Two Wire Processes

Two wires, leading and trailing forming

common elongated weld pool.

Twin wire GMAW Power sources coupled in parellel with

common
control. Parameters cannot be set
independently
Equipotential contact tubes - same volts
for both
wires. Magnetic attraction of arc roots.
Optimum inter wire spacing 4-7mm.
Mostly used with Pulsed - Arc and Spray

Multi-wire GMAW Process

Tandem
Wire
Technologies came
to
the GMAW process in
early Nineties .
2 electrically isolated
wires, one behind the
other
(lead
&
trail
electrodes),
closely
spaced, deposit metal in
single weld pool
Lead
wire
generates
most
of
base
metal
penetration, trail wire
controls bead contour
and edge wetting-also
adds to Depo. Rate.
Managed by specialized
Power control software

Two Wire Processes

Tandem MIG
Independently controlled power sources
frequency coupled - master and slave
operation.
Electrically seperated contact tubes
allows independent volts and parameter
settings.
Phase shift in pulsed welding achieves
high quality spatter free welding
Argon - 5O2 and Argon - 18CO2 gas
mixtures used
Applications in Ship building, tank
welding, truck wheels, rail coaches

FCAW PROCESS

FCAW Process Features

Uses tubular wire with flux

inside
Gas shielded (FCAW-G) or
self shielded (FCAW-S)
The flux produces a
protective slag and/or gas
cover
Combination of benefits of
MMAW and GMAW
High productivity process
with low spatter. Smooth
arc with CO2. Argon
mixtures give superior
performance
Problem of high fumes
which need to be extracted
in enclosed areas

Application of FCAW
For fabrication of
- mild and low alloy steels
- stainless steels
- high nickel alloys
For surfacing
- for wear or corrosion/oxidation resistance
- wide range of hardness / compositions available
- self shielded wires mainly used here

FCAW application areas

Out-of-position welding
Solid wire GMAW has to use dip-transfer which is slow with
tendency for lack-of-fusion or expensive pulsed-arc power
sources
Rutile type gas shielded E71T-1 wires can deposit over 3
kgs/hr vertically up and are extensively used in
shipbuilding, structural and general fabrication applications.
Outdoors field welding
Gas shielded, solid wire or FCAW processes cannot be used
due to windy conditions
Self shielded E71T-8 wires used which can deposit upto 2
kgs/hr vertically up.

FCAW application areas

Down-hand welding
For applications not requiring Charpy impact
properties E70T-4, self shielded wires used.
Deposits upto 18 kg/hr in mechanised operation
For applications requiring impact properties E70T1 wires used. Deposits upto 14 kg/hr in
mechanised operation.
For welding coated and galvanized sheet
Self shielded E71T-14 wires used. Breaks up and
volatilizes the coating avoiding porosity and
cracks
For high impact requirements and low alloy
steels
E70T-5 wires used with gas shielding

Typical welding Parameters for

FCAW E71T-1 wire
Wire
Size

Down-hand

Vertical-up

Overhead

0.9 mm

26V 200A

23V 150A

26V 200A

1.2 mm

27V 240A

25V 200A

27V 210A

1.4 mm

28V 260A

25V 210A

28V 220A

1.6 mm

28V 275A

25V 220A

28V 240A

Submerged Arc
Welding
Process and Practice

SAW Process Principles

Application of SAW process

Uses continuous wire
2.0 6.3 mm as
electrode.
Automatic process
Down-hand position
and H-V fillets only
Heavy section welding
of straight sections
Circumferential
welding

SAW Features
High Productivity, high
amperages may be used
Easy de-slagging
High Quality
Deep penetration
Excellent mechanical
properties
Environment friendly
Very little fume
No radiation
Easy operation

SAW Equipment

Equipment And Accesories

1. WIRE FEEDER
2. WELDING POWER SOURCE
3. FLUX HOLDER AND FEEDER
4. MEANS FOR TRAVERSING THE WELD
JOINT
5. REDRYING ARRANGEMENT FOR
FLUX
6. FLUX RECOVERY UNIT .
7. OTHER ACCESORIES

Consumables

Wire : solid / fluxcored

Soilid wires for mild and low alloy steel

applications are normally copper coated.
Flux cored wires are often referred as composite
electrodes and comes under EC designation in
wire flux classification.
Flux :

A. Fused flux :
Ingredients ( ground minerals ) are mixed and
melted in a pot / furnace at high temperature [
1600 1800 deg.C ]. melt is rapidly solidified and
fragmented by quenching in water. These flux
fragments are dried , crushed , sieved , sized and
packed.

