely standardized internationally today,
but may vary from country to country, or engineering discipline, based on traditional
conventions.

Electronics symbols of electronic circuits are virtually represented by circuit diagrams. There
are some standard symbols to represent the components in a circuits. This article gives some
of the frequently used symbols for drawing the circuits. There are many electrical and
electronic schematic symbols are used to signify basic electronic or electrical device. These are
mostly we used for draw circuit diagrams.

Learn the electrical symbols of basic electronic components, including passive components
(resistors, capacitors, inductors, transformers), diodes, and thyristors.
Electronics symbols are a short-hand way of indicating which components are involved in a
circuit schematic. They allow for a quick guide to a design for visual communication, an
essential aspect of engineering. Design-review presentation involve a carefully drawn
schematic diagram. Despite the proliferation of digital projectors and tablets and what not,
many engineers haven’t found an adequate replacement for physical schematic printouts that
can be scrutinized up close and marked with a pencil.
Even if no one else is going to see your design, a good schematic can help you to organize your
thoughts, ponder the functionality of a circuit, and find mistakes when they’re very easy to fix
(i.e., before the board has been sent to the fab house).

IMPORTANCE OF ELECTRONICS SYMBOLS

Electronics symbols are used to simplify the drafting and to understand the drawingElectronics
symbols are standardized throughout the industry. The addition of a line, dot, shading, letters,
and numbers gives a specific meaning to a symbol. In order to achieve the ability to interpret
the drawings and their related symbol meanings, we must learn the basic form of various
symbols. Electronics symbols are required to do the electronics drawing and without the help
of electronics symbols, we won’t be able to do the electronics drawing. Electronics circuits are
represented by electronics drawings. Symbols and number combinations are used to represent
electronics circuits. Electronics drawings can be used to convey information about a wide range
of details such as Electronics wiring, pneumatic or hydraulic layouts, location of the equipment,
and details of the equipment. By using electronics drawings we would be able to locate the
equipment.

SIGNIFICANCE ELECTRONICS SYMBOLS AND HOW TO DRAW DIAGRAMS

Electronics symbols can be used to represent various electronics equipment. In an electronics

diagram, electronics equipment is represented with the help of electronic symbols. Electronics
drawings are usually drawn in a style called circuit diagrams, single line diagram, ladder
diagram and another form of drawing is an electronics wiring diagram. Electronics wiring
diagrams use single lines from each device exactly as it would be wired. Electronic schematic
uses symbols for each component found in an electronics circuit. Mostly electronics diagrams
are multi-sheet drawings that show the wiring of the electronics devices.

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for EDUCATIONAL PURPOSES ONLY and is NOT FOR SALE NOR FOR REPRODUCTION.
COMMON ELECTRONICS CIRCUIT SYMBOLS

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for EDUCATIONAL PURPOSES ONLY and is NOT FOR SALE NOR FOR REPRODUCTION.
This module is a property of Technological University of the Philippines Visayas and intended
for EDUCATIONAL PURPOSES ONLY and is NOT FOR SALE NOR FOR REPRODUCTION.
This module is a property of Technological University of the Philippines Visayas and intended
for EDUCATIONAL PURPOSES ONLY and is NOT FOR SALE NOR FOR REPRODUCTION.
This module is a property of Technological University of the Philippines Visayas and intended
for EDUCATIONAL PURPOSES ONLY and is NOT FOR SALE NOR FOR REPRODUCTION.
ELECTRONICS SYMBOLS CONSUMER ELECTRONICS STANDARD

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for EDUCATIONAL PURPOSES ONLY and is NOT FOR SALE NOR FOR REPRODUCTION.
This module is a property of Technological University of the Philippines Visayas and intended
for EDUCATIONAL PURPOSES ONLY and is NOT FOR SALE NOR FOR REPRODUCTION.
This module is a property of Technological University of the Philippines Visayas and intended
for EDUCATIONAL PURPOSES ONLY and is NOT FOR SALE NOR FOR REPRODUCTION.
This module is a property of Technological University of the Philippines Visayas and intended
for EDUCATIONAL PURPOSES ONLY and is NOT FOR SALE NOR FOR REPRODUCTION.
This module is a property of Technological University of the Philippines Visayas and intended
for EDUCATIONAL PURPOSES ONLY and is NOT FOR SALE NOR FOR REPRODUCTION.
This module is a property of Technological University of the Philippines Visayas and intended
for EDUCATIONAL PURPOSES ONLY and is NOT FOR SALE NOR FOR REPRODUCTION.
This module is a property of Technological University of the Philippines Visayas and intended
for EDUCATIONAL PURPOSES ONLY and is NOT FOR SALE NOR FOR REPRODUCTION.
ELELCTRICAL/ELECTRONICS SYMBOLS FOR INDUSTRIAL STANDARDS

