HIDDEN FACTS

IN
SSCE
GOVERNMENT

i
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CONTENT PAGES
Preface ix
Agents of Political Socialization 29
Chapter One Political Participation 30
Definition of Government 1 Citizenry Participation in Politics 30
Government as an institution of the state 1
Government as an art of governing or process of Chapter Four
administration 1 Basic Concept Cont. 40
Policy Formulation and Implementation 1 Communalism 40
Government as an Academic Field of Study 2 Features of Communalism 40
Academic Branches of Government 2 Merits of Communalism 40
Reasons why Government is an academic field of Demerits of Communalism 40
study 2 Socialism 40
Characters or Attributes of Government 3 Features of Socialism 41
Functions of Government 3 Merits of Socialism 41
Importance of Studying Government 4 Demerits of Socialism 41
Communism 42
Chapter Two Features of Communism 42
State 12 Merits of Communism 43
Features of the State 12 Demerits of Communism 43
The Purpose of a State 12 Relationship Between Socialism and Communism 45
Difference Between a State and Other Human Capitalism 45
Associations 12 Features of Capitalism 45
Difference between State and Government 13 Merits of Capitalism 46
Basic Functions of a State 13 Demerits of Capitalism 47
State and Nation 13 Comparison Between Capitalism and Socialism 48
Difference Between State and Nation 14 Mixed Economy 48
State and Society 14 Features of Mixed Economy 48
Features of a Society 14 Merits of Mixed Economy 48
Difference Between the State and Society 14 Demerits of Mixed Economy 49
Feudalism 49
Chapter Three Features of Feudalism 50
Basic Concepts 18 Merits of Feudalism 50
Power 18 Demerits of Feudalism 50
Forms of Power 18 Fascism 51
Sources and Acquisition of Power 18 Countries that have Practiced Fascism 51
Methods of Exercising Power 19 Features of Fascism 51
Authority 19 Merits of Fascism 51
Kinds of Authority 19 Demerits of Fascism 52
Sources of Authority 19 Nazism 52
Types of Authorities 20 Features of Nazism 52
Two ways of Acquiring Authority 21 Merits of Nazism 52
Difference Between Power and Authority 21 Demerits of Nazism 52
Legitimacy 21 Totalitarianism 52
Sovereignty 22 Features of Totalitarianism 53
Characteristics of Sovereignty 22 Merits of Totalitarianism 53
Limitations to the Sovereignty of a State 23 Demerits of Totalitarianism 53
Democracy 23 Oligarchy 54
Features of Democracy 24 Forms of Oligarchy 54
Types of Democracy 25 Aristocracy 54
The Merits of Democracy 26 Features of Aristocracy 54
Demerits of Democracy 26 Merits of Aristocracy 54
Conditions Necessary for a Successful Operation of Dictatorship 55
Democracy 26 Plutocracy 55
Pillars of Democracy 27 Features of Oligarchy 55
Political Culture 27 Merits of Oligarchy 55
Component of Political Culture 28 Demerits of Oligarchy 55
Determinants of Political Culture 28
Political Socialization 28
iii
Chapter Five System of Government
Types and Characteristics of Government 62 Military Government 82
Unitary System of Government 62 Features of Military Government 82
Features of Unitary System of Government 62 Features for Military Intervention in Government 83
Reasons for the Adoption of a Unitary State 63 Reasons why People Reject Military Rule in West
Advantage of a Unitary State 63 Africa 83
Disadvantages of a Unitary State 63 Causes of the First Military Intervention in Nigeria
Politics 84
Federal System of Government 64
How Powers and Functions or Duties are shared
Chapter Six
between the Tiers of Government in a Federation 65 Constitution 95
Features of Federal System of Government 65 Sources of Constitution 95
Reasons for the Adoption of a Federal System of Functions of Constitution 96
Government 66 Features of Constitution 97
Merits of Federal System of Government 67 Types of Constitution 97
Demerits of Federal System of Government 68 Written Constitution 97
Federal Character Principle 68 Merits of Written Constitution 97
Factors that Determine the Introduction of the Federal Demerits of Written Constitution 97
Character 68 Unwritten Constitution 97
Functions and Constitutional Powers of an Executive Merits of Unwritten Constitution 98
President 70 Demerits of Unwritten Constitution 98
Characteristics of Presidential System of Government 70 Difference Between Written and Unwritten
Merits of Presidential System of Government 71 Constitutions 98
Demerits of Presidential System of Government 72 Rigid Constitution 99
Checks on the Powers of the Executive Presidents 72 Merits of Rigid Constitution 99
Checks on the Powers Of The Executive in a Demerits of Rigid Constitution 99
Presidential System of Government 72 Flexible Constitution 100
Functions of Nigeria National Assembly or Merits of Flexible Constitution 100
Parliament in Nigeria’s 4th Republic Presidential
Demerits of Flexible Constitution 100
System of Government (1999 – date) 73
Parliamentary or Cabinet System of Government 73 Difference Between Rigid and Flexible Constitution 100
Characteristics of Parliamentary System of Federal Constitution 101
Government 74 Features of a Federal Constitution 101
Powers and Functions of the Prime Minister 74 Merits of a Federal Constitution 101
Functions of the Cabinet in a Parliamentary System 75 Demerits of a Federal Constitution 101
Collective Responsibility 75 Unitary Constitution 102
Advantages of Collective Responsibility 75 Features of a Unitary Constitution 102
Disadvantages of Collective Responsibility 75 Merits of the Unitary Constitution 102
Individual Responsibility 75 Demerits of Unitary Constitution 102
The Difference between the Cabinet or Parliamentary
and the Presidential System of Government 75 Chapter Seven
Confederal Government 76 Structure and Organisation of Government 110
Features of Confederal Government 76 The Executive 110
Merits of Confederal Government 77 Functions of the Executive 110
Demerits of Confederal Government 77 Types of Executive 111
The Difference Between Federal System and Increased Powers and Functions of the Executive
Confederation 78
Arm of Government 112
Similarities Between Federal System and
78 Honesty and Integrity of the Executive 112
Confederation
Control of Power of the Executive 112
Monarchy 78
Characteristics of Monarchy 78 The Legislature 113
Forms of Monarchy 79 Functions of the Legislature 113
Constitutional Monarchy 79 Types of Legislature 114
Features of Constitutional Monarchy 79 Bi-Cameral Legislature 114
Absolute Monarchy 79 Merits of Bicameral Legislature 115
Features of Absolute Monarchy 80 Demerits of Bicameral Legislature 115
Merits of Monarchy 80 Unicameral Legislature 116
Demerits of Monarchy 80 Merits of Unicameral Legislature 116
Republicanism 81 Demerits of Unicameral Legislature 117
Features of Republicanism 81 Difference Between Bicameral and Unicameral
The Difference Between Republican and Monarchy Legislature 117
81 Honesty and Integrity of the Legislature 117

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Bills 118 Chapter Ten
Types of Bills 118 Basic Principles of Government 2 169
The Procedure on How a Bill could become a Law in Political Participation 169
the Parliament 119 Types of Political Participants 169
Procedures for Constitutional Amendment 120 Forms of Political Participation 169
Judiciary 120 The Purpose of Political Participation 170
Features of the Judiciary in a State 120 Factors Affecting Political Participation 171
Functions of the Judiciary 121 Centralisation 171
The Independence of the Judiciary 122 Reasons for the Adoption of Centralization 171
Ways by which the efficiency of the judiciary can be Advantages of Centralisation 172
guaranteed in safeguarding the rights of a citizen 122 Disadvantages of Centralisation 172
Factors that Limit Judicial Independence 123 Decentralization 172
Plea Bargain 124 Types of Decentralization 173
Argument against Plea Bargaining 124 Advantages of Decentralisation 173
Disadvantages of Decentralisation 174
Chapter Eight Difference and Similarities Between Centralisation
Basic Principles of Government 142 and Decentralisation 174
The Rule of Law 142 Delegated Legislation 174
Principles of the Rule of Law 143 Types of Delegated Legislation 175
Limitation to the Rule of Law 143 Reasons for Delegated Legislation 175
Reasons for Upholding the Rule of Law 144 Reasons why delegated legislation is often criticized
Factors that can ensure the enforcement of the rule of or demerits of delegated legislation 177
law 144 Control of Delegated Legislation 177
Ways government of a state can violate the principle Importance of Delegated Legislation to Modern
of the rule of law 145
Government 178
Fundamental Human Rights 145
Reason why Fundamental Human Right is entrenched
Chapter Eleven
in Constitution 145
Citizenship 182
Liberty 146
Ways of Acquiring Citizenship 182
Civil Liberty: Rights of Citizenship 146
Requirement for Citizenship 183
Political Liberty 147
Deprivation of Citizenship 184
Factors that can Safeguard the Liberty of Citizens 147
Ways of Depriving or Losing Citizenship 184
Constitutionalism 147
Rights of a Citizen 184
Factors that can Promote Constitutionalism 147
Classification of Rights 184
Purpose of Constitutionalism 148
Duties and Obligations of a Citizen in a State 185
Relationship Between Constitution and
Ways of Safeguarding the Rights of a Citizen in a
Constitutionalism 148
State 185
Limitations to a Citizen’s Rights 186
Difference Between A Citizen and A Non-Citizen 186
Chapter Nine Trafficking in Persons Victims 187
Categories of Trafficked Victims 187
Basic Principle of Government 159
Identification of Trafficked Victims and Human
Separation of Powers 159
Traffickers 187
Merits of Separation of Powers 159
Other Indicators 188
Demerits of Separation of Powers 160
Identification of Traffickers 188
Separation of Powers in the Presidential System of
The Rights of Trafficked Victims 188
Government 160
Relationship between Fundamental Human Rights
Checks on the Powers of the Executive in the
and Rights of Trafficked Victims 189
Presidential System 160
Safeguarding the Rights of Trafficked Person 189
Separation of Powers in the Cabinet System of
Roles of Law Enforcement Agencies on Fundamental
Government 161
Human Rights and Rights of Trafficked Victims 190
Checks and Balances 161
National Agency for the Prohibition of Trafficking in
Merits of Checks and Balances 161
persons (NAPTIP) 190
Demerits of Checks and Balances 161
Representative Government 162
Features of Representative Government 162 Chapter Twelve
Political Parties 197
Conditions for the Establishment of Representative
Characteristics of Political Parties 197
Government 163
Types of Political Parties 197
Merits of Representative Government 163
The Organization Structures of a Political Party 198
Demerits of Representative Government 163
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Functions/Importance of Political Parties 198 Electoral Malpractices 236
Demerits of Political Parties 199 Causes of Electoral Malpractices 236
Factors which Determine the Electoral Sources of a Forms of Electoral Malpractices 237
Political Party 199 Consequences of Electoral Malpractice 237
Problems of Political Party 200
Chapter Seventeen
Chapter Thirteen Organisation of Election 240
Party Systems 205 Election 240
One Party System 205 Functions of Election 240
Characteristics of One Party System 205 Merits of Election 240
Merits of One Party System 206 Demerits of Election 240
Demerits of One Party System 206 Types of Elections 241
Two Party System 207 Plebiscite 245
Features of Two Party System 207 The Process of Recall 245
Merits of Two Party System 208 Free and Fair Election 245
Demerits of Two Party System 208 Conditions Necessary for the Conduct of a Free and
Multi-Party System 208 Fair Election 245
Features of Multi-Party System 209 Factors Militating Against Free and Fair Election in
Merits of Multi-Party System 210 Developing Countries 245
Demerits of Multi-Party System 210 Stages of Election 246
Zero Party System 211 Election Day 247
Merits of Zero Party System 211 Electoral Commission 247
Demerits of Zero Party System 211 Features of Electoral Commission 247
Party Manifesto 211 Functions of Electoral Commission 247
Reasons why Party Manifesto is Essential 211 Problems of Electoral Commission 247
Measures of Ensuring the Independence and
Chapter Fourteen Impartiality of the Electoral Commission 248
Pressure Groups 215 Electoral Officials 248
Types of Pressure Group 215
Function/Importance of Pressure Groups 216 Chapter Eighteen
Factors that can Aid Effective Operation of Pressure Public Opinion 253
Groups 216 Meaning of Public Opinion 253
Weakness or Factors Working Against the Success of Characteristics of Public Opinion 253
Pressure Group 217 Formation of Public Opinion 253
Modes of Operation of Pressure Groups 217 How Public Opinion is Determined and Measured 255
Dangers Posed by the Activities of Pressure Groups 218 Functions/Importance of Public Opinions 255
Differences Between Political Parties and Pressure Demerits of Public Opinion 257
Groups 218 Factors that can Promote Public Opinion in a State 257
Factors that makes the Conduct of Public Opinion
Chapter Fifteen Unreliable in West Africa 257
Franchise 224 Opinion Poll 258
Purpose of Franchise 224
Types of Franchise 225 Chapter Nineteen
Limited or Restricted Franchise 225 Mass Media 261
Merits of Limited Franchise 225 Roles of Mass Media in Government Activities 261
Demerits of Limited Franchise 225 The Impact of Mass media in Nigerian Politics 262
Unlimited Franchise or Universal Adult Suffrage 225 Types of Media 262
Merits of Universal Adult Suffrage 226
Demerits of Universal Adult Suffrage 226 Chapter Twenty
Types of Suffrage 227 Civil Service and Civil Service Commission 263
Conditions for Necessary for Eligibility as Candidates Civil Service 263
for Elections 227 Bureaucracy 263
Causes of Bureaucracy 263
Chapter Sixteen Argument in Favour of Bureaucracy 263
Electoral System 229 Relationship Between the Civil Service and Political
Characteristics of an Electoral System 229 Executives 263
Types of Electoral System 230 Characteristics of the Civil Service 264
Electoral Constituency 234 Functions of the Civil Service 267
Types of Constituencies 235 Measures that can be put in place to make Civil
Problems Affecting Delimitation of Constituencies 235 Servants Non-Partisan 268
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Factors that can Hinder the Effectiveness of the Civil be insulated from Partisan Politics
Service in Nigeria 268 Revision Exercises 306
Continuity of the Civil Service 269
Chapter Twenty Five
How to Ensure the Political Neutrality of the Civil
Pre-Colonial Political System in Nigeria 308
Service 269 Hausa/Fulani Political System 308
Control of the Civil Service 269 Political Administration 309
Institutional Frameworks to Curb Corruption in Civil Forms of Taxation at the Emirates 309
Service 269 Igbo Political System 311
Honesty and Integrity in Civil Service 270 The structural organization of Igbo Political System 311
The Civil Service Commission 270 Factors that United the Various Igbo Communities in
the Pre Colonial Period 313
Functions of the Civil Service 270
Comparison of Hausa/Fulani Pre-Colonial Political
System with Igbo Traditional Political System 313
Chapter Twenty One The Political System of Oyo Empire 313
The Police Force 275 Political Organizational Structure of the Yoruba’s During
The Structure of the Police Force 275 the Pre-Colonial System 314
Ombudsman 276 Features of the Yoruba Pre-Colonial Political System 315
Functions of Ombudsman 276 Features of the Traditional Yoruba Political System 316
Limitations to the Powers of Ombudsman 276 Elements of checks and balances in Pre-Colonial
Revision Exercises 277 Yoruba political system 317
Decentralized Administration 317
Chapter Twenty Two 279 Methods Used by the Pre-Colonial Chiefs of a Country
Public Corporation 279 to Control their Subjects 317
Features of Public Corporation 279 Safeguards against Tyranny or Abuse of Power by the
Reasons for the Establishment of Public Corporation 280 Rulers in the Pre-Colonial Era and Factors that Helped
Functions of Public Corporation 280 to Make Pre-Colonial Administrations Democratic 319
Problems of Public Corporation 281 Revision Exercises 324
Solutions to problems of Public Corporation 282
Organizational Structure of Public Corporations 283 Chapter Twenty Six
Difference between Public Corporation and Civil Service 284 Colonial Administration 325
Control of Public Corporations 284 Historical Background of Colonial Administration 325
Revision Exercises 288 Structure of British Colonial Rule in West Africa 326
Reasons for Colonialism 326
Chapter Twenty Three Political Institutions of the Colonial Central
Privatization, Commercialization and Deregulation Administration 327
of Public Corporations 289 Functions and Powers of the Governor under the
Privatization 289 Crown Colony System 328
Commercialization 289 Limitations of the Governor 328
Deregulation 290 Functions of the Legislative Council under the Crown
Colony System 329
Chapter Twenty Four Functions of the Legislative Council under the Crown
Local Government 292 Colony System 329
Powers of the Local Government 292 Limitations to the Powers of the Legislative Council 329
Reasons for the Creation of Local Government 292 Limitations to the Powers of the Executive Council 330
Functions of Local Government 293 Indirect Rule 331
Types of Local Government 293 The Features of Indirect Rule 331
Sources of Revenue for Local Government 295 Reasons for Adoption of Indirect Rule System in
How Local Government Revenue can be improved 295 Nigeria 332
Relationship between Federal, State and Local Reasons why British Government involves African
Government 296 Traditional Rulers in the Colonial Administration of West
Differences between Central or State Government and Africa 333
Local Government 296 Ways Colonial Rules Contributed to the Decline of the
Control of Local Government 296 Powers of the Traditional Rulers in West Africa 333
Importance of Local Government in a State 297 Roles played by the traditional rulers during the
Problems of Local Government 297 British colonial rule in Nigeria 334
Suggestions and Solutions to the Problems of Local Factors that Lead to the Success of Indirect Rule in
Government 298 Northern Nigeria 334
Structure of Local Government 298 Reasons why the Educated Elites Opposed the
The Development of Nigerian Local Government Introduction of Indirect Rule in Southern Nigeria 334
Structure from 1976 to 2016 299 Reason for the Partial Success of Indirect Rule in
1976 Local Government Reforms 300 Western Nigeria 335
Main Features of 1976 Local Government Reforms 300 Warrant Chiefs 337
1979 Local Government Reform 301 Weakness of the British Colonial Administration 337
1988 Local Government Reform 301 Revision Exercises 343
The Role or Functions of the Traditional Rulers in
Government 302
Why Traditional Rulers should not engage or should 302

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Chapter Twenty Seven Functions of the Secretary of State for the Colonies in
Colonial Administration 2 344 the Colonial Period 379
French Colonial Administration in West Africa 344 Clifford Constitution Of 1922 379
The Policy of Assimilation 345 Features of Clifford Constitution of 1922 380
Reasons for the Failure of the Policy of Assimilation 348 Merits of Clifford Constitution of 1922 381
Comparing Indirect Rule with the Policy of Richard Constitution Of 1946 381
Assimilation 346 Aims and Objectives of Richards Constitution of 1946 383
The Policy of Association 348 Weakness of Richard’s Constitution Of 1946 384
Features of the Association Policy 348 The Macpherson Constitution Of 1951 384
Economic Policies and Developments in West Africa Ibadan All–Nigerian Constitutional Conference of
during the Colonial Period 350 1950 384
Comparison between the British and French Colonial The London Constitutional Conference Of 1953 387
Administrations 350 Lagos Conference of 1954 387
The Negative and Positive Impact of Colonialism 350 Lyttleton Constitution Of 1954 387
Negative Impact of Colonialism 354 Features of Lyttleton Constitution of 1954 388
Positive Effects of Colonial Rule in West Africa 354 Important Provisions of the Lyttleton Constitution 388
Imperialism 352 Weakness of the Lyttleton Constitution of 1954 390
Revision Exercises 355 The London Constitutional Conference Of 1957 391
Willink’s Commission of Inquiry 1957 391
Chapter Twenty Eight Recommendations of Willink’s Commission 392
Nationalism 356 Revision Exercises 399
Proto Nationalism 356
Prominent Nationalists In Nigeria 356 Chapter Thirty
Herbert Samuel Macaulay 356 Constitutional Development in Nigeria 2:
Dr. Benjamin Nnamdi Azikiwe 357 Independence and Post-Independence Constitution 401
Chief Obafemi Jeremiah Oyeniyi Awolowo 358 Independence Constitution of 1960 401
Alhaji (Sir) Ahmadu Bello 359 Feature of the Independence Constitution of 1960 401
Alhaji Abubakar Tafawa Balewa 359 Achievement of Independence Constitution 402
Chief Anthony Enahoro 360 Weakness of Independence Constitution 403
Modern Nationalism 360 The Republican Constitution of 1963 403
Features of Nationalism before Second World War 360 Merits of the First Republic Constitution 405
External Factors 361 Functions of the President under the 1963 Constitution
Internal Factors 362 of Nigeria 405
Nationalist Movement in British West Africa 362 Similarities and Differences of the 1960 and 1963
Achievement/Contributions of West African Student Constitutions 405
Union 362 The Following are the Differences Between the 1960
National Congress of British West Africa 363 and 1963 Constitutions 406
Nigeria Youth Movement 365 The Second Republican Constitution of 1979 406
Achievements/Contributions of Nigerian Youth Removal of the President from Office 407
Movement 365 The Differences between 1963 and 1979 Constitutions 410
The Organization Structure of the Nigerian Youth The Republic Constitution of 1989 410
Movement (NYM) 366 Features of the 1989 Constitution 411
Pan-Africanism 367 Similarities and Differences between the 1979 and
Contribution of Nationalists to the Achievement of 1989 Constitution of Nigeria 412
Independence in Nigeria 368 Revision Exercises 419
Achievements of Nationalist in Nigeria between 1945
and 1960 369 Chapter Thirty One
Methods used by Nationalist Leaders in their 1999 Constitution of Nigeria 420
opposition to British Rule in West Africa 370 The Fourth Republic of 1999 420
Reasons why nationalist activities were slow in French Features of the Fourth Republic Constitution of 1999 420
West African Colonies 370 Powers of the National Assembly in the 1999
Factors that led to the increase in Nationalism in French Constitution 421
West Africa after the Second World War 371 Factors that can lead to the disqualification from the
Reasons for the European Colonization of West Africa 372 membership of National Assembly 422
Revision Exercises 375 Similarities and Differences of the 1989 and 1999
Constitution 422
Chapter Twenty Nine Demerits of the 1999 Constitution 424
Constitutional Development in Nigeria 1: Pre – Revision Exercises 424
Independence 376
Crown Colony System 376 Chapter Thirty Two
Features of the Colonial Administration in the Crown Federalism in Nigeria 425
Colonies of British West Africa 376 The Origin of Federalism 425
The Governor 376 Factors that aided the Formation of Nigerian
The Executive Council 377 Federalism 425
The Legislative Council 377 Major Constitutional Conference that precipitated the
The Nigerian Council of Lord Lugard 378 establishment of Federalism in Nigeria. 427
The National Congress of British West Africa London Constitutional Conference of 1953 427
(NCBWA) 378 The Lagos Conference of 1954 428

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The Structure of Nigerian Federalism 428 Kaduna State Executive/ Legislative Crisis of 1981 474
Federalism before Independence 428 The Nigerian Civil War Historical Perspective 474
Federation between 1960 and 1966 428 Positive and Negative Consequences of the Civil War 475
Federalism between 1967 and 1975 429 Political Development in Nigeria from 1966 to 1979 476
Federalism from 1976 to Date 429 Revision Exercises 478
Main Features of the Nigerian Federalism 431
Prospects of Federalism in Nigeria 431 Chapter Thirty Six
Revenue Allocation 432 Military Rule in Nigeria 479
Revenue Allocation Commissions and Their Brief History of Military Rule in Nigeria 480
Recommendations 433 Characteristics of Military Rule 483
Problems of the Nigerian Federalism 434 Reasons for military intervention in Nigeria. 485
Revision Exercises 436 The Structure of Military Government in Nigeria 487
The Structure of Military Rule in Nigeria under the
Chapter Thirty Three Babangida Administration Up to 1990 487
Minority Issues and the Creation of States 438 Achievements of Military Rule in Nigeria 487
Inter-Ethnic Rivalry and Issues of Secession 438 Weakness of Military Regime in Nigeria 489
Origin and Threats of Secession in Nigeria 438 Measures that could be taken to prevent military
The Nigerian Civil War 439 intervention in West Africa 490
Threat of Secession by Military Groups 440 Process of Return to Civilian Rule 490
Boko Haram 440 Revision Exercises 496
Measures (Solutions) to Avoid Secession in Nigeria 440
Minority Issues and the Creation of States 441 Chapter Thirty Seven
The Six Zones of Nigeria 442 Conflicts Resolution and Management 497
Reasons for the Demand for More States 443 Causes of Conflicts 497
Complexity and Endless Nature of State Creation 443 Types of Conflicts 497
Recommendation of Willink’s Commission 444 Consequences or Effects of Conflict 498
Solutions to Minority Problems in Nigeria 444 Conflict Resolution 499
Revision Exercises 445 Conflict management 500
Revision Exercises 501

Chapter Thirty Four Chapter Thirty Eight

Development of Political Parties in Nigeria 446 Peace Education 502
Nigerian National Democratic Party (NNDP) 446 Types of Peace Education 502
Nigerian Youth Movement 448 Need for Peace in our Society 502
The National Council of Nigeria and the Cameroons Mechanism for Promoting Peace 502
(NCNC) 449 Revision Exercises 503
The Contributions of the NCNC 450
Development of the National Council of Nigerian and Chapter Thirty Nine
the Cameroons (NCNC) 451 Nigeria and the World: The Independence of
Northern People’s Congress (NPC) 452 Nations (Foreign Policy) 504
The Action Group (AG) 453 National Interest 504
Minor Political Parties 454 Definition of National Interest: 504
Political Parties Coalition/Alliance System of the First Classification of National Interests: 505
Republic 454 International Interests 505
The Second Republic Political Parties in Nigeria. 455 Methods for the Securing of National Interest: 505
National Party of Nigeria (NPN) 455 Definition of Interaction 507
Unity Party of Nigeria (UPN) 457 The Need for Interaction 507
Nigerian People’s Party (NPP) 457 Nigeria’s Foreign Policy 508
Great Nigeria People’s Party (GNPP) 458 Nigeria’s Foreign Policy since Independence 509
People’s Redemption Party (PRP) 458 Balewa Era (1960–66) 509
Nigeria Advanced Party (NAP) 459 Crisis and Civil War/Gowon Era (1966-1975) 510
Political Parties in the Fourth Republic in Nigeria. 460 Murtala/Obasanjo Era (1975-1979) 510
Revision Exercises 464 Shagari Era (1979 – 83) 511
The Buhari/Idiagbon Era (1983-85) 511
Chapter Thirty Five The Babangida Era (1985-93) 511
Major Political Crisis in Nigeria 466 Shonekan/Abacha Era (1993-June 1998) 512
The Kano Riot of 1953 466 Factors that can Affect Nigeria’s Foreign Policy 512
Political implications of the Kano Riot 466 Formulation of Nigeria Foreign Policy 513
The Eastern Regional Crisis of 1953 467 Major Features of Nigeria’s Foreign Policy 514
The Census Crisis of 1962/63 468 Nigeria's Foreign Policy Objectives 514
Action Group Crisis Of 1962 468 Africa as the Centerpiece of Nigeria Foreign Policy 515
The consequences of the Action Group crisis of 1962 Non–Alignment 517
in Nigeria 469 Origin of Non–Aligned Movement 517
The Federal Election Crisis of 1964 470 The First Nam Summit 517
Western Nigeria Election of 1965 471 Revision Exercises 526
General Elections of 1979 Second Republic 472
General Elections of 1983 472
General Elections of 1993 473

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Chapter Forty Uses of ECOWAS Fund for Cooperation,
International Organisation 1: The Organization of Compensation and Development 580
African Union (OAU)/ African Union (AU)/New The Community Tribunal 580
Partnership for Africa’s Development (NEPAD) 528 The Technical and Specialised Commission 580
Historical Perspective of OAU 528 Court of Economic community of West African states. 580
Principles of OAU 530 Contentious Jurisdiction in the Court 580
The Liberation Committee 530 Problems, Weakness, Failures or Disadvantages of
The Assembly of Heads of State and Government 531 ECOWAS 581
The Council of Ministers 532 Achievements of ECOWAS 582
The General-Secretariat 533 Revision Exercises 589
The Commission of Mediation, Conciliation and
Arbitration 535 Chapter Forty Four
The Formation of African Union (AU) 538 International Organization 5: Organisation of
Institutions of AU 538 Petroleum Exporting Countries (OPEC) 590
New Partnership for Africa’s Development (NEPAD) 540 Origin of OPEC 590
NEPAD’S Commitment 540 Organs of OPEC 591
Revision Exercises 547 The Conference 591
The Board of Governors 591
Chapter Forty One The Secretariat 592
International Organisation 2 548 Problems or Failures of OPEC 593
The Commonwealth/The League of Nations 548 Revision Exercises 595
The Origin of the Commonwealth 548
Historical Background of Commonwealth 548 Chapter Forty Five
Birth of the Modern Commonwealth 548 Millennium Development Goal (MDG’S) 596
Members of Commonwealth 549 Importance of MDGs 596
Features of Commonwealth 550 Goals of Millennium Development Goals (MDG) 596
The Queen as the Head of the Commonwealth 550 National Economic Empowerment and Development
Organs of the Commonwealth 550 Strategies (NEEDS) 597
Problems facing the Commonwealth 552 VISION 2020 597
The League of Nations 552 The Seven Points Agenda of Vision 2020 598
An Assembly 553 Institutional Framework for Vision 20:2020 598
A Council 553 How Vision 20:20 will be achieved 599
The Secretariat 553 Challenges to vision 20:2020 599
The Permanent Court of International Justice 553
International Labour Office 554 Chapter Forty Six
Arguments Against the League of Nations 554 Anti-Trafficking Initiatives in Nigeria 600
Revision Exercises 556 Major Civil Society Organisations (CSOS) Nigeria
Combating Trafficking In Persons 600
Chapter Forty Two Government Intervention in Combating Trafficking in
International Organisation 3: The United Nations Persons (TIP) 601
Organization 557 The Roles of Civil Society Organisation in Combating
Origin of United Nation Organisation (UNO) 557 Trafficking in Persons 601
The Principles of United Nation Organisation 558 The Roles of Individuals in Combating Trafficking in
The Organs of The UNO 559 Persons 601
The General Assembly 559 The Roles of Development Partners in Combating
The Security Council 561 Trafficking in Persons 601
The Secretariat 563 Protection and Assistance of Trafficking in Persons
The Trusteeship Council 565 (TIP) Victims 602
International Court Of Justice 566 Trafficking In Persons in International Perspective 602
The Economic and Social Council 567 Combating Trafficking in Persons 603
Specialised Agencies of UNO 567 Types of Protection and Assistance Services for
United Nations International Children Emergency Trafficked Victims 604
Fund (UNICEF) 568 How to Access Protection and Assistance Services for
The World Health Organisation (WHO) 568 Trafficked Victims 604
International Labour Organisation (ILO) 568 Revision Exercises 605
Food and Agricultural Organisation (F.A.O) 569
Problems or Failures of the UNO 570 Chapter Forty Seven
Revision Exercises 576 E-Government 606
Meaning of E–Governance 606
Chapter Forty Three Examples of E–Government and E–Governance 606
International Organisation 4: Economic Community Merits of E–Government 607
of West African states (ECOWAS) 577 Demerits of E-Governments 607
Formation of ECOWAS 577 Revision Exercises 607
Organs of ECOWAS 578
The Council of Ministers 579
The Executive Secretariat 579
The Fund for Cooperation, Compensation and
Development 579

x
Chapter Forty Eight
Leadership and Followership 608
Qualities of a Good Leader 608
Followership 609
Leadership and Followership Roles in Politics and
Government 609
Types of Leadership 610
Styles of Leadership 610
Revision Exercises 615

Chapter Forty Nine

Classical Political Thoughts 616
Basic Concept of Idealism 616
Fundamental Principles of Idealism 616
Basic Concepts of Realism 616
Fundamental Principles of Realism 616
Aristostle (384-322BC) 616
Plato (428-347 BC) 617
John Locke (1632-1704) 618
Jean–Jacques Rousseau (1712-1778) 618
Rousseau Social Contract Theory 618
Thomas Hobbes (1588-1679) 619
Cicero (106-43 BC) 620
Thomas Aquinas (1225-1274) 621
Immanuel Kant (1724-1804) 621
Karl Marx (1818-1883) 622
Jeremy Betham (1748–1832) 622
J. S. Mill (1806-1873) 622
Revision Exercises 624

Exercises Answers 625

xi
Hidden facts in SSCE Government aims at exploring the basic concepts in
government as outlined in the syllabus of WAEC, NECO, NABTEB, JAMB and various
other O’ level grade syllabus.

Each topic is adequately treated and simplified, following a well detailed and concise
approach so as to give average student a clear understanding even when there is
no teacher to guide him/her. It is essentially a teach yourself text.

Furthermore, at the end of each chapter revision exercises are provided to enable
the student test their understanding on the just concluded topic; this is an addition
to the pool of question drawn from WAEC, NABTEB, NECO, JAMB and POST-UTME
examination.

This text is of great relevance to the teachers and most importantly student
partaking in the aforementioned examinations and other pre-university examination,
so as to aid them prepare adequately.