Consumables contd.

B. Agglomerated flux ;
finely powdered ingredients are mixed and mix is
steadily moistened with liquid alkaline
[Link] mixer blades are designed to assist
agglomeration.
The green agglomerates are baked in rotary oven
gradually with final exposure at 600 to 800
[Link] baking the water evaporates leaving
the binder as bridges between particles. The flux
is then sieved , graded and packed.
C. Sintered flux :
Produced by grinding the dry charge together,
pressing into small balls and heating to just
below melting point [ 1000 1100 deg. C ] in
furnace. These semi fused masses are crushed,
sieved, sized and packed.

SAW Fluxes
Fused
Heavier, higher bulk
densities, hence less
volume for same
weight
Thicker slag cover,
more consumption
Higher
manufacturing
temperature and so
ferro-alloys, alloy
addition not possible.

Agglomerated
Lighter, lower bulk
densities, hence
volume is more for
same weight
Thinner slag cover,
less consumption
Lower manufacturing
temperature and
hence ferro-alloys,
alloys additions
possible

Neutral , Active And Alloy Fluxes

A change in arc voltage will change the quantity of flux

interacting with a given quantity of electrode resulting
change in composition of weld metal
Neutral fluxes :
These fluxes do not produce any significant change in
the weld metal chemical composition due to a large
change in arc voltage or arc length / stick out.
Active fluxes :
These contain manganese and / or silicon bearing
ingredients as de-oxidiser and changes the weld metal
chemical composition with change in arc voltage / stick
out.
Alloy fluxes :
contain alloying ingredients in the flux and when used
with non alloyed carbon steel electrode give alloy
weld metal.

Basicity Index ( B.I )

B.I = BASIC OXIDES / ACIDIC OXIDES =
[CaO+MgO+Na2O+CaF2+1/2(MnO+FeO)]
------------------------------------------------------------------- [SiO2+1/2 (Al2O3+TiO2+ZrO2)]
B.I < 0.9 , ACIDIC
B.I = 0.9 to 1.2 , NEUTRAL
B.I > 1.2 -2.0 , BASIC
B.I > 2.0 , HIGH BASIC

SAW Wire - Flux Classification

F

7A6 EM 12K
F Indicates SAW flux
7 UTS minimum 70,000 psi
A As welded condition
( P post weld heat-treated condition
)
6 Impact minimum 20 ft-lbf at 60 F
E Solid wire electrode
M Medium manganese level wire
12K specific composition wire

Flux consumption in SAW

kg/m

0,4

0,3

0,2

0,1

0
40

60

80

100

120

140

160

Welding speed in m/h

Handling and Storage of Fluxes

[Link] : should be free from rust , oil ,
grease etc. Before welding.
[Link] : to be redried depending on flux
type in line with manufacturers
recommendation
Care should be taken while storing
agglomerated flux - if bags containing
flux are stacked one upon other the bag
at the bottom should not experience
heavy load .

Welding Parameters
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.

WELDING CURRENT
ARC VOLTAGE
SPEED OF ARC TRAVEL
SIZE OF ELECTRODE
ELECTRODE STICK OUT
HEAT INPUT RATE

TO GET OPTIMUM RESULTS , EFFECTS OF THESE

PARAMETERS AND TO SELECT AND CONTROL
THOSE PROPERLY TO BE UNDERSTOOD
CAREFULLY.