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for EDUCATIONAL PURPOSES ONLY and is NOT FOR SALE NOR FOR REPRODUCTION.
This module is a property of Technological University of the Philippines Visayas and intended
for EDUCATIONAL PURPOSES ONLY and is NOT FOR SALE NOR FOR REPRODUCTION.
This module is a property of Technological University of the Philippines Visayas and intended
for EDUCATIONAL PURPOSES ONLY and is NOT FOR SALE NOR FOR REPRODUCTION.
This module is a property of Technological University of the Philippines Visayas and intended
for EDUCATIONAL PURPOSES ONLY and is NOT FOR SALE NOR FOR REPRODUCTION.
This module is a property of Technological University of the Philippines Visayas and intended
for EDUCATIONAL PURPOSES ONLY and is NOT FOR SALE NOR FOR REPRODUCTION.
This module is a property of Technological University of the Philippines Visayas and intended
for EDUCATIONAL PURPOSES ONLY and is NOT FOR SALE NOR FOR REPRODUCTION.
AUXILIARY STANDARDS

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for EDUCATIONAL PURPOSES ONLY and is NOT FOR SALE NOR FOR REPRODUCTION.
ELECTRONICS SYMBOLS USED in CONSUMER

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LEARNING GUIDE
Week No.: __4_

TOPIC/S

1. INTRODUCTION TO BASIC ELECTRONICS

2. THE EVOLUTION OF ELECTRONICS ENGINEERING AND TECHNOLOGY
AND THE SIGNIFICANCE OF THE STUDY.

LEARNING OUTCOMES

Upon completing this week 4 topic, subject students are able to:

1. Establish insights on the significance and the need to seriously recognize

the necessity of Electronics as part of technological innovation; and
2. Explain the basic concept of Green Electronics

CONTENT/TECHNICAL INFORMATION

“Basic Electronics”
Electronics has an important place in modern society. In the current age, most
of the electronic devices work on electronics. From car keys, mobile phones,
TV remote controls to microwave ovens we enjoy the fascinating benefits of
this amazing technology. Computer is also an electronic device which works
mainly on electronics and electricity. The peripheral devices attached to the
computer also work on the same principle. It is a technological wonders and
necessarily provide proper and continuous power to the electronics equipment
to work properly. For this purpose, the surge protector and uninterrupted
power supply (UPS) are used, which also work on electronics and electricity.
Hence, electricity has an important place in the world of computing and
computer. In course, you will understand the basic concept of electronics,
electronics quantities, and various electronic components.

The explosion in the tech world over the past two decades or so has resulted in the majority of
us now owning smartphones, among other devices, with newer and fancier electronics
seemingly appearing on the market every few months. Unsurprisingly, as a result, the number
of unwanted electric items is growing at a rapid rate.

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for EDUCATIONAL PURPOSES ONLY and is NOT FOR SALE NOR FOR REPRODUCTION.
Electronics comprises the physics,
engineering, technology and
applications that deal with the emission,
flow and control of electronics in
vacuum and matter It uses active device
to control electron flow by
amplifications and rectifications which
distinguishes it from classical electrical
engineering which uses passive effects
such as resistance, capacitance and
inductance to control current flow.

Electronics has had a major effect on the development of modern society. The identification of
the electron in 1897, along with the subsequent invention of the vacuum tube which could
amplify and rectify small electrical signals, inaugurated the field of electronics and the electron
age. This distinction started around 1906 with the invention by Lee De Forest of the triode,
which made electrical amplification of weak radio signals and audio signals possible with a
non-mechanical device. Until 1950, this field was called "radio technology" because its
principal application was the design and theory of radio transmitters, receivers, and vacuum
tubes.

The term "solid-state electronics" emerged after the first working transistor was invented
by William Shockley, Walter Houser Brattain and John Bardeen at Bell Labs in 1947.
The MOSFET (MOS transistor) was later invented by Mohamed Atalla and Dawon Kahng at
Bell Labs in 1959.

The MOSFET was the first truly compact transistor that could be miniaturised and mass-
produced for a wide range of uses, revolutionizing the electronics industry, and playing a
central role in the microelectronics revolution and Digital Revolution. The MOSFET has since
become the basic element in most modern electronic equipment, and is the most widely used
electronic device in the world.

Electronics is widely used in information processing, telecommunication, and signal

processing. The ability of electronic devices to act as switches makes digital information-
processing possible. Interconnection technologies such as circuit boards, electronics packaging
technology, and other varied forms of communication infrastructure complete circuit
functionality and transform the mixed electronic components into a regular working system,
called an electronic system; examples are computers or control systems. An electronic system
may be a component of another engineered system or a standalone device. As of 2019 most
electronic devices use semiconductor components to perform electron control. Commonly,
electronic devices contain circuitry consisting of active semiconductors supplemented with
passive elements; such a circuit is described as an electronic circuit.