xii
iii
Chapter One 2000/1
Government as an institution of a state can be defined as a
GOVERNMENT body that
A. recruits and trains political leaders
DEFINITION OF GOVERNMENT B. settles disputes and interprets law for the state
Government can be defined in three main aspects or areas C. legislates, executes and judiciary
depending on the context in which it is being used. Each of D. conducts elections for the state
the definition, describes government in its own terms as Answer
follows: Legislates, executes and judiciary (C)
(a) Government as an institution of the state Hint: Government as an institution of the state needs to
(b) Government as an art of governing or as a process of elect few individuals into political offices and empowers
administration them to make laws, guides, controls and regulates the laws.
(c) Government as an academic field or area of study. The three organs or arms of government are very essential
in this aspect of government. Government as the
Government as an institution of the state institutions of a state, directs all the activities of the state
Government as an institution of the state may be defined because the functions of each organ are stipulated in the
as a machinery established by the state to organise, manage constitution.
the affairs of the state and administer its functions and
duties. 1997/1 Exercise 1.1
Government as an institution of the state means the
Government is the instrument through which the state puts A. method of organizing political parties and pressure
its plan into action. In a way, government is an instrument groups
whose purpose is to solve human disputes through law and B. process of decision making in a society
to enforce those solutions or laws through superior power. C. method of resolution of conflicts among people
Government is the means through which the will of the D. structures and systems for decision making in a society
state is formulated, expressed, and realized. It is endowed
with power and authority to provide the basic needs of the
people which include social welfare and security. 2006/2 Exercise 1.2
Which of the following best defines government as an
Government as an institution of state has three major arms: institution of a state?
the executive, the legislature, and the judiciary. The A. an institution established for class struggles
primary functions are as follows B. machinery established for exercising political parties
(i) The Executive: This arm of government is concerned C. a process of organizing societal values
with policy formulation and implementation. D. the art through which political parties are managed
(ii) The Legislature: This arm is concerned with law
making which every member of the society must
obey. Government as an art of governing or process of
(iii) The Judiciary: This arm of government concentrates administration
mainly in the interpretation of the law and decide how Government as an art of governing or process of
to apply the laws in specific disputes. administration may be defined as a body vested with the
power and authority for maintaining security, peace, and
1982/20 stability by making and enforcing conventional and
A body of people and institution that make and enforce fundamental laws in a given state or society. Through the
laws for a particular society is called formulation and implementation of policies in the state,
A. government B. dictatorship C. anarchy government as an art of governing or process of
D. democracy administration regulates the activities of the citizens and at
Answer the same time steers the affairs of the state.
Government is the group of people which legitimate
authorities are conferred to govern a country or a state. The Government makes laws and enforces them on the people.
authorities makes laws, implement and formulate policies, It makes policies and implements them. It also interprets
they also interprets the laws and settle disputes in the laws and punishes offenders. Most of the policies and laws
society. (A) were made for the well-being of the society. The efficiency
of government in the process of administration is based on
2002/1 Nov the principle of separation of power, where each organ of
Government is the machinery established to manage the government has its own functions as defined by the
affairs of constitution.
A. rulers B. institutions C. legislators D. state
Answer Policy Formulation and Implementation
Government is a machinery of the state established to Policy formulation involves developing strategies for
manage the affairs of the people to make the society a dealing with policy issues which have been placed on an
conducive place for all citizens, so that the wealthy would agenda. Policy formulation takes both the effectiveness
not oppress the poor. (D) and the viability or acceptability of proposed actions into
1
account. Effectiveness refers to valid, workable strategies Government as an academic field of study
that address the situation, while acceptability refers to Government as an academic field of study may be defined
those strategies which are more likely to be put into action. as the study of agencies, political institutions and the
The government makes policies that are beneficial to the dynamics of the state.
people and their implementation will bring direct bearing
on the lives of the people. As an academic field of study, in most countries,
government is regarded as a special subject studied in
Policy formulation and implementation involves the independent scholarly discipline, labelled as
following: ‘government’, ‘political science’, ‘politics’, or ‘public
(i) Rule making: This is the process of making a rule affairs’; and all these deal with the same subject matter. In
or policy that is expected to have a binding effect the Nigerian Universities, the term ‘political science’ is by
on the polity or the populace. Policy formulation far the most common which is not a pure science rather a
goes with rule making that has an effect on the social science subject.
people, or that is expected to produce results.
(ii) Rule implementation: Having made rules, it is ACADEMIC BRANCHES OF GOVERNMENT
important that the rules are implemented for them As an academic subject, government is studied under
to be effective. This means that the rules has to be different names in different universities and other
put to use for results to be gained. institutions of higher learning. Thus, government may be
(iii) Rule adjudication: It is the process by which a studied as:
government reviews policy formulation and policy 1. Public Administration: The study of public
implementation and come to a decision which administration focuses attention on the methods and
determines successful formulation and techniques used by government functionaries in the
implementation. It is a process by which management of state affairs.
formulated and implemented rules are ranked and 2. International Relations: As the name implies, the
evaluated. subject deals with relations between nations as well as the
environment within which these relations are maintained.
2005/1 Nov The subject covers international organizations,
The process of carrying out the affairs of a country is international law, diplomacy, international economics, and
referred to as foreign policy.
A. democracy B. gerrymandering C. governance 3. Comparative politics: The subject focuses on the
D. delegated legislation comparison of different governments in order to discover
Answer cross-cultural similarities and differences. Students of
Government is seen as an art of governing or process of comparative policies learn about Western European
administration because supreme powers of the state affairs are nations, the communist nations, the developing nations and
vested on some few individuals to maintain peace, order and other nations.
security of the state. The process of carrying out the affairs of 4. Political theory: This concerns philosophical
a country is referred to as governance. (C) explanations which related to the origin, form, behavior
2007/1 and purposes of human organisation. Some of the doctrines
Which of the following is related to government as a are based on speculations while others are based on
process of governing? empirical observations of political life.
A. implementation and adjudication of laws 5. Political Economy: It deals with the fiscal and
B. the role of pressure groups within the state monetary policies of a country. It studies how politics
C. disagreement between state and local government influences economics and how economics affects politics.
D. abrogation of fundamental human rights Some of the subjects studied in political economy include
Answer public finance, budgeting, social welfare and the
The term government as a process of governing also refers to relationship between government and business.
implementations, making, reviewing and amending laws in 6. National politics: This subject focuses on the
the society. This administrative structure is known as the organization of a specific government. National politics
process of governing people. (A) teaches students about their own country under such topics
as the legislature, the executive, the courts, the
1998/3 Exercise 1.3 constitution, political parties, elections, political
Government as the act of governing means the awareness, etc.
A. activities of pressure groups and political parties
B. act of vetoing a bill Reasons why government is an academic field of study
C orders of judiciary and legislative 1. Government is an academic field of study or a school
D. activities by which government policies are made and discipline because it is being taught in our schools,
implemented. colleges and universities.
2. Government has specialized areas in our tertiary
2006/1 Exercise 1.4 institutions. Its specialized areas include political
Government as an art of governance refers to the process of
science, international relations, public administration,
A. ruling people in the society
comparative politics, political thoughts, among others.
B. establishing political parties
C. providing free education D. acquiring skills
2
3. It borrows ideas from other popular well established Characteristics or attributes of government
disciplines like philosophy, history, sociology, The following are the attributes or characteristics of
economics and law. government.
4. Government is regarded as a school discipline because 1. Political Power: This is the power that enables
it also borrows ideas from renowned philosophers like government to control the behaviour of citizens
Plato, Aristotle, Hobbes, Rousseau, John Locke, Karl through formulated and implemented policies for the
Marx, among others. benefit of all.
5. Like other disciplines, government makes use of 2. Legitimate Authority: Any legally constituted
scientific methods, tools and statistics in carrying out government must have legitimate authority arising
its researches and analysis. from the social acceptance of the people.
3. Law making – It is a guide to the activities, beliefs and
2005/3 behavior of the citizens. The government makes laws
In the study of government, public administration covers and entrenched them into the constitution. The
the constitution consists of the duties of those in
A. Army, prison officers and public force government, their limitations, rights and an obligation
B. civil service, public corporations and local government which means rights and duties of the citizens are all
C. ministries of education, Health and Agriculture outlined in the constitution.
D. schools, hospitals and health centres 4. Revenue – Government needs enough revenue from
Answer the people which is known as tax. Tax is used for social
Public Administration in Government as a subject covers amenities and basic infrastructures, to make life easy
Education, Health Care and Agriculture. The study of for the citizens.
Government in the field of public administration 5. Work force – The civil service possesses adequate
encourages knowledge on system of government, health personnel for policy–making and implementation,
care services and agriculture which is food production for interpretation and punishment of offenders.
the populace. (C) 6. Protection – It is also the feature of government to
provide enough protection and security the people and
2011/1 the properties, so that the society can be a place to live,
Government as a subject refers to the study of it also promotes peace, order and unity.
A. territorial expansion B. political leaders 7. Periodic change – No government is permanent
C. the various nation of the world especially one that is based on people’s participation
D. the constitutions of the state (elective government) which is known as “democracy”
Answer it has periodic tenure, it is either five (5) or four (4)
Government can also be defined as the study of constitution. years.
Constitution is the basic reason for any form of government, it 8. Welfare services – Provision of some essential services
guides their administrative activities by not making anyone too e.g. water, electricity, housing etc., should be made to
powerful or above the law in the system. The constitution is a improve people’s well – being. This is very important for
guideline that helps the administrative structure and organs of any good or responsible government.
government in carrying out their duties effectively without
interference. (D) Functions of Government
The following are the main functions of the government to
2013/1 Neco her citizens.
Government can be defined as the study of 1. Law making – Government is responsible for law
A. federalism B. cabinet system of government only making in a state. Laws are made to ensure that peace,
C. how people rule themselves order and security reigns in the society. The legislature
D. presidential system of government only is the organs of government responsible for law
Answer making.
Government as an academic field of study involves the 2. Protection of lives and property: It is also the duty of
study of political institution in the state. The political the government to provide security agents that can
institution consists of political thinkers that help the people protect the lives and properties of her citizens, for
to rule themselves. (C) example the Nigerian police, Army, Naval and Air
force.
2011/2 Exercise 1.5 3. Defence of the country: The government is also
The study of government in schools is important because responsible for defending the country against external
the student can aggression. It is the duty of the armed forces of a
A. be assisted by political leaders country to maintain the territorial integrity of the state.
B. learn about their rights C. quality for elections 4. Maintenance of law and order: This function is
D. be nominated for a trip abroad usually performed by the government agencies like the
police and civil service.
5. Provision of social amenities and basic
infrastructure: Portable water, health centres,
electricity, housing, hospitals, good roads, market that
is provided by the government. These are necessities
for human wants.
3
6. Promotion of economic Function: Government has 9. Opportunity for leadership: Government groomed the
the responsibility of regulating economic activities in learners to become future political leaders.
order to protect the economy and ensure economic 10. Career Opportunities: The study of government
growth and development through careful economic provides career opportunities to people. Candidates
planning and execution, maintaining stable political with degrees in government or political science are in
atmosphere, regulating political activities, etc. high demand in government, business, international
7. Provision of employment: It is the duty of the organization, etc.
government to provide employment opportunities to 11. Rights knowing: Government provides the
its citizen. This is one of the reasons why some opportunity to make its citizens know their rights,
countries pay unemployment allowance to citizens duties and obligations.
whom the government failed to provide gainful
employment. 1995/1 Exercise 1.6
8. Formulation and implementation of policies: The primary function of government in a state is to
Formulation and implementation of policies are A. build schools and hospitals
carried out to ensure the well-being of the people. The B. provide transport services
executive arm of government performs this function. C. engage in campaigns and rallies
9. Administration of justice: The judiciary is responsible D. maintain law and order E. imprison criminals
for the administration of justice in the state.
10. External affairs function: Government maintains 1994/1 Exercise 1.7
good relationship with other countries. In order for this What are the functions or obligations of Nigerian
to be possible, embassies and high commissions are government towards citizens?
established and maintained in those countries and
ambassadors and high commissioners are appointed to 1995/1
take charge of them. The primary function of government in a state is to
A. build schools and hospitals
Importance of studying government B. provide transport services
1. Objective Reasoning: The study of government as a C. engage in campaigns and rallies
discipline enables us to reason objectively. It teaches D. maintain law and order
us how to analyse critically, the political, social and Answer
economic events within and outside our immediate The primary function of any government is to maintain
environment. peace, law and order in the society before the government
2. Types of system: Citizens with sound knowledge of can function properly. (D)
government would be in good positions to understand
the type of system of government adopted in their 1996/1
country and the implications of such systems of The functions of government include all the following
government. except
3. To widen people’s knowledge: The study of A. maintenance of peace and order
government helps to widen people’s knowledge about B. provision of social services
administration and other institutions involved in C. protection of citizens from malicious attack
governance. D. provision of free medical services
4. Development of good political culture: Through the Answer
study of government, the people develop positive It is the responsibilities of the government to make
political culture. They will be able to acquire some provision for maintenance of peace and order, social
values that help them contribute meaningfully in the service of basic amenities and infrastructure in the state, to
development of the society. make the society conducive for all. The government also
5. Decision making: The study of government equally makes provision for health centres and hospitals because
opens the eyes of the people for the need to take part health is wealth. (C)
in political decision making of a country.
6. Intellectual development: The study of government 2008/2
helps to develop the intellect but it may be said that State performs the following functions except
Government, perhaps, does it better than many other A. promoting the welfare of the citizens
subjects because political analysis requires high degree B. encouraging the struggle for power
of step–by–step logical approach. C. providing social services
7. Conflict resolution: Government makes the people to D. encouraging trade with other state
know how conflict originates and are resolved. Answer
8. Improvement of Social Consciousness: The study of Government can never encourage the struggle for power,
government helps the individual to understand the it encourages peace and unity in the society. The struggles
world he lives in. In fact, the student of Government is for power can lead to riots, demonstration, etc. that will
an encyclopedia on current affairs. Without social disturb the peace and order of the society. (B)
consciousness, it is impossible to effect fundamental
changes in the society.

4
2009/2 Neco 2013/1b Neco
Government can be made responsible and accountable to Highlight any four duties of government
its citizens through the following method except 1. To maintain law and order.
A. periodic change of government B. demonstration 2. To defend and protect the lives and properties of its
C. political education D. public opinion citizens.
Answer 3. To provide and enhance the provision of employment
Government can be responsible and accountable to its opportunities.
citizens through periodic change of government, political 4. To administer justice through settlement of disputes by
education, public opinions, providing the social amenities Judiciary.
and basic infrastructural to its citizens. Demonstration is a 5. To protect the fundamental Human rights.
form of violence in any society, it is not a formal process 6. To maintain external relationship with other countries.
of deliberations or method of identifying the needs of the 7. To promote and protect national interest.
people. (B)
1989/1
2011/4 Government is the machinery established to manage the
The functions of the state are achieved through affairs of
A. political socialism B. separation of powers A. rulers B. aliens C. the civil service
C. organs of government D. diplomatic means D. the state
Answer Answer
The three organs of government are the administrative order The state (D)
of government. The executive – Formulate policies and Hint: Government as an institution of the state may be
implements and legislature - Law making and the judiciary defined as machinery established by the state to organize,
interprets the laws. Without these three organs, the objectives manage the affairs of the state and administer its functions
and goals of the state will not be easily achieved. The state and duties.
cannot function at all without these organs. (C)
1988/1
2013/2 Neco Government refers to all the following except
Which of the following is not an acceptable function of A. an institution of the state
government? B. the process of ruling a political community
Answer C. the exercise of power and authority
Subversion is not an acceptable function of the government. D. the act of civil disobedience
Subversion means the act of trying to destroy or damage an Answer
established system or government. (B) When you check the definition or aspects of Government.
Government as an institution of a state, Government as an
2018/1 Neco act of governing and Government as an academic field of
A government performs the following functions except study. You would notice that Option D is missing, which
A. safe guarding life and property is the answer. Government can never be an act of civil
B. maintaining laws and orders disobedience. (D)
C. providing all the needs of its citizens
D. providing basic welfare needs 1990/1 Nov
Answer Government can be defined as
It is the duty of the government to make solid provision for A. the process of selecting some people to form a government
safe guarding the lives and properties of their citizens, it B. the way by which people rule the government
also maintains laws and orders, it provides basic welfare C. the machinery through which the will of the state is
needs to all their citizens and those foreigners living in the formed
country but it is impossible for the government to provide D. the system by which authority is shared among the
all the needs of its citizens. (C) privileged few in the society
Answer
2006/1 Neco Government can be defined as the machinery through
The defense of a country is a major function of the which the will of the state is formed and it also helps the
A. government of a state B. Judiciary C. Legislature opinion of the citizens to be established. (C)
D. diplomatic corps
Answer 2006/19 Neco
The government has the following functions, law making, Explain the term government
implementation of policies and formulations, reviewing of Answer
laws, settling disputes, provision of social amenities and Government as an institution of a state is a machinery that
infrastructures. Defending the state from external and has been designed to regulate the activities through the
internal aggressions. three organs of government; The Executive–its primary
function is to formulate policies and implement it, the
Legislative are law makers and the Judiciary interprets and
also settles disputes between individuals or companies.
These three organs work together to make the running of
the system easy and effective.
5
2000/1 Nov (6) Provision of social service: Provisions for social
Why is government important as an institution of the state? services are vital functions of the institution of the
Answer state, like provision of social amenities such as pipe
Government as an institution of the state is very essential borne water, good roads, hospitals, electricity etc. to
in a society because it is a body that is capable of regulating the citizens from the taxes the people pay.
the day to day activities of the citizens. Government as an (7) Provision of job opportunities: It is the duty of the
institution of the state rules with the principles of the state government to provide employment opportunities to
constitution, it ensures safety of lives and properties, its citizens. This is one of the reasons why some
offenders of the laws are punished based on the law. countries pay unemployment allowance to the citizens,
where government failed to provide gainful
2005/19 Nov employment e.g. Britain pay the citizens
What is government? unemployment allowances.
Answer (8) Economic functions: Government has the responsibility
A government is the system by which a state or country is of promoting and regulating economic activities in order
controlled. Government also refers to the group of people to protect the economy, it also ensures economic growth
with the authority to govern a country at a given time. and economic development through careful economic
Government exists at national, regional and local level, it planning and execution, maintaining stable economic
also has the authority to enforce state policy, make laws atmosphere for investment.
and arbitrary conflicts. (9) Political functions: Government is involved here
through the setting up of an external or independent body
2003/1 to conduct elections without rigging leading to a peaceful
Government as an institution of the state refers to the change of government.
A. police and the armed forces
B. judiciary, the president and his ministers 2004/21
C. legislature, the executive and the Judiciary The institution through which governments discharge
D. economic and political institutions responsibilities is known as
Answer A. organs of government B. pressure groups
Government as an institution of the state refers to the C. political parties D. national assembly
legislature that makes law, the executive that formulate Answer
policies and implement it, the Judiciary are the organs of The institution through which government discharge
government that interprets the law. (C) responsibilities is known as organs of government. The
organs of government enhances and coordinates the affairs of
1989/1 Nov the state. (A)
Discuss the importance of government as an institution of
the state. 1991/1
Answer The term Government refers to all the following, except
Government as an institution of the state is a machinery A. an academic field of study
through which the will of the state is formulated, expressed B. a process or art of governing
and attained or actualized. Government as an institution of C. a process of making and enforcing laws in a state
the state is very essential because of its duties; D. an institution of the state for achieving the will of the state
(1) Law making: The government makes law for the state E. an institution made up of person’s with common interest
through legislature, Congress, parliament etc., the law Answer
of the nation is called constitution. An institution made up of person’s with common interest (E)
(2) Defence of the country: Government establishes and
equips standing armed forces in order to defend the 1995/1 Nov
country from external aggression or internal problems, The process by which a particular society is ruled is called
to sustain the territory integrity of the state. The armed A. government B. legislature C. judiciary
forces are army, navy and air force. D. constitution E. exercise
(3) Protection of lives and properties: It is the function of Answer
the government to protect lives and property of the Government (A)
citizens living in the country. The police force and
judiciary carries out these functions of protection of 1990/1
lives and properties of not only the citizens but all Government can be defined as
those living in the country. A. the process of setting some people to form a government
(4) Maintenance of law and order: It is also the duty of B. the way by which people rule the state is formulated and
the government to maintain law, peace and order in the enforced
society. This is basically the functions of the police and C. the machinery through which the will of the state is formed
the judiciary. D. a group of people that makes laws in a society
(5) Administration of justice: The law courts interprets E. the system by which authority is shared among the
the law and administer justice. Cases are treated privileged few in the society
according to the constitution, the law courts can also Answer
punish offenders, prisons are established and equipped Government can be defined as a machinery through which
for punishment of offenders and criminals. the will of the state is formed (C)
6
1992/ 2013/1a Neco
Which of the following is not a means by which Describe the term government as an art of governing.
government maintains law and order? Answer
A. law making Government as an art of governing or process of
B. maintenance of police and other security personnel administration may be defined as a body vested with the
C. provision of socio – economic services power and authority for maintaining security, peace, and
D. establishment of provision associations stability by making and enforcing conventional and
E. effective communication network fundamental laws in a given state or society. Through the
Answer formulation and implementation of policies in the state,
Establishment of provision associations (D) government as an art of governing or process of
administration regulates the activities of the citizens and at
1994/1 the same time steers the affairs of the state.
The institution and processes connected with making,
enforcing and reviewing of laws in any society is referred to 1994/5
as the Government can be described as the art of
A. Judiciary B. Constitution drafting committee A. making constitutions B. collecting taxes
C. government D. bar association C. engineering social conflicts
Answer D. making and enforcing laws
Government (C) Answer
Government can be described as the art of making and
1989/1 Nov enforcing laws (D)
Government maintains law and order through the
following except 1990/11 Nov
A. policies B. immigration C. the legislature In the process of governing, input refers to the
D. prison service A. decision and actions of the authorities
Answer B. regulations made by the government for individuals and
Government makes laws and enforces them on the people groups
through the legislature, police and prison services. The C. demand made by individuals and groups for actions by
legislature makes, reviews and amend laws, the police the authorities
ensures that the laws are obeyed by the citizens. Judiciary D. demands which have become official policies
pronounces judgment on offender and the prison services Answer
accommodation for the inmate or suspected criminals. (B) Demand made by individuals and groups for actions by the
2018/1(ii) authorities (C)
Explain government as an art of governing.
Answer 1988/17
Government as an art of governing is the process of In the process of governing, output refers to
carrying out the day to day administration of the affairs of A. the influence of pressure group
a state which involves making, enforcing and interpreting B. demand of the political party
laws. C. the decision of the government
D. the opinion of the electorate
2007/1b Answer
Why is Government important as an art of governing? The decision of the government are the output of the
Answer government. (C)
Government as an act of governing makes provision of the
following to the state. 2012/1
1. Government provides external security through the The study of government is important because it
armed forces (Army, Navy and Air Force). A. directs people’s attention to development of non–state
2. It uses the judiciary organ of government to promote institution
and maintain justice through the courts. B. enables citizens to understand the processes for
3. Government maintains laws and order through the managing the state affairs
police force, immigration department, customs and C. encourages individuals to take decisions that satisfy
excise department, etc. their aspirations
4. Government provides social amenities, e.g. water, D. encourages the elites to remain in power
electricity, school, roads, libraries, hospitals, housing, Answer
etc. The study of government is essential because the subject is
5. Government promotes economic development e.g. related to social studies, civil education, sociology, international
providing infrastructural facilities, enabling relations, psychology, anthropology, etc. It empowers the
environment etc. citizens or learners to understand different systems of
6. Government maintains external relations with other government and how such government operates. (B)
nations.
7. Government enacts laws to promote good governance.
8. Government guarantees the fundamental human rights
of its citizens.
7
2015/1 Neco 2018/iii
Which of the following is a reason for studying Explain what is meant by government as an academic field
government? of study.
A. knowledge of the rights of the individual Answer
B. acquisition of skills to work in a state in a state–owned Government as an academic field of study involves:
C. helps the individual to form a pressure group 1. The study of political institutions of a state, it is values
D. enables citizens to vote during election beliefs and doctrines about politics and the views of
Answer political thinkers about what defines or constitutes the
Government is a subject that empowers its learners with welfare of the people in a state. These were part of the
the ability/knowledge of identifying their fundamental study of government in the early days.
human rights as citizens and how to defend themselves 2. Government is a social science subject taught in higher
based on the constitution of the state. (A) institutions and it is referred to as political science. It
is also taught in schools and colleges.
1989/10 3. The study of government, now involves science by the
The study of Government offers an individual all the use of computers, research, statistics and analysis of
following except data.
A. knowledge of his rights and duties 4. The study of government embraces public
B. training in good citizenship administration, international relations, national
C. knowledge of the processes of government governments, political behavior, local government,
D. training to becomes judge comparative government, political theory etc.
Answer 5. The study of government has brought about different
Government as a subject empowers citizens with techniques and methods, realizing systematic
knowledge of their rights, obligations, it also trains them preposition necessary for problems solving in any
to become good citizens and it enhances their knowledge political or government system.
of leadership and governance. (D) 6. Government also relates with other subjects like
history, economics, philosophy, sociology,
1994/2 psychology, mathematics, anthropology, etc. This
Which of the following best describes the subject matter of relationship has enhanced the inter–disciplinary
Government? approach and in–depth study of government.
A. election B. people C. political party
D. political power 1992/1
Answer Discuss the need for the study of government.
Political power is an authority held by a group within a The following are the needs which necessitate the study of
society that allows for the administration of public government
resources and implement policies for society. Power 1. Objective Reasoning: The study of government as a
maybe acquired as a means of government direction or in discipline enables us to reason objectively. It teaches us
opposition to a government group. (D) how to analyse critically, the political, social and
economic events within and outside our immediate
2005/16 Nov environment.
Identify five reasons for the study of government. 2. Intellectual development: The study of government
The following are reasons for the study of government. helps to develop the intellect but it may be said that
Answer Government, perhaps, does it better than many other
1. It helps to know the types of different systems of subjects because political analysis requires high degree
government in the world and how they operate. of step–by–step logical approach.
2. It also enhances people’s knowledge about 3. Types of system: Citizens with sound knowledge of
administration and other institutions involved in government would be in good positions to understand
governance. the type of system of government adopted in their
3. It educates the people of a country on the political life country and the implications of such systems of
of the country. government.
4. It also prepares individual for leadership. 4. To widen people’s knowledge: The study of
5. It makes individuals to know how conflict originates government helps to widen people’s knowledge about
and solutions to resolve conflict. administration and other institutions involved in
6. Government provides the opportunity for individuals governance.
or citizens to know their rights, duties and obligations 5. Development of good political culture: Through the
as citizens. study of government, the people develop positive
7. The study of government helps to prevent mistakes of political culture. They will be able to acquire some
some past political leaders from being repeated. values that help them contribute meaningfully in the
8. Government as a field of study promotes the spirit of development of the society.
nationalism and patriotism in the lives of the people. 6. Decision making: The study of government equally
9. It also helps in opening the eyes of the people for the opens the eyes of the people for the need to take part
need to take part in political decision making. in political decision making of a country.

8
2006/1 UTME 1998/4 UTME
Explain the branches of government as an academic field The structure of government implies the
of study. A. law making process of government
The following are the branches of Government as an B. law enforcement process of government
Academic Field of study. C. organization of powers and functions
1. Public Administration – deals with human management D. method of revenue allocation by government
in government establishments or public affairs. Answer – C
2. International relations – This area deals with The structure of government implies the organization of
diplomacy and external relations with other countries. powers and functions of government through the three
3. Political thought/theories – It has to do with early organs of government.
political thinkers e.g. Locke, Hobbes and Machiavelli.
4. Political economy – it deals with fiscal and monetary 2005/2 (OAU, IFE)
policies of a country. The study of government essentially facilitates the
5. Comparative politics – It deals with comparative understanding of the
analysis of government of other countries. A. organization of the executive arm of government
B. observance of fundamental human rights
2008/15 UTME C. functioning of the entire social formation
An institution that transforms a myriad of demands into a D. governance of human societies
more manageable proposal is the Answer – D
A. executive B. legislative The study of government essentially facilitates the
C. government D. political party understanding of the governance of human societies and its
Answer – C ideology.
Myriad means a countless or extremely great number of 2003/46 (UI, IBADAN)
people or things. Government is the only institution that Government as an academic field of study refers to the
transforms a myriad of demand into a more manageable A. president and his ministers
proposal by giving elected or appointed few individuals B. study of political institutions and processes
among the citizens with authority to govern a country or C. working of the organs of government
state. D. membership of international organizations
Answer – B
2008/16 UTME Government as an academic field of study refers to the study
Government exercises political power on behalf of the of political institutions and its processes. It also educates us
A. elite B. citizens C. party caucus D. vocal few about different forms of government in the world.
Answer – B
As it is impossible for everyone to take a hand in running 2003/8 UTME
the country, the people (citizens) elect representatives to A common feature of government is
act on their behalf. A. the separation of powers
B. the making of public policy
1984/16 UTME C. the independence of the judiciary
Government means the machinery established by a state to D. a written constitution
manage the affairs of the Answer – B
A. rulers B. aliens C. civil servers The common characteristic or attribute of government is
D. workers and pleasant E. people the ability of making of public policy.
Answer – E
Government means the machinery established by a state to 1991/2 UTME
manage the affairs of the people. The established An indispensable feature of any government is
machinery of the government are the three arms or organs A. a written constitution
of government: The legislature, executive and judiciary. B. the independence of the judiciary
C. the separation of powers
1995/3 UTME D. political power
The institutions which constitute the main organs of the Answer – D
government of a nation are in An indispensable feature of any government is political
A. legislature, the executive and the judiciary power.
B. judiciary and the civil service
1997/2 UTME
C. trustee and the presidium
Government is different from other political organizations
D. civil service and the senate
because
Answer – A
A. it has legitimate power over citizens
The institutions which constitute the main organs of the
B. its officials have fixed terms of office
government of a nation are the legislature, executive and
C. it can punish those who violate its rules
the judiciary.
D. it is made up of elected officials
Answer – A
Government is different from other political organizations
because, government has legitimate power over its citizens.
9
2007/2008/95 (UNIZIK, AWKA) 2. Protection of lives and property: It is also the duty of
An ideology is essentially the government to provide security agents that can
A. a guide to political action protect the lives and properties of her citizens, for
B. a manual for revolution example the Nigerian police, Army, Naval and Air
C. a curse of political actors force.
D. a non-political concept 3. Defence of the country: The government is also
E. negative in connotation responsible for defending the country against external
Answer – A aggression. It is the duty of the armed forces of a
An ideology is a set of opinions or beliefs of a group or an country to maintain the territorial integrity of the state.
individual. Very often ideology refers to a set of political 4. Maintenance of law and order: This function is
beliefs. usually performed by the government agencies like the
police and civil service.
2018/1 NABTEB 5. Provision of social amenities and basic
a. Explain the meaning of Government under the infrastructure: Portable water, health centres,
following headings. electricity, housing, hospitals, good roads, market that
i. Government as an institution of the state. is provided by the government. These are necessities
ii. Government as an act of governing for human wants.
iii. Government as an academic field of study. 6. Provision of employment: It is the duty of the
b. State six functions of government. government to provide employment opportunities to
c. Name two source of Government revenue. its citizen. This is one of the reasons why some
Answer countries pay unemployment allowance to citizens
Meaning of government under the following heading whom the government failed to provide gainful
(ai) Government as an institution of the state: Government employment.
as an institution of the state may be defined as a machinery
established by the state to organise, manage the affairs of c. Sources of government revenue include:
the state and administer its functions and duties. 1. Tax: A tax is a compulsory levy imposed by a public
Government as an institution of state has three major arms: authority against which tax payers cannot claim anything.
the executive, the legislature, and the judiciary. The It is not imposed as a penalty for only legal offence. The
primary functions are as follows essence of a tax, as distinguished from other charges by the
(iv) The Executive: This arm of government is concerned government, is the absence of a direct quid pro quo (i.e.,
with policy formulation and implementation. exchange of favour) between the tax payer and the public
(v) The Legislature: This arm is concerned with law authority.
making which every member of the society must 2. Surplus of the public sector units: The government
obey. acts like a business- person and the public acts like its
(vi) The Judiciary: This arm of government concentrates customers. The government may either sell goods or render
mainly in the interpretation of the law and decide how services like train, city bus, electricity, transport, posts and
to apply the laws in specific disputes. telegraphs, water supply, etc. The government also earns
revenue from the production of commodities like steel, oil,
(aii) Government as an act of governing: Government as life- saving drugs, etc.
an art of governing or process of administration may be 3. Fine and penalties: They are the charges imposed on
defined as a body vested with the power and authority for persons as a punishment for contravention of a law. The
maintaining security, peace, and stability by making and main purpose of these is not to raise revenue from the
enforcing conventional and fundamental laws in a given public but to force them to follow law and order of the
state or society. Through the formulation and country.
implementation of policies in the state, government as an 4. Gifts and grants: Gifts are voluntary contribution from
art of governing or process of administration regulates the private individuals or non- government donors to the
activities of the citizens and at the same time steers the government fund for specific purposes such as relief fund,
affairs of the state. defense fund during war or an emergency. However, this
source provides a small portion of government revenue.
(aii) Government as an academic field of study: 5. Borrowings: Borrowings from the public is another
Government as an academic field of study may be defined source of government revenue. It includes loans from the
as the study of agencies, political institutions and the public in the form of deposits, bonds, etc. and also from the
dynamics of the state. As an academic field of study, in foreign agencies and organisation.
most countries, government is regarded as a special subject 6. Rates: Rates refer to local taxation, i.e., taxation levied
studied in independent scholarly discipline, labelled as by (or for) local rather than central government. Normally
‘government’, ‘political science’, ‘politics’, or ‘public rates are proportional to the estimated rentable value of
affairs’; and all these deal with the same subject matter. business and domestic properties. Rates are often criticised
b) The following are the function of government as being unrelated to income.
1. Law making – Government is responsible for law 7. Fees: Fee is a payment to defray the cost of each
making in a state. Laws are made to ensure that peace, recurring service undertaken by the government, primarily
order and security reigns in the society. The legislature in the public interest
is the organs of government responsible for law
making.
10
REVISION EXERCISES
1. Government is different from other political
organisation because
A. it has legitimate power over citizens
B. it officials have fixed term of office
C. it can punish those who violate the rules
D. it is made up of elected officials
Which of the following defines the concept of
government?
A. the process of administering justice in a country
B. the process of supervising the activities of the
legislature
C. the orderly management and control of the affairs
of a country
D. the orderly transfer of power to duly elected
politicians
2. The study of government essentially facilitates the
understanding of the
A. organization of the executive arm of government
B. observance of fundamental human rights
C. functioning of the entire social formation
D. governance of human societies
3. A common feature of government is
A. a written constitution
B. the independence of the judiciary
C. the suspension of powers
D. the making of public policy
4. The institution and processes connected with making,
enforcing and reviewing of laws in any society is
referred to as the
A. judiciary B. constitution drafting committee
C. government D. bar association
Explain the processes of political formulation by
government.
5. Discuss the relationship that exists among the three
organs of government.
6. State the characteristics of government.
7. Discuss government as a process or an art of
governing.
8. Explain government as an institution.
9. Explain what is meant by government as an academic
field of study
10. What are the functions or obligations of the Nigerian
government towards its citizens
11. What are the relationship between the state and
government?
12. State ten reasons for studying government.
13. Outline five functions of government.

11
VIII. Legal Entity: A state is a legal entity, it can own property,
Chapter Two enter into a contract, sue and be sued etc.

STATE
The Purpose of a State
A state may be defined as a politically organised body of
Every state exists for some purpose which includes:
people occupying a definite geographical territory, with an
1. Establishment of order: The state must protect its
organised legitimate government. The state is free from
citizens from outside attack while also ensuring
external control. The power of the state is also guaranteed with
domestic peace.
coercive power and authority to enforce decisions and compel
2. Promotion of individual’s welfare: The state must
obedience from the citizens. Every independent country of the
provide conditions necessary for the full development
world may therefore be described as a state. Good examples of
of every citizen. Such conditions must include the
states are: Nigeria, Ghana, Senegal, Canada, France, Brazil,
protection of individual’s liberty.
Australia, USA, Britain etc.
3. Promotion of general welfare: The state must strive
2005/2 Nov to ensure happiness for the greatest number of citizens
Which of the following is alternatively known as state? living within the state. It is the duty of the state to
A. country B. province C. district D. country promote united action aimed at achieving those goals
Answer which individuals cannot achieve. The state must also
A state is alternatively known as a country. In most of the harmonise varying interests, whether this is among
government text books, state as a term referred to country. (A) groups, or between individuals, or between groups
and society as a whole.
1986/7
The following are examples of state except 1988/28
A. Maiduguri B. Nigeria C. Britain D. Ghana The primary purpose of a state is to
Answer A. establish a system of law and order
A state is a national or territory considered as an organized B. train people to become good citizens
political community under one government. Examples of states C. cater for all the needs of the citizens
are the following; Nigeria, Ghana, Britain, USA, Senegal, D. ensure the self sufficiency of its people
Canada etc. (A) Answer
Establishment of law and order are the primary purpose of
the state. A state without law and order is a place where
Features of the State
everyone has the right to do whatsoever thing that he/she
The state has the following characteristics
wishes. It means the state has no constitution and
I. Population: Population is an essential features of a state
government. (A)
because a state is occupied by people and there is no
limitation to the number of people making up a state in
Differences between a state and other human
any constitution
associations
II. Permanence: The state is a permanent place that cannot
State Human associations
be easily changed. Government may change but the state
1. Membership of a state Membership is purely
remains.
is compulsory voluntary.
III. Territory: A state has clear and well defined boundaries
separating it from other state e.g. Nigeria and Cameroun 2. Rules made by the Rules made by other
or Benin Republic. state are authoritative human associations are
IV. Recognition: A state must be recognised both internally and generally binding not applicable to non-
and externally. The people of a state must realise and on all residents of the members of the
recognise the corporate existence of their state, while state. association.
other states in the international environment must equally 3. The state has Other human
give recognition to an existing state. legitimate authority to associations do not
V. Government: Government is not a permanent feature of fine, imprison or have such authority
a state but it remains as a significant feature because it is execute law breakers. over their members.
a machinery set up by the state to pilot the affairs of the 4. The state can use Other associations
people making up that state. The maintenance and force to ensure that its cannot use force to
prestige of a state are in the hands of the government. citizen obey its laws guarantee obedience to
VI. Sovereignty: The supreme power to make decisions and and regulations. the rules and
enforce them on the people is with the state. The regulations of the
sovereignty of a state is not negotiable and must be free association.
from external interference and control. 5. The state is a Other association are
VII. Laws: It is the duty of the government to maintain law permanent non-permanent and
and order in the state. But to do this, certain laws must be association. may disappear and re-
in place to guide members of state. These laws ensure that emerge.
every citizen know what is expected from him or her by
the state. In Nigeria, the primary source of law is the
Constitution.
12
Difference between state and government 2006/2
State Government An essential feature of a state is
1. State refers to the Government refers to A. availability of mineral resources
organized political the group of B. developed infrastructure
community living under a authorized people C. an organized system of laws D. developed markets
single system of Answer
government. An essential feature of a state is an organized system of
2. Employs its powers Government controls laws. These laws are put in place to guide the members of
through the government. the state at a given the state. Laws ensures that every citizen knows what is
time. expected from him or her by the state. (C)
3. State is permanent. Government is
temporary because of 2013/3 Neco Exercise 2.1
tenure of political Which of the following is a feature of a state?
offices. A. pursuance of sectorial interest B. colonial experience
4. Employs its powers Government controls C. territorial boundary D. temporary existence
through the government. the state at a given
time. 2013/3 Neco Exercise 2.2
5. A state is a territorial Government is an The most visible feature of a state is
association of people administrative A. compulsory membership B. defined geographical
with defined boundaries. institution within a territory
state. C. written constitution D. sovereign power
6. A state has its elements, Government has its
as population, territory, main organs. STATE AND NATION
government and A state is a nation or territory considered as an organized
sovereignty. political community under one government.
7. A state is more inclusive Government is not an
and therefore, greater inclusive as the state. A nation is a stable community of people formed on the
than government i.e. it It is only a part of a basis of a common language, territory, history, ethnicity or
embraces all the people state. psychological makeup manifested in a common culture. A
and associations within nation can also been defined as a cultural political
a given area. community that has become conscious of its autonomy,
units and particular interests.
Basic functions of a state
1. Defensive Function: This primary function of state In Nigeria, there are several nations namely: Yoruba,
includes defence from external aggression and Hausa, Fulani, Ibibio, Urhobo, Igbo Edo etc. A nation may
maintenance of law and order, as these two are essential not necessarily be a state, e.g., Yoruba, Hausa or Igbo. For
for economic development. a nation to be a state, it must have the distinguishing
2. Administrative Function: Setting up of administrative characteristics of a state already discussed above which are
structure and agencies for administering and controlling permanence, population, territory, recognition,
the different departments in the country. sovereignty and homogeneous government.
3. International Relations: The state must maintain friendly
relations with other states in the world. This involves Quite unlike a nation, the people that makes up a state often
participation in international organisation, participation in have descended from various places, and have different
international conferences and joint treaties with other languages, cultures, etc. In everyday language, however,
states. state or countries are often referred to as a nation. This is
4. To provide social security: Insurance against accident, why, for example, the United Nations Organisation is an
assistance to the poor, the sick and the unemployed. organisation of states or countries, and not of ‘nations’ in
Promotion of natural and human resources by providing the technical sense.
education, medical aid, housing, insurance, library, public
parks, sports grounds, museums etc. 2009/9 Neco
5. Economic Functions: This includes: A common language is one of the attributes of a
- Assessing, exploration and making optimum A. government B. society C. nation
utilization of natural resources. D. state
- Ensuring growth by maintaining economic stability. Answer
- Reduction of economic disparities by minimizing the A nation could be seen as a body of people who feel
gap between rich and poor and providing social themselves to be naturally linked together, share common
economic justice. ties, believe that they can live happily together. Similarly,
- Increasing the economic growth by arranging this people share the same language, culture and have the
necessary raw material, machinery and foreign feeling of nationality. (C)
assistance & making and executing economic plans.

13
Differences between state and nation It is the term used to describe human being living together.
State Nations It consists of complicated networks of social relations
1. A state must be People continue as a between individuals and groups. Society is a group of
sovereign. nation even if they do people who form a semi closed social system, in which
not remain sovereign. most interactions are with other individuals belonging to
2. A state is populated by A nation is populated the group.
heterogeneous groups by homogeneous
of people. groups of people. Also, a society is a group of people involved with each
3. The citizens may or The people in a other through persistent relations or a large social
may not have many ties nation have many ties grouping, sharing the same geographical or social territory,
in common. in common. These typically to the same political authority and dominant
makes them distinct cultural expectations. Society is a body of people where
from other people. every member can have their voice and take part in a major
4. A state has no racial A nation has a racial decision making process.
connotation. It does not significance. It is
show individualism or limited to a particular Features of a Society
exclusiveness. It is not geographical entity The following are features of a society
associated with tribal and has its own 1. It is controlled by rules/regulations, norms,
features or in-group, peculiar features. conventions and customs.
out-group relationship 2. It applies sanctions on its members as a means of
among the people. ensuring or affecting discipline.
5. A state is recognized as A nation is not 3. It also applies the use of coercive means to ensure
an actor in international recognized in relation compliance with norms, rules and customs.
relations. It is seen as a among states. It 4. The rules and regulations of a society are binding on
corporate entity that can cannot enter into any all residents.
sue and be sued in the agreement or treaty 5. Membership of a society is voluntary.
course of its relation with states at the 6. It is permanent in nature.
with other states. It can international level. 7. Members depend on one another for survival.
enter into agreements or 8. Roles in the society are dynamic.
treaties with other 9. It is characterised by unique culture.
states. 10. It is characterised by common history, tradition,
language, religion and sense of values.
Nationalism 11. It is characterized by common political, social and
This is the sense of belonging and love for a nation as a economic interest.
result of shared attributes, namely: race, language, 12. It is characterised by cooperation, competition and
geographical location, religion and political aspirations. It conflicts.
is a feeling held by a people to live together. The spirit of
Nationalism can manifest in institutions like state, nation. Difference between the state and society
State Society
2005/9 Nov 1. The state The society indicate
A nation refers to a group of people who have similar indicates a social system.
A. institution of learning B. customs and traditions political system.
C. range of age D. level of wealth 2. State possesses Society does not
Answer sovereignty. possess sovereignty
A nation has also be defined as a cultural – political 3. State controls Society influences
community that become conscious of their similar customs external relations our inner motives
and traditions. (B) 4. State came into Society is prior to
existence after the state.
2011/4 Exercise 2.3 origin of the
A nation is best defined as a group of people with common society.
A. colonial history B. government 5. The state has a Society has no fixed
C. history, language and culture D. origin E. territory fixed territory. territory.