Parameters for SAW welding

Typical parameters for square-butt
weld on 19 mm MS plate
Plate thickness
Pass

19 mm
1

5 mm

5mm

Current ( amps )

800

900

Voltage ( volts )

36

37

Travel speed ( cm/min )

56

56

Wire size

Arc Starting in SAW

Unlike MMAW arc start in SAW may be difficult due to flux
cover
Few common methods are
A. Use of steel wool / iron powder
B. Sharp wire start- wire tip made chisel like
for high current density
C. Scratch start carriage starts just before current
flow starts
D. Molten flux start arc starts inside molten flux used
for multi wire technique
E. Wire retract start
F. High frequency start

Control points of SAW

process
The plates have to be straight
The plates have to be clean, preferably
ground or shot blasted
The positioning of the wire is of utmost
importance
The flux should cover the arc completely
(not necessarily cover the wire
completely)
The flux should be dry

SAW Typical Defects

Porosity
- Inadequate flux depth, moisture or
contaminants
in the flux or weld joint
- Excessive travel speed
- Slag residue from tack welds made with
covered electrodes
Slag Inclusion
- Contaminants of flux, Usage of cold flux.
- Improper joint geometry
- Viscosity of the slag
Inadequate interpass cleaning

Influence of Amperage and

Voltage
Higher amperage gives deeper
penetration

Higher voltage gives wider penetration.

The arc length gets extended

Influence of polarity and wire

diameter
Deepest penetration with positive electrode.
Normally, the welding machine is equipped with DC
positive electrode.

At constant amperage, the penetration gets deeper

with smaller wire diameter, due to the higher
current density.

Influence of stick-out
Longer stick-out gives higher deposition
rate, but also more shallow penetration.

Above: Penetration at different stick-out

Right: Deposition rate at different stick-outs.
A: 25 mm
B: 57 mm
C: 83 mm

Deposition rate
Recommended current range and deposition
rate (kg/h) for different wire diameters

2,7 kg/h

1,6

9,0 kg/h

3,8 kg/h

2,0

3,5 kg/h

2,5

3,4 kg/h

10,3 kg/h
9,5 kg/h
11,4 kg/h

3,2

4,6 kg/h
5,7 kg/h

18,8 kg/h

5,0

5,6 kg/h
200

10,6 kg/h

4,0

21,8 kg/h

6,0
400

600

800

1000

1200

Ampere

Deposition rate
As a function of wire diameter and
amperage
Kg/
h

Wire
diameter
a = 1,6 mm
b = 2,0 mm
c = 2,4 mm
d = 3,2 mm
e = 4,0 mm
f = 5,0 mm
g = 6,0 mm

16
14

12
a

10

c
b

8
6
4
2
200

400

600

800

1000 Amp

SAW - Process Variations

Tandem SAW
Twin / Multiple wire SAW
SAW with auxiliary hot wire feeding
SAW with metal powder addition
Narrow Gap SAW

SAW Process Limitations

Limitation welding position

Limited to higher thickness
Limited to few materials
Elaborate arrangement for
equipments & accessories expensive

Resistance Welding

36

Resistance welding

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What is resistance welding?

Spot welding
Butt welding

Spot Welding

Seam welding
Flash butt

Resistance welding is a process where heat is generated by

the resistance of the parts being welded to the flow of a
localized electric current.
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Spot welding applications

Car body

Resistance spot welding is extensively applied for car

body manufacture.
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Spot welding applications

Rail car body panels

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Spot welding applications

Complete side walls of rail coach

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Spot Welding Machine

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Spot Welding Process

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Spot welding in
progress

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PORTABLE

SPOT WELDING GUNS

X-GUN

C-GUN IIW-ANB refresher

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Portable Spot Welding Machine

T ROLEY

G A NTRY

,AIR
,

SPRING
BALANCE

T/R

SELECT S/W
3

GUN S/W

A IR
Cylin
- der

KICKNESS
CABLE

2
1

SHUNT

T /C

POINT HOLDER
Guide Rod

CAP T IP

G ANTRY

SHANK

SCR
BOX

ADAPTOR
HOLDER
GUN BODY
MOT OR

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Portable spot welders

for side wall arch

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Robotics Spot Welding

LHB side wall

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Spot welding process

Overlapping steel sheets are positioned between

Cu-based electrodes.
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Spot welding process