This module is a property of Technological University of the Philippines Visayas and intended
for EDUCATIONAL PURPOSES ONLY and is NOT FOR SALE NOR FOR REPRODUCTION.
Electronics deals with electrical circuits that involve active electrical
components such as vacuum tubes, transistors, diodes, integrated
circuits, optoelectronics, and sensors, associated passive electrical
components, and interconnection technologies.
The nonlinear behaviour of active components and their ability to
control electron flows makes amplification of weak signals possible.

An electronic component is any physical entity in an electronic system used to affect

the electrons or their associated fields in a manner consistent with the intended function of the
electronic system. Components are generally intended to be connected together, usually by
being soldered to a printed circuit board (PCB), to create an electronic circuit with a particular
function (for example an amplifier, radio receiver, or oscillator).

Components may be packaged singly, or in more complex groups as integrated circuits. Some
common electronic components are capacitors, inductors, resistors, diodes, transistors, etc.
Components are often categorized as active (e.g. transistors and thyristors) or passive (e.g.
resistors, diodes, inductors and capacitors).

Energy Foundation

Electric charge is a fundamental physical property of matter. The

forms of matter are—solid, liquid, and gases which are made up
of atoms. Atoms are the fundamental building blocks of all
molecules. The centre of an atom is called the nucleus. Atoms
consist of three subatomic particles — protons, electrons, and
neutrons. Electrons spin around the nucleus in shells, at a great
distance from the nucleus. Protons carry a positive (+) charge,
electrons carry a negative (-) charge, neutrons are neutral and
have no net charge. One coulomb of charge is equal to 10X1018
(6,250,000,000,000,000,000) electrons.

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Protons are found in the center of the atom, with a charge of +1
and a mass of 1 atomic mass unit, which is approximately
equal to 1.66×10. Electrons are found in the periphery of the
atom and have a charge of -1. They are much smaller than
protons and their mass is 1/1836 amu.

The steady flow of electrons is called current. Current is what

flows through electrical wires and powers electronics items,
from light bulbs to televisions.

The positively charged protons attract negatively charged

electrons, hence holding the atomic structure as shown in
Figure 1.1.

The materials can be categorized as insulators or conductors based on its

physical property known as resistivity. In an insulator, the electric charge
does not flow freely from one atom to another due to high resistivity. In a
conductor, the electric charge flows freely from one atom to another due
to low resistivity. This flow of charge is electric current.

Conductors

The material in which the electrons are loosely held can move very easily. These are called
conductors. Metals like copper, aluminum, and steel are good conductors of electricity.

Insulators

The materials which hold their electrons very tightly do not allow the movement of the
electrons through them very well. These are called insulators. Rubber, plastic, cloth, glass, and
dry air are good insulators and have very high resistance.

ELECTRONIC DEVICES

An electronic circuit is composed of various components. Electronic components usually have

two or more leads, which can be fitted into the PCB to form a working electric circuit.
Electronic components are mainly classified into two classes — active and passive
components.

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for EDUCATIONAL PURPOSES ONLY and is NOT FOR SALE NOR FOR REPRODUCTION.
Active components
They produce energy in the form of voltage or current. These components require an
external source for their operation. An active component has an analog electronic filter
with the ability to amplify a signal or produce a power gain. Examples of active
components are diode, transistors, Operational amplifiers.
Passive components
These do not produce energy in the form of voltage or current. They do not require
external energy to operate. They cannot generate energy of their own and depend on the
power provided from the AC circuit. Examples of passive components are resistors,
capacitors, inductors, sensors, and transducers.
Semiconductor
These are materials whose conductivity is between that of conductors and insulators.
Electronic devices are made up of semiconductor material. In semiconductor industry,
silicon and germanium are used. Semiconductors are of two types, which are as follows:
Intrinsic (pure)
It is the pure form of semiconductor. The ‘pure’ word here represents that this
semiconductor does not contain any other impurity atom.
Extrinsic (impure)
It is an impure form of semiconductor. When impurity atoms are added in the pure
(intrinsic) form of semiconductor, then that semiconductor is known as extrinsic
semiconductor. The extrinsic semiconductors are also known as impure semiconductors.
Electronics Components, definitions and its application.

The world's reliance on electronics is so great that commentators claim people live in an
"electronic age." People are surrounded by electronics—televisions, radios, computers,
mobiles, Laptop and DVD players, along with products with major electric components,
such as microwave ovens, refrigerators, and other kitchen appliances, automatic vehicles,
Robotics, as well as hearing aids and medical instruments and numerous applications in
industry.

Let us commence defining ELECTRONICS and other related terms according to the legal
mandate, that is RA 9292 otherwise known as the "Electronics Engineering Law of 2004".