6. The state has the Society has no

State and Society power to enforce power to enforce
A society is a group of individuals involved in persistent laws. laws.
social interaction, or a large social group sharing the same 7. The scope of the The scope of the
spatial or social territory, typically subject to the same state is limited. society is much
political authority and dominant cultural expectations. wider.
It is also defined as a group of people who share similar
values, laws and traditions, living in an organised
community for mutual benefit.

14
2007/10 Neco 1988/14
A nation could be seen as a body of people who feel the A state is a special form of human association because it
following except A. has a legitimate monopoly of life and death penalties
A. naturally linked together B. live happily together over its citizens
C. misbehave among themselves D. believe in each other B. is the richest association in society
Answer C. has a constitution approved by the citizens
A nation is a body of people who feel they are naturally D. has a government
linked together, they live happily with each other, believe Answer
in one another and they see themselves as their brother’s A state is the only place that allows human association
keeper. The people are not satisfied when they are because it has a legitimate monopoly of life and death
disunited and cannot tolerate subjection to people who do penalties and its citizens. (A)
not share these ties. (C)
1988/13
1994/29 Exercise 2.4 The state is different from Government because
A state may accommodate people of A. the state unlike the government is permanent
A. language B. culture C. religious beliefs B. the government is made up of powerful people
D. different state C. members of the government are elected
2002/29 UTME Exercise 2.5 D. the state can exercise absolute power
The following are examples of state except Answer
A. Britain B. Damaturu C. Nigeria D. Ghana The state is quite different from the government because
the state is permanent; it has defied boundaries, armed
2001/38 Nov Exercise 2.6 forces, currency, etc. Government is tenured by election. It
A society is ______ in nature is temporary and must work based on the constitution of
A. custom B. state C. federal D. permanent the state. (A)

1998/20 UTME Exercise 2.7 1994/4

The most distinguishing characteristics of the state is
Which of the following groups has a compulsory
A. government B. population C. territory D. sovereignty
membership?
A. community B. state C. society D. club
2005/23 Nov Exercise 2.8 Answer
Which of the following groups has a compulsory State is a group of individuals that has compulsory
membership? membership. The members have no right to choose their
A. community B. state C. society D. club state of origin. (B)
2011/38 Nov Exercise 2.9
1986/6
A state is different from other forms of human associations
A state may accommodate people of
because membership is
A. language B. culture C. religious belief
A. obligatory B. reserved for professionals only
D. different state
C. reserved for the rich D. temporary
Answer
E. voluntary
A state may accommodate people from different states
2018/16 because a state can be defined as a territory with its own
Identify four features of a society government and borders within a larger country. (D)
1. The society is permanent in nature.
2. Membership of a society is voluntary. 1998/1a
3. The roles in the society are dynamic. What is a state?
4. The rules and regulations of a society are binding on Answer
all resident. A state is a geographical territory occupied by a group of
5. The society is controlled by norms, covertures, people of different cultural background with an organized
traditions and customs. government. A state can be defined also as a territory with
6. Society applies the use of coercive to ensure its own government and borders or an organized political
compliance with their norms, rules and customs. community acting under a government.
7. Common history, tradition, language, religion and
sense of value. 2002/1a
8. It is characterized by common social, political and Describe the term state.
economic interest. Answer
A state is a type of political entity. It is an organized
2018/1a political community that lives under a single system of
Define society government. A state is an independent country with
Answer standing in international laws such as members of United
A society is a group of individuals involved in persistent Nations, recognition by other independent states.
social interaction, or a large social group sharing the same
spatial or social territory, typically subject to the same
political authority and dominant cultural expectations.
15
1988/28 2021/1 (PC2)
The primary purpose of the state is to (a) what is sovereignty of a state
A. establish system of law and order (b) Identify four characteristics of a state
B. train people to become good citizen Answer
C. cater for all the needs of the citizens (a) Sovereignty is the absolute, supreme and ultimate
D. ensure the self sufficiency of its people dominion and authority of a political state, subject to
Answer no higher power expressed within its territory and in
Establishment of law and order are the primary purpose of complete freedom from any outside influence.
the state. A state without law and order is a place where
everyone has the right to do whatsoever they wishes. It (b) Four characteristics of a state include:
means the state has no constitution and government. (A) i. Population: Population is an essential features of a
state because a state is occupied by people and there
1999/7 is no limitation to the number of people making up
A state may be defined as a community of people a state in any constitution
A. established to implement government policies ii. Territory: A state has clear and well defined
B. with differing interests to control the government boundaries separating it from other state e.g. Nigeria
C. with institutions to make laws and Cameroun or Benin Republic.
D. organized as a unit for the purpose of government. iii. Recognition: A state must be recognised both
Answer internally and externally. The people of a state must
A state may be defined as a politically organized body of realise and recognise the corporate existence of their
people inhabiting a defined geographical entity with an state, while other states in the international
organized legitimate government. (A) environment must equally give recognition to an
existing state.
1998/1b iv. Sovereignty: The supreme power to make decisions
What characteristics must a state possess? and enforce them on the people is with the state. The
The following are some characteristics or features of a sovereignty of a state is not negotiable and must be
state. free from external interference and control.
1. Permanence: The state is a permanent place that
cannot be easily changed. Government may change but 2018/2 NABTEB
the state remains 2a. What is a state?
2. Population: Population is another essential feature of b. Explain five features of a state.
a state because a state is occupied by people and there Answer
is no limitation to the number of people making up a (2a) A state may be defined as a politically organised
state in any constitution. body of people occupying a definite geographical
3. Territory: A state has a clear and well defined territory, with an organised legitimate
boundary separating it from other states e.g. Nigeria government.
and Cameroon.
4. Recognition: A state must be recognized both (2b) The state has the following features:
internally and externally. i) Population: Population is an essential features of a
5. Government: Government is not a permanent feature state because a state is occupied by people and there
of a state but it remains as a significant feature because is no limitation to the number of people making up
it is a machinery set up by the state to pilot the affairs a state in any constitution
of the people making up that state. The maintenance ii) Permanence: The state is a permanent place that
and prestige of a state are in the hands of the cannot be easily changed. Government may change
government. but the state remains.
6. Sovereignty: The supreme power to make decisions iii) Territory: A state has clear and well defined
and enforce them on the people is with the state. boundaries separating it from other state e.g. Nigeria
and Cameroun or Benin Republic.
1999/33 Nov iv) Recognition: A state must be recognised both
The main attributes of a state are internally and externally. The people of a state must
A. population, territory, government and sovereignty realise and recognise the corporate existence of their
B. the press, the legislature, the executive and the judiciary state, while other states in the international
C. federal, state and local government environment must equally give recognition to an
D. government, the police and the armed forces existing state.
Answer – A. v) Sovereignty: The supreme power to make decisions
and enforce them on the people is with the state. The
2013/28 sovereignty of a state is not negotiable and must be
A society that is politically organized under a government free from external interference and control.
is called a
A. sovereign state B. community
C. national state D. polity
Answer – C

16
REVISION EXERCISES
1. A society is ______ in nature
A. custom B. state C. federal
D. permanent
2. The most distinguishing characteristics of the state is
A. government B. population C. territory
D. sovereignty
3. Which of the following groups has a compulsory
membership?
A. community B. state C. society D. club
4. The following are examples of state except
A. Britain B. Damaturu C. Nigeria D. Ghana
Answer – B.
5. The main attributes of a state are
A. population, territory, government and sovereignty
B. the press, the legislature, the executive and the
judiciary
C. federal, state and local government
D. government, the police and the armed forces
6. A society that is politically organized under a
government is called a
A. sovereign state B. community
C. national state D. polity
7. What are the differences between a state and society?
8. Define the state and explain nation.
9. Explain power as a key concept in politics.
10. Discuss how political power is acquired and exercised.
11. State and explain the forms of power.
12. Define political authority.
13. Distinguish between power and authority.
14. Explain legitimacy.
15. Explain five features of a state.
14. (a) What is a state?
(b) What characteristics must a state
possess?

17
d) Physical power: is the application of force in
Chapter Three compelling obedience. The outcome of this application
could bring discomfort or even disastrous end.
BASIC CONCEPTS
2005/3 Nov
POWER All of the following are forms of power except
Power is the capacity to influence another’s actions, beliefs, or
A. political B. anarchy C. economic D. charisma
conduct (behaviour) through the possessions of means of threat
Answer
or sanctions. The sanctions may be negative or positive. By
The following are forms of powers, political, charisma,
exercising power, others may be forced to change their actions
economic and physical. Anarchy is not a power of power.
against their will and to compel obedience on their part.
Anarchy is a state of disorder due to absence or non–
Sanction which may be physical, social or political is an
recognition of authority or other controlling system. (B)
instrument of power which is used to influence the action of
others. Sanction is applied when there is non – compliance.
2006/6
A system where wealth influences the actions and
Power is the potential to influence another successfully. It is the
capacity to change the behaviour or attitudes of another in a emotions of the people is called
desired way. It is the ability to do something or to produce a A. military power B. physical power
certain effect. It is the ability to make something or somebodyC. economic power D. political power
to behave in a particular or prescribed way. It involves the Answer
elements of coercion, force, threat or sanction. Economic power can be defined as the ability to control or
influence the behaviour of others through wealth and other
To achieve this, the person applying the power must be
economic resources. When someone is wealthy the person
superior to the person upon which the power is applied. The
command respect and it also controls the people emotions
exercise of power involves two parties, the party that applies
and actions. (C)
the power and the party upon which the power is applied.

1990/56 Exercise 3.1 1989/6

Power can be defined as the A system of power where force are used for instructions
A. ability of the parliament to delegate to another body or compliance is
person, the right to make laws on its benefit A. political power B. economic power
B. right to rule irrespective of oppositions to the ruler C military power D. physical power
C. capacity to compel or influence others to do what they Answer
would otherwise not do Physical power is the application of force in compelling
D. capacity to encourage others to do what they had obedience. The outcome of this application could bring
originally intended to do discomfort or danger at the end. (D)

2008/3 Exercise 3.2 1999/1 Neco Exercise 3.3

Power can be defined as the ability to Political power is concerned with the
A. compel or influence obedience A. allocation of resources and enforcement of decision
B. encourage self-help projects B. use of force to ensure compliance
C. delegate judicial functions C. process of wining wars by the military
D. oppose government policies D. formation of pressure groups

Forms of power
The following are forms of power Sources and Acquisition Of Power
a) Political power: is the form of power one possesses The following are some ways of acquiring and sources of
through elected office e.g. the president, governors, power.
senators or honourables. It is the power derived from 1. The constitution: The constitution of a nation specifies
the people and constitution. how powers can be acquired and how to exercise the
b) Military power: is the power vested in the armed power in the political or civil service offices.
forces. The military controls the instruments of 2. Through coercion: Power maybe acquired through the
violence in a country. The armed forces are Navy, use of force e.g. the military taking over the
Army, and Airforce. The instrument under the government from a civilian government, this process
custodian of the military can be used to manipulate and is simply known as coup.
overthrow a civilian government; it can also be used 3. Through charisma: Power can be acquired through
for the defence of the state against external aggression. charisma, meaning personality/status. The following
c) Economic power: is the possession of economic are some virtues of charisma –intelligence, discipline,
resources by an individual. The individual could use honesty, God–fearing, obeying authorities, simple,
such to influence issues in the state. He/she can kind, gentle, slow to anger, patient, tolerant et.c.
command respect from the people and also have the 4. Through economic resources: An individual can
ability to control people’s emotions and actions. acquire this form of power through money and
properties (wealth). An individual can also acquire
political power through this platform and command
respect from the people.
18
5. Through position of authority: Authority and power Kinds of Authority
are complementary to each other. Position of authority There are two kinds of authority
confers power on the power exercising it. 1. Institutional authority: Institutional authority is the
6. Through inheritance: This is based on hereditary and type of authority that empowers individual with
it is mostly with the royal families. Powers are legitimate right by the virtue of the position they are
acquired, when the kingship or queenship is vacant. holding in the organization to determine public goals,
policies and direct the execution or otherwise of such
Methods of Exercising Power goals and policies e.g. School principal, head of state,
1. Persuasion: Persuasion is the most effective and etc.
widely used method of exercising power. In the 2. Functional authority: Functional authority is the kind of
method, what Nation A does is to influence Nation B authority vested on individuals in order to give command
by way of argument or to redefine the whole situation within a segment of an organization. Functional authority
so that Nation B changes its mind about what it ought generally covers only specific task areas for a duration. It
to do. In this way, persuasion guarantees lasting results gives a legitimate right to direct or command both human
for Nation A. In fact most of the work of international and other resources in his/her section of duties.
organizations consists of the efforts of various
delegates to persuade each other. Small nations, 1992/3
indeed, often use this method because they lack the The right to direct and command people is
power to use force, and also because it is cheap. A. authority B. power C. legality D. legitimacy
2. Threats: Power can also be exercised through threats. Answer
A person can have intentions of punishing another Authority is legitimate; it gives the right to direct,
person if they are given an assignment and it is not influence and command people. (A)
carried out. The person may be punished by reducing 2019/6 Neco
his salary, inflicting physical injury, imprisonment, The right to govern and administer the affairs of the people
removing from office, non-implementation of an of a country is
earlier decision reached or most cases death. A. power B. diplomacy C. authority
3. Government organs: Power is exercised through the D. influence
organs of government such as the legislature, Answer
executive and judiciary. The law making power is Authority is the legal right to act, make and implement
exercised by the legislature. The executive has power laws or policies. Authority is the legal right to govern and
to carry out the law made while the judiciary interprets administer the affairs of the people of a country. (C)
the law and punishes law offenders. Anyone holding a
responsible position in any of these organs of 2003/2 Exercise 3.4
government exercises political power. Authority means
4. Presence of reciprocity: Power can be exercised A. an automatic right to be obeyed
through the principle of give and take (reciprocity). A B. legitimate right to be obeyed
person can do a favour to another in expectation of the C. a civic right to obey others
same favour or a similar one. D. a civic right to be obeyed
5. Trade union activities: Power can be exercised
through trade union activities. Labour unions engage Sources of Authority
in lobbying. They also embark on strikes, lock-outs, The following are the sources of political authority.
work-to-rule, demonstrations and boycotts when their 1. Legal/Formal Authority: According to this theory,
demands are not met. authority is based upon the rank or position of the person
6. Use of force (coercion): Power can be exercised and this authority may be given by law or by social rules
through the use of force (coercion). The force can be and regulations protected by law. Legal authority has its
used physically or with the use of weapons like clubs, source through the constitution of the nation. E.g. the
boomerang, halberd guns, knives, machetes etc. president elected by the people has a legal authority. A law
may grant authority to a policeman to arrest a person
AUTHORITY committing a crime. The president of a company may take
Authority is the power or right to give orders, make an action against an employee for not complying with rules
decisions and enforce obedience. Authority is the power or because company rules have bestowed this authority in
right to direct or control someone or something. Authority him. This authority is commonly adopted by sovereign
is the legitimate power which one person or group of nations and states.
individuals possesses and practices over another. 2. Traditional Authority: Traditional authority is a derivable
authority from customs and traditions of the people, most
As stated above, authority is the same as legitimate power of our traditional rulers like Olu’s, Obas, Emirs, Obis etc.,
as power and authority go hand in hand to ensure derive their powers and authorities from the customs and
effectiveness of government. A person in authority also traditions which are mostly hereditary.
needs to have the backing of legitimate power to be able to In traditional form of authority there is no formal law or
enforce his commands if anyone disobeys him. structured discipline as relationships are governed by
personal loyalty and faithfulness rather than compulsions
of rules and regulations or duties of the office.

19
3. Competence Theory: There is also a feeling that viii. Coercive Authority: Coercive authority is the
authority is generated by personal competence of a authority based on the use of force. The fear of the
person. A person may get his orders accepted not due to consequence for not accepting or obeying such
formal authority but because of his personal qualities. authority is always there e.g. military dictatorship.
These qualities may be personal or technical. The advice
of some persons may be accepted even if they do not have 1996/5
a formal authority. They enjoy this authority by virtue of Political authority is the
their intelligence, knowledge, skill and experience. When A. consent and recognition of the legitimacy of the
a doctor advises rest to a patient, he accepts this advice government by the governed
because of Doctor’s knowledge and not because of his B. power of the government to impose its will on the people
formal authority or legal right. The patient will get relief C. ability of the people to reject bad government actions
only if he obeys the doctor. Similarly, we accept the D. power of the government derived from the constitution.
diagnosis of a car mechanic without questioning it Answer
because of his competency for his work. So the Political authority is the power of government derived from
knowledge or competency of a person gives him a status the constitution e.g. the legislative are stipulated to make
where his authority is accepted by others. laws. Executive formulate policies and implementations, the
4. Charismatic authority: The charismatic authority rests judiciary are mandated to interpret the laws. (D)
on the exceptional personal characteristics of a leader
who commands respect from his followers. The personal 2007/3
traits such as good looks, intelligence, integrity, etc. Right to rule based on norms, customs and conventions of
influence others and people to follow the dictates of their the people is referred to as
leaders because of such traits. The followers become A. legal authority B. charismatic authority
attached to the leader because they feel that he will help C. rational authority D. traditional authority
them in achieving their goals. The charismatic leaders are Answer
generally good orators and have hypnotic effect on their Traditional authority is the right to rule based on the norms,
followers. The religious and political leaders come under customs, traditions and convention of the people. For
this category. The charismatic phenomena also extend to example, Oba’s, Obi’s, Emir’s, Shehu’s, Olu’s, Igwe’s are
film actors, actresses and war heroes, etc. good examples of traditional authority. (D)
5. Consent of the people: The people of a community or
state can decide to choose a peculiar person to represent 2005/4 Nov
them and hand over or vest the authority to him/her. Legal/rational authority; according to Max Webber is the
authority derived
Types of Authorities A. through tradition and culture B through military might
The following are the types of authorities: C. through the people’s mandate and backed by the
i. Traditional authority: This is found in traditional constitution
societies, where the chiefs or councils of leaders or D. as a result of the leader’s personal exceptional qualities
traditional rulers use their customs and traditions as Answer
their constitution (guard) to govern their people. Rational/legal authority is a form of leadership in which
ii. Charismatic Authority: Charismatic authority is an the authority of an organization or a ruling regime is
authority derived from intelligence of an individual largely tied to legal relationship, legal legitimacy and
which make him exceptional in the society and the bureaucracy. (C)
people choose him as their leader.
iii. Legal/Rational Authority: Legal/rational authority is 2011/39 Exercise 3.5
derived from the constitution of a given country. E.g. Authority to make laws and regulations conferred on some
the Governor of Nassarawa state was elected into persons or bodies is called _______
office based on Nigerian constitution. A. charismatic B. coercive C. delegated
iv. Delegated Authority: Delegated authority is the type D. political E. traditional
of authority, where authority is given to someone to
exercise functions and responsibility on specific 1991/57 Exercise 3.6
areas. The power of a state government to make policies, issues
v. Technical Authority: Technical authority is based on orders and spend public funds is an attribute of its
the level of skills/experience an individual has A. administrative authority B. political authority
acquired on the job. This kind of authority has to be C. charismatic authority D. traditional authority
respected, recognized and accepted in that particular
area concerned. 2000/2 Neco Exercise 3.7
vi. Political Authority: Political authority is the authority Political authority is the
conferred on persons holding political offices e.g. the A. legitimate right to exercise power
president, legislators, governors, ministers, B. ability to control political behavior
commissioners, etc. C. rights to participate in political campaigns
vii. Positional Authority: Positional authority is the D. rights to form political parties
position an individual holds, which determines his
authority, for example the president has veto power to
accept or reject bills. This is because of his position.
20
Two ways of acquiring authority iii. Ideology: The ability of the government to uphold
There are two ways of acquiring authority universally. tenets of the states ideology will help to determine
i. De – jure authority. legitimacy. Tenets in government means beliefs,
ii. De – facto authority principles or doctrines, guidelines generally held to
be true.
De–Jure Authority iv. Good/reliable leadership: When the government is
This connotes the existence of rulers by reference to which good and considers the citizens as the first in their
an official acquires the authority to act in some ways. De– entire decision making, it means the government to
jure authority can be defined as the right to issue be legitimate because it operates based on the
instructions and to have them obeyed. When an official constitution.
exceeds the limits of such rules in performing an act; such v. Legitimacy through periodic elections: When
act would be regarded as illegal act. there is free and fair election, it means the
government is legitimate because that is the choice
De–Facto Authority of the people.
This is a situation where one person’s acknowledges vi. Wider scope of political participation: The ability
another as being entitled to command him. De – facto for the wider scope of political participation helps
authority is the authority of force, you must obey the last the electorate to participate in politics at all sections
order, if not the person should prepare for the and levels of the country. It helps to determine
consequences of disobedience. legitimacy through political appointment.
vii. Popular support: Popular/mass political
Difference between Power and Authority participation of the people in government and
i. Authority involves the duties that are delegated to an support accorded these political leaders.
individual, while power is the possession of control that viii. Foreign policy objectives: The foreign policies
allows an individual to influence the actions of others. objectives adopted by a government of a country
ii. Authority is based on acceptance and mostly determine the legitimacy other nations will accord
legitimate and power could be legitimate or to such government.
illegitimate.
iii. Power is basically the capability or influence to control 2019/2 NABTEB
a particular situation, while authority on the other hand Legitimacy is guaranteed by the following factors except
depends on power vested in the person or office to A. custom and tradition B. constitution
achieve the goals and objectives. C. past performance D. force
iv. Authority is legitimized punishment that goes with it Answer
if not obeyed, is not as serious as that of power. A government is called legitimate, if it comes to power
v. Authority comes with position like that of a teacher, through the constitutional right. For example a president
governor, policeman, military and parent, while power elected in the office of the head of state is legitimate. When
comes with connection, influences and wealth. the people accept the government it means the government
is legitimate. Force of any kind is not part of legitimacy in
government. (D)
LEGITIMACY
Legitimacy is a political concept which refers to the 2010/3
acceptance and recognition by the citizens of a country, the A government is legitimate if it
rights of their rulers to govern. It is the act of choosing the A. can be changed periodically
right ruler based on the constitution or policies to rule over B. enforces its will on the citizens
the people. Legitimacy is a concept used to describe the C. has the mandate of the people to rule on the citizens
condition of being in accordance with the law as a leader. D. provide social services for the people
In essence, legitimacy is a concept expressive of the Answer
massive support for a particular government to wield A government that is legitimate must be recognized by the
power. citizen and has the mandate of the people to rule them. The
mandate is called the constitution. (C)

Factors that Determines Legitimacy 1999/10 Nov

The following seven factors determine the legitimacy of a The establishment of an illegitimate authority in a state
leader. may lead to
i. Good government: People accord legitimacy to a A. political instability B. economic development
government which meets up their expectations. If C. political unity D. social development
the government policies are best intentioned, the Answer
people will continue to have trust and confidence in Illegitimate authority is unlawful and improper.
the government. illegitimate authority is not recognized and could lead to
ii. Customs and traditions: This also help the society political instability because the people will not accept the
to sustain or determine legitimacy, e.g. hereditary leader and his/her policies. (A)
of the throne, for example traditional rulers and
British monarchy.

21
2011/10 Exercise 3.8 c) De–facto sovereignty: This is the sovereignty which
The extent to which the citizens accept the institution empowers individuals or group of people, who uses
officials and activities of government is known as force to make citizens obey their wills, after
A. authority B. permission C. legitimacy D. power overthrowing the legitimate leader of the sovereignty
through revolution or coup e.g. the military in
government.
2012/5 Neco Exercise 3.9 d) De–jure sovereignty: This type of sovereign rule is
Legitimacy is determined mainly by based on laws i.e. the constitution. This type of
A. chairman B. influence C. acceptance D. desire sovereignty opposed to physical force on people
before laws are obeyed.
e) Internal sovereignty: This is the supreme power of the
SOVEREIGNTY state, for the state to make and enforce laws within its
Sovereignty is the absolute, supreme and ultimate area of authority.
dominion and authority of a political state, subject to no f) External sovereignty: This is the power of the state to
higher power expressed within its territory, in full self- exist, conduct its domestic affairs without external
government and complete freedom from any external (foreign) interference. Thus, by external sovereignty
control or foreign interference. we mean that every state is independent of other states.
In other words, external sovereignty means national
Examples of sovereign states are; Nigeria, Ghana, freedom, that is, freedom of self-governance.
Republic of Benin, Burkina Faso, South Africa U.S.A,
Britain etc. Sovereign states are independent countries. Limitations to the sovereignty of a state
The sovereign state is free from external control. Its actions The question here is, ‘is the power of the state absolute?’
and reactions are not determined by external forces rather There are factors that limit the sovereignty of a state, the
it is the architect of her fortune or misfortune. following are some of the internal and external limitations
to the sovereignty of a state.
Characteristics of Sovereignty
The following are the features of sovereignty: A. Internal limitations
a. Indivisibility: Sovereignty is powerful and full of i. The constitution: Due to the fact that the constitution sells
supremacy. A sovereign cannot be divided, though out the powers of every organ of government, the principle
government can delegate powers to sub–units or of checks and balances operates as a limitation on
component units. sovereignty. No separate organ of government can claim
b. Absoluteness: The powers of a sovereign state cannot sovereignty under constitutional supremacy in a state
be deprived or restricted. There is no other government ii. The electorate: The electorate determines who represents
that is more powerful like that of the state. The power them; it dictates the limit of power held by the
of a state is absolute it takes no instruction from other representatives, they can empower or disengage political
states. parties and individuals depending on the execution of their
c. Permanence: As long as the state continues to exists, mandate to the populace.
there is no interruption in the government. The state iii. Public opinion: Public opinion could serve as a check on
remains permanently but the government is temporary. the powers of government. Public opinion is the popular
d. Universality: The sovereignty of the state is universal few expressed by a significant number of people on certain
in nature. It covers all aspects of the people and state. issues of public concern. Thus, the exercise of the powers
The state has the absolute authority to make rules and of government can be checked by the people’s opinion.
regulations within its territory without external iv. Coup d’etat: Military takeover of power or government is
interference. It governs the citizens, associations and usually by force. This suspends the constitution of the state
organizations within its territory. The activity of the and brings about a sudden change of the sovereignty and
state affects individuals, groups and associations of its limitations.
individuals. v. Customs and traditions: Customs and traditions of the
e. Comprehensiveness: The power exercised by the people are mostly considered by the state before the
government is wide and encompassing. These powers making and interpretation of laws in that state. This puts
are binding on all. limitations on the sovereignty of the state.
vi. Religion and culture: Religion and culture plays a very
Types of Sovereignty important role in the political affairs of a nation. When
a) Legal sovereignty: The body that makes laws and making of policies and laws in the state, religion and
enforces it in the state without external interferences. culture of the people are most considered by the
The parliament is the legal sovereign in Britain and in government.
Nigeria, we have the National Assembly, they make vii. Delegated authority: In modern government, there is
and amend laws. provision for delegated authority. This checks the excesses
b) Political or popular sovereignty: This is the freedom of sovereignty. In Nigeria, for example, various agencies
which a country has in managing its own affairs of government have authority to operate independently to
without external interference. The electorate some extent. These agencies are Standards Organization of
constitutes the political sovereign; the will of the Nigeria (SON), the Economic and Financial Crime
electorate prevails in legal sovereignty. Commission (EFCC) etc.

22
viii. Resources: Absence or lack of human and material ix. Geographical location: Land locked countries
resources can put on hold the exercise of the state nearness to other states, can limit the sovereignty of a
authority. state.
ix. Activities of pressure groups: Pressure groups
perform the function of checks and balances. They do 1999/22
so by strike actions, demonstrations, etc. when A sovereign state is one
government fails to honour their requests. Examples of A. whose constitution can only be changed by a military
pressure groups are trade unions (e.g. the Nigeria government
Labour Congress, Nigerian Medical Association, etc), B. where its citizens can speak without fear or favour
Students’ Union, non-governmental organizations, etc. C. whose government decisions are made independent of
For fear of these pressure groups, government foreign interference
sometimes consults them before taking important D. in which sovereignty is involved in the military
decisions. Answer
x. Freedom of the press: The press has so much freedom Sovereignty is the right of a government to have complete
and power to blow the whistle on illegals acts of a control over its area. Sovereignty is the full right and power
sovereign. to govern without any interference from outside sources or
xi. Type of government in power: Sovereignty is best bodies. (C)
achieved in a unitary state than the federal or
confederal systems of government. 1995/37
Sovereignty refers to the
B. External limitations A. capacity to affect another’s behavior by the threat of sanction
i. International organisations: The existence of B. possession of instruments of violence
international organisations of which many nations C. supreme power and authority of the state over its own affairs
belong has placed serious limitations to the D. possession of economic resources
sovereignty of such nations. e.g. the UNO and regional Answer
or sub–regional confederation e.g. A.U, E.U and Sovereignty in political theory means ultimate overseer or
ECOWAS must be ready to abide by any collective authority. Sovereignty is the exercise of power by a state. (C)
decisions taken by the organizations.
ii. International laws and conventions: These are bodies 2001/3 Neco Exercise 3.10
of conventional rules and customs which are Political sovereignty in the state resides with the
considered binding among nation-states in their A. executive B. people C. national assembly
international relations with one another. They are D. international community
legally binding on the treating state, such states that
disobey international laws and conventions may face 1993/7 Exercise 3.11
some sanctions. These sanctions are usually imposed The supreme power of a state to make and enforce laws
by the Security Council, an organ of the United Nation within its jurisdiction is called
Organisation. A. enfranchisement B. sovereignty
iii. Influence of powerful nations: The big powers e.g. C. decolonization D. independence
U.S.A, Russia, China, Britain and France, determine
the course of events globally. This can negatively
affect the sovereignty of the weaker and smaller DEMOCRACY
nations. The term ‘democracy’ first appeared in Ancient Greek
iv. Military agreement or pacts: Two or more countries political and philosophical thought in the city–state of
can agree to cooperate militarily. For example, the Athens during classical antiquity, as it was the practice for
North Atlantic Treaty Organisation (NATO) citizens to come to the market square to decide the affairs
WARSAW PACT and ECOMOG, Cameroon and of the city.
France also have military agreement.
v. External aids: Many poverty stricken nations Democracy is derived from two Greek words, demos,
mortgage their external sovereignty for economic, meaning ‘the people’, and kratos, meaning ‘the rule’.
military and technical assistance. The exercise of full Joining the two words together gives ‘demoskratos’, which
sovereign power is therefore limited by the interest of later transformed to democracy, meaning ‘rule by the
the donor nations. people’. Thus, democracy means a form of government in
vi. International financial institutions: The World Bank which the power is exercised by the people.
and I.M.F for instance, have succeeded in dictating to
many countries on how to run their economics It was defined by Abraham Lincoln (1809–1865) as the
especially when such countries are asking for loan. government of the people, by the people and for the people.
vii. Diplomatic immunity: Diplomats representing their According to Seeley, “Democracy is a government in
countries in other countries of the world, have which everyone has a share”.
diplomatic immunity, some of their actions can Austin Ranney, in a wider scope, defined democracy as a
undermine the sovereignty of their host states. ‘form of government organized in accordance with the
viii. External trade: This is exporting and importing of principles of popular sovereignty, popular consultation,
goods. political and economic equality and majority rule’.

23
Democracy is a government based on the consent and 3. There is separation of power in a democratic
approval of the people through voting. The people reserve government: There is separation of power among the
the right to change their leaders periodically. There is three organs of government i.e. the executive,
respect for majority views while the minorities also have a legislature and judiciary.
right to be heard. Democracy has a number of interesting 4. Rule of law is the key to any kind of democratic
features. For this reason, it is regarded as the best form of government: The rule of law makes everybody in the
government. sovereignty to be below or under the constitution; it
makes the constitution to be very supreme above
1999/3 Neco anybody that lives within the sovereign.
In democracy, political sovereignty resides with the 5. Universal adult suffrage: There is universal adult
A. judiciary B. president C. legislature suffrage in all democratic government, when all adult
D. electorate citizens have the rights to vote in the elections.
Answer 6. Freedom of the press: The radio, newspapers and
Democracy is a form of government whereby the people televisions should be free to write and express issues
exercise their civic right by voting for the candidate of their without any hindrance or fear.
choice as their representatives in government that means 7. Secret ballot: In the popular democracy secret ballot is
the political sovereignty in democracy government is the best way of electing the electorate representatives.
resided in the hands of the electorates. The electorates are 8. Decision–making: The conception of majority rule
the citizens. (D) and rights of the minority must be recognized in the
areas of decision making.
2011/14 9. Supremacy of the constitution: The constitution
Democracy originated from should be supreme and above every other constitution
A. Greece B. Britain C. USA D. Germany in the country.
Answer 10. Value of individual personality: In democracy, there
The origin of democracy is traceable to ancient Greek. The is value in individual personality, meaning the need to
word “Demo” in Greek it means people and kratia means respect other person’s views or opinions on national or
government. The two words ‘Demo’ and ‘Kratia’ when even private issues.
metamorphosed into the word, democracy. Democracy 11. Fundamental human right: Rights of individuals are
originated from Greece. (A) promoted and guaranteed in democracy government.
12. Political parties: Democracy allows multi-parties
Author’s Question system with different individuals competing for
Why is periodic election necessary in a democratic state? political power.
Answer 13. Protection of minority interest: In every democracy,
Periodic elections is one of the tenets of democracy that the majority rules. The minority interests or rights are
cannot be overlooked. It is very important because it is the normal individual’s interest or rights. It includes
key pillar of democracy and also an important feature of a protection of existence, protection from
democractic system as well. Through periodic elections, discrimination, and persecution. It also includes the
democracy is able to avoid dictatorship by leaders. protection of their political life. These rights must be
adequately protected.
1996/8 Nov Exercise 3.12 14. National wealth: Disparity in the distribution of
Democracy implies a system of government in which national wealth is progressively reduced.
political power belongs to 15. Independence of the judiciary: The judiciary should
A. public servant B. the most intelligence individuals be free and independent of other branches of
C. all members of a community government, e.g. the executive and the legislature.
D. the supports of the ruling party E. the loyal servants 16. Political liberty: It is an indispensable factor – the
equal rights of all normal adults to vote and to stand as
2002/39 NABTEB Exercise 3.13 candidates for elections, periodic elections, and equal
The idea of democracy as a system of government was eligibility for political offices etc.
inherited from
A. China B. Athens C. Italy D. England 1999/26 Neco
A feature of democratic government is that it is
A. authoritarian and totalitarianism
Features of Democracy B. brutal and repressive C. firm and disciplined
1. Free association and group: Individual should have D. representative and accountable
the rights to choose their friends and social clubs. Answer
When such clubs, have related constitutions to Nigeria A feature of democracy government must have free
constitution. association and groups, there is separation of powers, rule
2. Majority rule: The principle of majority rule requires of law is the main way of any form of democracy,
that no government decision be made against the supremacy of the constitution and the representations must
popular desires of popular majorities. This means that be accountable to the people. (D)
the power of popular majority to take any government
action is only subject to those limitations imposed or
removable, by such majorities.
24
2012/6 Neco - Indirect (Representative) democracy: This is the type
Which of the following is a feature of democracy? of democracy, where the citizens through election elect
A. majority rule B. election by selected adult those who will represent and govern the state on their
C. quick decision making D. rule by wealthy men behalf. In other words, because political sovereignty
Answer belongs to the electorate, the electorate delegate their
In democracy the majority rules because democracy is a political sovereignty to the elected representatives to
game of the highest number. (A) make binding laws for the state. This type of
democracy replaced the direct democracy in modern
2018/1 NABTEB states as it is no more possible for everybody to gather
Democracy emphasis in one place in order to take decisions to govern the
A. minority rule B. no party system state as a result of the large size and population of the
C. majority rule and minority right D. one party system modern states.
Answer
Democracy emphasises on majority rule meaning the 2006/6 Nov
principle, that the greater number should exercise power or Which of the following factors necessitated the
the doctrine that the numerical majority of an organised development of indirect democracy?
group can make decisions binding on the whole group. A. military intervention in politics
Minority rights are the normal individual rights. It covers B. growth of industries
protection of existence, protection from discrimination and C. increase in population and urbanization
persecution. (C) D. increase in war and subjugation
Answer
1993/11 Increase in population and urbanization it makes indirect
Which of the following is a characteristic of democracy? democracy not to be relevant again, while indirect
A. there is absolute freedom of movement democracy has now replaced the direct, individuals are
B. counts can sue and be sued elected into political offices to represents the electorate, at
C. the majority have their way the federal, state and even local government levels. (D)
D. all citizens can vote and be voted for
Answer 2015/4 Neco
In democracy the majority has their way and minority is Representative democracy is characterized by
the opposition party that watchdogs the ruling party by A. free election and proper register of voters
criticizing their unconstitutional acts. (C) B. a politically educated elite
C. representation of the poor only
1996/7 Exercise 3.14 D. rule of the interest groups
An essential feature of democracy is Answer
A. election by all adults Representative democracy also known as indirect
B. government by a few wealthy men democracy or representative government is a type of
C. participation by everyone in the economic sector democracy founded on the principle of elected officials
D. majority rule representing a group of people, as opposed to direct
democracy. (A)
2005/6 Exercise 3.15
Which of the following is not a feature of a democratic 2005/5
system of government? Classical democracy implies governance
A. limited franchise B. official elections A. through representatives B. by all citizens
C. periodic elections D. rule of law C. through electoral college D. by martial laws
Answer
2022/1 Exercise 3.16 Classical democracy is also known as direct democracy. It was
Highlight five feature that makes democracy the most generally referred to as the early democratic, classical democracy
popular system of government. implies governance by all citizens. (B)

2004/3 Exercise 3.17

Types of Democracy Direct democracy implies that the governance of a state
There are two types of democracy, direct and indirect involves state
democracy. A. all the citizens of the state B. only male citizens
- Direct (Classical) democracy: It refers to an idea of C. adult female citizens D. citizens representatives
government by which all citizens of a community meet
together, periodically to discuss issues affecting the 2018/9 Neco Exercise 3.18
community. This type of democracy is suitable and In modern democracies, a government is
possible in small communities or villages. Therefore, A. a contract between the rulers and the ruled
direct democracy is seen as close interactions in which B. a pressure of the political party in power
people can continually take an active part. C. monopoly of the ethnic groups in the majority
D. alternation of power between the majority and minority
tribes

