Shiphandling

Learning Objectives
• Recognize the various internal forces
affecting movement of a ship through water
• Identify the different elements that affect
handling of a ship
• Identify various environmental factors that
affect shiphandling
• Comprehend the basic terms associated
with shiphandling
Shiphandling
- A combination of Art and Science

“Art” skills derived from experience

and ability.
“Science” skills derived from knowledge
and training.
• “The mark of a great shiphandler is
never getting into a situation that
requires great shiphandling.”
– Fleet Admiral Ernest King
How to become a competent
shiphandler:
• Understand forces that influence
ship’s movement
• Ability to use forces to your
advantage
• Know the maneuvering characteristics
of your ship, effects of propellers
and rudders, effects of various sea
conditions
Three Basic Competencies as
a Shiphandler
• Planning - Knowing, visualizing and
describing what you want to do.
• Situational Awareness - Using visual cues
and other info to assess the safety of your
position and movement.
• Toolkit - Knowing how to make the ship do
what you want it to. Using the forces.
Introduction to Shiphandling
• Part I - Forces affecting ship’s movement
• Part II - Terminology
• Part III - Mooring/Underway evolutions
• Part IV - Bridge Equipment
• Part V - Standard Commands
• Part VI - Man Overboard maneuvers
APUs Banks
Wind Current

Shiphandling is the Lines

Tugs proficient use of forces
to control position and
movement of a ship.
Rudder
Engines
Shallow Water Anchors
FORCES
To understand shiphandling, we must first look at all the
forces that affect a ship

Controllable Forces
– Engines
Uncontrollable Forces
– Propeller/s
– Wind
– Rudder/s – Current
– Auxiliary Propulsion – Sea
– Anchors – Pier space
– Tugs – Time delay
– Mooring lines – Shallow Water Effects
– Bank Cushion/Suction
CONTROLLABLE FORCES

• Lines
• Anchors
• Tugs
• Engines
• Rudder
Engines
• Power train - power source turns a shaft
(through reduction gears), which turns the
propeller
• almost all Navy ships have one of three
propulsion plants:
– Gas Turbine - most small combatants
– Diesel - large auxiliary, minesweepers
– Steam (Conventional or Nuclear) - older ships,
carriers
Propellers
• Propel ships through the water as a function of
pitch and/or rotation
– Water is incompressible
– High vs. Low pressure areas on opposite sides of blades
result in propeller thrust
– Force transmitted along the propeller shaft in the
direction from high to low pressure area
– Low pressure area causes fwd blade to rotate clockwise
resulting in forward movement
– Force resulting from pressure differences causes ship to
move
SINGLE SCREW SHIPS
• Propeller turns clockwise
to produce forward
movement
• Must take propeller “side
forces” into account
• Ship will back to port when
operating astern propulsion
TWIN SCREW SHIPS
• Opposing propellers give
greater control and
cancel “side force”
• Starboard screw turns
clockwise and port
counterclockwise
• Increased
maneuverability
• Handling differences as
compared to a single
screw ship
Standard propeller rotation for Single and
Twin screw ships (ahead operation)
Two types of props
• Controllable Reverse Pitch (CRP) - ship’s
speed and direction through water is function of
both shaft rotation rate and ordered pitch of
propeller blades (screw pitch)
– allow for angle of blades to be changed
• ex. Gas turbine ships - DD, DDG, CG, FFG

KNOTS RPM PITCH

5 60 47
10 60 92
11 61 100
Propeller forces
• Side force
• Frictional wake current
• Screw current
Propeller Side Force
• Causes ship’s stern to move sideways in
direction of prop rotation

– Ship’s upper blades exert force opposite to

that of lower blades but lower blades are
moving in water of greater pressure

– greater pressure on lower blades which causes

them to act as they are walking on bottom and
pushing stern to side
Propeller Side Force
• When moving ahead – stern tends to
walk to starboard
• When moving astern – stern tends to
walk to port
• Side force greatest = DIW, backing
• Side force least = increase speed,
moving ahead
Propeller Side Force

Side Force

Visualize
the lower blades walking along the bottom.
SINGLE SCREW SHIPS
• Must take propeller
“side forces” into
account
• Limits maneuvering
capabilities of some
classes
Frictional Wake Current
• Ship drags some water along with it due to
friction between skin of ship and water
– zero at bow, increases to maximum at stern
– degree of current increases with ships speed and
shallow water depth
• u/w hull designs developed to counteract this

+ ++ - - - - - --
+
++
++ - - - - - - -
Screw Current
• Caused by rotation of propellers
• Consists of two types:
– suction current - portion flowing into propeller
– discharge current - flowing away from propeller
• strong force acting on rudder with fwd movement
• strong component of side force while backing as it
acts against hull
Rudders
• Hydrofoil designed to produce lateral forces
for control of ship’s heading
• Force needed to achieve heading created by
dynamic pressure against surface of rudder
– Magnitude of this force combined with
direction applied to rudder produces rudder
effect that controls stern movement….ship’s
heading
Rudders