Article 1, section 3:

Definition and Interpretation of Terms. - As used in this Act, the following terms shall mean:

(a) Electronics - the science dealing with the development and application of devices
and systems involving the flow of electrons or other carriers of electric charge, in a
vacuum, in gaseous media, in plasma, in semiconductors, in solid-state and/or in similar
devices, including, but not limited to, applications involving optical, electromagnetic
and other energy forms when transduced or converted into electronic signals.

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(b) Professional Electronics Engineer - a person who is qualified to hold
himself/herself out as a duly registered/licensed Professional Electronics Engineer
under this Act and to affix to his/her name the letters "PECE".

(c) Electronics Engineer - a person who is qualified to hold himself/herself out as a

duly registered/licensed Electronics Engineer under this Act and to affix to his/her name
the letters "ECE".

(d) Electronics Technician - a person who is qualified to hold himself/herself out as a

duly registered/licensed Electronics Technician under this Act and to affix to his/her
name the letters "ECT".

(e) Electronics and Communications Engineer - a person who is qualified to hold

himself/herself out as a duly-registered/licensed Electronics and Communications
Engineer under Republic Act No. 5734.

(f) Computer - any of a variety of electronic devices that is capable of accepting data,
programs and/or instructions, executing the programs and/or instructions to process the
data and presenting the results.

(g) Information and Communications Technology - the acquisition, production,

transformation, storage and transmission/reception of data and information by
electronic means in forms such as vocal, pictorial, textual, numeric or the like; also
refers to the theoretical and practical applications and processes utilizing such data and
information.

(h) Communications - the process of sending and/or receiving information, data, signals
and/or messages between two (2) or more points by radio, cable, optical wave guides
or other devices and wired or wireless medium

(i) Telecommunications - any transmission, emission or reception of voice, data,

electronic messages, text, written or printed matter, fixed or moving pictures or images,
words, music or visible or audible signals or sounds, or any information, intelligence
and/or control signals of any design/format and for any purpose, by wire, radio, spectral,
visual/optical/light, or other electronic, electromagnetic and technological means.

(j) Broadcast, Broadcasting - an undertaking the object of which is to transmit audio,

video, text, images or other signals or messages for reception of a broad audience in a
geographical area via wired or wireless means.

(k) Industrial Plant - includes all manufacturing establishments and other business
endeavors where electronic or electronically-controlled machinery or equipment are
installed and/or are being used, sold, maintained, assembled, manufactured or operated.

(l) Commercial Establishment - shall include but not be limited to office buildings,
hotels, motels, hospitals, condominiums, stores, apartments, supermarkets, schools,
studios, stadia, parking areas, memorial chapels/parks, watercraft and aircraft used for
business or profit, and any other building/s or area/s for business purposes, where
electronic or electronically-controlled machinery or equipment are installed and/or are
being used, sold, maintained, assembled, manufactured or operated.

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(m) Consulting Services - as used in this Act, shall include services requiring adequate
technical expertise, experience and professional capability in undertaking advisory and
review, pre-investment or feasibility studies, design, planning, construction,
supervision, management and related services, and other technical studies or special
studies in the field of electronics engineering.

(n) Accredited Professional Organization - the integrated and accredited national

organization of Professional Electronics Engineers, Electronics Engineers and
Electronics Technicians.

IN SOME INFORMAL DEFINITIONS:

The branch of engineering which deals with current conduction through a Vacuum or Gas or
Semiconductor is known as
Electronics.
An electronic device is that in which current flows through a vacuum or gas or
semiconductor. This control of electrons is accomplished by devices that resist, carry,
select, steer, switch, store, manipulate, and exploit the electron.

Also Electronics deals with electrical circuits that involve active electrical components such as
vacuum tubes, transistors, diodes and integrated circuits, and associated passive
interconnection technologies. Commonly, electronic devices contain circuitry consisting
primarily or exclusively of active semiconductors supplemented with passive elements; such a
circuit is described as an electronic circuit.
APPLICATIONS OF ELECTRONICS:
Electronic components: capacitor (C), cathode ray tube (CTR), diode (D), digital signal
processor (DSP, field effect transistor (FET), integrated circuit (IC), junction gate field effect
transistor (JFET), inductor (L), Liquid crystal display (LCD), light dependent resistor (LDR,
light emitting diode (LED), Metal oxide semiconductor field effect transistor (MOSFET),
transistor (Q), resistor (R), relay (RLA, RY), switch (SW), transformer (T), thermistor (TH),
transistor (Tr), integrated circuit (U, IC), variable capacitor (VC), variable resistor (VR) and
many more

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Figure 1-3 Common types electronics components

For simple understanding let us treat the following terms used by layman’s dimensions:

Consumer Electronics include products like – Audio Systems, Video Systems, TV

(Television), Computer, Laptop, Digital Camera, DVD Players, Home and Kitchen
Appliances, GPS, Mobiles Phones etc.