25
The Merits of Democracy 8. The Manipulation by few: Oftentimes, citizens
1. The Operation of rule of law: It makes those in merely accept the opinions and views expressed by
government to rule according to the provisions of the few vocal representatives which may not represent the
constitution, i.e. the rule of law. rule or views of the majority in a democracy.
2. Stability: Democracy promotes stability in the country. A
bad government can be removed from office peacefully Conditions Necessary for a Successful Operation of
through the process of voting. Democracy
3. Choice of political leadership: The electorates are given 1. Belief in Democratic Principles: The first condition
the opportunity to elect leaders of their choice. necessary for the successful operation of democracy is
4. Equal opportunity: It ensures equal opportunity for all that citizens of that country should have faith in
citizens in all spheres of life. democratic principles. They should have respect for
5. Legitimacy: Government elected by the people is other views and should perform their duties properly.
considered legitimate because it has the support of the 2. Democratic institutions: Independence of judiciary,
people. rule of law, decentralization of powers, separation of
6. Abuse of power: Democracy does not allow for misuse of powers, sound and independent election machinery,
power because power is not concentrated in the hands of healthy education system, and liberalism in thought and
one person. Democracy does not allow misuse of power in actions are the other essential requirements for the
political offices because power of the country is not vested success of a democratic system. All these features must
on single individual. be properly secured only then can a democracy be
7. Team work: It makes for the espirit de corps. It permits expected to work successfully.
“team spirit”, “unity is strength”, “united we stand” and 3. High moral standards: Democracy can be run
“solidarity”. Democracy makes the people to see successfully in a country whose citizens are honest,
themselves as one entity and work jointly for the good of impartial and selfless. They should not be amenable to
all. undue pressures during elections.
8. Participation in governmental affairs: It encourages 4. Right types of leaders: The success of democracy
citizens to be involved in their government and politics. It depends greatly on the quality of leaders a country is
promotes a sense of responsibility and belonging. able to provide. Leaders must be men of sound
9. Decision making: Decision is reached through discussion, judgment, balanced mind, honest and of unimpeachable
argument and persuasion. Democracy does not believe in character.
suppression of opinion. 5. Educated and enlightened citizenship: Democracy is a
10. Tolerance: Democracy encourages tolerance of the views system which involves a continuous and active
of the opposition. The majority will have its way, but the involvement of the people in the political process. Without
minority must have its say. popular and effective political participation, no democracy
11. Equality of individual: There is individual equality, can be successful. For this purpose, it is essential that
freedom and protection of their possessions and their rights literacy should be widespread and people must be
where democracy operates. enlightened in respect of their rights, freedoms and duties
as citizens of a democratic system. No democracy can work
Demerits of Democracy successfully if its citizens are not prepared to sacrifice their
1. Expensive to operate: It is very expensive to operate individual interests for the sake of social good. Only
because decision making process in a democracy educated and enlightened citizens are expected to realize
involves many people. and follow this vital condition for the success of democracy.
2. Decision making process is slow: When opportunity Illiteracy and ignorance always hinder the success of
is given to everybody to express his or her views democracy. The experience of our own country is before
before the final decision is taken on any issue of public us.
importance, decision making is slowed down. 6. Sound party system: Democracy can be successful in a
3. Representation: The representatives of the people country where political parties are organized on definite
may be representing their own interests and not the economic, social and political principles and not on the
interests of the people. basis of religion or caste.
4. Incompetent people may be in government: In 7. Strong opposition: Strong and organized opposition is also
democracy, many people who do not have the ability necessary for the successful working of democracy. It
to govern may get elected. checks the government from becoming dictatorial.
5. Corruption/manipulation of election:: Elections 8. Peace and security: Democracy can run successfully
held in most cases may not be free and fair, leading to in a country where peace and security prevail. In
the enthronement of irresponsible, callous and self- countries that have the perpetual danger of war or
minded individuals. revolt, democracy cannot be run successfully.
6. Rule of ignorance: Democracy is the rule of 9. A written constitution: Some writes believe that a
ignorance. It does not pay attention to quality but written constitution is also essential for a success of
quantity. Votes are not weighed but are counted. democracy. A written constitution helps in
7. Inadequate political education: During elections, safeguarding of individual liberty and keeping the
people that are not adequately educated politically may different organs of government within the respective
not understand the issue at stake thereby using their spheres of their authority. Sir Henry Maine says, with a
political sovereignty or power wrongly. For example, wise constitution, the turbulence of democracy may be
collection of money for their votes. restrained and made as calm as in a reservoir”.
26
10. Economic equality: Economic equality in society can 2. Democratic institutions: Democracy is sustained by
guarantee the success of democracy. Without economic the democratic institutions put in place by the state as
democracy, political democracy remains true only on it helps to realize its objectives. Such institutions are
papers. People cannot be fed on votes, they need foods. political parties, electoral commission e.g. INEC,
They cannot live on mere slogans and populism. pressure groups, the arms of government – the
Economic equality involving equitable distribution of Executive, legislature and the judiciary, etc.
income and wealth and adequate opportunities for 3. The rule of law: This is a strong pillar of democracy.
livelihood, is an essential condition for the success of Infact, it is the bedrock of democracy. The rule of law
democracy. A country in which a large number of is the supremacy of law above individuals, groups and
persons are poor while a few of them have plenty state officials making all citizens equal before the law,
cannot run democratic institutions successfully. supporting the application of fundamental human
11. Full respect for fundamental rights: Democracy is rights and ensuring that all laws are obeyed.
regarded as the best form of government because it 4. Transparent Electoral Process: This requires timely
grants and guarantees fundamental human rights and access by electors, shareholders, members, and other
freedoms of all its people. For this purpose, it is key stakeholders to low-cost, relevant reliable
essential for democracy to take all steps which are information about finances, products or services,
necessary for granting, preserving and protecting the management of resources, and decision processes.
rights of the people. Independent National Electoral Commission (INEC) is
12. Freedom of press: Without freedom of press, we cannot assigned the role of conducting elections in Nigeria,
even imagine the working of a democratic government. they should uphold the above stated responsibilities
Public opinion has to be the basis of all policies and and should be free and fair to all and sundry.
decisions of a democratic government. The government 5. Periodic Elections: Periodic elections is one of the
must keep a continuous track of the demands of public tenets of democracy that cannot be overlooked. It is
opinion. Press is the means for transmitting the public very important because it is the key pillar of
opinion to the government. Only a free press can perform democracy and also an important feature of a
this task in a desired manner. It is only through a free press democratic system as well. Through periodic elections
that the people can exercise their right to freedom of speech democracy is able to avoid dictatorship by leaders.
and expression as well as their right to discuss and debate, When leaders are conscious of the fact that they will
criticize or support the policies and programmes of their leave office after certain period, they will be forced to
government. Press is often described as the fourth essential act in accordance with the law and respect for the
but non-governmental institution of democracy. people’s interest.
13. Spirit of tolerance and compromise: In a democratic 6. Legitimacy: This simply means the acceptance and
government no person, group or party can be permitted to recognition of the power to govern given to the leaders.
act arbitrarily. No one should try to impose one’s will upon It is one of the major pillars of democracy because the
others and use power in an arbitrary way. This can be absence of legitimacy means that the people did not
possible only when the people have a high sense of legally assign political powers to their leaders to
tolerance, accommodation and compromise. The majority govern them. It should be noted that the same way the
should not ignore the minority. It must respect the wishes people can legitimately appoint their leaders, they can
of the minority. The minority should not act in a way as can also legitimately remove whosoever they want from
create hindrances in the way of exercise of power by the power through impeachment or recall.
majority. This can be secured only when all the people 7. Fundamental Human Rights: The last important
accept tolerance, accommodation, compromise, secularism pillar of democracy is fundamental human rights.
and mutual give-and-take in national interests as their These rights are free given rights which are inalienable
values. and immutable. Fundamental human rights are seen as
one of the pillars of democracy because they protect
Pillars of Democracy the interest of the citizens. These rights include the
Pillars of democracy refers to the essential elements or right to life, right to freedom of speech, right to
institutions necessary for successful practice of democracy freedom of expression, freedom of movement etc.
in a country. Pillars of democracy are the factors that When these rights are not provided for in the
contribute to the smooth running of democracy. In other constitution, then there is no true democracy because
words, pillars of democracy are the people and those the interest of the people are not well protected.
institutions that give the needed support, the sustenance
and good running of democracy in a country like Nigeria. POLITICAL CULTURE
Pillars of democracy are as important as pillars supporting Political culture is a set of values, beliefs, emotions,
a house. These include: orientation and practices held by a people that shapes their
1. The people: Democracy centers on the people going political behaviour. It includes moral judgment, political
by the definition of democracy by Abraham Lincoln myths, beliefs and ideas about what makes for a good
which says “Democracy is the government of the society.
people, by the people and for the people”. The people
gives their mandate through their votes in election. A political culture is a reflection of a government, but it
This definition shows the roles of the people of a also incorporate element of history and traditions that may
nation in making democracy to work. predate the current regime. Political culture matter because
they shape a population’s political perceptions and actions
27
about the state political system. Government can help 5. Socio-Economic Factors: A predominantly urbanized
shape political culture and public opinion through and industrialized society is more complex.
education, public events and commemoration of the past. Educational standards are higher, communication is
Political cultures varies greatly from state to state and more fluid, groups proliferate and participation in the
sometimes even within a state. Generally speaking, decision making process is higher. States with
political culture remains more or less over time. predominantly rural and peasant population are usually
more conservative. The impact of science and
The role of political culture is to set the standard behaviour technology also leads to change in values and beliefs
of public officials and citizens. Some countries with of the people, which in turn bring the changes in the
developed and established political culture are Britain, political culture.
U.S.A and France. 6. Ethnic factor: Ethnic differences and conflicts in a
society also determines the nature of the political
Component of Political Culture culture. Ethnic issues are always behind differences
1. Affective orientation: This has to do with the feelings, between national political culture and regional sub-
support and loyalty of the people towards the activities political culture.
and performance of the government. 7. Ideological factor: As a set of principles offering an
2. Cognitive orientation: This has to with the beliefs of explanation of given phenomena, or even life in a
the people about the political system involving the society, ideology plays an important role in forming
government and their roles. and changing people’s values, commitment and
3. Evaluative orientation: This is about judgment of, and orientations.
opinions about political objects which usually involves
applying value standards to political objects and 2011/35 Nov
events. The function of any political system is subject The voting behaviour of citizens of a country is an example
to evaluation. In such evaluation, the people can be of their political
able to access the individuals who steer the affairs of A. authority B. behaviour C. culture
the state and the efficiency and effectiveness of their D. power E. socialization
policies. Answer
Let us now outline the objects of political orientations: Political culture refers to the way members of a political
1. The political system as a whole community behave in their political activities e.g. voting. (C)
2. The structures and institutions of the political
system 1989/23
3. Individual office – holders Which of the following is not a component of political
4. Specific policies and issues. culture?
A. attitudes B. beliefs C. emotions D. age
Determinants of Political Culture Answer
1. Historical Development: Historical events like the Age is not a component of political cultures. Political culture is
French revolution (1789), the American war of composed to the belief, emotions and values of the people. (D)
independence, the Glorious Revolution, the Bolshevik
revolution, have greatly influenced the political 1999/9 Nov Exercise 3.19
cultures of France, U.S., U.K. and Russia. The varied attitude to norms and institutions in a political
2. Political continuity/discontinuity: Continuity of system is referred to as
political process helps the revolution of a participant A. political socialization B. political participation
political culture and serves as a linkage between past C. political development D. political culture
and present. The importance of political continuity in
a country like Britain, says A. R. Ball, lies in the fact 1988/41 Exercise 3.20
that older values have been allowed to merge with A political concept that is composed of the attitudes,
modern attitudes undisturbed by violent internal strike beliefs, emotions and values of a society is called political
or dominion by foreign power. This is why British A. culture B. single to transferable vote
Monarchy exists together with Democracy. On the C. authority D. socialism
other hand, Pakistanis stints with democracy between
long periods of military dictatorship have hindered the 2007/19 Exercise 3.21
development of a stable political culture which is why A politically aware and active society is said to have
people of Pakistan struggle for democracy when living A. subjective political culture
under dictatorship, yet fail to manage a political B. participatory political culture C. parochial political
system when it becomes democratic. D. evaluative political curve
3. Geography: Favourable locations have helped Britain
meet foreign invasions successfully thereby keeping POLITICAL SOCIALIZATION
its political culture stable. It was a great factor in the Political socialization may be defined as ‘the acquisition of
spread of socialism to eastern European countries. basic political orientations by new members of a political
4. Industralised society: The industralised society will system’ or ‘the process by which people learn to adopt the
have a complex class structure but the distinctness of norms, values, attitudes and behaviour accepted and
class as a sub-region will vary. practiced by the political system.

28
Political socialization is a life-long process by which 2005/8 Nov
people form their idea about politics and acquire political The process of teaching and learning about all aspects of
values. The family, educational background, peer groups the political system is described as political
and the mass media plays essential role in political A. socialization B. enculturation
socialization. C. mobilization D. opposition
Answer
In general, socialization can be thought of as a process by Political socialization is the process of teaching and
which a child comes to adopt the standards of his own learning about all aspects of the political system from
society. It is a learning process through which a child childhood to adulthood. (A)
acquire the culture of his own society. The child acquires
a personality and develops the capacity to function as an 2004/6
individual and as a member of the group. Political socialization is associated with
Socialization is a continuous process. It starts as soon as A. free choice of party programmes
the infant is born and continues until death. The learning B. military takeover of civilian government
of basic political orientations begins from childhood and C. the transmission of political values, attitudes and
goes on to adulthood, hence it is a life-long developmental opinions
process. D. political programmes of transition to civil rule
Answer
Agents of Political Socialization Political socialization is associated with the transmission of
The following are agents of political socialization. political values, attitudes, opinions as well as citizenship
1. Family unit: Political knowledge, authority and training that shapes a citizen’s political behaviour. (C)
allocation of values probably start from the home.
2. The peer group: The peer group influence on political 2012/10 Neco
socialization is very true, because peer group Political socialization begins from
discussion on politics influences one’s political A. adulthood B. childhood C. old age
emotion. The peer group can be easily influence D. manhood
through the same objectives and interest. Answer
3. Institution of learning: Schools, colleges and other Political socialization is also the process of political
educational institution provide avenue for political learning from childhood to adulthood. It is a life-long
talk, debate and discussion which are basic for development process. (B)
socializing mechanism.
4. Social/religious institutions: It is difficult to exclude 2001/1 Neco
politics from social/religious institutions. Members of The first agent of political socialization is the
social or religions institutions like social clubs, A. school B. mass media
religious centres, association, etc. do engage in C. community D. family
political arguments and discussions by which members Answer
become politically socialized as they teach and direct Family is the first agent of political socialization because
their members on the political course to follow. everyone is born into a family and that is the first stage of
5. Mass media: The mass media are very powerful everyone’s life. The children grew and become conscious
socializing agents. Newspapers, magazines, radios, of their surrounding through their life. It is the first stage
television, text messages, internet media (twitter, of everybody political socialization that’s political
Facebook, other blogs) etc., are very educative. The knowledge; attitude, belief, values as well as training that
mass media do not only transmit information and shapes or political behaviours. (D)
messages, but also provide visual pictures of
government activities and it is communication process 2019/10 Neco
of government with the public. The mass media also The family and peer group are important agents of
publish and transmit news on events in other countries. A. political culture B. political socialization
6. Political parties: One of the significant roles political C. charismatic authority D. traditional authority
parties play in political socialization is stimulating the Answer
political awareness and consciousness of their people. The family and peer group are essential agents of political
Political parties also educate its member through their socialization, life begins with the family and the peer group
manifesto, campaigns rallies etc. influences the political socialization and one’s political
7. Pressure group: They can be described as an organized emotions. (B)
group that does not put up candidates for election, but
seeks to influence government policy or legislation. They 2007/18 Exercise 3.22
can also be described as interest group, lobby group or The political way of life which is developed by the society
protest group. Pressure groups equally educate their is referred to as
members and even the public through conference, A. communalism B. political culture
seminars etc. especially in the area of politics and civic C. agency of socialization D. political socialization
right.

29
1994/4 Exercise 3.23 1991/34
The process through which people develop their political Which of the following actions is not a form of political
attitude is called participation?
A. politicization B. political socialization A. voting at an election B. contesting an election
C. political mobilization D. political dissemination C. joining a political party D. bribing an electoral officer
E. payment of income tax
Answer
POLITICAL PARTICIPATION Bribing an electoral officer is not a form of political
Political participation is simply any activity that is participation. (D)
designed to shape, affect and influence public opinions or
decisions directly or indirectly by individuals or group 1993/22
orientation. Political participation ranges from voting Which of the following is not a hindrance to political
which is the most prominent form of political participation, participation?
to attending of conventions, rallies, campaigns, A. ignorance B. lack C. fear D. party system
manifestoes, etc. Participation in electoral process is E. intimidation
known as political participation. Answer
Party system is not a hindrance to political participation
Citizenry Participation in Politics because every process of politics is known as political
The following are ways in which a citizen can participate participation. (D)
in politics:
1. Contesting elections: This is one form of political 1991/45
participation. The individual or a citizen can stand as a Political participation in Nigeria is limited by the following
candidate for an elective post to represent his party. except
2. Joining and belonging to political parties: The A. decrease B. voter’s register C. religion
individual is actively involved in politics, he takes part D. residence E. age
in all activities e.g. campaigns, rallies e.t.c. Answer
3. Holding of public offices: The citizen participate in Political participation is any activity that shapes, affects or involves
politics by holding public office and this can afford the political sphere; religion is not part of it. (C)
him the opportunity of contributing to the decision 1991/1a
making process of his country. What is political participation?
4. Sponsoring of political parties: A wealthy individual may Answer
not be active politically, but may sponsor a political party and Political participation is any activity that shapes, affects, or
this makes him participate politically. involves the political power sphere. Political participation
5. Partial participation: A citizen may be active ranges from voting which is the most prominent form of
politically by attending or taking part in political political participation to attending of conventions, rallies,
activities e.g. rallies, conventions, etc. campaigns manifestoes etc. Participation in electoral process
6. Observing posture: The individuals are political is known as political participation.
observers. He or she may not belong to any political
party but may have interest in politics only by listening 1991/1b
to discussion on political issues. How does a citizen participate in politics?
7. As a voter: Voting in elections makes an individual to Answer
be involved or to participate in politics. The following are ways in which a citizen can participate
8. As a polling agent: A citizen representing his party at in politics:
the polls is actively involved in politics. 1. Contesting elections: This is one form of political
9. Demonstration: When citizens take part in demonstration on participation. The individual or a citizen can stand as
national issues, they participate in politics. a candidate for an elective post to represent his party.
2. Joining and belonging to political parties: The
2011/3 Exercise 3.24 individual is actively involved in politics, he takes part
Highlight any four methods of political participation in all activities e.g. campaigns, rallies etc.
3. Holding of public offices: The citizen participate in
2003/7 politics by holding public office and this can afford
Power is different from authority because power lacks him the opportunity of contributing to the decision
A. ability B. sovereignty C. probity D. legitimacy making process of his country.
Answer 4. Sponsoring of political parties: A wealthy individual may
Power is definitely different from authority because not be active politically, but may sponsor a political party and
authority is legitimate and power lacks the attributes of this makes him participate politically.
legitimacy. (D) 5. Partial participation: A citizen may be active
politically by attending or taking part in political
2006/5 Exercise 3.25 activities e.g. rallies, conventions, etc.
A government which has the ability to compel its citizens 6. Observing posture: The individuals are political
to obedience is said to be exercising observers. He or she may not belong to any political
A. authority B. coercion C. power D. legitimacy party but may have interest in politics only by listening
to discussion on political issues.
30
7. As a voter: Voting in elections makes an individual to 3. Through economic resources: An individual can
be involved or to participate in politics. acquire this form of power through money and
8. As a polling agent: A citizen representing his party at properties (wealth). An individual can also acquire
the polls is actively involved in politics. political power through this platform and command
9. Demonstration: When citizens take part in demonstration on respect from the people.
national issues, they participate in politics. 4. Through position of authority: Authority and power
are complementary to each other. Position of authority
2011/2 Neco confers power on the power exercising it.
Explain the concept of political participation. 5. Through charisma: Power can be acquired through
Answer charisma, meaning personality/status. The following
Political participation is described as a process whereby citizens of are some virtues of charisma –intelligence, discipline,
a state get themselves involved in the political activities and the honesty, God–fearing, obeying authorities, simple,
decision making processes of their country. kind, gentle, slow to anger, patient, tolerant et.c.

1989/2a 2005/1a Neco

State and explain the forms of power Explain the term authority
Answer Answer
The following are the forms of power: Authority is the power or right to give orders, make
1. Political power: This is the form of power one decisions and enforce obedience. It is of two kinds
possesses through elected office e.g. the president, (i) Institutional authority: This is a group of people or
governors, senators or honourables. It is the power an individual who legitimately occupies public goals
derives from the people and constitution. and policies and direct the execution or other use of
such goals and policies e.g. school principal,
2. Military power: This is the power vested in the armed traditional authority, head of state.
forces, the military controls the instruments of (ii) Functional authority: This is the power which
violence in a country. The armed forces are Navy, accrues to a group of people or an individual as a result
Army, and Airforce. The instrument under the of the position he holds in an organization.
custodian of the military can be used to manipulate and 2007/4
overthrow a civilian government; it can also be used Which of the following is not a legitimate government?
for the defence of the state against external aggression. A. democratic government B. republican government
C. military government D. monarchial government
3. Economic power: This is the possession of economic Answer
resources by an individual. The individual could use Democracy is a form of government which people elect their
such to influence issues in the state. He/she can representatives and leaders through voting (election).
command respect from the people and also have the Republican government is a form of government in which the
ability to control people’s emotions and actions. country is considered as public matter not the private concern
or property of the rulers. Monarchy government is through
4. Physical power: This is the application of force in inheritance while Military government is not legitimate, it is a
compelling obedience. The outcome of this application form of government where they take over government by coup,
could bring discomfort or even disastrous end. they uses decree as their administrative instrument. (A)

2004/8 Neco 2009/19 Neco

A system where wealth influences the actions and What is legitimacy in government?
emotions of the people is called Answer
A. military power B. physical power Legitimacy is a concept used to describe the condition of
C. economic power D political power being in accordance with the law as a leader. Legitimacy is
Answer a political concept which refers to the acceptance and
Economic power can be defined as the ability to control or recognition by the citizens of a country, the right of their
influence the behavior of others. When someone is rulers to govern. A government is called legitimate, if it
wealthy, the person command respect and its also control comes to power through the constitutional right. For
people’s emotions and actions. (C) example a president elected.
2019/1b Neco
2002/3b NABTEB
Outline five ways of acquiring legitimacy.
Describe five sources of power.
i. Acceptance of international community.
Answer
ii. Observance of the rule of law.
The following are some of sources of power:
iii. Acceptable ideology of the government.
1. The constitution: The constitution of a nation specifies
iv. Popular/mass political participation and support.
how powers can be acquired and how to exercise the
v. Open door administrative politics and opportunities of
power in the political or civil service offices.
criticisms.
2. Through coercion: Power maybe acquired through the
vi. Respects for customs and traditions.
use of force e.g. the military takes over the government
vii. Charisma of the leaders.
from a civilian government, the process is simply
viii. Method of periodic change of government.
known as coup.
31
1995/14 2005/4
Political sovereignty belongs to Sovereignty ultimately resides in
A. the people B. students C. soldiers D. parliament A. the people within a political society
Answer B. a country’s chief executive
Political sovereignty belongs to the people. The people C. the judges of the Supreme Court D. traditional rulers
elect their representatives and they take decisions on behalf Answer
of the people. (A) Political sovereignty is referred to the body which is
2010/4 supreme in a state, the will which ultimately obeyed by the
A sovereign power over a number of people in a specific citizens of the state. The electorate (people) constitutes the
geographical area is called political sovereign. (A)
A. society B. region C. state D. nation
Answer 2010/9
Sovereign power over a number of people in a specific Popular sovereignty is located in the
geographical area is called nation. (D) A. military B. police C. electorate D. opinion leaders
Answer
2010/8 The electorate constitutes the political sovereign. The will
Sovereignty implies all the following except of the electorate ultimately prevails because legal
A. the highest authority in a state sovereignty, in the making of law, is bound to act
B. a state of political independence according to their will (electorate). (C)
C. unlimited powers of a state to make and enforce laws
D. the supremacy of political parties 2005/5 Nov
Answer Political sovereignty lies with the
Sovereignty is the union and exercise of all human power A. judiciary B. people C. legislature D. constitution
possessed in a state, it is a combination of all powers, it is the Answer
power to do everything in a state without accountability, to make Political sovereignty lies with the people because the
laws, to execute and to apply them, to impose and collect taxes people (electorate) elected their representative into
and levies, contribution to make war or peace. (B) political offices. (B)

1999/6 Nov 2000/4 Nov

Sovereignty implies that a state Popular sovereignty in a democracy resides in the
A. is under colonial rule B. is free from external control A. public opinions B. government C. electoral college
C. belongs to the United Nations organization D. people
D. cannot enter into bi – lateral agreements Answer
Answer Popular sovereignty is the principle that the authority of a
Sovereignty is the right of government to have complete state and its government are created and sustained by the
control over its area. In other words, it is the concept that a consent of its people, through their elected representatives.
government has a right to govern its own territory, without The electorates are the source of popular sovereignty. (D)
interference from other countries. (B)
1993/2a
2002/4a Neco Differentiate between legal sovereignty and political
Explain the concept of the sovereignty of a state sovereignty.
Answer Answer
Sovereignty means the supreme power and authority of the Legal sovereignty is the power exercised by a body in a
state over the citizens. It is the power of the state to make laws
state. This body is the parliament. The parliament has
and enforce them with all the means of coercion it cares to
power to make laws and also amend laws (constitution).
employ, without any interference by other state. The idea of
Political sovereignty is also known as popular sovereignty;
sovereignty originated from Jean Bodin (1530–1590), a French
the popular sovereignty is the supreme power of the people
political thinker and philosopher. to form government of their own choices. The people
exercises the power vested on them by political
2007/16 Neco sovereignty through the ballot box by voting for their
One of the features of a sovereign state is that it representatives in government, their political power will be
A. practices the presidential system of government transferred to their representatives to take decisions on
B. has the capacity to defend itself from external their behalf.
aggression
C. is not indented to other countries 1993/2b
D. has a large number of soldiers What factors limit the sovereignty of a government?
Answer Answer
The sovereign state has the absolute capacity to defend There are two main factors of sovereignty limitations.
itself from external aggression and any interference or A. Internal limitations
influence from outside its jurisdiction. (B) - The constitution.
- The electorate.
- Public opinion.
- The military.
32
- Customs and traditions. 2012/3 Neco
- Religion and culture. Democracy can be promoted through
- Delegated legislation. A. gerrymandering B. slander C. Accountability
- Resources. D. lobbying
- Activities of pressure groups Answer
- Type of government in power Democracy can be promoted through accountability that’s
honesty of the political representatives and transparency. (C)
B. External limitations
- International organisations. 2012/29 Neco
- International laws and convention In a democratic state, the party system that usually is operated
- Inter – dependence of state. is
- Dominance of powerful states. A. mass party B. multi – party C. one – party
- Military agreement or pacts. D. elite party
- External aids. Answer
- International financial institutions. In a democratic state, multi political parties are usually
- Diplomatic immunity. operated to give the electorate choice to choose the best
- External trade. party system with political ideologies. (B)
- Geographical location
2016/8 Neco
2007/2 In democracy, political sovereignty is vested in the
Identify six external limitations to the exercise of A. judges B. people C. legislature D. executive
sovereignty of the state. Answer
Answer In a democratic state, political sovereignty is vested in the
- International laws and convention. people, because the electorate elects their representatives
- International treaties and agreements. to act or take decisions on their behalf. (B)
- Dominance of powerful state.
- Membership of international organizations e.g. U.N.O, 2017/8 Neco
A.U. E.U. For democracy to be sustained in a country it needs
- External trade A. a rich political leaders B. well informed electorate
- Diplomatic immunity. C. partial electoral commission D. large police office
- External aids. Answer
- Geographical location Democracy needs political education on the electorate, so
- Inter–dependence of states. that they can be well informed for their obligations rights
- Religion and culture. and duties of their government towards their citizens. (B)

2000/1 Neco 1999/2 Nov

Highlight any three merits and any three demerits of Democracy was first practiced in
democracy. A. Greece B. Canada C. Nigeria D. Ghana
1. Free choice of leader by the citizens. Answer
2. Democracy gives equal opportunity to all citizens. Democracy was first practiced in Greece. (A)
3. It promotes strong, stability of government in the
country. 2005/7 Nov
4. It makes those in government to rule according to the In a democratic state, official opposition is allowed in
provisions of the constitution that’s the rule of law. order to
5. Democracy gives legitimacy to the elected A. make qualitative policies for the people
government. B. bring down the government
6. Democracy encourages participation of individuals in C. ensure that only the wealthy get to power
governmental affairs by impressing their views and D. encourage crisis in the society
opinions. Answer
In a democratic state, opposition party is allowed in order to make
1995/36 the ruling party conscious of their manifestoes and work towards
Which of the following is not relevant to democracy? accomplishing such pledges to the people. (A)
A. equal political right B. minority rights guaranteed
C. periodic election D. rule by elites 2001/1 Nov
Answer The Greek city states were the first to practice
Democracy have the following attributes, periodic A. Fascism B. totalitarianism C. Democracy
elections, minority have their say, equal political rights, D. Socialism
adult suffrage, etc. The ruling by elites is not a description Answer
of democracy. (D) The Greek city was the first to practice democracy. (C)

33
1999/1a Nov 2002/3 Neco
Define democracy A country is said to be democratic if
Answer A. gerrymandering exists
Democracy is a form of government in which the supreme power B. there are free and fair elections
is vested in the people and exercised by them directly or indirectly C. citizens are disenfranchised
through a system of representation usually involving periodically D. the press is owned by the government
held free and fair elections. Abraham Lincoln defined democracy Answer
as government of the people, by the people and for the people. Free and fair elections are a main characteristic of a true
democracy. When the elections are free and fair, it means
1991/47 the choices of the people were not denied. (B)
An elected politician represents all the following except
A. his constituency B. the electorate 2001/1 Neco
C. the government D. his political party Describe the basic features of a democratic state
E. his community The basic features of a democratic state include:
Answer 1. It provides equal opportunity for citizens to participate
An elected politician represents his constituency, political in the decisions of the government.
party, the electorate and his community. The electorate 2. A democratic state holds periodic elections to elect
elected him/her to represent them at the government. (C) representatives into the various legislative houses.
3. Under democratic dispensation, fundamental human
1991/40 rights are guaranteed.
The origin of democracy is associated with the 4. The rights of the minority are also guaranteed.
A. Romans B. Greeks C. Babylonians 5. Free and fair elections are conducted by creating an
D. Egyptians D. Persians independent electoral commission which updates the
Answer electoral register, conducts elections through secret
The origin of democracy is associated with the Greeks. (B) ballot etc.
6. There is the formation of political parties in a
1999/17 Neco democratic state.
In democracy, which of the following can exert 7. There is the existence of opposition party to serve as a
appreciable control on the activities of the executive? watchdog of the ruling government.
A. military B. legislature C. traditional rulers 8. There is an independent judiciary.
D. police 9. There is provision of special procedures to amend
Answer some parts or sections of the constitution.
In a democracy system of government, the legislature 10. In a democratic state there is the rule of law.
controls some of the activities of the executive, they made 11. The franchise is open to all on the basic of universal
laws, approve annual budget and screen ministerial, adult suffrage.
ambassadorial, other nominee of the executive. (B) 12. There is supremacy of the constitution.
13. There is the freedom of speech and existence of a free
2011/15 and existence of a free press.
Which of the following is a basic principle of democracy?
Rule by 1999/1b Neco
A. the majority and the protection of the minority What conditions are necessary for its successful operation
B. the wealthy few C. the minority at the expenses of democracy?
D. two political parties Answer
Answer All the features of democracy are the conditions necessary
The basic principle of democracy is rule by the majority for the success of the system.
and protects the views of the minority. The majority will
have their way and minority will have their say. (A) 2012/1 Neco
Highlight six characteristics of a democratic government.
1995/10 Answer
In democracies, political participation could be restricted 1. There is separation of powers.
on the basis of 2. Rule of law.
A. religion B. class C. race D. age 3. Supremacy of the constitution.
Answer 4. Fundamental human rights.
Political participation of citizens in democracy is limited 5. Independent of electoral commission.
to age, based on the universal adult suffrage only 18 years 6. Universal adult suffrage.
old is allowed to vote and to be voted for, anybody below 7. Secret ballot system.
the age of 18 years is not quality to participate in election 8. Value of individual personality and views.
or political programmes. (D) 9. Free and fair election.
10. Free association and group.
11. Freedom the press.

34
1993/7 Nov 2001/4 Nov
Which of the following is not a principle of democracy? How can the position of a judge be made secured in a
A. periodic elections B. equality before the law democracy?
C. majority rule D. fundamental human rights Answer
E. limited franchise 1. Independence of judiciary.
Answer 2. The judges should be appointed by the judicial
Limited franchise is not a feature or principle of commission.
democracy. (E) 3. The incentives of the judges should be different from the
normal salary scales.
1996/9 Nov 4. The judicial commission should handle and discipline any
One major way by which the majority of the people in a misconduct of the judges.
state participate in government is by 5. The other organs of government should not interfere with
A. enlisting in the army the judiciary commission.
B. attending political party meetings
C. taking part in political campaigns 2009/25 UTME
Power refers to the
D. establishing newspaper organisations
A. ability to impose one’s will upon others
E. voting of election.
B. legal nature of a constitution
Answer
C. duties political parties demand of their registered members
Majority of the people in a state participate in government
D. duties on individual imposes on himself
by voting of elections. (E)
Answer
Power is the capacity or ability to direct or influence the
1993/7
behaviour of others or the course of events. The ability to
Which of the following is not a principle of democracy?
impose one’s will upon others is called power– A.
A. periodic elections B. equality before the law
C. majority rule D. fundamental human rights 2015/2016/62 (NDU, BAYELSA)
E. limited franchise Political power is concerned with the
Answer A. allocation of resource and enforcement of decision
Limited franchise is not a principle of democracy. (E) B. force to ensure compliance
2007/7 C. process of winning wars by the military formation of
Direct democracy emanated from the pressure group
A. Greeks B. Romans C. Germans D. Americans D. international relationships are built
Answer Answer
Direct democracy emanated from the Greek word. (A) Power is the capacity of an individual to influence the
2006/3 actions, beliefs or conduct of others. Political power is
The modern idea of democracy includes all the following concerned with the force to ensure compliance. – B
except
A. unlimited freedom B. civil liberty 2015/19( OAU, IFE)
C. periodic elections D. equality before the law In politics, power is all of the following except
Answer A. capacity to affect the actions of others
Modern democracy is guided by a constitution which B. ability to make people do things they others
entails the fundamental human rights, the rights and all C. an object
stipulated in the constitution as a guard. (A) D. it is part of a relationship
Answer
2019/3 Neco An object cannot be influence or complied– C.
Highlight five roles played by the mass media in
strengthening modern democracy 2013/25 (OAU, IFE)
1. The mass media constitutes the backbone of The subject matter of politics is best described A. political
democracy. parties B. political power C. elections D. people
2. The media supplies political information that Answer
determines voting pattern of voters. Political power is best described as power in political sector –
3. They identify problems in our society and serve as a B.
medium for deliberation. 2019/2020/42 (DELSU, ABRAKA)
4. They are also watchdogs that we rely on for That power is relational implies that the exercise of power
uncovering errors and wrong doings by those who involves ____
have power. A. strong and meek person
5. It protects fundamental human right. B. interaction between at least two person
6. It encourages political participation. C. strong person and a weak person
7. It provides a link between the government and the D. staff at the national assembly are loyal
people/feedback. Answer
8. It protects minority interest in a large extent. Power is relational implies between a strong person and a weak
9. It assists government in policy formulation, person. Mostly, between a ruler and his subject or between an
implementation and evaluation. officer and his subordinate – C.
10. It moulds public opinion and perspectives.
35
2001/1 UTME 1983/9 UTME
Power differs from influence in that it is A. persuasive A sovereign state is one A. whose constitution can only be
while influence is directive B. coercive while influence is changed by a military government B. where its citizens can
harmful C. coercive while influence is persuasive D. speak without fear or favour C. in which sovereignty is
arrogant while influence is corruptible invested in the military D. whose citizen are free to evade
Answer responsibility E. whose government decision are made
Power differs from influence in that it is coercive while independent of foreign interference
influence is persuasive. Power is coercive, you’re Answer
demanding obedience without much concern for what the A sovereign state is one whose government decision are
people you coerce need or want, while persuasive is made independent of foreign interference. A sovereignty
someone or something with the power to convince. An maybe defined as the absolute power of, the state to
example of persuasive is an argument that changes exercise supreme legal authority (constitution) over its
someone’s mind – C. own affairs within its territory without any form of external
control– E.
2018/17 UTME
The ability to command obedience is called A. authority B. 1985/24 UTME
influence C. legitimacy D. mobilization The supreme power of a state to make and enforce laws
Answer within its jurisdiction is called
Authority is the ability to command obedience– A. A. decolonization B. independence C. nationalism D.
sovereignty D. enfranchisement
1993/1 UTME Answer
Political authority refers to the The supreme power of a state to make and enforce laws
A. ability to effect political actions within its jurisdiction is called sovereignty. Jurisdiction is
B. capacity to produce desired political results the practical authority granted to a legal body to administer
C. capacity to reshape the political behaviour of citizens justice, as defined by the kind of case and the location of
D. recognized right to exercise political power the issue. In federations like Nigeria, areas of jurisdiction
Answer applied to local, state, and federal levels– D.
Political authority is the authority conferred on persons
holding political office, e.g. the president and legislators, 1993/2 UTME
policies made and executed are based on the provisions of The sovereignty, rests with components states in a political
the constitution. Political authority refers to the ability to system the constitution A. flexible B. unitary C. confederal
effect political actions– A. D. federal
Answer
1995/21 UTME In confederation, sovereignty, rests with components states
On what is charismatic authority based? in a political system– C.
A. inherited wealth and power
B. tyrannical tendencies C. institutional processes 1993/2 UTME
D. personal ability and influence The sovereignty of a state is determined by A. economic
Answer and legal aspects B. social and political aspects C. political
Charismatic authority is an authority derived from the and legal aspects D. economic and political aspects
belief (religion) in the exceptional ability of a leader which Answer
inspires allegiance among the followers– D. A sovereignty of a state is determined by economic and
political aspects– D.
2018/28 UTME
Legitimacy is determined mainly by A. charisma B. 2017/2018/1 (UI, IBADAN)
influence C. acceptance D. desire Who among the following was famous for his work on
Answer sovereignty.
Legitimacy is a political concept which refers to the A. Montesquieu B. A. V. Dicey C. Jean Bodin D. J. J.
acceptance and recognition by the citizens of a country, the Rousseau
rights of their rulers to govern– C. Answer
Jean Bodin– C
2007/20 UTME
The recognition and general acceptance of the right to rule 2014/2015/18 (UI, IBADAN)
in a country based on laid-down regulations is known as Political sovereignty lies with A. head of state B. head of
A. traditional authority B. constitutional authority C. government C. the parliament D. the electorate
sovereign authority D. legitimate authority Answer
Answer The political sovereignty lies with the electorate– D.
The recognition and general acceptance of the right to rule
in a country based on laid-down regulation is known as
legitimate authority– D.