• Configuration - normally one rudder

per prop, mounted directly astern of
each prop
Rudders
• bow will turn in the direction of
rudder when moving ahead

• stern will turn in direction of rudder

when moving astern
Ahead Ship Movements
“Left Standard Rudder” “Right Standard Rudder”
Several factors have bearing on
rudder effect
• Rudder size, angle, location
• Ship’s speed
• Direction of propeller rotation
• Headway vs. sternway
• Suction current vs. discharge current
• Side force
Resultant force = indicates direction and amount of
thrust exerted on a ship’s stern
Rudders
• Rudder range of motion - 35 degrees
left/right
– Hard rudder: 35 degrees
– Full rudder: 30 degrees
– Standard rudder: 15 degrees
– Increments of 5 or 10 degrees
– Come right, come left…..
Rudders
• effectiveness based on speed vs
rudder angle
– Ship’s turning rate proportional to
rudder angle magnitude and ship’s speed
– “bare steerageway” - minimum speed at
which rudder is still effective (2-3 kts)

Large rudder angle = low speed

Small rudder angle = fast speed
EFFECT OF CHANGE IN RPM DURING
TURN

CHANGE OF RPM

F H B
U A A
L L R
L F E
A A S
H H T
E E E
A A E
STANDARD RUDDER
D D R
A
G
E
Auxiliary Propulsion
• Bow thrusters
– Hull-mounted, transverse propeller used to
develop lateral thrust when pierside
– Normally found on larger ships
Tugs
Tugs
- used to maneuver
a ship when in restricted
waters by pushing
or pulling as directed.
- Duties include:
1. Tanker Escort Role
2. Disabled Tanker Assist
3. Indirect towing
TUGS
• When used to assist ships in pierside
maneuvers, there are three types of ship-to-
tug tie-ups:
– Single headline: Simple; effective for steady
pushing/pulling in one direction
– Double headline:Allows tug to push the ship
both ahead and astern
– Power: Best general purpose tie-up; allows tug
to use engines and rudder in any direction
without moving itself
TUGS
Mooring Lines
• Mooring evolution - secure to pier, ship,
buoy
• Mooring equipment - lines (nylon vs. wire)
and ground tackle
– Nylon vs manila lines
• Advantages of Nylon:
– lasts longer
– easier to maintain and handle
– more resistant to weather, grease, and oil
– Five Inch Double Braided Nylon Line has a minimum
breaking strength of 70,000 lbs or 35 Tons (2.5X stronger)
• Disadvantages:
– stretches and hazard if parts
MOORING LINES
• Lines are used next to a pier to
control/assist ship positioning.
• Each line has a specific name, indicating
location, direction, and purpose
– forward or after = direction in which line leads
from ship
– bow or quarter = point of vessel from which
line tends
– breast or spring = depending on use of line
Mooring Lines
• Lines are numbered, fore to aft, based on
location on the ship.
• Important mooring lines during pierside
evolution:
– Breast line: limits lateral motion
– Spring line: limits fore/aft motion
• Lines #2 and #4 = prevent fwd motion
• Lines #3 and #5 = prevent aft motion
MOORING LINES
1 - Bow line
2 - After bow spring line
3 - Forward bow spring line
(No number) - Breast line
4 - After quarter spring line
5 - Forward quarter spring line
6 - Stern line
Anchors
• Anchors - may be used to aid/restrict
movement of ship
– ships usually have two standard stockless
anchors
– ready for drop prior to u/w and entering
port
– using an anchor to maneuver the ship is
referred to as a “poor man’s tug.”
UNCONTROLLABLE FORCES

• Wind
• Sea state
• Current
• Shallow
water
• Bank effects
• Pier space
• Delay
Wind

• effects vary with design and draft of ship

– light, high freeboard affected more vs. low in
water
• ex. Forecastle on DDG acts as a permanent jib
– difficult to turn ship’s bow into wind
• if necessary to turn in confined space, turn away
from wind
– difficult when offset wind from pier
Wind Force
Tons Wind Force = .17 * 10-5 * Area sqft * Wind2 Knots

For Example:
The DD 963 has a sail area of about 20,000 sq ft.
A 20 knot beam wind force would be 13.6 Tons.
A 30 knot beam wind force would be 30.6 Tons.
Current
• affect the movement of the underwater portion of
the hull
– Ocean currents can go undetected
– Set vs. drift
– tidal currents easier to visualize
• Ships that are heavy with low freeboard = affected
• Must compensate for current or run risk of ship
being set off track, running aground, etc…
Wind vs. Current Force

Wind: 15 knots Current: 1 knot

Ship’s speed: 0 ----- Ship will move in which direction??