Communication. Electronic communication systems connect people around the world. Using
telephones, Internet and computers, people in different countries communicate almost
instantly. Radios transmit sounds and televisions transmit sounds and pictures great distances.
Cellular telephones enable a person to call another person. Within seconds, fax machines send
and receive copies of documents over telephone lines/Satellite.
Information processing. Scientists, artists, students, government and business workers,
and hobbyists at home all rely on computers, Internet to handle huge amounts
of information quickly and accurately. Computers solve difficult
mathematical problems, maintain vast amounts of data, create complex
simulations, and perform a multitude of other tasks that help people in their
everyday lives.
Medicine and research. Include product like X-ray machines ECG (Electrocardiogram)
use radiation to take images of bones and internal organs. Radiation therapy,
or radiotherapy, uses X-rays and other forms of radiation to fight cancer.
Many hearing-impaired people depend on hearing aids to electrically amplify
sound waves.
Computers and other electronic instruments provide scientists and other researchers
with powerful tools to better understand their area of study. Computers, for
example, help scientists design new drug molecules, track weather systems,
and test theories about how galaxies and stars develop. Electron microscopes
use electrons rather than visible light to magnify specimens 1 million times
or more.
Automation. Electronic components enable many common home appliances, such as
refrigerators, washing machines, and toasters, to function smoothly and
efficiently. People can electronically program coffeemakers, lawn sprinklers,
and many other products to turn on and off automatically. Microwave ovens
heat food quickly by penetrating it with short radio waves produced by a
vacuum tube.
Instrumentation. Measuring Instruments like CRO, Multimeter, ph-meter, strain gauge,
VTVM, Frequency Counter are used in different Laboratory/organisations.
Many automobiles have electronic controls in their engines and fuel systems. Electronic
devices also control air bags, which inflate to protect a driver and passengers in a collision.

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‘SOLID STATE ANALOGY:
WHY SOLID STATE?
The original methodology of Electronics as being perceived during the invention
of which is through the vacuum tubes, which used basically principle emission
process to simulate the electronics control principles. However during the turn of
the century vacuum tube had left behind and left by obsolense and more
disadvantageous compare to today’s counterpart which is the solid state.

Don’t get me wrong, in todays technology there are still vacuum tube devices which
are still irreplaceable. Example the final amplifiers of the high power commercial
band transmitters, the fluoroscopic machines, null indicators, microwave travelling
wave tubes, etc.
Solid state is the state of matter in which materials are not fluid but retain their
boundaries without support, the atoms or molecules occupying fixed positions with
respect to one another and unable to move freely.

Solid-state device, electronic device in which electricity flows through

solid semiconductor crystals (silicon, gallium arsenide, germanium, Copper Oxide,
and many more, replaced rather than through vacuum tubes.

The first solid-state device was the “cat’s whisker” (1906), in which a fine wire was
moved across a solid crystal to detect a radio signal. Transistors, made of one or
more semiconductors, are at the heart of modern solid-state devices; in the case
of integrated circuits, millions of transistors can be involved. Solid state, at its most
basic level, means "no moving parts."

Therefore, solid state electronic devices are made up of solid components that do
not move. Some examples include computer motherboards and integrated circuits
( or commonly known as IC). Devices that use only solid state parts, such as
television sets, speakers, and digital watches, are often referred to as solid state
products.

Classification of Solid-state materials according to electrical conductivity. Such as:

1. Insulators - Insulators are materials having an electrical conductivity

(like diamond: 10-14S/cm);

2. Semiconductors - semiconductors have a conductivity

(for silicon it can range from 10-5S/cm to 103S/cm)

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3. Conductors - at last conductors are materials with high conductivities:

(like silver: 106S/cm.)

CLASSIFICATION OF SOLID ACCORDING TO ELECTRICAL

CONDUCTIVITY
(Conductor, Semiconductor & Insulator) with respect to energy band diagram
only.

(i) Valence band. The range of energies (i.e. band) possessed by valence electrons is
known as valence band. The electrons in the outermost orbit of an atom are known
as valence electrons. This band may be completely or partially filled.
(ii) Conduction band. The range of energies (i.e. band) possessed by conduction band
electrons is known as conduction band. Generally, insulators have empty
conduction band. On the other hand, it is partially filled for conductors. The free
electrons which are responsible for the conduction of current in a conductor are
called conduction electrons.

(iii) Forbidden energy gap. The separation between conduction band and valence
band on the energy level diagram is known as forbidden energy gap.

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WHAT IS EXACTLY A SEMICONDUCTOR?
Semiconductors have high importance in the manufacture of electronic circuits and integrated
devices. The conductivity of semiconductors can be altered easily by varying the temperature
and concentration of doping in the fabrication process. The capability to conduct electricity in
semiconductor materials is considerably increased by a adding definite quantity of impurities
to the crystalline lattice producing additional free electrons than holes.