36
2006/15 (OAU, IFE) 2007/7 (OAU, IFE)
A political concept that defines the beliefs, attitudes and All but one of these is not an agency of political
values of a society is called socialization. A. the constitution B. the family C. peer
A. political socialization B. political culture group D. school
C. political transformation D. referendum Answer
Answer The following are the political socialization agencies the
Political culture is referred to the usual attitude, belief, family, peer group, schools, political parties, pressure
sentiments, perception, ideas, values and norms that guide groups, mass media and social/religious groups.
the behaviour of the people in a political system– B. Constitution is not part of the agent of political
socialization– A.
2007/6 (OAU, IFE)
All but one of the following is not a symbol of political 2014/2015/4 (UI, IBADAN)
culture A primary agency of political socialization is
A. a national flag B. the government A. the government B. the family C. the mass media D. the
C. an anthem D. the constitution school
Answer Answer
The government of the state is not a symbol of political The family is the first place an individual makes his first
culture– B. contact. The family is the primary agency of political
socialization. The child’s knowledge and experience of
1992/2 UTME political activities starts from the family unit – B.
The process by which political beliefs and values are
transmitted form one generation to another is best known 1995/1a
as political What is political socialization?
A. socialization B. culture C. training D. decentralization Answer
Answer Political socialization is a lifelong process by which form
Political socialization also encompasses the way in which their ideas about politics and acquire political values. The
people acquire values and opinions that shape their family, educational background, peer group influence, etc.
political stance and ideology; it is a study of the plays vital roles in political socialization of citizens.
developmental processes by which people of all ages and
adolescents acquire political cognition, attitudes and Political socialization can be defined as the process of
behaviour– A. acquiring political beliefs, values, attitudes as well as
citizenship training that shapes citizens political background.
2012/4 UTME
Political values are acquired in any given society through 1994/1b
A. political re-orientation B. political campaign C. political Explain the major agents of political socialization
socialization D. political indoctrination Answer
Answer The following are the major agents of political
Political socialization is defined as the process of acquiring socialization.
political beliefs, values, attitude as well as citizenship 1. Family unity: Political knowledge, authority and
training that shapes a citizen’s political behaviour– C. allocation of values probably starts from the home that’s
family because life itself begins from the family.
2013/5 UTME 2. The peer group: The peer group has an influence in
Political socialization is associated with A. military political socialization because peer group discuss
takeover of civilian government B. the transmission of politics and it influence one’s political emotion.
political values C. political transition D. free choice of 3. Institution of learning: Schools colleges and other
party programmes educational institution provide avenue for political talk,
Answer debate and discussions which are basic for socializing.
Political culture of the society is transmitted from one 4. Social/religious institutions: Members of social or
generation to another through political socialization – B. religious institutions like social clubs, religious centres
association etc. do engage in political arguments and
2016/26 UTME discussions.
The process through which citizens acquire political values 5. Mass media: Radio television channels, newspapers,
A. education B. acculturation magazines, articles, text messages, Facebook,
C. socialization D. participation whatsapp, twitter, etc. have a lot of political news.
Answer 6. Political parties: They educate their members and other
Through effective political socialization, the citizens of a people through their manifesto, campaigns, rallies etc.
country are made to be aware of the political system, the thereby stimulating people’s political awareness.
role they are expected to play in the system, raise their 7. Pressure group: Pressure groups equally educate their
loyalty, pride, patriotism and nationalistic feelings to the members and non-members through workshop,
nation. – C seminars etc.

37
2022/1 Neco 2022/4 Neco
1a. What is authority? 4a. What is political socialization?
b. Explain five types of authority. b. Discuss five agents of political socialization in a state.
Answer Answer
(1a) Authority is the legitimate power or right to give orders, (4a) Political socialization may be defined as the process by
make decisions and enforce obedience. which people learn to adopt the norms, values, attitudes and
(1b) The following are the types of authorities: behaviour accepted and practiced by the political system.
i. Traditional authority: This is found in traditional (4b) Five agents of political socialization in a state are:
societies, where the chiefs or councils of leaders or 1. Family unit: Political knowledge, authority and allocation
traditional rulers use their customs and traditions as their of values probably start from the home.
constitution (guard) to govern their people. 2. The peer group: The peer group influence on political
ii. Charismatic Authority: Charismatic authority is an socialization is very true, because peer group discussion on
authority derived from intelligence of an individual which politics influences one’s political emotion. The peer group
make him exceptional in the society and the people can be easily influence through the same objectives and
choose him as their leader. interest.
iii. Coercive Authority: Coercive authority is the authority 3. Institution of learning: Schools, colleges and other
based on the use of force. The fear of the consequence for educational institution provide avenue for political talk,
not accepting or obeying such authority is always there debate and discussion which are basic for socializing
e.g. military dictatorship. mechanism.
iv. Delegated Authority: Delegated authority is the type of 4. Mass media: The mass media are very powerful
authority, where authority is given to someone to exercise socializing agents. Newspapers, magazines, radios,
functions and responsibility on specific areas. television, text messages, internet media (twitter,
v. Technical Authority: Technical authority is based on the Facebook, other blogs) etc., are very educative. The mass
level of skills/experience an individual has acquired on media do not only transmit information and messages, but
the job. This kind of authority has to be respected, also provide visual pictures of government activities and it
recognized and accepted in that particular area concerned. is communication process of government with the public.
The mass media also publish and transmit news on events
2022/3 Neco in other countries.
Elucidate six conditions that can limit the sovereignty of a 5. Pressure group: They can be described as an organized
state. group that does not put up candidates for election, but
i. International laws and conventions: These are bodies of seeks to influence government policy or legislation. They
conventional rules and customs which are considered can also be described as interest group, lobby group or
binding among nation-states in their international relations protest group. Pressure groups equally educate their
with one another. They are legally binding on the treating members and even the public through conference,
state, such states that disobey international laws and seminars etc. especially in the area of politics and civic
conventions may face some sanctions. These sanctions are right.
usually imposed by the Security Council, an organ of the
United Nation Organisation. 2022/1 NABTEB
ii. Diplomatic immunity: Diplomats representing their a. Write short notes on the following political concepts:
countries in other countries of the world, have diplomatic i. Legitimacy.
immunity, some of their actions can undermine the ii. Sovereignty.
sovereignty of their host states. b. List five factors that limit the sovereignty of a state.
iii. The constitution: Due to the fact that the constitution sells Answer
out the powers of every organ of government, the principle (1a) i. Legitimacy: Legitimacy is a political concept which
of checks and balances operates as a limitation on refers to the acceptance and recognition by the citizens of a
sovereignty. No separate organ of government can claim country, the rights of their rulers to govern. It is the act of
sovereignty under constitutional supremacy in a state choosing the right ruler based on the constitution or policies
iv. Coup d’état: Military takeover of power or government is to rule over the people.
usually by force. This suspends the constitution of the state ii. Sovereignty: Sovereignty is absolute, supreme and ultimate
and brings about a sudden change of the sovereignty and dominion and authority of a political state, subject to no
its limitations. higher power expressed within its territory in full self-
v. International organisations: The existence of government and in complete freedom from any outside
international organisations of which many nations belong influence. Examples of sovereign states are, Nigeria,
has placed serious limitations to the sovereignty of such Ghana, Republic of Benin, Burkina Faso, South Africa and
nations. e.g. the UNO and regional or sub–regional so on.
confederation e.g. A.U, E.U and ECOWAS must be ready
to abide by any collective decisions taken by the 1b) The following are the factors that limit the sovereignty of
organizations. a state
vi. International financial institutions: The World Bank and a. The constitution
I.M.F for instance, have succeeded in dictating to many b. Public opinion
countries on how to run their economics especially when c. Customs and traditions of the people
such countries are asking for loan. d. Military agreement or pacts:
e. International laws and conventions
38
2018/3 NABTEB 15. State six components of political culture.
3a. What is political power? 16. Explain democracy.
b. Describe five sources of power. 17. State the types of democracy and explain any one in
Answer details.
(3a) Political power is the form of power one possesses 18. Discuss political participation.
through elected office e.g. the president, governors, 19. Highlight any six methods of political participation.
senators or honourables. It is the power derived from the 20. Define delegated authority.
people and constitution. 21 a) Define political power.
(3b) The following are some ways of acquiring the sources b) Discuss three form of power.
of power.
1. The constitution: The constitution of a nation specifies
how powers can be acquired and how to exercise the
power in the political or civil service offices.
2. Through coercion: Power maybe acquired through the
use of force e.g. the military takes over the government
from a civilian government, the process is simply
known as coup.
3. Through charisma: Power can be acquired through
charisma, meaning personality/status. The following
are some virtues of charisma –intelligence, discipline,
honesty, God–fearing, obeying authorities, simple,
kind, gentle, slow to anger, patient, tolerant etc.
4. Through economic resources: An individual can
acquire this form of power through money and
properties (wealth). An individual can also acquire
political power through this platform and command
respect from the people.
5. Through position of authority: Authority and power
are complementary to each other. Position of authority
confers power on the power exercising it.
6. Through inheritance: This is based on hereditary and
it is mostly with the royal families. Powers are
acquired, when the kingship or queenship is vacant.

REVISION EXERCISES
1. Power differs from influence in that it is
A. persuasive while influence is directive
B. coercive while influence is directive
C. coercive while influence is persuasive
D. arrogant while influence is corruptible
2. Authority refers to the
A. might to secure compliance from others within a
given social setting
B. power to exercise might over others behaviour
C. mandate to exercise power over others
D. ability to compel others to act in a particular way
3. The exercise of political power involves
A. winning elections B. using the police
C. deciding cases D. allocating values
4. Sovereignty is limited by
A. the criminal code B. decrees C. the legal system
D. international law
5. Define the concept of power.
6. Explain how political powers are acquired and
exercised.
7. State and explain the forms of power.
8. Explain the political concept of legitimacy.
9. What are the factors that sustain legitimacy in a state?
10. Discuss sovereignty.
11. State how sovereignty can be located in a state.
12. Explain some limitations of a sovereignty state.
13. What is political socialization?
14. What are the agents of political socialization?
39
4. Decision making: Individuals are opportuned to
ChapterFour
Chapter Four contribute to the decision making process.

BASIC CONCEPT CONT. 5. Landed property: The community properties are

collectively owned by the community as there is no
private ownership.
COMMUNALISM
Communalism is a social, political and economic
6. No room for exploitation: There is no room for
arrangement in which landed property and other natural
exploitation as resources are for the good of
resources are collectively owned by the community for
everybody.
common good of everybody, participation in community
development is open to everybody. In a communal
7. Collectively owned institution: Schools, farms,
community, members pursue a common goal collectively,
common health facilities etc. are collectively owned by
and share among members on equal basis land, other
the people.
factors of production and resources. In other words, things
under this system are done according to communal life.
8. Relationship: There is a strong relationship that exists
Julius Nyerere of Tanzania was one the founding father of
among them thus making everyone his brother
communalism.
keeper’s keeper.
2007/17 Neco
9. Village community: Communalism is a common
Communalism ensures that everybody within the society is
feature of the village setting.
provided
A. a means for transportation B. with a chieftaincy title
Merits of Communalism
C. with a formal education D. a land to farm
1. There is a sense of total commitment to the society.
Answer
2. It ensures the well-being of every member of the
Communalism is a social political and economic
community.
arrangement in which landed property and other natural
3. It is cost-effective; that is, it is less expensive to run
resources are collectively owned by the community for the
the affairs of the community.
common good of everybody. (D)
4. Decisions are made fast due to the small size of its
population.
2018/2a Neco
5. It ensures peaceful co-existence of the people.
What is communalism?
Answer
Demerits of Communalism
Communalism is a political and economic arrangement
1. The major demerit of communalism is that it may not
with emphasis on collectivity, that is, oneness or
be practicable in a society with a large population.
togetherness. In communalism the community agrees that
2. Government may eventually become dictational.
they should come together with their resources and work
3. Dominance of one party is a common feature.
for the betterment of everybody.
SOCIALISM
2019/3 NABTEB
Socialism can be defined as a social, political and
The practice in which members of a community
economic system in which the state owns and controls the
collectively own resources such as land is
means of production, exchange and distribution of goods
A. communism B. socialism C. feudalism
and services. The main aim of socialism is to ensure equal
D. communalism
distribution of the nation’s wealth. This theory of socialism
Answer
was originated as a protest against the evils of capitalism
Communalism is a political and economic arrangement
by Karl Marx, a German (1818 – 1883) propounded this
with emphasis on collectivity that’s oneness or
theory. Countries that practice this type of economic
togetherness to own landed property and other natural
system include China, Cuba, Romania, Bulgaria etc. In
resources. (D)
Africa, countries like Tanzania, Ethiopia, Angola, Burkina
Faso, Guinea and Mozambique have experimented and
Features of Communalism
some are still experimenting various shades of socialism.
The following are the characteristics of communalism.
1. Collective ownership: There is collective ownership of
1989/34
natural and landed resources.
Socialism developed as a protest against the evils of
A. monarchy B. oligarchy C. feudalism
2. Community development: Every individual has
D. capitalism
opportunity to participate in community development.
Answer
Socialists complained that capitalism necessarily leads to
3. Self-government: In a communal society matters
unfair and exploitative concentrations of wealth and power
affecting the community or state are raised and
in the hands of few individuals, who emerge victorious
discussed openly.
from free market competition, hence the development of
socialism.

40
1993/5 3. Full development of labour: There is gainful
According to Karl Marx, socialism is the prelude to employment for all citizens. The government spends
A. communism B. capitalism C. feudalism much time and resources in the development of all the
D. fascism faculties and potentialities of workers.
Answer 4. Full employment: There is gainful employment for all
Socialism and communism are often used interchangeably, citizens. The government provides jobs for all persons
they have similar differences. Socialism and communism that want to work.
are essentially economic philosophies advocating public 5. Free education and free medical services: The
rather than private ownership, especially the means of government provides free education and medical
production, distribution and exchange of goods in a services for all their citizens.
society. Under communism, there is no such thing as 6. One state party system: There is the existence of only
private property. All property is communally owned and one political party system. The party is built on
each person receives a portion based on what they need. socialists ideas. There is no clear distinction between
(A) party goals and those of the government as party
officials are also government functionaries.
1999/4 Neco 7. Competition: Competition in the areas of production
The highest stage of socialism is and price is absent.
A. fascism B. racism C. communism D. Nazism 8. Production: Production is mainly embarked to satisfy
Answer the people not for profit.
The highest stage of socialism is when nobody owns any 9. Prevention of waste: There is one central planning
property privately, the government at the central controls economic system.
the political, economic, production and distribution of
goods and services. (C) Merits of Socialism
1. No Labour Exploitation: There is only one class in a
2004/4 Neco socialistic economy hence there is no question of
The theory of socialism was popularized by exploitation. There are no concept of strikes and
A. A. V. Dicey B. Karl Marx lockouts. Everybody works in a well-knit family way.
C. Baron Demontesquieu D. Aristotle 2. Proper utilization of resources: Under this economy,
Answer all types of natural resources are utilized in most
The theory of socialism was developed by Karl Marx the organized manner. Its main objectives is to exploit
theory of socialism emphasized on the means of these resources for the welfare of society.
production of goods and services distribution and 3. No wasteful advertisement: The government is
exchange are in the hands of the government alone not virtually the owner of almost every sector. Hence, all
private ownership. (B) the individual producers are also more according the
plan targets. Therefore, the competition among the
2014/3 Neco producers is almost nil. Hence, very less money is
Which of the following countries in Africa practiced spent on wasteful advertisement.
socialism? 4. Proper planning: In order to solve various problems,
A. Nigeria B. Togo C. Tanzania D. Kenya which arise from time to time, there is proper
Answer economic plan in this type of economy. Thus, with the
Julius Nyerere of Tanzania also introduced Tanzanians to help of economic plans, socialist economy will adopt
socialism, so that the people can benefit directly from their the balanced development strategy.
resources without interference. (C) 5. Unity: People are brought together under one central
authority. It gives the people a sense of belonging.
1999/19 Nov Exercise 4.1 6. No cyclical fluctuations: Under socialist economy, no
Where the means of production are owned and controlled cyclical fluctuations are found. It means economy
collectively by the people, such a state is faces no boom, depression, unemployment or over
A. capitalist B. socialist C. democratic D. fascist production, etc. Economic stability is maintained by
the government on the basis of economic planning.
7. Social welfare: The aim of socialist economy is to
Features of Socialism maximize social welfare of the society. It provides
1. Collective ownership of means of production: The equal opportunities of employment to all individual
industrial resources of the state are nationalized while according to their abilities.
every worker is an employee of the state. The factors 8. Most suitable to developing countries: This type of
of production are publicly owned. Every worker is economic system is most suitable to the needs of
rewarded according to his ability. Individuals are not developing countries as all means of production are
allowed to own or control the factors of production. controlled by the government.
2. Centrally planned economy: It is not based on supply
and demand but on the needs of the people. The goods Demerits of Socialism
to be produced, the quantity, their prices and 1. Loss of consumer sovereignty: A consumer has no
distributive channels are decided by government choice of his own, he acts as a mere slave under this
officials. system. Government produces goods and services
keeping in view the needs of the people.
41
2. Less democratic: Socialist economy is always less 1998/13
democratic as it possesses no element of freedom. It is also The communist ideology was propounded by
like government dictatorship. A. Charles Da Gaulle B. Karl Marx
3. No automatic functioning: Under this system, no C. John Locke D. Williams Du Bois
automatic function system exists at all. It is the central Answer
Authority i.e., government that governs the country The communist ideology was also propounded by Karl
according to its own interest. Marx. He believes that all human are the same, they should
4. Slow Economy Growth: The reason is that individuals are be treated equally in a society. He sees government as a
not allowed to take part in running the economy on a large channel or process of meeting the needs of their citizens
scale. equally without discrimination, nepotism or tribalism. (B)
5. Evils of bureaucracy: In socialist economy, all economic
activities are controlled by the government. Thus, they 1988/15 Exercise 4.2
develop all evils of bureaucracy like favouritism, delay, Which of the following is not relevant to communism?
corruption and other such evils. A. democracy B. violent revolution
6. Rigid economy: Socialist economy is very rigid and not C. Friedrich Engels D. Private enterprise
susceptible to change according to requirements. Hence,
people work like a machine and never get an incentive to 1996/8 Exercise 4.3
work. Who is regarded as the father of communism?
7. Burden on government: All the economic activities are A. Karl Marx B. V. I. Lenin
performed by the Central Authority on behalf of the C. Benito Mussolini D. A. V. Dicey
government. Hence, it is overburdened with daily
activities and therefore, it gets very less time to think and
plan for the economic prosperity of the economy. Features of Communism
8. Expenditure on planning: In fact, panning is a long process 1. Abolition of private property: The first feature of the
in a socialist economy. This expenditure is unnecessarily communist economic system is the abolition of the private
wasteful and a burden on the national economy. ownership of means of production. In this system, an
9. Division of labour: Socialism does not encourage division individual can own nothing except necessaries of life. No
of labour and specialization. one can run private business.
2. Collective Ownership of Means of Production: In this
COMMUNISM system all means of production such as factories, farms,
Communism may be defined as a political and economic land, trade; construction, mines and means of transport and
system in which the community through the common communication are under state ownership and control.
ownership collectively controls all the means of production of Productive activities are meant for common purposes.
goods and services, exchange and distribution. Communism is 3. The use of force: The state applies the use of force or
an ideology based on a revolutionary movement that would violence to achieve its goals.
lead to the elimination of capitalist institutions and the 4. One party system: Communist societies have historically
establishment of a collectivist society in which ultimately there been a single party system where political opposition is
is absence of classes. It is regarded as the highest level of not permitted.
socialism. 5. Classless society: Class distinction in the system is
This is however based on the teachings of Karl Marx and discouraged everybody is treated equally.
Friedrich Engels in their book, the communist manifesto 6. Dictatorship: Most of the communist leaders are dictators
(1848). It was however translated into practice by V.I. Lenin, e.g. North Korea.
and further developed by Joseph Stalin. 7. Universal public education: There is an establishment of
a free universal public education.
2007/14 Neco 8. Centralized economy: Utilization of national resources
Communism was popularized by and production and distribution of consumers’ goods is
A. Karl Marx and Friedrich Engels done through comprehensive planning. In other words, the
B. Max Weber and Aristotle work of effecting a balance between demand and supply
C. Plato and Socrates D. Harold Laski and Jean Bodin of goods is not left to the mechanism of prices. The forces
Answer of demand and supply are balanced by central economy
The communist manifesto was written by Karl Marx and planning.
Friedrich. Manifesto is known as principles or guidelines. (A) 9. Distribution of wealth: Each individual is paid
compensation according to his need. This eliminates unfair
2010/12 Neco gaps in incomes. The abolition of revenue, interest and
Communism as propounded by Karl Marx was later private profit puts the system of distribution of wealth on a
interpreted by just and fair basis as there is an equal and just distribution
A. Locke B. Dicey C. Bentham D. Lenin of the nation’s wealth among the citizens.
Answer 10. Confiscation of property: Private property is confiscated
Lenin’s theory is often considered to be a logical development and subsequently re–distributed.
of Marx’s in the sense of adding practice to Marx’s theory. It 11. Provision of Necessaries of life: In a communist society,
was Lenin who made a real revision of Marx but it was a state is responsible to provide work (full employment) and
revolutionary revision. Many books by Karl Marx have been compensation according to the capabilities of every
translated into Russian by Lenin. (D) individual.
42
Merits of Communism 6. It creates stronger social communities: The goal of
1. It works effectively as a centrally-planned economy: communism before it gets warped by the leadership
Communist governments have the power to mobilize who implements the powers of the state is to include
economic resources quickly on whatever scale is needed every family, each lifestyle, and all religions. Instead
for any project. It can create industrial power with a single of emphasizing the differences that people have as a
request from those in charge, executing massive projects point of contention, it asks everyone to think of each
that would take other economies years to plan. It is able to person as an overall part of the whole. There are no
move so effectively toward large scale results because this minorities in this structure because everyone is given
government structure has the power to override the self- equal treatment.
interest of the individuals it supports. It can achieve its
social goals because it subjugates the welfare of the Demerits of Communism
population. 1. The government owns everything, including
property, businesses and production means: The
2. It can transform the shape of an economy to the vision most significant disadvantage of communism is the
of the leader: Nigeria (democratic) typically sees a fact that individuals’ rights are restricted as they are
transition of political power every 4 or 8 years based on the not free to pursue personal interests.
results of local, state and national elections. When one
party begins an economic transformation process, the 2. There is no freedom of speech in the typical
other party typically stops the forward momentum when communist government: The needs of the
they come into power. This process effectively limits the government are indistinguishable from the best
amount of change that is possible for the overall societal interests of society in a communist system, which
framework. Communist countries are different. Many of means the idea of individual freedoms is incompatible
the leaders are in charge for life, even though they might with the ideology being practiced. The only reason to
not hold a title from monarchy. This structure makes it suppress this right is to keep those who are in power
easier for the leadership to transform the economic vision from losing it, which is why journalistic thought, and
of the country to what the person in charge wants. Recent others are challenges to the actions of the government.
examples include Cuba with Castro, Russia with Stralin,
and China with Mao. 3. Central planning is challenging to achieve in a
communist government: Although the government
3. It creates equality on a level that capitalism can can mobilise significant resources for almost any need
never offer: The idea of communism is that capitalist at a moment’s notice through the structures of
societies will eventually crumble because the weight communism, there is a difference between the ability
of wealth on top of the poor will eventually cause the to centrally plan and its overall implementation.
system to become top-heavy. When a government Because a free market doesn’t exist under this
follows the philosophies of Karl Marx to their honest structure, the citizens will set up black markets to help
intent, then each person should receive an equal them trade the items they want or need that are not part
chance to pursue the opportunities that are important of the planner’s provisions. This disadvantage destroys
to them. the trust that is found in the pure vision of communism.
The goal is to give people what they need according to
4. It allows for employment opportunities to be given who they are as resource, provides them a common set
out to everyone: When you live under an authentic of basic essentials, and then expects compliance under
communist government, then anyone who wants a job threat of further freedom restrictions.
will have one. If you don’t like the idea of working,
then you must support your community in some other 4. Efficiency and productivity are difficult since there
way. State-sponsored communism avoids the latter is little motive for workers: There is never a need to
issue by forcing each person into a job with threats of have entrepreneurs operating in a communist space
fear governing their overall productivity. Marx because the government maintains control of
preferred the idea of assigning people to a position everything. That means the production cycles operate
based on their talents and skills. Each person has an just well enough to produce what is needed for
equal part in the production process, so there are domestic consumption and the limited export market
reduced issues with hierarchy and classism in every that may be available. Because innovation is what
industry. pushes an economy forward, shepherded by the
development made possible by entrepreneurs who
5. It provides additional educational opportunities to wish to experience success, the living situation in a
the general public: Communists believe that an country practicing this form of government can be
educated public is one that understands how to read exceptionally stifling.
and write. There is a general understanding that people
need to read and write if they can serve the public good 5. The needs of the consumer are not taken into
in their own way. People can only be as productive as consideration in a communist government: This is
the practical skills they bring into the workplace. If you evidently true as the government dictates and run the
recruit an average person off the street to fulfill a people’s lives.
specific job, the results may be far from flattering.
That’s why this advantages exists.
43
6. There are strict rules in place that govern the 10. Instead of providing wealth, communism often
structure of a classless society: Not only does causes poverty: This is also a major setback in
communism control the means of production in practicing this system as the result is a higher level of
society, but it also places strict regulations on poverty than other nations which conforms to other
businesses that operates in the market so that there is a economic systems.
lack of class structure within the population. The same
amount of funding is allocated to each organization, 11. There is such of the amount of income an individual
regardless of their industry, and each worker receives can earn and store: Because everything belongs to
the same reward. That means farmers are going to the state in communism, there are specific wealth caps
receive the same compensation as an administrative that you and your family must follow. Once your
worker, which can cause problems in some societal salary from your employment is reached, anything that
segments since the work can be more demanding. is left goes back into the government for redistribution.
You cannot save currency outside of the regular
7. It is a government structure that comes with high consumption laws either. You get a guaranteed income
levels of official abuse: Because ownership in a and nothing more. If you are caught on the black
communist government lies with the state instead of in market making additional money, then fines and jail
private hands, there is a higher risk of abuse for time can result from the discovery. That means there is
monetary purposes, power and control, or to pursue a little incentive to pursue a different career. Some
personal agenda. The people at the highest levels of people even give up chasing their dreams.
government are the ones who control the resources,
which means they can decide in an instant if someone 2022/2 Neco
is “worthy” or not of receiving something. Each Creation of a classless society is the ultimate aim of
household is always at the mercy of the government A. capitalism B. communism C. fascism
and its potentially ever-changing views on what they D. feudalism E. socialism
deem to be acceptable behaviour. Answer
The creation of a classless society is the ultimate aim of
8. Communism takes a step backward on industrial communism. Other aims include – common ownership,
evolution: Most of the jobs in a communist country one party system, centralised economy, distribution of
are tied to agriculture in one way or another because wealth. (B)
there is a significant need to provide basic food needs
to each person. Without nutrition, there is no society 1998/3
that can exist. That’s why the traditional governments Which of the following is a feature of communism?
that followed this practice before becoming a mixed A. common ownership of the means of production
economy usually trade items instead of buying or B. dictatorship of the bourgeoisie
selling them. That was the only way it was possible to C. class struggles D. individual ownership of properties
diversify the products which were available in the Answer
overall economy. Communism is a social organization in which the community
owned every property and resources. The citizen contributes
9. Opposition is not allowed unless the communist and receives according to their ability and needs. (A)
government authorizes it: The goal of the communist
party once it comes into power is to hold onto that 2017/10
leverage by any means necessary. Since the The guiding principle of communism is from each
government controls every aspect of society, they can according to his/her
send out propaganda through all media channels with A. ability and to each according to his/her need
enough truth to make stories believable. A single B. qualification and to each according to his/her need
official might be in control of setting an agenda, C. race and to each according to his/her needs
measuring the performance of a society, or cracking D. age and to each according to his/her needs
down on actions that are deemed to be politically Answer
dissent. The government of this system continues to Communism is guided by this principle that said
use repressive tactics as well, including travel “communism is a social organization in which all property
restriction, public shaming, physical assault and is owned by the community and each person’s contributes
employment termination on the populace. and receives according to their ability and needs.” (A)

44
Relationship between Socialism and Communism
The difference between socialism and communism is not 1990/2
easily identifiable. Both of them are closely related Capitalism is an economic system in which
according to Karl Marx. A. the economy of the state is centrally planned and
S/N Socialism Communism controlled
1. Socialism suggests Communism suggests B. private persons are permitted to undertake enterprise
that contribution is that everyone in C. accumulation of private property is forbidden
made from everyone society contributes D. the means of production are owned and controlled by
according to their and work according to the state
ability but they get their ability, and gets Answer
back according to the back everything Capitalism can be defined as an economical system in which
size of their according to their the means of production, exchange and distribution of goods
contribution. needs. and services are in the hands of private persons. Private
2. There is a central There is no individuals have an edge over the government. (B)
government that government because
owns all the means everything is owned 1998/38 Nov
of production, decide collectively by every Nigerian can best be described as a
on the distribution of member of the society. A. capitalist state B. communist state
goods, and makes C. socialist state D feudalist state
plans for the E. monarchial state
economy. Answer
3. Socialists believe Communists believe Nigerian can best be described as a capitalist state because
that transformation that the changes must political and economic system which is the means of
should be through be through revolution productions, distributions and exchange are owned and
peaceful and and dictation controlled by private individuals and in which the economic
democratic means. government is activity of the government is at a minimum level. (A)
inevitable.
4. Socialism gives the Communism rejects 1989/55 Exercise 4.4
individual the all religions. Capitalism often encourages
freedom to choose A. private ownership of the means of production
whatever he wants to B. deconcentrations of political and economic power in the
believe in. same hands
5. Profits are distributed Everyone has free C. a centrally planned economy
depending on the access to all the goods D. public ownership of all forms of enterprises
results of every that the community
individual’s work. has to offer.
6. Socialism is Communism is a Features of Capitalism
primarily economical political system. 1. Private property and freedom of ownership: A
and can coexist with capitalist economy is always having the institution of
a variety of political private property. An individual can accumulate
system. property and use it according to his will. Government
protects the right to property. After the death of every
CAPITALISM person his property goes to his successor.
Capitalism can be defined as an economic system in which 2. Right to Private Property: The most important
the means of production, exchange and distribution of feature of capitalism is the existence of private
goods and services are in the hands of private persons. In property and the system of inheritance. Everybody has
this system, private individuals have an edge over the a right to acquire private property to keep it and after
government. In this area, U.S.A. is a good example of a his death to pass it on to his heirs.
capitalist economy. Capitalism is an economic and 3. Government participation: Government participation
political system in which a country’s trade and industry are is very low in capitalist economy.
controlled by private owners for profits. Capitalism is an 4. Price mechanism: This type of economy has a freely
economic system based on the private ownership of the working price mechanism to guide consumers. Price
means of production and their operation for profits. mechanism means the free working of the supply and
As earlier stated, capitalism is practiced in USA, others demand forces without any intervention. Producers are
include Nigeria, Cote d’ivoire, Senegal, Britain, France also helped by the price mechanism in deciding what
etc. to produce, how much to produce, when to produce
In some of the capitalist countries, such as Nigeria, the and where to produce. This mechanism brings about
government may decide to own and control some essential the adjustment of supply to demand. All economic
services such as water and electricity supply, postal, air, processes of consumption, production, exchange,
and rail services. State ownership varies from one capitalist distribution, saving and investment work according to
country to another. its directions. Therefore, Adam Smith has called price
mechanism as the “Invisible Hand” which operates
the capitalist.
45
5. Sourcing for capital: Individuals can borrow or 2002/32 Neco
provide the necessary capital themselves for One major characteristics of capitalism is that it results in
production. A. unjust and inequitable distribution of societal resources
6. Profit Motive: In this economy, the desire to earn B. full employment for the youth
profit is the most important inducement for economic C. organization of production to meet the needs of the poor
activity. All entrepreneurs try to start those industries D. job security for casual workers
or occupations in which they hope to earn the highest Answer
profit. Such industries as are expected to go under a Capitalism results into unjust and inequitable distribution
loss are abandoned. Profit is such an inducement that of societal resources, because the market or economic is
the entrepreneur is prepared to undertake high risk. controlled by the private individuals and government has
Therefore, it can be said that Profit Motive is the minimum impact (A)
SOUL of capitalist.
7. Competition and Co-operation Goes Side by Side: 2007/10
A capitalist economy is characterized by free Which of the following is a feature of capitalism?
competition because entrepreneurs compete for getting A. removal of social inequalities
the highest profit. On the other side buyers also B. equitable re – distribution of property
compete for purchasing goods and services. Workers C. maximization of profit D. protection of workers
compete among themselves as well as with machines Answer
for taking up a particular work. To produce goods of The features of the capitalism are the following: consumer
the required type and quality workers and machines are independence, ownership of means of production,
made to cooperate so that the production lines runs competitive market government participation, sourcing for
according to schedule. In this way, competition and co- capital, demand and supply, many producers, class war,
operation go side by side. rule of law and profit. (C)
8. Freedom of Enterprise, Occupation and Control:
Every person is free to start any enterprise of his 1995/17 Exercise 4.5
choice. People can follow occupations of their ability Which of the following is not a feature of capitalism?
and taste. Moreover, there is the freedom of entering A. free enterprise B. private ownership
into contract. Employers may contract with trade C. minimal government intervention
unions, suppliers with a firm and one firm with D. dictatorship of the proletariat
another.
9. Rule of law: There is rule of law in a capitalist
community, principle of liberty and the rule of law. Merits of Capitalism
10. Consumer’s sovereignty: In a capitalist economy, a 1. Production According to the Needs and Wishes of
consumer is compared to a sovereign king. The whole Consumers: In a capitalist economy consumer needs
production frame works according to his directions. and wishes are the upper most in the minds of the
Consumer’s tastes govern the whole production line producers. They try to produce goods according to the
because entrepreneurs have to sell their production. If tastes and liking of the consumers. This leads to
a particular type of production is to the liking of maximum satisfaction of the consumers as obtained
consumers, the producer gets high profit. from his expenditure on the needed goods.
11. It leads to Class Conflict: From capitalism, class- 2. Higher Rate of Capital Formation and More
conflict can arise. The society is normally divided into Economic Growth: People under capitalism have the
two classes, the “haves” and the “have not’s” which right to hold property and pass it on in inheritance to
are constantly at war with each other. Conflict between their heirs and successors. Owing to this right, people
labour and capital is found in almost all capitalistic save a part of their income so that it can be invested to
countries and there seems to be no near solution of this earn more income and leave larger property for their
problem. It seems this third class-conflict is inherent in heirs. The rate of capital formation increases when
capitalism. savings are invested. This accelerates economic
In a capitalist society, the class that control the means growth.
of production are known as the “Bourgeoisie”, they 3. There is Complete Freedom of Choice in a
own most of the wealth in the society. While the Capitalist Economy: Economic freedom means the
“protelerait” are the working class. They do not own right to earn and retain property. It also means the
means of production and must sell their labour to freedom of enterprise and choice of occupation. This
service. leads to the automatic channelization of the country’s
man power resources in different vocations. There is
2000/16 Neco no need to direct people or force them. Further, there
An undesirable feature of capitalist is is the freedom of contract which ensures smooth and
A. exploitation B. market economy flexible functioning of different production units.
C. profit motive D. free competition 4. Optimum Utilisation of Resources Available: The
Answer limited resources of the community are put to the most
The rich can exploit the poor, the poor will labor and little economical uses with as little waste as possible.
would be paid to them. The rich are richer because they
control the economic and human resources in the state. (A)

46
5. Efficient Production of Goods and Services: Due to 3. Social cost are very high: A capitalist economy
competition every entrepreneur tries to produce goods industrialises and develops but the social costs of the
at the lowest cost and of a durable nature. same are very heavy. Factory owners running after
Entrepreneurs also try to find out superior techniques private profit do not care for the people affected by
of producing the goods. Consumers get the highest their production. The environment is polluted because
quality goods at the least possible cost because the factory wastes are not properly disposed of. Housing
producers are always busy in making their production of factory labour is very rarely provided with the result
methods more and more efficient. that slums grow around big cities.
6. Competition: Competition is not only in price but also 4. Unnecessary Multiplicity and too much of
in the shape design, colours and packing of products. Competition: The populace (consumers) have to pay
Consumers therefore, get a good deal of variety of the a high price for their freedom of choice and provision
same product. They need not be given limited choice. of variety. There is sometimes too much competition
It is said that variety is the spice of life. leading to unnecessary high costs of production
7. In capitalism there is no need of inducement or because competitors bid the prices of resources too
punishment for goods and bad production: A high. There is wasteful advertisement. Sometimes,
capitalist economy provides encouragement to sub-standard goods are highly advertised and the
efficient producers. The able an entrepreneur is, the consumer is deceived.
higher is the profit he obtains. There is no need to 5. Instability of the Capital Economy: A capitalist
provide any kind of inducement. The price mechanism economy is inherently unstable. There is recurring
punishes the inefficient and rewards the efficient on its business cycle. Sometimes there is a slump in
own. economic activity. Prices fall, factories close down,
8. It encourages the entrepreneurs to take risks and workers are rendered unemployed. At other times,
adopt bold policies: Because by taking risk they can business is brisk, prices rise fast, and there is a good
make higher profits. Higher the risk, they also make deal of speculative activity. These alternating periods
innovations in order to cut their costs and maximize of recession and boom leads to a good deal of wastage
their profits. Hence capitalism brings about great of resources.
technological progress in the country. 6. Unemployment and underemployment: A capitalist
9. It provides the best atmosphere for inventions: economy has always some unemployment because the
Entrepreneurs are always on the look-out for new ideas market mechanism is slow to adjust to the changing
to be applied to production. They try to beat each other conditions. Business fluctuations also results in a large
in innovations. This leads to rapid expansion, greater part of the labour force going unemployed during
employment and income. The investors are suitably depressions. Not only this, workers are not able to get
rewarded with royalties, through the copy right. full time employment except under boom conditions.
Similarly, innovators enjoy the benefits of their 7. Working class does not have adequate social
research, through the system of patents and security: In a capitalist economy, the working class
trademarks. does not have adequate social security, commodity, the
10. It provides a good deal of flexibility: This type of factory owners do not provide for any pension,
economy can automatically change with the accident benefits or relief to the families of those who
circumstances. During war time market regulations are die in employment. As a result, widows and children
adopted to provide for the war machines. As soon as have to undergo a good deal of suffering. Governments
there is peace, the economy reverts to the free are not in a position to provide for adequate social
functioning of markets. security in over-populated less developed countries.
8. Slow and unbalanced growth: A capitalist economy
Demerits of Capitalism may work automatically but the rates of growth is
1. Inequality of Distribution of Wealth and Income: rather slow. Moreover, as the economy progresses,
The system of private property acts as a means of there is no all-round development. Some areas develop
increasing inequalities of income among different much faster while others remain backward. Industries
classes. Money begets money, those who have wealth may expand fast while there may be poverty in
can obtain resources and start big enterprises. The agriculture.
property less classes have only their labour to offer. 9. No bargaining capacity of labourers hence
Profits and rents are high. exploitation: In a capitalist economy, workers are
2. Class struggles as inevitable in capital economy: often paid a wage rate below their productivity. This is
Some critics of capitalism consider class struggles as because; they do not have the bargaining power to get
inevitable in a capitalist economy. There is a tendency their due from the rich capitalist. Women and children
on the part of the capitalist class to exploit the wage- are often paid a very low wage rate. There is no equal
earners. As a result, there is a conflict between the pay for equal work.
employers and the employees which leads to labour 10. Growth of monopolies with their evils: A capitalist
unrest. Strikes, lockouts and other points of tension. economy is competitive only in theory. In practice, the
All this have a very bad effect on production and few competitors often arrive at an understanding and
employment. exploits the consumer.