P

Pressure is applied to ensure adequate contact resistance

between the parts being welded.
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Spot welding process

P

Key parameters: Squeeze pressure, Current, Weld

time, Hold time
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TIMES INVOLVED IN SPOT WELDING

Squeeze Time is the time interval between the initial

application of the electrode force on the work and the
first application of current. Squeeze time is necessary
to delay the weld current until the electrode force has
attained the desired level.

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TIMES INVOLVED IN SPOT WELDING

Weld time is the time during which welding current is
applied to the metal sheets. The weld time is measured
and adjusted in cycles of line voltage as are all timing
functions. One cycle is 1/50 of a second in a 50 Hz
power system.
As the weld time is, more or less, related to what is
required for the weld spot, it is difficult to give an exact
value of the optimum weld time.
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TIMES INVOLVED IN SPOT WELDING

Hold time is the time, after the welding, when the electrodes are
still applied to the sheet to chill the weld. Considered from a
welding technical point of view, the hold time is the most
interesting welding parameter.
Hold time is necessary to allow the weld nugget to solidify before
releasing the welded parts, but it must not be to long as this may
cause the heat in the weld spot to spread to the electrode and
heat it.
The electrode will then get more exposed to wear. Further, if the
hold time is to long and the carbon content of the material is high
(more than 0.1%), there is a risk the weld will become brittle.
When welding galvanized carbon steel a longer hold time is
recommended.
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TIMES INVOLVED IN SPOT WELDING

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Parameter nugget size relationship

No nugget
Pressure

Splash

Good
weld
Explosion

Welding current

Pressure control is critical for good quality joints

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Process range weld lobe

300

Splash Zone

200
150
100
dn=3.3-3.5mm dia.

50
4

Weld Current, kA

Welding time, ms

250

Weld Time, ms

140

dn=4.3-4.5mm dia.

120
100
80
60
6

Weldability lobe of IF-GA sheet of 0.8mm thickness

Welding current, kA

0.9mm thick IF-bare steel

0.8mm thick IF-coated steel

Weld lobe is the permissible operating range

for a given pressure condition.
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Effect of weld time on nugget diameter

Increase in weld time increases nugget size

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DETERMINATION OF SPOT WELDING PARAMETERS

Sheet
thickness,
t [mm]

Electrode
force, F [kN]

Weld
current, I
[A]

Weld time
[cycles]

Hold time
[cycles]

Electrode
diameter, d [mm]

0.63 + 0.63

2.00

8 500

0.71 + 0.71

2.12

8 750

0.80 + 0.80

2.24

9 000

0.90 + 0.90

2.36

9 250

1.00 + 1.00

2.50

9 500

10

1.12 + 1.12

2.80

9 750

11

1.25 + 1.25

3.15

10 000

13

1.40 + 1.40

3.55

10 300

14

1.50 + 1.50

3.65

10 450

15

1.60 + 1.60

4.00

10 600

16

1.80 + 1.80

4.50

10 900

18

2.00 + 2.00

5.00

11 200

3x7+2

2.24 + 2.24

5.30

11 500

3x8+2

2.50 + 2.50

5.60

11 800

3x9+3

2.80 + 2.80

6.00

12 200

4x8+2

3.00 + 3.00

6.15

12 350

4x9+2

3.15 + 3.15

6.30

12 500

4x9+2
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Joule heating

H=I2Rt
H=Heat
I=Current
R=Resistance
t=time

The high contact resistance at the interface of the

two
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Resistance and heating

The temperature varies from electrode to the

interface.
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Nugget shape and size

The nugget diameter should ideally be between 3.5t and

5t in order to provide proper strength.
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Temperature profile

Fusion temperatures at center of nugget exceed 2000oC

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Characteristics of welding machines

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