The properties of semiconductor materials change considerably by adding small amounts of

impurities to it. The process of shifting the balance between electrons and holes by
incorporating impurity atoms in the silicon crystal lattice is called as doping. These impurity
atoms are known as dopants. Based on the type of doping material incorporated, semiconductor
crystals are classified into two types particularly n-type semiconductors and p-type
semiconductors.

There are two types of semiconductor components in electronic and electrical circuits. They
are active and passive components. Diodes are the foremost active components and resistors
are the foremost passive components in electronic design circuits. Diodes are essentially
unidirectional devices having exponential relationship for the current-voltage characteristics
are made from semiconductor materials.

The three necessary materials that are utilized in electronics are insulators, semiconductors and
conductors. These materials are classified in terms of electrical phenomenon. Electrical
resistivity conjointly known as electrical resistance is a measure of how efficiently a material
refuses the electrical current to flow through it.

The quality unit of the electrical resistivity

is the ohm meter [Ω m]. A material with
low electrical resistivity indicates the
effective movement of electrical charge
throughout the semiconductor.

Semiconductors are the materials whose

resistivity values are in between insulators
and conductors. These materials are
neither smart insulators nor smart
conductors. They have only a few free
electrons because their atoms are tightly
bonded in an exceedingly crystalline form
are referred to as a “crystal lattice”.
Samples of semiconductors are silicon and
germanium.

Group –V elements such as phosphorus, antimony and arsenic are usually classified as N-type
impurities. These elements have five valence electrons. When N-type impurities are doped into
silicon crystal, four of the five valence electrons form four strong covalent bonds with adjacent
crystal atoms leaving one free electron.

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Likewise, every N-type impurity atom produces a free electron in the conduction band which
will drift to conduct electric current if a potential is applied to the material. N-type
semiconductors can also be referred as Donors.

Group–III elements such as

boron, aluminum, gallium and
indium are usually classified
as P-type impurities. These
elements have three valence
electrons. When P-type
impurities are doped into
silicon crystal, all the three
valence electrons form three
strong covalent bonds with
adjacent crystal atoms.

There is a deficit of electrons to form the fourth covalent bond and this deficiency is termed as
holes. Likewise, every P-type impurity atom produces a hole in the valence band which will
drift to conduct electric current if a potential is applied to the material. P-type semiconductors
can also be referred as Acceptors.

DON’T FORGET THAT A SEMICONDUCTORS IS:

Semiconductors have the electrical properties in between insulators and conductors. Smart
examples of perfect semiconductors are silicon (Si), germanium (Ge) and gallium arsenide
(GaAs). These elements have only a few electrons within the parental atomic structure that
form a crystal lattice.

Silicon, the basic semiconductor material, contains four valence electrons within the outer shell
forming four strong covalent bonds with four adjacent silicon atoms, such that each atom shares
an electron with the neighbouring atom creating a strong covalent bond. The silicon atoms are
organized in a lattice form, creating them a crystalline structure.

Conducting electric current is feasible with silicon semiconductor crystal by supplying external
potential to the semiconductor and incorporating the impurity dopants into the semiconductor
crystal thereby creating positive and negative charged holes.

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SILICON IN PURE STATE: Structure of Pure Silicon Atom

AND THAT A PURE SILICON IS AN INSULATOR.

The silicon atom has 14 electrons;

however the orbital arrangement has
solely 4 valence electrons to be shared
by alternative atoms. These valence
electrons play a crucial role in photo
voltaic effect. Large number of silicon
atoms bond together to make a
crystalline structure.

In this structure, each silicon atom

shares one of its four valence electrons
with their neighboring silicon atoms.
The solid silicon crystal composed of a
regular series of units of five silicon
atoms. This regular and fixed
arrangement of silicon atoms are unit is
referred to as a crystal lattice.

INTRINSIC & EXTRINSIC SEMICONDUCTOR.

1. Intrinsic Semiconductor A semiconductor in an extremely pure form is known as an

intrinsic semiconductor.

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In this case the holes in the valence band are vacancies created by electrons that have
been thermally excited to the conduction band and hole-electron pairs are created. When
electric field is applied across an intrinsic semiconductor, the current conduction takes
place by two processes, namely; by free electrons and holes as shown in Fig 1-4-a. The
free electrons are produced due to the breaking up of some covalent bonds by thermal
energy. At the same time, holes are created in the covalent bonds. Under the influence of
electric field, conduction through the semiconductor is by both free electrons and holes.
Therefore, the total current inside the semiconductor is the sum of currents due to free
electrons and holes. This creates new holes near the positive terminal which again drift
towards the negative terminal.