47
COMPARISON BETWEEN CAPITALISM AND Features of Mixed Economy
SOCIALISM 1. Coexistence of all the sectors: In the mixed economy
Capitalism Socialism system, all three sectors exist together that is the
1. The economy is in the The economy is under private sector, public sector and joint sector. The
hands of private the control of the state. government and private companies together hold the
individuals. responsibilities of the respective division.
2. The state does not There is central planning 2. Cooperative sector: According to the mixed economy
interfere with the of the economy, but the definition, a cooperative sector exists in a mixed
management of the degree of interference economy. The significance of this sector is vital. In
economy. The economy and central planning mixed economy countries, the government provides
is not centrally organized varies from one country necessary items and financial aids to the areas involved
to another. in cooperative societies like warehousing, dairy
3. There is duplication of Duplication and waste industry and more.
economic activities and are avoided because of 3. Freedom and control: To be precise, in a mixed
therefore waste is central planning. economy, we denote that the individuals have
inevitable. complete liberty to manufacture goods and items and
4. The economy is said to The economy is said to choose property and occupation according to their
be open and be closed, that is, a state choice. The regulating body maintains control to avoid
competitive. of monopoly. all sorts of discrimination and monopolistic issues.
4. Means of production: The means of production,
5. The system is The system is distribution and exchange of goods and services are in
democratic: Two or more totalitarian with one the hands of both the individuals and the state.
political parties exist; free political party in 5. Economic planning: In a mixed economy, the central
and fair elections are existence; there is planning authority exists. All the sectors of the firm
conducted and the rule of violation of rights of follow this rule and plan to pursue their goals. The plan
law is in operation, etc. individuals, etc. is solely observed with the motive to attain national
6. Political power is Political power is economic growth.
decentralized. centralized. 6. Competition: There are some degree of competition
in the production and distribution of goods and
7. The system is based on It is a classless society. services in the system.
class-upper, middle 7. Social welfare: The significant look out of a mixed
and lower classes. economy is the social welfare of society. It focuses on
8. The economy rules Political power is used eliminating the unemployment issues from the
politics; that is, to control and shape country. The mixed economy definition further says it
economic power economic power. enhances social security and public education
determines political facilities.
power. 8. Rule of law: The application of the rule of law is
guaranteed and respected.

Mixed Economy Merits of Mixed Economy

Mixed economy is an economic system that combined or 1. Freedom: In a mixed economy, there is both
accommodates two different ideologies ‘Capitalism and economic and occupational freedom as found in
Socialism’. Mixed economy is an economic system where capitalist system. Every individual has liberty to
the means of production of goods and services, distribution choose any occupation of his choice. Similarly, every
and exchange are in the hands of both the public and producer can take decisions regarding production and
private ownership. However, it is the market forces that set consumption.
the price, demand and supply. The government intervenes 2. Optimum use of resources: Under this system, there
to eliminate the possibilities of monopolisation and are all advantages of economic planning. Government
discrimination. takes measures to control economic fluctuations and to
meet other economic evils.
A mixed economy definition exists to handle the cons of a 3. Lesser economic inequalities: Capitalism enhances
capitalist or socialist economy. The mixed economy economic inequalities but under mixed economy,
system aims to come up with a unique solution. It supports inequalities can easily be controlled by the efforts of
the concept of liberty towards private ownership, the government.
mixed economy also notes the demerits of capitalism. It 4. Encouragement to private sector: The most
comes up with proposals to the government to avoid any important advantage of mixed economy is that it
discrimination among the citizens. The following are provides encouragement to private sector and it gets
examples of countries that practices mixed economy: proper opportunity to grow. It leads to increase in
India, Britain, USA, etc. capital formation within the country.
5. Competition and efficient production: Due to
competition between both private and public sectors,
the level of efficiency remains high. All factors of
production work efficiently in the hope of profit.
48
6. Social welfare: Under this system, both government 2. An arguably mixed economy is the method to establish
and private sector joins their hands for the socialism in a country following peaceful and
development of socio-economic infrastructures. democratic ways. For example, the economy can move
Moreover, government enacts many legislative towards socialism through the progressive extension of
measures to safe guard the interests of the poor and the public sector.
weaker section of the society. Hence, for any 3. In a mixed economy, the private sector’s efficient
underdeveloped country, mixed economy is a right management is combined with the public sector’s
choice. financial soundness. Resultantly, the country achieves
a rapid rate of economic growth.
Demerits of Mixed Economy The evils of the capitalist system, such as inflation,
1. Unstability: Some economists claim that mixed unemployment, etc., can be removed in the mixed
economy is most unstable in nature. The public sector economic order. In the modern world, the objective of
gets maximum benefits whereas private sector remains the state, the government aims at achieving maximum
controlled. welfare for the maximum number of people. Arguably,
2. Inefficient planning: There are no such maximum prosperity can be gained through the
comprehensive planning in mixed economy. As a extension of the public sector. It is possible only in a
result, a large sector of the economy remains outside mixed economic system. This one is among the most
the control of the government. significant advantages of a mixed economy.
3. Ineffectiveness of sectors: Under this system, both the
sectors are ineffective in nature. The private sector FEUDALISM
does not get full freedom, hence it becomes Feudalism is a system of land ownership and duties.
ineffective. This leads to ineffectiveness among the Feudalism is broadly defined as a way of structuring
public sector. In true sense, both sectors are not only society around relationships derived from the holding of
competitive but also complementary in nature. land in exchange for service or labour. It may also be
4. Delay in economic decisions: In a mixed economy, defined as a form of government in which an individual’s
there is always delay in making certain decisions, political rights and duties were determined by that
especially in case of public sector. This type of delay individual’s relation to the lord. Feudalism was first
always leads to a great hindrance in the path of smooth practiced in ancient Europe from A.D 476 to A.D 1500.
functioning of the economy. Examples of feudalism could be found in ancient India,
5. Lack of efficiency: In this system, both sectors suffer China and Japan.
due to lack of efficiency. In public sector it is so
because government employees do not perform their In feudalism, the duties and obligations which the ordinary
duty with responsibility, while in private sector, citizens owed to the state were turned into private and
efficiency goes down because government imposes too personal services owed to the lord, in return for land
many restrictions in the form of control, permits and received. This means in feudalism land was the main
licenses, etc. element that determined the extent of power in society
6. Threat of nationalism: Under mixed economy, there
is a constant fear of nationalism of private sector. For Feudalism shows the hierarchical order of land ownership
this reason, private sector does not put into use their with the emperor at the apex, followed by the lords and
resources for the common benefits. then vassals, while at the base was the serfs (landless
7. More wastages: Another problem of the mixed peasants). The landowners received rents from those
economic system is the wastage of resources. A part of whom the estates or fief were given. It is now the least
funds allocated to different projects in public sectors adopted system of government by modern countries.
goes into the pocket of intermediaries. Thus, resources
are misused. 1998/2
8. Corruption and black marketing: There is always Feudalism is a system of government where
corruption and black marketing in this system. A. a few people monopolise the ownership of land
Political parties and self-interested people take undue B. factors of production are controlled by the capitalist
advantages from public sector. Hence, this leads to C. communal ownership of property is prevalent
emergence of several evils like black money, bribe, tax D. workers administer the society
evasion and other illegal activities. All these ultimately Answer
bring red-tapism within the system. In feudalism system of government all the lands in the state
are monopolized by few people. The land belong to the
Merits of a Mixed Economy king, the king would give some of the land to the lords
The mixed economic system has certain advantages. The (nobles), they are wealthy and have military for securing
following are the benefits of a mixed economy. the land. These lands given to them by the king would be
1. The mixed economy combines both the features of a in exchange of their military protection of the king. (A)
socialist and capitalist economy. Therefore,
advantages from both sectors are present in a mixed
economy. For example, absolute individual liberty is
there in a diverse economy. Again, freedom can be
gained too in a mixed economy.

49
1999/5 3. Bond: The lord and the vassals shared closed bond
Feudalism is a practice in which together.
A. the citizens have no political and social rights 4. Protection: Ownership and control of land is vested in
B. hereditary landlords ruled peasants the king, monarch or emperor.
C. political leadership based on force 5. Annual tributes: The serifs (tenants) pay their
D. the social structure is stratified landlords annual tributes in money, kind or labour.
Answer 6. The king or monarch: This is the law maker,
Feudalism is a practice in which hereditary ruled peasants commander, judge and landlord over his vassals or serifs.
(vassal or masses). The peasants are the tenants on the land 7. Land ownership: This system is based on land
of the noble. They will pay homage in labour and some ownership.
shares of their farm producers would be in exchange for
military. (B) 1995/7
Which of the following is a feature of feudalism?
2018/2b Neco A. one party rule B. multi-party system
State four differences between feudalism and C. military rule D. lord – serif relationship
communalism. Answer
Answer Feudalism characteristics are relationship between the lord
Feudalism Communalism serif, annual tributes by the serifs (tenants), protection and
1. There is feudal lords. There is no lordship. bond between the lord and the vassals shared together. (D)
2. Land is a symbol for Land is used as a
security. means of economic
benefits. Merits of Feudalism
3. The land belongs to the The land is The following are disadvantages of feudalism
lord only communally owned. 1. Order and personal loyalty: Feudalism gave some
4. There is compulsory There is no order and avoided total chaos by bringing together the
service of the compulsory service. strong sentiment of personal loyalty connected with
vassals/serifs to the lords. the possession of land.
5. There is discrimination in There is equitable 2. Simplicity: It allowed a simplistic chain of command
income distribution. distribution. 3. Framework: Feudalism provided a temporary
6. There is segregation class There is primitive, framework of order on which a true and reliable
status. less advanced national life could grow.
society. 4. Decentralisation: The feudal system encourages
7. It has conquest system It is based on peace decentralisation.
and subjugation as its and tranquility. 5. Self-reliance: It fostered among the big landlords,
feature. self-reliance and love of personal independence.

2004/11 Demerits of Feudalism

Which of the following best describes feudalism? 1. Discouragement to nationalism: As war became a
A. a few people monopolise the ownership of land regular feature among the lords, it created hurdles in
B. mass ownership of property is prevalent the formation of national states.
C. state ownership of capital is prevalent 2. Disintegration of the state: The state was roughly
D. workers administer the society disintegrated and could no longer acts as a whole
Answer (state) but in semi-independent parts.
Feudalism is best described as few people, individuals or 3. Disobedience to common law: This was because
people monopolise the ownership of land. (A) personal obedience and sub ordination was founded
upon land ownership.
1995/7 Nov Exercise 4.6 4. Weak central government: Relevant governmental
The type of government in which citizen’s rights and duties powers were held by large land owners, making the
are based on a system of land tenure is known as central government to be weak and very imperfect to
A. feudalism B. oligarchy C. democracy order.
D. republicanism E. autocracy 5. Confusion of public and private rights: Feudalism
created confusion between private and public rights.
Features of Feudalism Private rights superseded public rights.
1. Holding of land: Vassals hold land in trust for the 6. Exploitation: The system was purely based on outright
lords. exploitation. The slaves/serfs/vassals and peasants
2. Obligations of the vassals: Duties owed by a vassal to were used and dumped.
his lord can be categorized as follows: Military 7. Injustice: It encourage injustice. The lord presided
(auxilium), which included personal service, providing over disagreements between himself and the land
troops (raising levies), and later scutage in lieu of tenants.
service. Military duties also included work on 8. Hindrance to development: Feudalism constitutes an
fortifications and roads and bridges, thus the trinoda obstacle to further development of society because a
necessitas (three fold obligation of serving). large section of the society is rendered weak and
unproductive by the system.
50
FASCISM 2009/5 Neck
Fascism is a form of government, that is, a type of one party Fascism can best be defined as the
dictatorship. They work for a totalitarian one party state. Again, A. government of a state controlled by multi-party
Fascism is a form of government which is led by a dictator who B. system of government controlled by the armed forces
typically rules by force and often violently suppressing C. existence of a single party dictatorship with a life president
opposition and criticism, controlling all industry and D. existence of an elected president for a fixed term
commerce, and promoting nationalism and often racism. Answer
Fascism can best be defined as the existence of a single
Fascism encourages autocracy and dictatorship of one man party dictatorship with a life president. Fascism is also
over other people and is rooted on the exercise of total power known as totalitarian or military type of government. (C)
by the ruler. The basic element of fascism is that the state has a
life, unity and will. It is believed that the will of the state is 1992/10 Exercise 4.7
superior to the wills of the individuals. It is the ruler who Who among the following is associated with fascism?
symbolizes the wills of the people. The ruler is therefore above A. Karl Marx B. Joseph Stalin C. John Locke
the law, and citizens must obey the laws. Fascism is against the D. Benito Mussolini
principles of democracy. The right of individuals does not
matter in a fascist state. 2002/2 Neco Exercise 4.8
Fascism as a system of government originated from
This aim is to prepare the nation for armed conflict, and to
A. Italy B. Germany C. France D. Britain
respond to economic difficulties. Fascism puts nation and often
race above the individuals. Benito Mussolini was the father of
fascism.
Features of Fascism
Countries that have Practiced Fascism 1. Militarism: Fascist states tend to use force to secure
1. Italy (1922 – 1943): This was the first country that compliance in the state. There is usually a high use of
practiced fascism. It was ruled by Benito Mussolini high handedness and state police to enforce
th
until he was dismissed and arrested on 25 July, 1943. compliance.
2. Germany (1933 – 1945): In Germany fascism was 2. Nationalism: Fascism emphasizes national interest
practiced under the name, Nazism by Adolf Hitler. over individual preferences and aspirations. It sees the
3. Japan (1931 – 1945): Right-wing elements in Japan, state as a whole where the masses interest should be to
including industrialists, military officers and the satisfy the state’s needs even if it affects them.
nobility opposed democracy as an anathema to 3. Government surveillance: The government plays an
national unity. In 1936, Japan and Germany signed the active role in suppressing oppositions and dissenting
anti Comintern pact, aimed at countering the Soviet policies. It frowns against criticism and rewards people
Union and the communist international. In 1940, the who snitch on one another.
Prime Minister Fuminaro Konoye established the 4. Dictatorship: A fascist state is always headed by a
imperial rule assistance association to consolidate all dictator.
political parties under a single umbrella group. 5. Supremacy of the leader: The state is hierarchically
4. Austria (1933 – 1945): Engelbert Dollufb’s idea of organized structure with a leader at the top vested with
“standestaat” was borrowed from Mussolini. Dollfub legislative, judiciary and executive powers.
dissolved parliament and established a clerical-fascist 6. Limited Political Participation: Political
dictatorship which lasted until Austria was participation is only open to the few elites of the
incorporated into Nazi Germany through the society as the voices of the commoner are relegated.
Anschluss of 12 March, 1938. 7. The use of propaganda: Government owns and
controls the media as a means of spreading
1992/5 propaganda.
Fascism emphasizes 8. Centralized Economy: In the hands of the fascist
A. equality B. individualism C. nationalism government are factors of production and means of
D. totalitarianism distribution concentrated.
Answer
Fascism emphasizes on totalitarianism i.e. total control by Merits of Fascism
the government. Constitution was not used in fascism 1. It emphasizes the welfare on the country: Fascism
system but decree and proclamation because of the prioritizes the interest of the country. The government
dictatorship nature. (D) spends money to improve the nation’s defence through
the provisions of enough weapons, trained soldiers
2005/8 Neck etcetera, as to prevent the country from being invaded.
Fascism was a type of dictatorial government established in 2. There is easy decision making: Due to the fact that
A. Germany B. Russia C. Israel D. Italy fascist countries are usually one partied systems or
Answer even controlled by an individual, there is usually no
Fascism was a type of dictatorial government established in bureaucracy in decision making. The individual
Italy. The National Fascist Party (PNF) founded in 1921 decides matters expediently at the advantage of the
declared that the party was to serve as a revolutionary militia masses.
placed at the service of the nation. It follows a policy based 3.
on three principles: order, discipline and hierarchy. (D)
51
4. Dissolution of social stratification: Fascism 6. Female Marginilisation: It restricted roles of the
concentrates power on a central authority who is both female gender. Women were not allowed to have
in charge of the political and economic activities of the employment.
country. This implies that the means of production are 7. A one-party state: There is the existence of only one
now left in the hands of the state thereby leading to political party. The only recognized and legal party
equal distribution of resources and then the death of was the National Socialist Party (NSP).
class stratification. 8. Full authority vested on the leader: It does not allow
5. Reduction in crime rate: It has been argued that since for any form of opposition as full authority is vested
fascism uses excessive force to secure obedience, and on the leader e.g. Hitler; his actions were right and
also derogates most of democratic measures, it can above criticisms
easily impose sanctions which will serve as a deterrent 9. The philosophy of the National Socialist Party:
to crime perpetrators. Under this proponent all aspects of life of the people
were controlled, fundamental rights were non–
Demerits of Fascism existence as the ideology supported only fundamental
1. Violation of human rights: Fascism because of its duties
military and autocratic ideologies do not respect any
form of liberties. They trample on the rights of citizens, Merits of Nazism
ranging from the freedom of expression, movement, 1. Nazism increased the military power, e.g. Nazi
right to life, etc. with reckless abandon. Germany under Adolf Hitler.
2. Disregard for international law: This system had no 2. Nazism made the society become less dependent on
regard for international laws. It violated standards other countries.
acceptable at the international community and even 3. Better standard of living due to increased wages, low
refused sanctions. rate of unemployment, etc.
3. There is the abuse of power: Because power is placed 4. Brought solution to many economic problems by
at the sole disposition of a single person, he/she ending the great depression.
misuses such power, this in line with the statement that 5. The establishment of infrastructures e.g. schools,
‘Power corrupts and absolute power corrupts hospital, etc.
absolutely. 6. It removed the threat of communism.
4. Poor economy growth: The system of government
damages the country’s economy due to lack of foreign Demerits of Nazism
investors. 1. The use of force to exert justice.
2. Saw other races as lesser. This led to the persecution
NAZISM of other religions and races e.g. the Jew and Gypsies.
This concept is derived from the German National 3. Restricted international trade. This led to incurred
Socialist political party. Nazism may be defined as a form debts and dependence on foreign imports.
of government in which the state has a total control over 4. Citizens lacked freedom/fundamental human rights.
the cultural, social, economic and political activities of the The law does nothing to the citizens.
people with their fundamental rights being denied. 5. Invested in the military than in the citizens and other
aspects of the economy.
It was practiced in Germany under Adolf Hitler between 6. It practiced totalitarianism.
1933 and 1945. Nazism is a movement that is both political 7. It restricted roles of the female gender.
and militaristic with the arbitrary suspension of the rule of
law. Nazi ideology includes expansion, racism, power and TOTALITARIANISM
militarism. Totalitarianism is a system of government that is centralized
and dictatorial and requires complete subservience to the
Features of Nazism state. A totalitarian government usually has a leader with an
1. Racism: The Nazi Germany believed that they were absolute power who suppresses the citizens via acts of
people belonging to one race and so there was the need violence and strict laws, controlling all aspects of lives of the
to maintain racial purity of the state by declaring other citizens. Currently, the state of Eritrea and North Korea are
races inferior. The Jews, for example were considered the only two nations in the world that still have governments
inferior and had no role to play in the state. classified as totalitarianism dictatorships.
2. Totalitarian: The Practice of totalitarianism; a
situation whereby the citizens were completely under The word, totalitarianism, was identified in the speeches and
power of those in authority. an activity of Mussolini of Italy in the 1920’s which were
3. Dictatorship: Powers were concentrated on the leader characterized by the following factors. These are the pursuit
and his will must become law. His government was of national unity, abolition of opposition of sectional interest
therefore dictatorial. or domination. Other totalitarian regimes were Germany
4. Education: Schools, including tertiary institutions under Adolf Hitler, former Soviet Union under Stalin and
were under the control of the state including other China under Mao Tse Tung. Military regimes are equally
factors of production. associated with totalitarian tendencies.
5. Victimization: All dissenting groups or those not
willing to obey the leader were compelled to do so or
punished massively.
52
Features of Totalitarianism 6. The mass media have no power in a totalitarian state.
1. Absence of constitution: The powers of the government It exists only to disseminate the uninterested in the
has no limit because there is no constitution. The affairs of the state.
principles of the rule of law is not obtainable in a 7. Blind submission and obedience to the
totalitarian state. government/leader. This is due to forceful means to
2. Dictatorship: The government is characterized by implement the decisions of government.
dictatorship since it is headed by a dictator e.g. former
Soviet Union under Stalin, Adolf Hitler of Germany.
3. Individual freedom and liberties: Where 2004/8 Neco
totalitarianism operates, people are given little or no Which of the following best describes totalitarianism?
attention. Individual initiatives in terms of governance A. extreme decentralization
and fundamental right are not allowed. B. excessive centralization of power
4. Suppression: There is the use of force through the police C. devolution of power D. delegation of power
to enforce the will of the state and rulers; that is, the rights Answer
of citizen are suppressed by the state. Totalitarianism is referred to as a centralized economy
5. The mass media: Totalitarian government control all control by an autocratic authority. Totalitarianism
mass media, including arts and literature. Thus control exercises control over the freedom, will or thought of
enables the regime to produce a constant stream of others, authoritarian; autocratic. (B)
propaganda designed to “gaslight” the people and
prevent them from realizing the hopelessness of their 2009/6 Neco
situation. Totalitarianism implies the control of government by
6. Centralized Economy: It has a highly centralized A. coalition parties B. parties in succession
economy. Totalitarian government regimes own and C. a few elite D. a dictator
control all aspects of the economy, including capital and Answer
all means of production. Totalitarianism refers to a political system in which all
7. Terrorism and oppression: It is characterized by the use authority is in the hands of the state. In a totalitarian
of force and terror to rule. For example, secret police and society, all control of public and private life are
concentration camps are used to detain and torture government run, they also called it dictatorship system.
opposers.
8. One party system: There exist only one platform, 2013/5 Neco
participation in the political system (single mass party). Totalitarianism means a government headed by
The ruling party controls all aspects and functions of A. a dictator B. wealthy people
government. C. educated elite D. the masses
9. Education: The government controls virtually all the Answer
means of information and education. Schools, including Totalitarianism is centralized control by an autocratic
tertiary institutions were under the control of the state. authority. It’s a political concept of the citizen shared be
totally subject to absolute state authority. (A)
Merits of Totalitarianism
1. It encourages one party system which resolves the 1990/6 Nov
problem of bureaucracy. In which system of government does the state require the
2. There is little or no room for corruption in government. control of everything and allows no opposition?
3. It establishes a strong government due to absence of A. feudalism B. capitalism
opposition, criticism, etc. C. totalitarianism D. communism
4. The economy is controlled from the centre. Answer
5. Justice is ensured easily and quickly. Totalitarianism is a political system or a form of
6. It provides efficient and proper administration due to government that prohibits opposition parties, restricts
absence of the consultation discussions or debates. individual opposition to the state and its claims, and
7. It provides security for citizens of the state. exercise an extreme high degree of control over public and
8. The mass media is under the control of government for private life. (C)
proper dissemination of information.
2000/12 Neco
Demerits of Totalitarianism Mussolini’s fascism and Hitler’s Nazism are good examples
1. There is the absence of rule of law. Therefore, the of
people do not enjoy their full rights as citizens. A. anarchy B. feudalism C. totalitarianism
2. Only one person or group is in power. This means that D. oligarchy
decisions and ideas of the person or group is accepted Answer
without questions. Benito Mussolini’s fascism and Hitler’s Nazism are good
3. It encourages and spreads war. examples of totalitarianism, where the government has the
4. The system is based on force and violence. total control of the system. The state has no constitution
5. Most totalitarian states are racists, communists and that guards their administrative activities, the leader
undemocratic. decides on how to run the system without any
interference/seek of opinion from others. (C)

53
1990/15 Exercise 4.9 Aristocracy
A totalitarian government is a government Aristocracy is a form of government in which power is held
A. that aspires to control every aspect of a citizen’s life by the nobility. Aristocracy is a kind of government that
B. for the masses puts power in the hands of a small, privileged ruling class.
C. of the people by the people and for the people In Ancient Greek, the word aristocracy means the rule of
D. that aspires to control only the economic aspect of a the best, but it has come to be linked with rule by royal
citizen’s life families. Aristocracy is a group or class considered
superior to others.
OLIGARCHY
Oligarchy is a form of power structure in which power rests Features of Aristocracy
with a small number of people or exclusive group which 1. In aristocracies, the government is dominated by a
pursues its interest instead of the general good. These small group of elites that rules.
people may be distinguished by nobility, wealth, 2. Predictably, the rich rule mainly in their own interest
education, corporate, religions, political or military and they make no pretense about it.
control. Oligarchy, government by the few, especially 3. They usually have a specific honorary title such as
despotic power exercised by a small and privileged group Duke, Duchess, Baron, Baroness, Lord, Sir, etc..
of corrupt or selfish purposes. 4. They have both social and economic prestige as well
as political power.
Oligarchies in which members of the ruling group are 5. Those in positions of authority in aristocracies must
wealthy or exercise their power through their wealth are persuade the people to accept their rule and this may
also known as plutocracies. An oligarchy can form under a take the form of an ideology of service. That is, you
monarchy or even a tyranny if the leader is weak. An are made to believe that you too can prosper if you can
influential group increases its power around this person, work hard.
and when the leader leaves, the oligarchs remain in power. 6. The legislature or parliament is a typical aristocratic
They select a puppet or one of their own to replace the representative assembly.
leader. Merits of Aristocracy
1. There are selected elites who rule in this form of
Forms of Oligarchy government.
Theocracy 2. It is a conducive and progressive system of
Theocracy is a system of government in which priests rule government.
in the name of God or a god. Theocracy is a form of 3. Decision making in this system is much faster.
government in which a deity of some type is recognized as 4. The system stresses quality than quantity.
the supreme ruling authority giving divine guidance to 5. The rate of corruption can be comparatively low.
human intermediaries that manage the day to day affairs of 6. There are no single person rule. Hence, errors in
the government. making laws will be avoided.
Theocratic countries use their religion to govern their Demerits of Aristocracy
country. Theocracies can have one or more rulers, like 1. Real political power in an aristocracy is concentrated in
religious clergy, but those rulers are guided in their the hands of a few.
thoughts and actions through one or more deities. There is 2. The majority of the people are excluded from
no separation between church and state; therefore, government in aristocracies.
dissention is not allowed. The term “theocracy” derives 3. The ruling aristocrats have often been accused of
from Greek to mean “the rule of God”. The Vatican City harshness and cruelty towards the lower class.
in Rome, for example, is a theocratic state headed by the 4. The decisions in this form of government are made by
Pope. a few people, tagged the elites.
5. There is also the existence of racism in aristocracy
Gerontocracy societies.
Gerontocracy is a state, society, or group governed by old 6. The survival depends primarily on the exploitation of
people. Gerontocracy is a society where leadership is the masses.
reserved for elders. The best example of this can be seen in 7. The exploitation of the people is disguised and made
the Ancient Greek city state of Sparta, which was ruled by less painful with the use of various tricks and intrigues
a Gerousia. A Gerousia was a council made up of members e.g. the introduction of majority rule though it is the few
who were at least 60 years old and served for life. who actually rule.
Gerontocracy is a form of organization in which a group of 2000/15 Neco Exercise 4.10
old men or a council of elders dominates or exercise Which of the following is a feature of an elite party?
control, gerontocracy was a borrowed word from French A. member are recruited from the working class
language, and it was first used in 1830. B. the leadership is composed of aristocrats and wealthy
merchants
C. it usually consists of existing associations, club and trade
unions
D. it leadership has certain techniques which attract
supporters
54
2004/5 Exercise 4.11 Merits of Oligarchy
Nobles who form government are called 1. It provides leadership in situation where the masses are
A. theocrats B. aristocrats C. plutocrats virtually disorganized.
D. 2. It is not gender biased. Men and women serve equally
in all spheres of society.
Authoritarianism 3. Oligarchy allows the best talents in society to be used
Authoritarianism is a system of enforcement or advocacy for the realization of the aims and objectives of the
of strict obedience to authority at the expense of persons, state.
freedom. Authoritarianism is a form of government 4. Power is consolidated in the most experienced
characterized by strong central power and limited political individuals. This make it possible for the government
freedoms. Authoritarianism is a way of governing that to function properly.
values order and control over personal freedom. 5. The leaders usually find it difficult to ignore with
impunity the aspirations and demands of the people.
A government run by authoritarianism is usually headed by 6. Oligarchy facilitates quick decision making.
a dictator. Many people consider china to be an example of 7. It is unavoidable and indispensable in any human
an authoritarian government. organization and it is, as such a way of life.
8. Anyone can be permitted to join the ruling class if
2000/18 he/she works hard, is willing to learn and contribute to
Authoritarianism is least inherent in the growth of the society.
A. feudalism B. fascism C. democracy D. monarchy 9. It gives room for innovation to thrive. This is because
Answer fewer people are concerned with making choices for
Authoritarianism is least inherent in democracy (C) the society, leaving others to explore and be creative.

Dictatorship Demerits of Oligarchy

Dictatorship is a government or a social situation where 1. It represents a usurpation of the power belonging to all
one person makes all the rules and decisions without input the people by a privileged few.
from anyone else. Dictatorship implies absolute power is 2. The control and ownership of land, resources and
on one person, who takes control of a political situation, a power are vested in the hands of a few powerful
family, etc. people.
3. It encourages income inequality. This happens because
Dictatorship is a government or a social situation where those in the ruling class are able to funnel wealth
one person makes all the rules and decisions without input towards themselves.
from anyone else. 4. It inhibits growth over time because it maintains a
status quo and there is an extreme lack of diversity
Plutocracy within the ruling class.
A plutocracy or plutarchy is a society that is ruled or 5. It can lead to disruption within the society if the ruling
controlled by people of great wealth or income. The first class feels that the people are no longer obedient.
known use of the term in English dates from 1631. 6. The leaders usually act in their own interest, which
Plutocracy is a term for a government in which wealthy may be different from and antithetical to those of the
people use their wealth to rule. This can mean that wealthy people.
people or the propertied – class are the actual leaders as 7. It creates puppet leaders as the power lies not in the
they control the economic resources of the state. leaders but in the group of people that surround the
leaders.
Features of Oligarchy 8. Oligarchy, being a government by the few, for the few
1. Power is concentrated in the hands of a few who are may be unable to understand and appreciate the
usually rich. problems of the poor who are usually in the majority.
2. It encourages income inequality. 9. Oligarchy is undemocratic.
3. The principal cause of oligarchy is the presumed
technical indispensability of leadership. That is, the
masses are helpless and incapable of leading the 2003/8 Neco
organization in the absence of the elites and this makes Oligarchs implies rulership by
the elites who lead, indispensable. A. an absolute monarch B. a few powerful individuals
4. Oligarchy is the opposite of popular participation. It is C. a military government D. a charismatic leader
a tyrannical rule. Answer
5. Leadership may take several forms such as aristocracy, Oligarchy, government by the few, especially despotic
theocracy, autocracy etc. power exercised by a small and privileged group for
6. There may be different elite groups in oligarchy which corrupt or selfish purposes. (B)
represents several interest (e.g. those representing
financial, managerial and industrial interests) but they
all have one common interest, which is the protection
of the property interests of the elites.

55
1993/1 2003/16 UTME
Government by the few for the interest of the few is known as Socialism is a mode of production based on
A. monarchy B. dictatorship C. autocracy A. state ownership of the means of production
D. oligarchy B. collective ownership of the means of production
Answer C. national ownership of the means of production
Oligarchy is a form of power structure in which power rests D. mixed ownership of the means of production
with few number of people. (D) Answer – A
Socialism is a mode of production based on state
1987/19 UTME ownership of the means of production and distribution of
Socialism is associated with public wealth.
A. Karl Marx B. Nicolo Machiavelli C. Aristotle D. Plato
Answer 2019/48 (NDU, BAYELSA)
Socialism is associated with Karl Marx (1818 – 1883) was In the Marxist theory, those who live by selling their labour
the founder of modern socialism – A. are called
1990/12 UTME A. bourgeoisie B. proletariats C. feudal lords D. slaves
Under socialism, the control of power resides with the Answer
A. peasants B. bourgeoisie C. nobles D. proletariat Marxist theory describes proletariats as a social class of
Answer wage-earners, those members of the society whose only
Under socialism, the control of power resides with the possession of significant economic value is their labour
proletariat– D. power (their capacity to work). A member of such a class
is a proletarian – B.
1990/43 UTME
Marxism is directed against 2019/55 (NDU, BAYELSA)
A. state ownership of the means of production Socialism developed as a protest against the evils of
B. materialism C. the proletariat D. socialism A. monarchy B. oligarchy C. feudalism
Answer D. capitalism E. fascism
Karl Marx is directed against materialism, he belief in the Answer
ideology of pooled wealth– B. Socialism developed as a protest against the evils of
capitalism. Socialism as an ideology primarily aims at
1991/12 UTME eradicating excessive capitalist exploitation in the different
Governments whose central concern is the equitable parts of the world. It aims at bridging the gap between the
distribution of wealth are said to the A. feudalist B. capitalist C. poor and wealthy. Socialism can be regarded as the
socialist D. fascist ideology of the poor. This theory originated as a protest
Answer against the evils of capitalism. Karl Marx (1818-1883)
Socialism is a political and economic theory of social propounded this theory. – D
organization which advocates that the means of production,
distribution, and exchange should be owned or regulated by the 2009/2010/21 (NDU, BAYELSA)
community as a whole. Socialists believe that everything in A system of government which based on the public
society is made by the cooperative efforts of the people and ownership of means of production and distribution is
citizens– C. called
1994/41 UTME A. capitalism B. socialism C. feudalism D.
The term, comprador bourgeoisie, has been used by scholars to authoritarianism
describe Answer
A. foreign businessmen in Nigeria Socialism is a system of government which based on the
B. foreign diplomats working in Nigeria public ownership of means of production and distribution
C. Nigerian businessman who represent foreign interests of goods and services– B.
D. Nigerian contractors to foreign government
Answer 2015/2016/65 (NDU, BAYELSA)
A comprador bourgeoisie is a person who acts as an agent for The highest stage of socialism is
foreign organization engages in investment, trade or economic A. racism B. fascism C. communism D. Nazism
or political exploitation – C. Answer – C
The highest stage of socialism is communism.
1998/7 UTME
A major characteristic of the socialist system is its 2006/17 (OAU, IFE)
provision for A. limited privacy B. public ownership C. A political ideology that defines a system of societal
unlimited privacy D. private ownership organization in which the state controls, the commanding
Answer heights of the economy is called
The major characteristic of the socialist system is its A. Totalitarianism B. communalism
provision for public ownership. Socialism is a C. socialism D. communism
philosophical, political and economic theory which says Answer
that land, transport, industries, natural resources, etc. Socialism is a political ideology that defines a system of
should be owned and managed by the state or by public societal organization in which the state controls, the
bodies and wealth equaling distributed– B. commanding heights of the society or state economy– C.
56
2019/2020/61 (UNIZIK, AWKA) 2011/14 UTME
Ideologies that advocate for state and collective control of In a socialist economy, private accumulation of wealth is
the economy respectively are A. limited B. encouraged C. prohibited D. regulated
A. Socialism and communalism Answer
B. communalism and capitalism In a socialist economy, private accumulation of wealth is
C. socialism and communism prohibited. Socialism as an economic system does not
D. communism and socialism allow or encourage individual ownership of private
Answer properties, it encourages states ownership of everything,
Socialism and communism ideologies advocate for state including collectivization of agriculture – C.
collective control of the economy. Goods and services are
produced according to needs and distributed according to 2013/13 UTME
individual’s contributions and wants (socialism). The Which of the following advocates equitable distribution of
slogan of communism of “from each according to his wealth?
ability and to each according to his needs” – C A. capitalism B. aristocracy B. socialism D. plutocracy
Answer
2019/2020/11 (UI, IBADAN) Socialism advocates equitable distribution of wealth in a
Which year did the union of soviet socialist republic state– C.
(USSR) disintegrated?
A. 1947 B. 1991 C. 1990 D. 1994 2016/11 UTME
Answer The development of a classless society is the goal of
The dissolution of the Soviet Union (1988 – 1991) was the A. Marxism B. Conservation C. Feudalism D. Liberalism
process of internal disintegration within the USSR– B. Answer
The development of a classless society is the goal of
2006/31 UTME Marxism. The theory is seen as equality in the society– A.
One of the greatest advocates of socialism was
A. Baron de Montesquieu B. Karl Marx 2004/1b
C. A. U. Dicey D. Adam Smith Outline any five features of capitalism
Answer Answer
Karl Marx was one of the greatest advocate of socialism. 1. There is private ownership and control of the means of
Socialism may be defined as a social, economic and production and distribution.
political system in which the state owns and controls the 2. Profit motive is the guiding principle.
means of production, exchange and distribution of goods 3. The economy is subject to the market forces of demand
and services. The main aim of socialism is to ensure equal and supply.
distribution of the nation’s wealth. Karl Marx, a German 4. There is class war between the bourgeoisie and
(1818 – 1883) was the founder and propounded of modern proletariat.
socialism– B. 5. Existence of the principle of liberty and the rule of law.
6. Labour is marketable commodity.
2007/17 UTME 7. There is freedom of choice to consumers, workers and
According to Karl Marx, the mode of production that owners of capital.
precedes capitalism is 8. The market is open to all.
A. mercantilism B. feudalism
C. socialism D. communalism 1989/28
Answer According to Marxist theory, those who own and control
According the Karl Marx, the mode of production that the means of production in a capitalist society are
precedes capitalism is socialism. Socialist economy is A. exploiters B. colonialists C. workers
based on the central planning of all economic activities as D. bourgeoisie
opposed to the capitalist market price mechanism Answer
otherwise called capitalism– C. Bourgeoisie are the middle – class people in the capitalist
who own most of the wealth, companies, factories and
2008/22 UTME controls the economy, production and distribution of goods
An economic system that encourages even distribution of and services in capitalist society. (D)
wealth in the society is
A. liberalism B. socialism C. mercantilism D. capitalism 2004/1a
Answer What is capitalism?
Socialism is an economic system that encourages even Answer
distribution of wealth in the society. A primary goal of Capitalism is a political and economic system in which the
socialism is social equality and a distribution of wealth means of production, distribution and exchange are owned
based on one’s contribution to society, and an economic and controlled by private individuals and in which the
arrangement that would serve the interest of society as a economic activity of the government is at a minimum level.
whole – B.