Wind and Current
 V 2 Pressure of a moving Fluid equals density of
P the fluid times the square of the velocity
2g divided by 2 times the gravitational constant

30 Knots .0765  V 2 .0765  50.4 2 3 lb

PWind  PWind   2
(50.4 fps) 2g 64 ft
Wind

1 Knot 64  V 2 64 1.682 3 lbs

PCurrent  PCurrent   2
(1.68 fps) 2g 64 ft
Current
Air density is ~ 1/900 that of water. Since force is proportional
to velocity squared it takes about 30 knots of wind to equal the
force of a 1 knot current.
Seas
• Try to stay away from poor weather and
high seas
– easy to lose steerageway
– set/drift problems
– avoid trough when possible
– avoid greenwater on forecastle

– solution = decrease speed and allow swells to

go by
Pier Space
• maneuvering area required to operate is
restrictive
Lag time in response to orders
• Noticeable lag between time order is given
to helm or engines (lee helm) and time
effect of response is felt
Narrow Channels
• Proceed at slow speed keeping near middle
of channel to avoid the following:
– Bank cushion - wedge of water between ship
and bank builds up forcing bow out sharply
– Bank suction - decrease of water level near
quarter due to suction of screw to bank = draws
stern closer
– Act together to cause sheer twds opposite bank
• Avoid overtaking/passing in this situation
Bank Cushion/Bank Suction
BANK

+ - - - - - -
+
+ Ship holds
+ - - - - - - heading with
right rudder
Bank Cushion
Bow Repelled
Bank Suction
Hull Drawn in
Bank Cushion/Bank Suction
BANK
+ - - - -
- - + - -
- - - - +
+ + - ++ - - -
+ - - - - -
- +
++ - - - - - +
- -
-
- -
- - - - ++ - - -
+ - -
+ -
If the angle and speed are - - - - - -
not excessive, bank cushion
will shear the ship off a bank
or edge of a deep cut channel.
Shallow Water Effects
• Ship increases speed, it starts to sink lower
in the water
– Distinct bow and stern waves are formed
– Water level amidships becomes lower that the
surrounding water
– Bow starts to rise and stern sinks = Squatting
– wake can cause damage to shore structures,
anchored boats, moored boats
Sinkage and Squat

Increased Flow Velocity under keel results in

decreased static pressure around hull. This
causes a depression in the area around and
under the ship resulting in Sinkage and Squat.
2
Vkts  C B
Squat ft 
30

Squat and Sinkage are exaggerated (~ x2) in

shallow water and/or in a confined channel.
SHIP TERMINOLOGY
• • Superstructur • Shaft
Bow
e • Propeller
• Stem
• Pilothouse • Rudder
• Forecastle
• Stern
• Hawsepipe • Mast
• Weather • Yardarm
decks • Truck
• Draft • Stack
• Freeboard • Keel
Shiphandling Terms
• Pivot point Kick
• Turning Circle
• Advance and Transfer
• Tactical Diameter
• Standard Rudder
• Final Diameter
• Drift Angle
Pivot Point
• Pivot point - Point on centerline about
which the ship turns when rudder put over

• Nearly always about 1/3 the ship’s length

abaft its bow when moving ahead

• At or near its stern when moving astern

• Location varies with ship’s speed

Pivot Point

Right Rudder

Right Rudder: Stern to port, bow to starboard

(Reverse process for left rudder….)
Pivot Point

Center Lateral Force Lateral Force

of Forward at Stern Sternway
Lateral Pivot Point Pivot Point Headway (Resistance
Resistance Moves Aft Moves Fwd (Resistance at Stern)
at Bow) Pivot Point
Pivot Point Moves Aft
Moves Fwd
Shiphandling Terms
Advance - Distance made good in the direction
of the original course when the ship is
turned.
Transfer - Distance made good perpendicular
to the advance.

Transfer
Advance
Turning

TOO LATE!!
Shiphandling Terms
Tactical Diameter – Perpendicular distance between
path of ship on original course and path of ship when
turning 180 degrees with constant rudder angle.

Tactical
Diameter
SHIPHANDLING TERMS
• Standard Tactical Diameter - Tactical
diameter prescribed by current tactical
orders for formation maneuvers
• Reduced Tactical Diameter - Diameter
obtained at full rudder using standard speed
• Final Diameter - Diameter of the ship’s
turning circle
• Kick - Momentary movement, at the start of
a turn, of the ship’s stern toward the side
opposite the direction of the turn
SHIPHANDLING TERMS
• Surge - Distance gained/lost during a speed
increase or decrease
Turning Diameter is 12 Knot turning diameter

a function of speed 22 Knot turning diameter

and acceleration.
Accelerating
12 to 22 Kts
(reduces diameter)

Full Rudder 22 Kts

SHIPHANDLING
CHARACTERISTICS
Steady Course, Speed and Heading.
Forces are balanced.
Rudder Force

Drift Angle

Rudder put over to the right for a starboard

turn creates a force to port. The result of
the ahead propulsive force and the rudder
force to port creates a "drift angle."
Rudder Force

Hydrodynamic Lift

As the ship moves in the direction of the

drift angle, initially it moves left of the
track line. Then, hydrodynamic lift on
the port bow, coupled with the rudder
force, rotates the ship to starboard.
As the ship rotates to starboard it now
tracks to the right of the old track.
• THANKS

• CAPT/ MOHAB ABOU-ELKAWAM