Figure 1,4-a : Diagram showing the electronic bonds in an intrinsic semiconductor (Si)

EXTRINSIC SEMICONDUCTOR

An extrinsic semiconductor is a semiconductor doped by addition of small amount

impurity which is able to change its electrical properties (conduction), making it suitable for
electronic applications (diodes, transistors, etc.) or optoelectronic applications (light emitters
and detectors). This is achieved by adding a small amount of suitable impurity (having 3 or 5
valence electron) to a semiconductor (having 4 valence electron). It is then called impurity or
extrinsic semiconductor.
The process of adding impurities to a semiconductor is known as doping. The
purpose of adding impurity is to increase either the number of free electrons or
holes in the semiconductor crystal.
If a penta valent impurity (having 5 valence electrons) is added to the
semiconductor, a large number of free electrons are produced in the
semiconductor.
If a trivalent impurity (having 3 valence electrons) is added to the
semiconductor, large number of holes are produced in the semiconductor
crystal.

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Depending upon the type of impurity added, extrinsic semiconductors are
classified into:
(i) n-type semiconductor
(ii) p-type semiconductor

(i) n-type Semiconductor

When a small amount of pentavalent impurity is added to a pure semiconductor, it is
known as n-type

SEMICONDUCTOR.

The addition of pentavalent impurity pro-vides a large number of free electrons in

the semiconductor crystal. Typical examples of pentavalent impurities are arsenic,
antimony, bismuth and phosphorous etc. Such impurities which produce n-type
semiconductor are known as donor impurities because they donate or provide free
electrons to the semiconductor crystal.

Figure 1-4-abc : Schematic representation of electronic bonds in a Silicon crystal doped with Arsenic As (n
doping)

Electrons are said to be the majority carriers whereas holes are the minority carriers.

Once these impurities like phosphorous, arsenic and antimony are added to the
silicon crystalline structure, to transform intrinsic semiconductor into extrinsic
semiconductor. These impurity atoms are known as pentavalent impurities as a
result of the five valence electrons in the outermost shell to share the free electrons
with the neighbouring atoms.

Pentavalent impurity atoms are also known as donors because the five valence
electrons in the impurity atom bond with the four valence electrons of silicon
forming four covalent bonds, leaving one free electron. Each impurity atom
produces a free electron within the conduction band. Once a positive potential is
applied to the N-type semiconductor, the remaining free electrons form a drift to
produce an electrical current.

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The majority charge carriers in N-type semiconductors are electrons and minority charge
carriers are holes. The N-type semiconductors are not negatively charged, because the
negative charge of donor impurity atoms is balanced by the positive charge within the nucleus.

The major contribution to the electric current flow is negatively charged electrons though there
is some amount of contribution by the positively charged holes due to electron-hole pair.

(ii) p-type Semiconductor

When a small amount of trivalent impurity is added to a pure semiconductor, it is

called p-type

SEMICONDUCTOR:

The addition of trivalent impurity provides a large number of holes in the

semiconductor. Typical examples of trivalent impurities are gallium , indium,
boron etc. Such impurities which produce p-type semiconductor are known as
acceptor impurities because the holes created can accept the electrons fig 1-5.

Figure1- 5 : schematic representation of a Si crystal doped with boron (B)

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The group 3 elements such as boron, aluminum and indium are supplementary to the
silicon crystalline structure having solely three electrons within the outermost shell, form
three closed covalent bonds, leaving the hole in the covalent bond structure and therefore
a hole in the valence band of the energy level diagram.

This action leaves an abundant number of positively charged carriers referred to as holes
in the crystalline structure when there is electron deficiency. These group 3 elements are
called as trivalent impurity atoms.

The presence of abundant holes attracts the neighboring electrons to sit in it. As long as
the electron fills the holes in the silicon crystal there will be new holes behind the electron
as it goes far from it. The newly created holes successfully attract the electrons, creating
other new holes leads to the movement of holes, creating a standard electric current flow
in the semiconductor.

The movement of holes in the silicon crystal seems the silicon crystal as a positive pole.
As long as the impurity atoms invariably generate holes, group 3 elements are referred to
as acceptors as a result of the impurity atoms are continually accepting the free electrons.

The doping of group 3 elements in silicon crystal leads to P-type semiconductor. In this
P-type semiconductor holes are the majority charge carriers and electrons are the
minority charge carriers.

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SEMICONDUCTOR BASICS SUMMARY

N-type materials are type of materials formed by adding group 5 elements (pentavalent
impurity atoms) to the semiconductor crystals and conduct the electric current by movement
of electrons.

IN N-TYPE SEMICONDUCTORS
The impurity atoms are pentavalent elements.
1. Impurity elements with solid crystal give a large number of free electrons.
2. Pentavalent impurities are also called as donors.
3. Doping gives the less number of holes in relation to the number of free electrons.
4. Doping with group 5 elements results in positively charged donors and negatively
charged free electrons.