57
2005/2a 4. Rivalry: There is an unhealthy rivalry among
Explain the concept proletariat producers of different or same products in a capitalist
Answer economy.
Proletariat is a socialist concept of exploited class/workers in a 5. Exploitation: The system is outrightly exploitative.
capitalist system. They do not own the mean of production but
earn their living through wage labour. 2001/1 Neco
What are the characteristics of feudalism?
2014/2a Answer
Define capitalism 1. Holding of land: Vassals hold lad in trust for the lords.
Answer 2. Bond: The lord and the vassals shared closed bond
Capitalism is an economic system in which the means of together.
production of goods, exchange, distribution and services are in 3. Protection: Ownership and control of land is vested in
the hands of private persons. the king, monarch or emperor.
1990/1 4. Annual tributes: The serifs (tenants) pay their
What are the main defects of capitalism? landlords annual tributes in money, kind or labour.
Answer 5. The king or monarch: This is the law maker,
1. The systems are controlled by few wealthy people. commander, judge and landlord over his vassals or
2. It makes the rich, richer. serifs.
3. The system encourages, corruption and bribery. 6. Land ownership: This system is based on land
4. The poor are oppressed. ownership.
5. The poor labored for the rich and are paid peanuts for their
services. 2010/1b Neco
6. There is no fixed price to items in the market. State any five demerits of feudalism
7. There is no equality of rights in the system. Answer
8. The market prices are demand by the richest. 1. The system weakened the sovereignty of the state.
2. There were constant wars among the lords.
2002/24 Neco 3. The system was exploitative.
Which of the following allows the concentration of wealth in 4. There was no security of land ownership.
private hands? 5. The system did not encourage personal initiative and
A. fascism B. capitalism C. feudalism creativity.
D. socialism 6. The system encouraged domination by the lords.
Answer 7. They system encourages injustice because the lords
Capitalism can be defined as an economic system in which the presided over disagreement between himself and tenants.
means of production, exchange and distribution of goods and
services are in the hands of private persons. Private individuals 2010/1a Neco
have an edge over the government in businesses. (B) Define feudalism
Answer
2014/2b Neco Feudalism is a socio–political system that existed during
State two advantages and two disadvantages of capitalism the middle ages, the system was based on land ownership
Answer and duties. Feudalism was a combination of legal and
Advantages (merits) of capitalism military customs in medieval Europe between the 9th and
1. Competition: The system is open and it encourages 15th century.
competition. Effort is geared towards having the best for
the consumers. 1989/22 UTME
2. Choice: The people have a choice to make in almost Which of the following according to Marx, is the correct
everything needed or demanded. order in which societies progress?
3. Initiatives: initiatives are encouraged, they are supported A. capitalism, feudalism, communism, socialism
and not killed. B. feudalism, socialism, capitalism, communism
4. Democratic in nature: Capitalism is democratic. C. communism, socialism, capitalism, feudalism
Individuals are free to pursue any goal or to go into D. feudalism, capitalism, socialism, communism
production without any hindrance. Answer
5. Economic/political growth: The people can contribute to Feudalism, capitalism, socialism and communism is the
the political and economic growth of the system. correct order in which societies progress by Marx– D.

Disadvantages (demerits) of capitalism 2004/36 UTME

1. Income distribution: Income is not justifiably The economic basis of feudalism is
distributed in a capitalist system. A. trade B. capital C. agriculture D. slavery
2. Price system: The price system does not respond to the Answer
real needs of the community but to the demands of The economic basis of feudalism is agriculture. The land
those who have money to spend. given by the king to the lords were for Agricultural
3. Insecurity: Capitalism introduces and produces purposes. Feudalism is based on Agriculture– C.
insecurity, for example, the lives of some rich people
are not secured.
58
2008/2009/25 (OAU, IFE) 2008/2009 (NDU, BAYELSA)
Serfs are the dominated class under A fascist regimes is both
A. fascism B. capitalism C. feudalism D. socialism A. fair and legitimate B. responsive and responsible
Answer C. representative and accountable
Serfs are the dominated class under feudalism. They are D. democratic and constitutional
also called masses. Land’s from the king was let out to the E. authoritarian and totalitarian
nobles (lord’s) and the lord’s sublet the lands to the serfs Answer – E
for farming, building, etc. in returns of cash, material items A fascist regimes is both authoritarian and totalitarian.
or kind to the lord and king– C.
1984/25 UTME
2011/7 UTME With whom is fascism associated?
A system based on hierarchies of land ownership is A. Adolf Hitler B. Karl Marx C. John Locke
A. communism B. fascism C. feudalism D. totalitarianism D. Benito Mussolini E. Joseph Stalin
Answer Answer – D
Feudalism is a system based on hierarchies of land Fascism is associated with Benito Mussolini of Italy in
ownership– C. (1922 – 1943) as their leader.

2017/2018/85 (UNIZIK, AWKA) 1989/18 UTME

A system in which a few powerful and rich noble own Fascism is a system of government which
lands which is hired out to the poor people to farm is called A. encourages political dissent and opposition
A. feudalism B. cooperatives C. socialism D. communism B. discourages opposition C. promotes equality
E. communalism D. promotes the international brotherhood of man
Answer – A Answer – B
Feudalism is a system in which a few powerful and rich Fascism is a system of government which discourages
noble own lands which is hired out to the poor people opposition, fascism has one party system. It’s authoritarian
(serfs) to farm on it. The serfs in return pay for the farm and totalitarian system of government. It uses decree not
hired in cash, materials, energy and even in kind. constitution.

2018/2019/92 (UNIZIK, AWKA) 1999/20 UTME

Which of the following is the lowest class of people in the A state is said to be fascist when
hierarchy of a feudal system? A. its leader is patriotic but the citizens are not
A. nobles B. serfs C. lords D. maner B. all rights and liberties are subordinated to state interest
Answer C. its citizens are fanatically in love with their leader
Serfs are the masses, they are the lowest class of people in D. all rights and liberties are placed above state interests
the hierarchy of a feudal system– B. Answer – B
A state is said to be fascist when all rights and liberties are
2008/2009/13 (NDU, BAYELSA) subordinated to state interest. Fascism seeks to control all
A system in which a few powerful and rich nobles own phases of individual and group life. The state provides and
land which is hired out to the poor people to farm is called controls all manner of national activity. No organization,
A. feudalism B. cooperatives C. socialism D. communism political, economic or religious, can exist outside the state.
E. communalism
Answer – A 2010/12 UTME
One of the central tenets of the fascist doctrine is that the
2015/2016/66 (NDU, BAYELSA) leader is that the leader is
Feudalism is a practice in which A. supreme relative to the constitution
A. the citizens have no political and social rights B. subordinate to the norms of society
B. hereditary land lord ruled peasants C. subordinate to the laws of the state
C. political leadership is based on force D. weak relative to the constitution
D. the social structure is stratified Answer – A
Answer – B One of the central tenets of the fascist doctrine is that the
Feudalism is a practice in which hereditary landlord ruled leader is supreme relative to the constitution. The fascist
peasants. states uses decree made by the leaders, the leaders of
fascist state were above the law.
2009/40 UTME
Fascism as an ideology facilitates 2017/36 UTME
A. Totalitarianism B. socialism In fascism, the leader is
C. communalism D. liberalism A. Supreme B. democratic C. rich D. religious
Answer Answer – A
Fascism as an ideology facilitates totalitarian government In fascism, the leader is supreme and very powerful. The
which can be described as an advanced form of leader is next to their God because the leader have the final
authoritarian government– A. say in the state.

59
2011/2013/3 (NDU, BAYELSA) 2019/2020/80 (NDU, BAYELSA)
A totalitarian government is Nobles who form government are called
A. a government that aspires to control every aspect of the A. theocrats B. aristocrats C. plutocrats D. autocrats
citizen’s life Answer – B
B. a government for the masses Nobles who form government are called aristocrats.
C. a government of the people, by the people and for the
people 1984/8 NDU, 2014/2015/71
D. weak government E controlled by the rich A government in which control of ultimate power is by a
Answer – A few who rule in their own selfish interests is classified as
Totalitarianism refers to a political system in which all A. a democracy B. a dictatorship
authority is in the hands of the state. In a totalitarian C. an aristocracy D. a monarchy E. an oligarchy
society, all control of public and private life are in the Answer – E
hands of the government. An oligarchy is a government by a few who rule for their
own selfish interest.
1984/3 UTME
One feature of a totalitarian state is the existence of 1988/8 UTME
A. a single recognized party B. pressure groups Government by the few is
C. opposition groups D. a colonial power A. dictatorship B. monarchy C. oligarchy D. autocracy
E. fierce political rivalry Answer – C
Answer – A Oligarchy is government by the few. An oligarchy is a
Totalitarian system is usually practiced in a one-party state government ruled by a small group of powerful people.
.
2009/2010/81 (NDU, BAYELSA) 2002/12 UTME
Which of the following best described totalitarianism? Oligarchy is a form of government which
A. extreme decentralization B. excessive centralization of A. disregards the views of the minority
power C. devolution of power D. delegation of power B. enhances the electoral chances of the minority
Answer – B C. protects the interest of the common people
Excessive centralization of power is the best description of D. enhances the interest of the ruling few
totalitarian state. Answer – D
Oligarchy is a form of government that places political
2006/14 (OAU, IFE) power in the hands of a few people. It is a small group of
A totalitarian state is based on people having control of a country or organization.
A. multi-party system B. total protection of civic rights
C. to totality of the state processes 2010/4 UTME
D. coercion as the instrument of government A form of oligarchy in which gifted people are at the helm
Answer – D of affairs is
A totalitarian state is based on coercion as the instrument A. aristocracy B. theocracy C. plutocracy D. gerontocracy
of government. Coercion is the practice of persuading Answer – A
someone to do something by using force or threats. Aristocracy is the highest class in certain societies,
typically comprising people of noble birth holding
2019/2020/10 ( UI, IBADAN) hereditary titles and offices. It is a form of government in
Authoritarianism is not necessarily a feature of which power is held by the nobility.
A. democracy B. monarchy C. fascism D. military rule
Answer – A 1986/1 UTME
Authoritarianism is not necessarily a feature of democracy. Aristocracy is the system of government in which the few
rule
1993/9 UTME A. their own benefits B. the benefit of all
Nazism as a doctrine was purposed by C. the benefit of their friends
A. Benito Mussolini B. Adolf Hitler C. Karl Marx D. Josef D. the benefit of a few
Stalin Answer – B
Answer – B Aristocracy means the rule (governing) of the few (i.e. the
Nazism as a doctrine was propounded by Adolf Hitler of morally and intellectually superior). In the interest of all.
Germany who lived between 1889 – 1945.
2009/39 UTME
2017/2018/89 (DELSU, ABRAKA) A form of government in which the nobles rule for the
Government by the wealthy is known as benefits of all is
A. plutocracy B. oligarchy C. aristocracy D. democracy A. monarchy B. gerontocracy C. aristocracy D. plutocracy
Answer – A Answer – C
Government by the wealthy is known as plutocracy. Aristocracy is the government in which the nobles rule for
Plutocracy is a government or state in which the wealthy the benefit of all.
class rules.

60
2020/33 UTME REVISION EXERCISES
According to Aristotle, a form of government in which the 1. Government by the few for the interest of the few is
few rule for the benefit of all is known as
A. diarchy B. aristocracy C. autocracy D. polyarchy A. monarchy B. dictatorship
Answer – B C. autocracy D. oligarchy
Aristocracy, according not Aristotle is a form of 2. Which of these is a common feature of totalitarian
government in which the few rule for the benefits of all. It regimes?
is a form of government in which power is vested in a A. existence of opposition groups
minority consisting of those believed to be best qualified. B. competing political parties
C. a single recognized party
2015/31 UTME D. freedom of association
A form of government in which the sovereign power to rule 3. In Fascism the leaders is
in a small number of people considered as the best A. supreme B. democratic C. rich D. religious
qualified to rule is 4. The economic basis of feudalism is
A. autocracy B. theocracy C. gerontocracy D. aristocracy A. agriculture B. capital C. trade D. slavery
Answer – D 5. Private ownership of the means of production is central to
Aristocracy is a form of government in which the A. capitalism B. communism C. fascism
sovereign power to rule in a small number of people D. feudalism
considered as the best qualified to rule. An aristocrat has a 6. The development of classless society is the goal of
noble personality which made him to have a quality to rule A. maxism B. feudalism
with his royal attributes. C. liberalism D. conservation
7. In a socialist economy, private accumulation of wealth is
2015/38 UTME A. limited B. encouraged
Aristocracy is described as a form of government in which C. prohibited D. regulated
A. popular citizen rule B. the clergy rule 8. A feature of communalism is that
C. few citizens rule D. best citizens rule A. ownership of land is vested in the community
Answer – D B. a land owner can employ landless men
Aristocracy is government by the best and most qualified C. landless men have no privileges as citizens
people in the state or by those seen as superior citizens to D. sovereignty is identified with landed property
whom people look upon for leadership. It is government 9. Explain communalism.
by the privilege few i.e., the nobility. 10. State any six features of communalism.
11. Communalism is African oriented: discuss
2017/2 UTME 12. What is socialism? State any three merits and demerits
Which of the following is a merit of aristocracy? of socialism.
A. leaders must have military experience 13. What are the main differences between socialism and
B. the best citizens is in control of government communism?
C. organized few control the government 14. Mention any eight (8) characteristics of communism.
D. majority control the government 15. Discuss capitalism. Mention and explain five features.
Answer – B 16. Write short notes on the following:
The main merit of aristocracy is that the best citizen is in (i) Feudalism (ii) Mixed economy
control of government. (iii) Fascism (iv) Totalitarianism
(v) Theocracy
2015/2016/67 (NDU, BAYELSA) 17. Explain plutocracy.
The rule of the privilege nobility is referred to as 18. Define aristocracy.
A. plutocracy B. monarchy C. aristocracy D. autocracy 19. a) What is Capitalism?
Answer – C b) Give five differences between Capitalism and
The rule of the privileged nobility is referred to as Socialism.
aristocracy.

2019/2020/59 (UNIZIK, AWKA)

The form of government by the wealthy and elderly
respected are
A. aristocracy and gerontocracy
B. gerontocracy and plutocracy
C. gerontocracy and aristocracy
D. plutocracy and gerontocracy
Answer – D
The form government by the wealthy and elderly respected
are plutocracy and gerontocracy

61
2005/15 Neco
Chapter Five A unitary system of government is most suitable for a
A. highly religious country
TYPES AND CHARACTERISTICS OF B. country with a lot of mineral deposits
C. small homogenous country
GOVERNMENT D. highly populated country
Answer
UNITARY SYSTEM OF GOVERNMENT A unitary system of government is most suitable for a small
A unitary state is a state governed as a single power in homogenous country. Homogenous country is a state
which the central government is ultimately supreme. The where there are no sharp differences in language, religion,
central government may create administrative divisions. political belief, exposure, etc. (C)
Such units exercise only the powers that the central
government chooses to delegate. Infact, the constitution of 2008/8 Neco Exercise 5.1
the unitary government has succeeded in depositing all the In a unitary state, sovereignty resides in the
powers of the governance with the central government. A. political parties B. provincial government
Examples of unitary states: Britain, France, Italy, Kenya, C. central government D. pressure group
Gambia, Sierra Leone, etc. 2018/20 Neco Exercise 5.2
A country with homogenous societies and small population
1990/29 Nov is suitable for the establishment
In a unitary system of government A. a nation state B. a unitary state
A. parliament is very weak C. a federal state D. an autonomous state
B. there is high degree of decentralization
C. political power is diffused
D. there is high degree of centralization Features of Unitary System of Government
Answer A unitary system of government manifests the following
A unitary system of government is a system where there is characteristics.
high degree of centralization. In this form of government 1. No conflict of authority: There is no conflict of authority
powers are not shared between the central government and in unitary system of government, since the central
other component units. (D) government has all the powers.
2. Concentration of power at the centre (Central
1993/17 Authority): All the powers and authorities of the state are
In a unitary system of government concentrated in the hands of the central government.
A. there is usually one party system 3. Small country: Unitary system of government is best
B. there is no constitutional division of power among the practiced in a relatively small country where the
different levels of government government has representatives from every ethnic group in
C. two party system is the most suitable for an equitable the society.
distribution of power 4. Best practiced in a homogenous state: Unitary system is
D. there is always order and discipline also best practiced where there are no sharp differences in
Answer religion, language, political belief and culture of the entire
In a unitary system of government, there is no population.
constitutional division of power among the levels of 5. Delegation of functions: Since the central government has
government. In this respect, the central government can all the powers, it can delegate powers and functions to
delegate powers to the component units or subordinate other component units.
institutions created by it, such as local authorities. (B) 6. Parliamentary supremacy: There is parliamentary
supremacy in unitary system of government, since they
1994/9 have only one chamber of parliament. Britain is a good
A unitary system of government can ensure cohesion example of unitary government.
because it 7. Flexibility: The unitary system of government operates a
A. provides for understanding harmonious living constitution which is flexible.
B. sets up unity schools 8. Strong central government: The system has strong central
C. concentrates political power in single level of government government, since all the powers are vested on the central
D. equips the police force government.
Answer 9. Power to modify the constitution: The central government
The constitution of the unitary government has succeeded may have the power to modify the constitution in the same
in depositing all the powers of the governance with the process used to pass laws. The central government is still
central government. (C) the only source from which power flows to the component.
10. No constitutional division of power: The regions/states
lack the power to make laws on their own. Laws are made
for the whole state by the central parliament whom full
power has been vested upon by the constitution.
11. The system has unicameral legislature.

62
2019/7 Neco 9. Adequate support to the government: This form of
One of the following is a characteristic of a unitary government is suitable and adopted where the people
government. can give adequate support to the sole authority.
A. heterogeneous society B. homogenous society 10. National constitutions: Encouragement of national
C. communal society D. feudal society consciousness and cohesion is another added reason
Answer for the adoption of a unitary state.
The main characteristic of a unitary government is
Advantages of a Unitary State
homogenous in nature. The unitary state is small to manage
1. Less cost: The cost of running a unitary government is
and there are no duplications of functions. (D)
relatively lower than the federal government. It avoids
duplication of political institutions, which may likely
1996/9
be expensive to operate.
Which of the following is an important feature of a unitary
2. Quick decisions are made: Quick action is taken in the
constitution?
area of decision making and execution. The central
A. revolutionary power B. concentration of power
government alone takes decision as they need not to
C. deconcentration of power
consult any other authority before taking decisions.
D. decentralization of power
3. Flexible constitution: The method of amending
Answer – B
(changing) the constitution is relatively cheap and easy
An important feature is the concentration of power.
because the constitution is flexible in nature. This is an
advantage of unitary system of government as it aids
NB: Decentralization involves the transfer of
quick political and economic advancement.
responsibility and authority from the central government
4. Stronger and stable government: A unitary state is
to the provincial level of government, the local level of
stronger and more than the federal system of
government or both. (B)
government.
5. Promotion of national unity: Absence of tribalism,
1991/50 Exercise 5.3
sectionalism or statism associated with federalism
Centralisation of power is a basic feature of a
promotes unity in the country practicing unitary
A. federal government B. unitary government
system of government.
C. presidential government D. parliamentary government
6. No conflict of authority: There can be no conflict of
authority or confusion regarding responsibility for
1997/14 Exercise 5.4
work to be performed, since the central government
One of the features of a unitary state is that
has all the powers.
A. a two party system is usually entrenched in the
7. Few personnel in government: In a unitary system of
constitution
government not too many officials are in government. This
B. members of parliament are selected
is because their functions are not duplicated like the federal
C. power is shared among all levels of government
system.
D. the constitution is flexible
8. No double loyalty: The citizens show loyalty to only one
government, which is the central government.
9. Simple to Operate: This system of government is very
Reasons for the Adoption of a Unitary State
simple to operate and less cumbersome because it does not
1. Homogenous factor: It is best practiced in a state
require too much financial and manpower, unlike the
where there are no sharp differences in language,
flamboyant federalism.
religion, political belief, exposure etc.
10. Removes friction between governmental tiers: The
2. Small country: Unitary system is easy and best
frictions that usually exist between the central government
adopted and used in a relatively small state.
and regional or state government are removed by
3. Control and accountability factor: Accountability and
unitarism.
control can be initiated in a unitary state because it
involves a single authority, hence one of the reasons Disadvantages of a Unitary State
for the adoption of a unitary state. 1. Encouragement of Dictatorship: A unitary system
4. For coherent and efficient administration: The facilitates the development of a central bureaucracy. Over–
central government can efficiently prevent waste and centralisation of power. This may breed a tendency
duplication both in human and material resources. towards dictatorship.
5. Limited human and natural resources: These are some 2. The Central Government is over-burdened: The
of the reasons for the adoption of a unitary state. central government is overloaded with too much problems
6. Absence of tribal grouping: Since there are no marked as a result of concentration of all governmental powers in
differences in tribes, unitary system is adopted because one single authority.
no tribes will every think of dominating others. 3. Prevention of Local Autonomy: A unitary system tends
7. Lack of marked economic inequality: In a unitary to repress local initiative and authority. This therefore,
state, there is lack of economic inequalities among hampers their effective political participation.
different section of the country. 4. Government is kept far away from the people:
8. Management of functions: The central government Unlike federalism, Unitarianism places government
can adequately manage functions and at the same time far away from the people especially those in interior
monitor effectively functions delegated to other parts of the country.
components units.
63
5. Small and homogenous state: Unitary system of 2019/17 NABTEB Exercise 5.7
government is only suitable for countries with small In a unitary state all governmental power are vested on the
sizes not for countries with large population, wide A. president B. national government
geographical areas, diverse language, culture, etc. C. influential individual D. legislature
6. The issue of minority: The minority could be
oppressed and dominated by the majority tribes. 2011/11 UTME Exercise 5.8
7. Centre of decision-making: The centre of decision- Which of the following countries is a unitary state?
making is very far from the area of implementation. A. United States of America B. Ghana C. Nigeria D. India
8. Is prone to political instability: Unitarianism if
adopted in a multi-ethnic and multi-lingual country,
will lead to political instability because of the FEDERAL SYSTEM OF GOVERNMENT
dissatisfaction it causes. The origin of federalism dates back to the Greek times. Modern
9. Poor representation in government: The system federalism owes its origin to the works of Jean Bodin, Hugo
does not encourage wider representation of the people Grotius and others. They saw federalism as a voluntary
in the government of their country. association of independent authorities, with the aim of
10. Unemployment: Unitary system of government achieving some set objectives. However, the American
because of its non-division of powers and duplication constitution of 1787 gave a new dimension to the definition of
of offices, does not create more employment federalism.
opportunities like the federal system of government.
A federal system of government is a system whereby there is
constitutional division of power among the three tiers/levels of
1998/15
government (federal, state and local government). In a federal
A state is said to be unitary if it
state, the federal which is also known as central government
A. has a rigid constitution
represents the country in certain matters, especially defence,
B. is organized under a single government
external affairs, currency, national revenue, etc.
C. handed by a prime minister
D. is under military rule
In a federal system, every state and local government has its
Answer
own government. However, state and local governments are
A state is described as a unitary government when it is
still subordinate to the central government. Federal system of
organized under a single government. (B)
government is administratively controlled by the executive,
legislature and judiciary. The executive implement and
1995/11 Nov
formulate policies, legislature makes laws and the judiciary
Which of the following is a feature of unitary states?
interprets the laws.
A. powers are constitutionally shared among the three
levels of government Federal system of government is a system of 3 x 3 meaning
B. powers are decentralized there are divisions of powers among the federal, state and local
C. democracy is not fully practiced government. There are three organs of government based on
D. the state is governed as a unit by a powerful central the constitutional administrative of the state; executive,
government legislature and judiciary.
Answer
Unitary state is governed as a unit by a powerful central 2018/24 Neco
government. (D) A federal government is a form of
A. decentralization B. centralization
2015/22 UTME C. confederation D. revolution
Under the unitary arrangement, the centre is vested with Answer
A. limited power over the constituent units A federal system is a system whereby there are
B. equal power with the constituent units constitutions/divisions (decentralization) of powers among
C. insignificant power D. absolute power the three tiers/levels of government. Federal, state and
Answer – D local government. (A)
Under the unitary arrangement of government, the centre
is vested with absolute power 1997/47
Under a federal government, a citizen living in any part of
1996/17 Nov Exercise 5.5 the country is expected to obey laws made by the
In a unitary system of government, power is derived from A. federal government only
A. a rigid constitution B. the judiciary B. federal and local government
C. the executive head of state C. local government only
D. the unicameral legislature D. federal, state and local governments
Answer
2005/16 Nov Exercise 5.6 Under a federal government, a citizen living in any part of
A unitary government is more convenient in a the country is expected to obey laws made by the federal,
A. multi religious society B. homogenous society state and local government. A rule made by federal, state
C. heterogeneous society D. sectarian society or local government, the citizens has their general duty to
obey the laws made because they are democratically
decided. (D)
64
1989/33 Exercise 5.9 2022/6 Neco Exercise 5.11
Which of the following countries does not operate a federalThe essence of defining relationship between the centre
constitution? and the constituent units in a federal democracy is to
A. USA B. Canada C. Nigeria D. France A. avoid administrative conflicts B. diffuse political
powers C. ensure superiority of the centre
2012/20 Neco Exercise 5.10 D. erode the powers of the centre
In a federal system of government, the powers of state E. guarantee political autonomy
governments are subordinate to
A. the regional constitutions 2008/21 Exercise 5.12
B. the supreme body of state laws Residual powers in a federation are exercised by
C. acts of the parliament at the centre D. provincial laws A. federal government B. federal and state government
C. state government D. federal and local government

How Powers and Functions or Duties are shared

between the Tiers of Government in a Federation 1998/10 Exercise 5.13
In a federal system of government, the constitution shares Concurrent list in a federal constitution contains issues
political power into the exclusive list, concurrent list and within the legislative powers of the
residual list. A. army and local government
B. federal; and local councils
1. Exclusive list: Only the central government can C. police and the legislative
legislate on items on the legislative list. They include D. federal and state governments
defense, currency, police, visa, etc.
2. Concurrent list: Items in this list can be legislated on 2019/5 NABTEB Exercise 5.14
by both the central and state governments. Items on Which of the following is not among the legislative lists in
this list include education, agriculture, transport, a federal state?
housing, etc. In case of conflict in discharging these A. exclusive B. defence C. concurrent D. residual
duties, the power of the federal government reigns
supreme.
3. Residual list: This is the leftover power not included Features of Federal System of Government
in either the exclusive or the concurrent list. In Nigeria 1. Existence of two or more levels of government:
federalism, local governments can legislate on these There are two or more levels of government which
items. Items on this list includes customs and tradition, share the powers of government in a federation. Most
licensing of liquor and vehicles, etc. federal sates have both federal and state governments
whereas many other countries has three levels of
government (federal, state and local).
2010/21 Neco 2. Central government is supreme: In a federal state,
The exclusive list in federalism includes all the following the federal (central) government is supreme in matters
except that are of common interest (such as the printing of
A. defence B. foreign relations C. currency money, foreign affairs and defence) while the state or
D. transportation regional government has control on matters that are of
Answer particular importance to it as a unit (e.g. sanitation or
The executive lists include many duties, defence, foreign chieftaincy affairs).
affairs/relations, currency–coin money/printing but 3. Component units are not sovereign: The component
transportation is not the duty of exclusive list. (D) units bear different names in different countries. They
are called ‘states’ in Nigeria and the USA; ‘cantons’ in
1999/19 Neco Switzerland, ‘provinces’ in Canada and ‘laender’ in
In federations, concurrent list of powers is usually given to the Germany. One thing that is common to them is that
A. federal government B. regional units they are not sovereign.
C. central authority and regional units 4. Supremacy of the constitution: The constitution in a
D. regional units and local authorities federal state is supreme.
Answer 5. The Supreme Court: The federal system always has
Concurrent powers are powers that are shaded by both the a ‘Supreme Court’ to interpret the constitution and
state and the federal government. These powers maybe decides on any conflict between the centre and the
exercised simultaneously within the same territory and the constituent units.
relation to the state body of citizens. When there are 6. Written constitution: The constitution is always
conflicts between the federal and state, the power or laws written. As a written document, it specifies the powers
of the federal supersede that of the state. (C) of the central and state governments, the limitations on
their power and the fundamental human rights of the
citizens.
7. Rigid constitution: A federal government usually has
a rigid constitution. This is to make it difficult for any
government to tamper with the constitution without the
concurrence of the other levels of government.
65
8. Rigid amendment procedures: The procedures for 2018/23 Neco
making and amending the constitution are usually Which of the following alternatives is a feature of a
tedious and cumbersome. federation?
9. Secession is illegal: Secession of any component state A. unwritten constitution B. unicameral legislature
is not permitted although the 1936 Constitution of the C. supremacy of the constitution D. right to succeed
former USSR made provision for the autonomous Answer
Republics to break away but none of them could dare The following are features of a federal system of
to do it till the 1990’s because the punishment was government; it has written constitution, rigid constitution,
severe. division of power by the constitution among the three
10. Bicameral legislature: The legislature is usually tiers/levels of government, the constitution is supreme, rule
bicameral. That is, it comprises two houses, namely, of law etc. (C)
first the upper house in which all the states are
represented on equal basis and second, the lower
house, where representation is based on population. 1994/11 Exercise 5.15
11. Control of citizens by several governments: Each In which of the following systems of government is
citizen in a federal state is subject to at least two decentralization a common feature?
governments, namely the federal and state A. unitary government B. confederal government
governments. In some countries, it is subject to control C. socialist government D. federal government
by three different governments, namely, federal, state
and local governments. This poses a serious problem 2001/16 Nov Exercise 5.16
for the allegiance of the citizens to the nation-state. One of the essential features of a federation is that it has a
12. Difficulty in determining jurisdiction of A. unicameral legislature B. bicameral legislature
government: It is not always easy to determine the C. centralized legislature D. one party system
jurisdiction of the different governments. This is
because the constitution which is usually a product of
compromises is sometimes ambiguous, contradictory Reasons for the Adoption of a Federal System of
or vague. Government
13. Federal government differs from Federal 1. Geographical proximity: If the component units
Constitution: It is possible to have a federal making up the system are very near geographically e.g.
constitution in a country and yet not have a federal states or regions, etc., a federal system can emerge.
government in practice. That is, a constitution may be 2. Size of the country: Large size geographical territory
federal in form but unitary in fact. and population are some of the reasons that give rise
to the establishment or adoption of federalism.
3. Minority Protection: The minorities in the country
2010/20 Neco may have the fear of being dominated by the majority
Which of the following is a feature of federalism? group, federalism protect the interest of the minority.
A. unwritten constitution B. flexible constitution 4. Security Purposes: Some countries adopts federalism
C. unitary constitution D. written constitution in order to possess military might or power to face a
Answer common external enemy.
Federal system of government has a written constitution as 5. Tribal difference: The recognition of the diversities in
a feature. The constitution is also rigid to amend. (Rigid culture, religious beliefs and languages, e.g. Nigeria
means difficult or it has to pass through constitutional may allow for the adoption of a federal system.
amendment procedures). (D) 6. Common historical background: Historical or
colonial experience may have imposed federal system
2014/10 Neco of government on the state. For example, Britain
A characteristics of a federal system of government is that imposed a federal system on Nigeria by dividing the
power is territory into regions and ruled them separately.
A. shared between the central and unit government 7. Right Human Resources: Availability of natural and
B. shared between the component units of government human resources required to operate federal system of
C. held by the national government government is a major reason for its adoption.
D. held by the state government 8. Economic factor: The federating units may desire to
Answer pull resources together for socio-economic
In Federalism, the powers are derived between the federal development.
and the provincial government. There is no uniform 9. Desire for union: Desire for union by the federating
method for the distribution of powers. The general and the units is another reason.
basic principle is that matters of local importance are given 10. To create more employment opportunities: Another
to the provinces/state and that of national importance to the reason given for the adoption of federal system is to
federal government. (A) create more employment opportunities through the
division of powers and the duplication of offices.

66
1998/9 3. Decision making process: Opportunities are created
One of the reasons why states form a federation is to for more people to take part in the decision making
A. make the governing of a small nation easy process of their country.
B. keep the residual powers 4. Integration of different groups: A federal system of
C. cater for local differences government brings together different ethnic groups
D. be able to take quick decisions within a system. Federalism blends unity within
Answer different groups.
Federation brings the people together so that local 5. Special judiciary: In a federation, there are
differences in the country among the ethnic groups can be possibilities of constitutional disputes arising between
catered for. There are three major tribes in Nigeria namely: the federal (centre) and the units or between one unit
Hausa, Igbo and Yoruba. But besides these three major and another. All these disputes are to be adjudicated in
tribes, there are over 350 other smaller tribes which diverse the light of the constitution. For this purpose a special
languages and dialects. (C) judiciary with wide powers is established unlike other
system of government.
2001/30 Neco 6. Political Stability: A federal system of government
Countries adopt federal system of government because of enhances political stability as power is shared amongst
A. uneven development B. adoption of a state religion the various tiers of government hence removing
C. fear of domination of minorities dissatisfaction in governance.
D. the availability of limited resources 7. Employment opportunities: Since functions are
Answer duplicated, employment opportunities are created for
In a federal system of government, most countries adopted more people to be employed in the system.
the system because of uneven development in the regions 8. Reduction of work load: The burden of the federal
and local government. (A) government is reduced because of separation of power
process in federal system of government.
2013/19 9. Supremacy of the constitution: The supremacy of the
Which of the following is a factor in the formation of a constitution in a federal system makes for adherence to
federation? democratic principles, rule of law and respect for
A. desire for a union B. absence of a common enemy fundamental rights of humans.
C small population D. geographical incontiguity 10. Federalism brings government closer: Government is
Answer – (A) brought closer to the people and it increases the sense of
The following are the five essential conditions precedent belonging and participation. Government programme
to the formation of a federation. and activities are made more relevant to the people
1. Desire for union. 11. Division of labour: Division of functions has made it
2. Geographical contiguity. possible for matters of local interest to be allocated to
3. Community of language, culture, economic, interests the state or local government.
and religion. 12. Innovation in law and policy is encouraged: By
4. Equality of units. allowing for many state governments, different sets of
5. Political ability policies can be tried, and the ones found most effective
at solving its problems can then be implemented in
other states, or on the national level.
Merits of Federal System of Government 13. Checks and balances: The division of powers instead
The following are the advantages of federal system of of concentrating all of them in one single authority.
government. The powers of administration in a federal system, are
1. A better understanding of local issues and demands: divided between the centre (federal) and the units. The
The central government has no true way to understand power may be distributed in two different ways. Either
what issues, demands and changes need to be made in the constitution states what powers the federal
every area of the country. This is why federalism is authority shall have, and leaves the remainder to the
such a great advantage. The small branches of the local federating units, or it states what powers the federating
governments are right in the middle of the local unit shall possess and leaves the remainder to the
society. They are better suited to deal with the true federal authority. The remainder is generally known as
things that need to be changed. residuary powers.
2. As a protection against tyranny: One of the most 14. Increasing citizen participation: By not centralizing
important points of federalism in dividing the power all power into the hands of a national government, but
between the national government and state sharing that power with state governments, which are
governments, and spreading the national government’s closer to the level of the common citizen, our founders
power among three branches and serves as a check and actually increased a citizen’s ability to affect their
balance on each other, is that it serves as a deterrent to government policy and law making.
tyranny and runaway power. The protection we have
in our system against a tyrannical, runaway
government are one of the most important points to
why the system was designed the way it was.