IN P-TYPE SEMICONDUCTORS

P-type materials are a type of materials formed when group 3 elements (trivalent impurity
atoms) are added to the solid crystal. In these semiconductors the current flow is mainly due to
the holes.

1. The impurity atoms are trivalent elements.

2. Trivalent elements results in excess number of holes which always accepts electrons.
Hence trivalent impurities are called as acceptors.

3. Doping gives the less number of free electrons in relation to the number of holes.

4. Doping results in negatively charged acceptors and positively charged holes

Both p-type and N-type are electrically neural on their own because the contribution of
electrons and holes required for conducting electrical current are equal due to electron-hole
pair. Both boron (B) and antimony (Sb) are called metalloids because they are the most
commonly used doping agents for the intrinsic semiconductor to improve the properties of
conductivity.

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Materials that permit flow of electrons are called conductors (e.g., gold, silver, copper, etc.).

• Materials that block flow of electrons are called insulators (e.g., rubber, glass,
Teflon, mica, etc.).
• Materials whose conductivity falls between those of conductors and insulators are
called semiconductors.

• Semiconductors are “part-time” conductors whose conductivity can be controlled.

• Silicon is the most common material used to build semiconductor devices.

• Si is the main ingredient of sand and it is estimated that a cubic mile of seawater
contains 15,000 tons of Si.
• Si is spun and grown into a crystalline structure and cut into wafers to make electronic
devices.

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• Atoms in a pure silicon wafer contains four electrons in outer orbit (called valence
electrons).
– Germanium is another semiconductor material with four valence electrons.
• In the crystalline lattice structure of Si, the valence electrons of every Si atom are locked up
in covalent bonds with the valence electrons of four neighboring Si atoms.
– In pure form, Si wafer does not contain any free charge carriers.
– An applied voltage across pure Si wafer does not yield electron flow through the
wafer.
– A pure Si wafer is said to act as an insulator.

• In order to make useful semiconductor devices, materials such as phosphorus (P) and boron
(B) are added to Si to change Si’s conductivity.

N-TYPE SILICON

• Pentavalent impurities such as phosphorus, arsenic, antimony, and bismuth

have 5 valence electrons.

• When phosphorus impurity is added to Si, every phosphorus atom’s four

valence electrons are locked up in covalent bond with valence electrons of
four neighboring Si atoms. However, the 5th valence electron of phosphorus
atom does not find a binding electron and thus remains free to float. When
a voltage is applied across the silicon-phosphorus mixture, free electrons
migrate toward the positive voltage end.

• When phosphorus is added to Si to yield the above effect, we say that Si is

doped with phosphorus. The resulting mixture is called N-type silicon (N:
negative charge carrier silicon).

• The pentavalent impurities are referred to as donor impurities.

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-TYPE SILICON

• Trivalent impurities e.g., boron, aluminum, indium, and gallium have 3 valence
electrons.

• When boron is added to Si, every boron atom’s three valence electrons are
locked up in covalent bond with valence electrons of three neighboring Si
atoms. However, a vacant spot “hole” is created within the covalent bond
between one boron atom and a neighboring Si atom. The holes are
considered to be positive charge carriers. When a voltage is applied across
the silicon-boron mixture, a hole moves toward the negative voltage end
while a neighboring electron fills in its place.

• When boron is added to Si to yield the above effect, we say that Si is doped with boron.
The resulting mixture is called P-type silicon (P: positive charge carrier silicon).
• The trivalent impurities are referred to as acceptor impurities.
• The hole of boron atom points towards the negative terminal.
• The electron of neighboring silicon atom points toward positive terminal.
• The electron from neighboring silicon atom falls into the boron atom filling
the hole in boron atom and creating a “new” hole in the silicon atom.
• It appears as though a hole moves toward the negative terminal

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for EDUCATIONAL PURPOSES ONLY and is NOT FOR SALE NOR FOR REPRODUCTION.
RICARDO B. ABARING, JR. –PECE
Professional Electronics Engineer
Organizer of the first IECEP-NO Chapter
President, Negros Electronics Workers Guild, Inc.
Chairman of the Board of Directors IECEP-NOC 2009-20013
Project Engineer/Consultant of Bago City Cable Inc., Bago City, Neg. Occ. 1996-2014
Project Chief Engineer – Philippine Fiber Optic Corp 2019-2020
Design and PECE, Neg. Health Care Mgt. Sys. Inc., Kabankalan City,. 2012-2016
PECE, PLDT Fiber Home PLDT, and SMART Upgrading Project 2016-Present
Professional Electronics Engineer of Globe Inc. Upgrading Project 2018 -Present
PECE, Design Engineer Various Electronics projects in Bacolod City and Neg. Occ.
Consultant, Lecturer, College, Professor, Resource Person
Telephone No. 432-1735, Mobile Nos. 09610610797
Email: [email protected] and [email protected]

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