67
1992/24 9. Duplication of functions: Functions at the federal
One of the importance of federalism is that system of government are duplicated, which affects
A. any component part can succeed at anytime productivity of the citizens.
B. each state can develop at its own pace 10. The blockage of nationalist policies by states: States
C. citizens cannot be taxed by both state and federal can fight against the existence of certain national laws
government by challenging them in court, or going out of their way
D. each state can spend money collected to it by the centre to not enforce those national laws, or even deliberately
Answer obstructing enforcement of national laws.
Federalism is important because it works by granting some 11. No uniformity in administration: The autonomy
measures of autonomy and defined independence to political granted to the units, creates imbalances and differences
sub units of the nation. A federal system of government is in the area of administration of a federal system.
especially useful for nations with major diversity of its people 12. Encourages secession: The fear of domination among
by such things as language or ethnicity. (D) the various ethnic groups and other defects of
federalism leads to the threat of secession.
2008/19 Exercise 5.17
An advantage of a federal system of government is that it 13. The problem of federal character: Appointments into
A. promotes even economic development federal establishments are not always based on merit.
B. facilitates quick successions The various ethnic groups must be considered in the
C. is less expensive to operate allocation of appointments. This remains a problem in
D. encourages unity in diversity the Nigerian federalism.
14. The minorities are always afraid that the majority
Demerits of a Federal System of Government would dominate them to the extent that issues of
1. Conflict of Authority: The biggest problem that arises national importance are affected.
when you have two bodies of government in power is the 15. Ethnic disharmony: There could be distrust among the
power struggle. Both central and state government intend various ethnic groups in the federal system. This can affect
to assert their power over the other which at times causes the unity and cooperation that exists in the country.
conflict between them. Even the long term conflict
between the central and state government can create FEDERAL CHARACTER PRINCIPLE
hurdles which slow down national development and The federal Character principle is nothing but an official
prosperity. term for ethnic, religious and regional balance in resource
2. Regionalism over patriotism: Individuals prefers to be allocation, ministerial and other appointments in
more loyal to their states and this affect national unity. government and enrolment of students in schools. It is a
3. Costly to run: Large number of state ministries, pro unity measure which has become affirmative action in
parastatals and personnel are needed at the federal, state the country.
and local government. So it is very expensive to run The federal character principle is meant to promote
federal system of government. policies that will ensure equity as affirmed by Section 14
4. Lack of accountability: With the responsibility of the (3) and (4) of the amended 1999 constitution. Since its
government being shared, it becomes very easy for one establishment, the federal character principle will solve all
sector to release responsibility for the other and vice problems of inequalities, the fear of domination, and the
versa. This can become a very large problem because if marginalisation of state/ethnic groups.
something goes wrong, both sides of the government can
relinquish control for the responsibility. Factors that determine the introduction of the federal
5. Inequalities between states: The federal form of character
government allows for regional inequalities between These includes:
different states. For example, instead of education 1. Religious diversity, economic resources, education,
funding throughout the country being the same, since it ethnic size and values, etc.
is a state issue, some states will spend more, per capital 2. Uneven development in the four geopolitical zones of
on education than other states, causing what could be Nigeria.
considered a disparity. The same goes for other things, as 3. Gross discrimination on the basis of religion,
well, such as taxes, healthcare programs, and welfare education, ethnicity etc.
programs which increase inequality amongst the 4. Fear of Domination by the majority ethnical groups.
different states. 5. Ethnical Minority Marginalisation
6. Rigid constitution: Federal constitutions are usually 6. National Unity Threat
rigid. This means that the constitution cannot be easily
amended to reflect the changing time. The factors militating against the proper practice of federal
7. Uneven development: Federalism accommodates the character include the following
freedom of each unit to develop at its own pace which 1. Political interference and manipulations by the
leads to uneven development. bourgeois ruling class.
8. Weak central government: The central government in a 2. Ethnicity
federation tends to be weak in spite of more powers 3. Nepotism
allocated to it in the constitution. This is as a result of 4. Favoritism
many other areas of powers which are divided when 5. Institutional factors and state politics (statism)
compared with unitary government. This weak centre
jeopardizes the country’s foreign policy.
68
2000/8 Neco 1995/14 Nov
A federal state is always expensive to run because Which of the following is supreme in a federal system? The
A. every parliamentarian wants to become rich A. Judiciary B. Executive C. Legislature
B. government departments are duplicated D. Constitution
C. judges are highly paid from the consolidated funds Answer
D. maintenance of the army involves high expenditure The constitution of the federal system of government is
Answer very supreme and everybody in the state should be under
Duplication and overlap of functions by the system makes and respect the law. (D)
it very expensive to run. The system operates federal, state
and local government levels. (B) 2007/19 (OAU,IFE) Exercise 5.18
In a federal system
2001/29 Neco A. the centre is weak B. plurality is abnormal
When there is a second chamber in a federal state, it C. there is nothing like autonomous units
A. makes up for the imbalance in the representation in the D. there is unity in diversity
lower house
1983/16 UTME Exercise 5.19
B. ensures that the judiciary is independent of the
Which of the following countries does NOT operated a
executive
federal constitution?
C. reduces the power of the electorate
A. USA B. Canada C. Nigeria D. France E. Switzerland
D. alone makes laws for the country
Answer 2017/30 UTME Exercise 5.20
In federal system, as Ron Watts has observed, second Both federal and state government derive power from the
chambers have two additional functions. They act as a A. residual list B. concurrent list
device to check the power of majoritarian elements that C. exclusive list D. regional list
might otherwise dominate the governmental process and
secondly, it makes up for the imbalance in the 2018/2019/5 (UI,IBADAN) Exercise 5.20
representation in the lower house. (A) Residual list is meant for the
A. central government B. state government
1992/13 C. component units D. federal and state government
Which of the following is not a prerequisite for the
adoption of the federal system of government?
A. size B. population C. diversify D. unity Presidential System of Government
Answer The presidential system of government is the form of
Unity is not a prerequisite for the adoption of the federal government in which the president is the chief executive and
system of government. The only absolutely necessary is elected directly by the people. In the system, all the three
prerequisites for a federal form of government are organs are the executive, legislative and judiciary.
relatively extensive jurisdiction. (D) Presidential system is the type of political organization in
which the president is the Head of State and the Head of
2000/24 Neco Government. The president forms his government by
If the federal government and the unitary governments are selecting the members of his cabinet either within or outside
to preserve their autonomy, the autonomy his political party.
A. federal government must be supreme
B. unitary governments must be supreme This system was invented by Americans to provide an
C. judiciary must be supreme alternative to the parliamentary form of government. It
D. constitution must be supreme became known as “presidential” because the directly
Answer elected president is most salient different. This system has
The federal government and its component units have to two chambers of legislature (House of Representatives and
preserve their autonomy, by maintaining the supremacy of Senates in Nigeria). Examples of countries that practice the
the constitution. (D) presidential system of government are: Nigeria, Ghana,
Kenya, Liberia, the United States, etc.
2000/33 Neco
The Nigerian federal legislature is called the 2018/22 Neco
A. senate B. congress C. national assembly In the presidential system of government, the chief
D. House of assembly executive is responsible to the
Answer A. judiciary B. monarch C. electorate D. senate
In Nigeria the federal legislature is called the national Answer
assembly. The legislative system in Nigeria is bicameral In the presidential system of government, the executive is
legislature, it is a system where the legislative have two elected and is not responsible to the legislature, which cannot
chambers; it is called the upper (senate) and lower (House in normal circumstances dismiss it. Such dismissal is
of Representatives) and the two Houses are called the possible, however, in common cases, often through
National Assembly. (C) impeachment. The president is responsible to the electorate
who elected him into office. Unlike the parliamentary system
where the head of state is accountable to the parliament, who
elected him/her into office. (C)
69
1998/12 Nov 6. Political Party Leader: The president is largely
The executive, in the presidential system is composed of responsible for dictating the legislative agenda of his
the president and the political party.
A. judges B. legislators C. doctors 7. International Conferences: As the executive head, he
D. ministers E. press represents the country at important international
Answer conferences, e.g. U.N, A.U etc.
The executive arm of government in presidential system 8. Foreign Policy Objectives: The president controls and
consists of the president, ministers, vice president, the approves the formulation and execution of foreign
inspector general of police, etc. (D) policies.
9. Maintenance of law and order: As the head of the
2003/15 executive arm of government, the president sees to the
Which of the following statements about the presidential enforcement of law and order in the country.
system is false? 10. State of Emergency: The president declares a state of
A. the constitution is supreme emergency in his country, if the security collapses as a
B. existence of official opposition result of failure in maintaining law and order or war
C. the president is popularly elected outbreak.
D. ministers are members of parliament 11. Appointment of the chief Justice: The president
Answer appoints the chief justice of the federation and justices
In the presidential system of government, the ministers are of the Supreme Court.
not members of the parliament. The ministers are under the 12. Prerogative of Mercy: The president under the
executive organ of government; they make policies and prerogative of mercy has the constitutional right to
implement it. (D) grant pardon to those who committed offense against
the sovereign state. For instance in the second republic,
2008/20 Neco Exercise 5.21 then president of Nigeria, Alhaji Shehu Shagari granted
The executive and ceremonial powers are exercised by the unconditional pardon to Gowon and Ojukwu.
head of state in a 13. Department of government: The president controls
A. unitary system B. federal system and co-ordinates all the departments under his
C. presidential system D. confederal system government e.g. the civil service and other agencies.

2001/23 Nov Exercise 5.22 2012/2 Neco Exercise 5.23

Under the presidential system, the judiciary is What are the functions of the Head of Government in
A. part of the executive B. independent of the executive presidential system?
C. the executive D. controlled by the president
Characteristics of Presidential System of Government
1. Single Executive: In a presidential system of
Government, one of the features is the existence of a
Functions and Constitutional Powers of an Executive single executive which means that the executive arm
President of the government is headed by a single person who is
1. Head of state and government: The executive the head of state and the head of the government which
president of Nigeria is the head of state and head of means he performs both the ceremonial functions and
government of Nigeria. He is vested with the powers to the governmental functions, he is known as the
act as the chief public representative of the sovereign president.
state, Nigeria. 2. Fixed Term of Office: In a presidential system of
2. Chief policy maker: Constitutionally, only the Senate government, the president is elected for a particular
has the power to make laws in Nigeria, but the term of office, which differs in countries as each
constitution gives the president power to influence the country has a different constitution; it is usually four
Senate in its lawmaking as chief policy maker. The years (e.g. Nigeria) but it could also be five or seven in
president may ask the senate to pass new laws or veto other countries. The president is therefore elected for a
bills that they do not favour, but he believes that are constitutionally accepted fixed term in office.
needed. The elections which are held periodically cannot be
3. Commander – in – chief: A commander – in – chief is triggered by a vote of confidence or other
the person exercising supreme command authority of a parliamentary procedures, however, in some countries;
nation’s military forces, in Nigeria, the person is the there is provision for an exception which provides for
president. the express removal of the president who has broken
4. Chief Diplomat: The appointment power of the the law. The tenure of the president could be renewed
president allows him or her to appoint and receive after the fixed year but after the renewal, he would be
ambassadors around the world. let out of office.
5. Ceremonial Roles: As head of state, the president can 3. Executive accountability: The president is always
fulfill traditions established by previous presidents. For directly elected by the people (citizens), hence the
example, Independence Day celebration, armed force president drives his mandate from the people, and he
remembrance day, funds raising events etc. is accountable to them directly for his actions and in-
actions in office.

70
4. Opposition: The system does not accommodate 13. Assent: The president has the right to sign a bill into
opposition. Infact, it is not legalised in the system. law; however, this right is not a supreme right being
5. Rule of law: In a presidential system of government, that when the president refuses to sign a bill into law,
rule of law is in operation. the legislatures can execute such law by a two third
6. Supremacy of the Constitution: In a presidential majority of the executive house.
system of government, the constitution is the supreme
law of the land. Anyone who exercises his powers NB: The presidential system of government could be said
outside the constitutional mandate is deemed to be in to be one of the best system of government as it always run
contravention of the constitution. Such actions would together with the democratic system of government.
be nullified by the judiciary.
7. Bi–cameral legislatures: The parliament is bi –
cameral, that is, the Senate and the House of 2000/10 Neco
Representatives. Veto power in a presidential system lies with the
8. Executive Branch of the Government is Unipersonal: A. Attorney General B. Chief of Army Staff
The members of the presidential candidate serve at the C. Executive president D. Prime minister
command of the president and must carry out the rules Answer
of the executive and legislative branches. The Cabinet Veto power in a presidential system of government lies
ministers or executive departmental chiefs are not with the executive president. It’s the power vested on the
members of the legislature. In the presidential system president to sign a bill or reject a bill. (C)
of government, the president often needs the approval
of the legislature of the executive nominations of the 2002/15 Neco
cabinet, judiciary, and various lower governmental One of the main principles of the presidential system is the
posts. A president can generally direct the military, A. parliamentary supremacy B. separation of powers
members of the cabinet, or any officer or employee of C. creation of local government
the executive branch, but cannot dismiss the judges or D. collective responsibility
direct them. Answer
9. Checks and Balances: Another feature of the In a presidential system, the central principle is that, the
presidential system of government is the principle of legislative, executive and judicial branches of government
checks and balances. An example of checks and are separated. Though the three organs of government are
balances is the right to veto power. The president kept apart, they are also connected by the system of checks
(executives) could veto legislatives acts and actions, and balances. (B)
and in return, a great majority of the legislative arm of
government could override the veto. An instance of the 2019/19 Neco
exercise of veto power is in Nigeria, the President can Impeachment process is a unique feature of the
veto the Acts of the National Assembly, and the A. parliamentary system B. presidential system
legislature could remove or impeach and remove the C. federal system D. unitary system
Federal Judges and the President of the federation, Answer
while the judiciary can declare a law an Impeachment is the process by which a legislative body
unconstitutional law through the process of judicial levels charges against a government official. The process
review. starts by two thirds majority votes of the parliament to
10. Presidential Pardon: A feature of a presidential impeach the president when the constitutional court
system of government is presidential pardon. A decides whether the president is guilty or not. (B)
president can grant pardon to a convict who has a life
sentence, death sentence or a long sentence and this is
solely at his own discretion. Merits of Presidential System of Government
11. Separation of Power: The principle of separation of 1. Supremacy of the constitution: The constitution
power solely vests in the presidential system of guides the actions of the legislatures, the executive and
government as powers are shared between the judiciary. In this system of government, the
Executives, Legislatures, and the Judiciary. These constitution is supreme.
arms of government are separate from each other but 2. Separation of Powers: There is no collective
they see to the smooth running of the government. responsibility because of separation of power. This
The legislatures who are the law makers make sure to help prevent misuse of power since power corrupts and
make and amend the law of the state or country. The absolute power corrupts absolutely.
executives execute these laws by putting everything in 3. Check and Balances: The system allows strict
place through their different departments while the application of checks and balances to ensure good
judiciary in simple terms, punish the offenders or the governance.
law breakers. 4. Proper use of talents: It allows the use of efficient
12. Power of Appointment and Execution: Another members of the public rather than inefficient party
feature of the presidential system of government is that loyalists.
the president has the power to appoint Supreme Court 5. Effective Executive Control: The executive arm of
judges, (the highest members of the judiciary). government is free from legislative interruption, this
will promote efficiency.

71
6. Guarantee Political Stability: This is mainly as a Checks on the powers of the executive presidents
result of the constitutional provision that the president 1. Judicial review: The power of the Supreme Court to
cannot be removed from office before the end of his declare unconstitutional or illegal some of the actions
fixed term except through impeachment as a result of or activities of the president is a check on his powers.
violation of the constitutional provisions or 2. Impeachment: The president can be impeached or
circumstances of death. removed from office by the parliament if he is found
7. Fixed term of office: The president has a fixed time to to violate the provisions of the constitution.
stay in the office (4 years) for a tenure and maximum 3. Approval of appointments: The parliament has the
of (8 years) for two tenures. power to approve or reject names submitted to it by the
8. Easy apportion of blames: Weakness or failures by president for appointment as ministers, ambassadors
any of the organs of government is easily identified etc.
because powers are distinctly separated in the system. 4. Passage of bills: If the ruling party is not constitution
9. Absence of Conflict: In the presidential system of a majority in the parliament, the passage of president’s
government, the offices of the head of state and head bill will be difficult.
of government are both fused and exercised by the 5. Supremacy of the constitution: The constitution
executive president. Therefore, the possibility of defines the powers of the president and his tenure. This
conflict in the exercise of functions will not arise. is a check on his powers.
10. Encourages Democracy: All institutions that make
for democratic government are embedded in this Checks on the powers of the executive in a presidential
system. For instance, electoral institutions, system of government
independence of the judiciary etc. are always there. The various forms of check on the executive are:
11. The people are given the opportunity to elect: In a 1. Legislative forms
presidential system, the people are given the a. Annual budget: The National Assembly must
opportunity to say who should rule them as the approve the annual budget proposed by the
president. executive.
12. National Unity: It promotes national unity, especially b. Passage of bills: If the ruling party is not
in an ethnically diverse society like Nigeria. It enables constituting a majority in the parliament the
everybody to contribute his/her quota to the passage of the president’s bill will be difficult.
development of the country. This ensures national c. Power of impeachment: The president can be
unity and peaceful co-existence. impeached or removed from office by the
parliament, if found guilty of violating the
provisions of the constitution.
Demerits of Presidential System of Government d. Ratification of treaties: All treaties the president
1. Delay in the execution of programme: Separation of entered into with other countries must be ratified
powers can cause delay in the execution of some by the parliament.
government programmes. For example, the legislature e. Approval of major appointments: The
can delay the approval of the budget or names of those parliament has the power to approve or reject
nominated for ministerial, ambassadorial posts, etc. names submitted to it by the president for political
2. Impeachment process may be difficult: The appointments such as ministers, ambassadors,
difficulty in the process of impeachment could make a political advisers etc.
president to stay and abuse his office and yet complete f. Declaration of war and state of emergency: This
his term. organ also has to approve of this before actions are
3. Problems may arise between the executive and the taken.
legislature: This can result when the ruling party is not g. Veto powers: There is legislative check on the
maintaining the majority in the legislature. veto powers of the president.
4. Vetoing of bills: The president can misuse or even 2. Judicial form
abuse the powers given to him to veto bills. a. Power of Judicial review: The power of the
5. No security of tenure for ministers: Ministers can be Supreme Court to declare unconstitutional or
removed from office any time by the president. There illegal some of the actions or activities of the
is no security of tenure for them. president is a check on his powers.
6. Lobbying: This is a common feature in the system, b. The use of Habeas corpus act: This act is against
especially in the parliament and can lead to corrupt unlawful and indiscriminate arrest and detention
practices. of citizens by the law enforcement agents. Any
7. Costly to operate: There are too many duplications of person detained unlawfully, therefore, can sue the
functions both in the executive and legislature. For police and claim damages. The courts can enforce
example, there are many ministers and law makers in this.
both the houses and this makes the system costly to 3. Constitutional forms
operate. a. Term of office: The president’s stay in office is
fixed. In Nigeria’s third Republic for example, he
stay for four years as stipulated by the constitution.
b. The executive must act: The president must act
within the limits and provisions of the constitution

72
4. Public opinion (internal and external) 10. Revenue allocation: This body took part in deciding
a. The use of mass media: The opinions of the the acceptable revenue formula to be used in allocated
people about the government are expressed revenue to the different tiers of government (central,
through the mass media. Such opinions could be states and local governments)
negative or positive. Any responsible government
must act according to the opinions of the people. Parliamentary or Cabinet System of Government
Also, as members of international organizations, Parliamentary system of government is a system where by
the executive must be ready to abide by the the Head of state is different from the Head of government.
opinions expressed as well as rules governing The Head of state exercises ceremonial functions while the
these bodies etc. These are checks on the Head of government is the prime minister that exercises
executive. the function of the executive. The prime minister which is
b. The use of pressure groups: The ability of the Head of Government is also a member of parliament.
pressure groups to influence government’s The prime minister drew his entire cabinet member from
decisions politically, economically, socially etc. is the parliament, making them members of executive as well
a check on the powers of the executive. as the parliament. The prime minister is the chairman or
5. International form president over the cabinet meetings. Britain is a good
a. International treaties or agreement: Most of example of parliamentary system of government. It’s also
these treaties entered into with other countries are practiced in Canada.
a check on the executive, for example, treaty on
military co-operation with another country. He 1989/37 Nov
must always honour the agreement. A parliamentary cabinet system of government is practiced
b. Sanctions: Imposition of sanction on a country by in
the United Nations Organization (UNO) is a check A. Canada B. Nigeria
on the executive. Sanctions could take the form of C. the Soviet Union D. all European countries
economic, military, sports, etc. Answer
Canada’s parliamentary system is open and democratic;
Functions of Nigeria National Assembly or Parliament in Canada’s parliament consists of three parts: the Queen, the
Nigeria’s 4th Republic Presidential System of senate and the House of Commons. They work together to
Government (1999 – date) make the laws for the country. The executive branch
The 1999 4th Republic Constitution established a consists of the Queen, the prime minister and cabinet. (A)
bicameral legislature House of Representatives and the
Senate jointly called the National Assembly. The senate is 1991/27
composed of 109 members while the House of Parliamentary supremacy implies all the following except
Representatives has 360 members. Their tenure of office that
was fixed for four years. A. there is no legal limitation to the authority of parliament
House of Representatives has the power to elect its speaker B. the sole right of law making belongs to parliament
and deputy speaker; the senate also has the power to elect C. parliament an extend its own life
its president and deputy president. D. the power of parliament is over and above all other
powers, even that of the people
The following were the functions: Answer
1. Legislation: The major function of the Assembly was Parliamentary supremacy implies all the following except
law-making for the country. that the power of parliament is over and above all other
2. Power of investigation: It conducted investigations to powers, even that of the people (D)
ascertain how money allocated to government’s
departments were spent. 1991/51
Parliamentary government is different from presidential
3. Amendment of the constitution: They proposed and
government because
had the sole power of amending the constitution.
A. it has a flexible constitution
4. Financial control: It controlled the raising and
B. it is based on a unitary constitution
spending of money (budget).
C. of the existence of Head of Government
5. Approval of appointments: Appointments proposed
D. of the existence of ceremonial Head of state
by the Executive were approved by the Assembly. For
example, appointment of ministers, ambassadors. Answer
In the parliamentary system of government, the prime
6. National issues: The National Assembly especially
minister is the head of government while the Head of State
the senate exercised influence on national issues.
is the ceremonial leader that attends to official functions on
7. Declaration of state of emergency: Approval for the
behalf of the country. The presidential system is a system
declaration of a state of emergency or war in the
where the power of the Head of State and government is
country.
fused together in the office of the president.
8. Impeachment: It had the power to impeach or remove
the president from office, if found to have committed 2008/18 Neco Exercise 5.24
a serious offence against the state. The head of government in a parliamentary system is the
9. Creation of new states: They worked with the A. president B. governor C. prime minister
executive in matters of creating new states in the D. chancellor
country.
73
Characteristics of Parliamentary System Of Government 1997/13
1. Prime minister exists: The prime minister occupies a key A major feature of the parliamentary system of government
position. He is “first among equals”. He appoints the is that
ministers and they are answerable to him for their A. members of the executive are also members of the
individual actions. He is the chairman of the cabinet and legislature
he is responsible to the legislature for the execution of all B. the head of state is also the head of government
government policies. C. there is clear – cut separation of powers
2. Ceremonial duties: The queen or president performs D. the constitution cannot be amended
only ceremonial duties like presiding over important Answer
national ceremonies, welcoming foreign dignitaries, The majority characteristic of parliamentary system of
signing bills into laws and addressing the parliament at government is the executive cabinets are also members of
the beginning and end of parliamentary life. the legislature. The majority leader in the parliament is the
3. Principle of collective responsibility: There is the prime minister known as the head of government. (A)
principle of collective responsibility. The principle is
built on the rule that the cabinet should be united in all its 1998/16
decisions. Decisions taken at cabinet meetings are In a parliamentary system of government a vote of no
binding on all members. When a member disagrees, he confidence means expression of disapproval of
cannot publicly declare his disagreement or criticize any A. government’s general policies
government policy on the floor or the legislature. Rather B. the activities of the court of law
such a Minister may resign his ministerial appointment C. the oppositions methods of campaign
or shut. The principle assumes the oneness of the cabinet D. the activities of trade unions
on all executive policies. Answer
4. Appointment of ministers: Ministers must be chosen In a parliamentary system of government, a vote of no
from elected members of the party in power. This is done confidence means expression of disapproval of
by the Prime Minister. This allows for co-operation and government’s general policies. It is a way of not having
uniformity of ideas. confidence in the government or politically requesting the
5. Separation of powers: There is no separation of powers government and its cabinets to step aside. (A)
between the executive and the legislature. The cabinet
members are also members of the legislature. They take 2001/27 Neco
part in the drafting and passing of bills. They equally Carpet crossing is a characteristics of
execute the laws so made. A. monarchial system B. cabinet system
6. Opposition: There is an official opposition in the C. presidential system D. unitary system
legislature. The party with a majority of seats in the Answer
legislature forms the government while other parties In politic, a politician is said to cross the floor, if they
constitute the opposition. choose their party allegiance, crossing the floor may mean
7. Vote of no confidence: The Prime Minister can be changing to a second party after being elected as a member
removed through a vote of no confidence. A vote of no of a first party, or voting against the approved party lines.
confidence is passed on the Prime Minister when he is Carpet crossing is a characteristic of cabinet system of
unable to secure a majority vote in the legislature or when government. (B)
some of his government policies are rejected by the
legislature. He, therefore, resigns.
8. Tenure of office: The legislature can be dissolved before Powers and Functions of the Prime Minister
the expiration of its tenure. When a vote of no confidence The following are the powers and functions of the prime
is passed on the Prime Minister, He resigns. Members of minister.
his cabinet also resign. The Prime Minister advises the 1. He is the head of a cabinet and the leader of the
Head of State to dissolve the legislature and a general ministers in the executive branch of government.
election follows. 2. The prime minister selects and may dismiss other
9. Party discipline: There is the existence of party members of the cabinet.
discipline. By party discipline, we mean adherence to 3. The prime minister allocates posts to members within
party ideals and proposals. This is very important the government.
especially to the party in power. If this is weak, the party 4. Managing the relationship between the monarch and
in power will find it difficult to maintain a majority in the the government as a whole.
legislature. 5. Overall control of the civil service as first lord of the
10. Appointment of Prime Minister: The Prime Minister is treasury.
appointed from within the legislature (parliament) and 6. Top civil service appointment.
not directly and popularly elected by the electorate. After 7. Top appointments to many institutions of a national
a general election, the Head of State invites the leader of character.
the party that has a majority in the parliament to form the 8. The prime minister is the administrative head of the
government. The formation of government means the country.
choice of ministers and taking up the post of Prime 9. He is also the leader of the party that won the highest
Minister and performing the duties therein. number of seats in parliament.
10. He also presides over the meeting of council of
ministers and influences its decisions.
74
Functions of the Cabinet in a Parliamentary System Disadvantages of Collective Responsibility
Opposition party in a cabinet system of government is 1. The term collective responsibility does not allow a
constitutional (legal) and officially recognized. The minister or his ministry to be assessed individually.
opposition party is the party that has the second seats in the 2. A minister or his ministry cannot be singularly held
parliament. The following are their functions. responsible for any action or policy as a result of
1. Criticism: it criticizes constructively actions of the collective responsibility.
ruling party. 3. Collective responsibility encourages collective sharing
2. Watchdog: The opposition party acts as a watchdog in of blames and praises of individual members of the
areas of government policies, programmes and actions. cabinet.
3. Alive to its responsibilities: The presents of opposition 4. The term makes it difficult for the blunders of a
party in the cabinet makes the ruling party to be alive minister or a ministry to be exposed and criticized in
in carrying out their responsibilities. the parliament.
4. Corrective party: opposition party is a corrective party 5. The term collective responsibility ties the resignation
in government. or survival of a minister to the collective performance
5. Acting as a check: It checks the activities of the ruling of members of the cabinet.
party, ensuring their activities are in line with the rules 6. The term does not allow members of the parliament to
of the state. demand information about a single minister or
6. Shadow cabinet: This is a constituted by the ministry.
opposition party by forming their own executive in 7. Ministers hide behind the term collective
readiness to take over power from the ruling party, if responsibility to commit atrocities since they cannot be
the government in power fails. judged individually.

COLLECTIVE RESPONSIBILITY INDIVIDUAL RESPONSIBILITY

Collective responsibility is an attribute of parliamentary system This is a popular principle in a presidential system of
of government. Cabinet collective responsibility, also known government. A minister appointed by the president is
as togetherness or collective guilt is a concept in which individually held responsible for any decision made or taken in
individuals are responsible for other people’s action. This his department or ministry. Therefore, the minister has both
concept urges all cabinet members to publicly support all constitutional and political responsibilities for the department
governmental decisions made in cabinet, even if they do not he or she is in charge of.
privately agree with them. The president appoints a minister after the approval from the
parliament, making him or her responsible to both the president
The collective responsibility consists of two main features, and the parliaments on issues pertaining to his ministry. The
cabinet confidentiality – meetings of the cabinet are held president has the power to dismiss or remove any erring
regularly and decisions taken are not published. It would be a minister from office.
breach of law, if any minister is opposing government or
agreed policies, the member is expected to either withdraw The Differences between the Cabinet or Parliamentary
his/her utterances or resigns. The decisions of the government and the Presidential System of Government
are binding on every member. Each member must also defend Presidential system Cabinet system
such decisions in the public and in the parliament. 1 The executive The queen/president is
president is both head of state while a prime
Second feature of collective responsibility, if a minister has head of state and minister is head of
presented the government in a bad light, the parliament will government. government.
pass a vote of no confidence and all cabinet ministers must 2 The people elect the The lead of the party that
resign, and also if the prime minister as chairman of the cabinet executive president won the election is
dies or resigns, the whole members of council of members through popular appointed as the prime
must resign with him and the government automatically ceases ballot. minister.
to be in power while the Queen or president is called upon to 3 The principle of There is no separation of
formally dissolve the parliament for a fresh election. separation of powers powers in this system.
is more pronounced.
Advantages of Collective Responsibility 4 Individual Ministers are chosen by the
1. The term collective responsibility makes members of responsibility of prime minister from his
the cabinet to work as a team members of the cabinet ministers is party men in the
to work as a team and speak with one voice. applicable legislature.
2. The term which encourages a collective action makes 5 The president and The prime minister and his
for efficiency. his ministers are not ministers are part of the
3. Collective responsibility ensures stability of part of the legislature.
government. legislature.
4. It prevents buck passing or shift of blame 6 The president can be The prime minister and his
5. Collective responsibility compels the minister to be removed from office cabinet members can be
very tactful. by the legislature removed from office, if a
6. The term leads to the settlement of inter-ministerial through vote of no confidence is
disputes at the cabinet level instead of at the floor of impeachment. passed in the executive.
the parliament.
75
7 There is no official Opposition party is legally 2001/19 Nov
and legal and officially recognized. What is a confederal system of government?
recognition of Answer
opposition party. Confederation may be defined as a league of sovereign
8 There is supremacy There is parliamentary
states with a loose political arrangement in which
of the constitution. supremacy, not the
constitution. autonomous states come together to form a union. The
9 There are effective Powers are fused, so there usual coming together of member states to discuss issues
checks and balances is no checks and balances of mutual importance and to cooperate in some areas that
among the three in this system. will be of benefits to member nations. Examples of
arms or organs of confederation are UNO, AU, EU, ECOWAS, etc.
government.
10 Ministers could If prime minister is
2007/30 Neco Exercise 5.25
remain in office if removed through vote of
the president is no confidence, all his In a confederation each of the component states is
impeached. cabinet will go with him. A. military weak B. underpopulated
11 U.S.A is a good Britain is a good example C. virtually sovereign D. underdeveloped
example of a of a country operating
country operating cabinet system of 2000/8 Nov Exercise 5.26
this system. government. A confederation refers to a union of
A. two or more sovereign states with a weak centres
CONFEDERAL GOVERNMENT
Confederation is an organization of some sovereign state which B. states where power is highly centralized
join together for common defense and for other common C. states where local autonomy is not allowed
purposes. Confederation is an alliance, association or league inD. loose union where power is concentrated in the centre
which independent entities retain their distinction and Answer
sovereignty but delegate some powers and rights to a central Confederation refers to a union of two or more sovereign
body which remains sub – ordinate to the entities. A states with a weak centre. (A)
confederation is usually created by a treaty and it tends to be
established for dealing with critical issues, such as defense,
foreign relation, internal trade or currency, with the general 1992/10 Exercise 5.27
government being required to provide support for all its In a confederation, more power resides in the
members. A. component units B. president
C. central government D. prime minister
In a confederation, there is no effective and viable central
authority. Example of confederation government are the
United Nations Organisation (UNO), Africa Union (AU), Features of Confederal Government
Economy Community of West Africa State (ECOWAS), etc. 1. Confederation is a loose union of sovereign states.
2. There is effective executive authority members who
2002/21 Neco only send delegates to the centre to discuss issues of
A system of government where the component units are
stronger than the central authority is known as common interests like defence, economy, etc..
A. federalism B. confederation C. fascism 3. The members of the confederacy maintain and retain
D. feudalism their separate military establishment. There are no
Answer national armed forces at confederation level.
There is no effective and viable central authority in a 4. Members of states have separate diplomatic
confederation. Confederation is an alliance association or representations.
league in which independent entities retain their distinction and
5. Members have equal status and rights.
sovereignty but delegate some powers and rights to a central
body which remains subordinate to the entities. (B) 6. The break-away of member states from the union can
bring an end to the system.
1993/11 Nov 7. There is absence of effective central authority in
The confederal system of government is unpopular because confederation. This is because a sovereign power
A. there are no sharp differences among the component units
B. there is the problem of dual loyalty cannot be located in confederation.
C. the government is usually autocratic 8. No state is forced to become a member of the union.
D. it is too expensive Membership of the union is voluntary.
E. it does not allow for party formation 9. Sovereignty states that made up a confederal union still
Answer retain their sovereignty and identity.
The confederal system of government is unpopular because 10. The system does not have even development across the
there is the problem of dual loyalty. The component unit
countries.
respects their national identity and constitution first before
confederal rules. (B) 11. Citizens have to obey only a single government and
that is the government of their own states.
76
2000/25 Neco Merits of Confederal Government
Which of the following best describes the relationship 1. There are benefits for member states which they enjoy
between the central and the component government in a from each another, in different areas of interest.
confederation? 2. No member state was forced to become a member of
A. the central government collects revenue for component the union, since they secede at anytime.
government 3. The component states have total control over their
B. the central and component governments have equal powers internal affairs.
C. the central government legislate for the component 4. Citizens have to obey only one government that is, the
governments one of their own state.
D. the central government is weaker than the component 5. Actions of confederation are taken by member state
governments based on consensus reached or approved. Consensus
Answer means agreement.
In a confederation, the central government is weaker than 6. Equality of state among the state made up the
the component governments. The loyalty of all the confederation. No state can claim to be superior over
confederal members goes to their region (country) first. another.
When policies are conflicting between the confederal 7. There is unity among the independent states both big
government and the regions, the policies will be declared and small, rich or poor are all brought together for a
invalid or null and void by the regions. (D) common purpose, goals and interest.
8. Markets of member states are expanded to
2002/11 Neco accommodate goods and services from member state.
Autonomy of constituent units is an important feature of 9. It guards the weak states against powerful and wealthy
A. confederal government B. presidential government states.
C. unitary government D. parliamentary government
Demerits of Confederal Government
Answer 1. No effective central authority because a sovereign
Confederation is a system of some sovereign states which
power cannot be located in a confederation.
comes together for common defence and for other common
2. The right of member states to secede can destabilize
purposes. (A)
and break the union.
3. The spirit of nationality is out of question in a
2004/19 Neco confederation.
Primary loyalty of a citizen in a confederal state goes to the
4. Absence of national armed forces at confederation.
A. government at the centre B. confederal units
5. Confederation is a loose union of sovereign states.
C. the sovereign state D. assembly at the centre
6. Citizens have to obey only one government and that is
Answer their own state government.
The primary loyalty of a citizen in a confederal state goes to
7. Member state maintains separate diplomatic
the sovereign state (country). (C)
representations, interest and opinion on global issues
may differ.
2013/18 Neco
Which of the following is a feature of a confederation? 2012/21 Neco
A. it has a rigid constitution An advantage of confederation over a federation is that, the
B. the central government is stronger than the component component units
units A. have the right to secede B. share resources equally
C. there is a legal right of succession C. are politically D. cooperate fully with the centre
D. there is no provision for a state constitution Answer
Answer A confederation advantage is that the component units
There is legal right of cession. Meaning there is right for have the right to secede. Secede means to withdraw
any state or component units to cede or break away in a formally from membership of confederation/political or
confederation. (C) religious organisation. While under federating system, the
component units which are the states in a country, cannot
2011/33 Neco Exercise 5.28 breakaway. (A)
Which of the following is not a characteristic of
confederation? 1996/12
A. the right to secede is allowed Which of the following is a disadvantage of confederation?
B. sovereignty resides in the centre A. the central government is too far from the people
C. the centre and units agree before taking decisions B. the central authority is vested with too much power
D. autonomous units are more powerful than the centre C. the primary loyalty of the citizen is to the central
government
D. it encourages secession
2001/1b Nov Exercise 5.29 Answer
Highlight the features of a confederal system of Confederation encourages secession, any state can join or
government. leave at anytime. If they cannot withstand the policies of the
union. There are different confederation in the world today
e.g. AU, ECOWAS, EU, World Bank, Commonwealth,
UNO, etc. (D)
77
2018/21 Neco Exercise 5.30 MONARCHY
Which of the following factors usually leads to the collapse Monarchy is a form of government with a monarch at the head.
of a confederal state? A monarch is a hereditary ruler (someone who inherits their
A. weak central government office) who is the head of state. Monarchs usually rule until
B. absence of a confederal parliament they die or pass down the crown to their generation (children).
C. ill – equipped and forces When a monarch resigns it is called abdication. Monarchy is
D. absence of a ceremonial head of state the system or form of government, a monarch is the king or
queen, ruler of a kingdom or empire.

The difference between Federal System and Confederation The term monarchy is derived from the Greek world
Federal Confederation Monsarkhein meaning one ruler. Example of monarchy
1. It has a strong centre The centre is not strong government is Britain, Denmark which are actually governed
but weak by parliament.
2. The centre is more The states (countries)
powerful than the made up the
component units, e.g. confederation, the states
state government. are powerful than the
centre.
3. The constitution is There is no constitution,
supreme written and but if any, it is flexible.
rigid.
4. The central government Component countries,
controls the armed still maintain their
forces. separate military.
5. The component units There is light for any
which are the states in a state to secede or break
country, cannot break away.
away.
6. Powers are shared There is power sharing.
between the centre and
other component units.
7. It is a stable political The system is fragile and
system. not stable.
8. Component units are Component states are
autonomous but still sovereign and
Queen Elizabeth II of England (1926 – 2022)
subordinate to the centre. independent of the
centre. Characteristics of Monarchy
1. The government of the country is in the hands of a
Similarities between Federal and Confederal king, emperor or queen.
Government 2. Monarchy is an age long form of government
1. In both federal and confederal, the citizens may owe 3. No constitutional limitations in some form of
more allegiance to the state government than to the monarchy especially absolute.
general government i.e. citizen’s allegiance to 4. Check and balances exist in some form of monarchy
parochial institution is a marked feature of both as seen in constitutional monarchy.
systems of government. 5. A monarch could be despotic and not ready for change.
2. The systems of government are both expensive to 6. Monarch is a natural institution where obedience to the
operate. king is seen as obedience to God.
3. There may be unhealthy competition and rivalry 7. Time of emergencies: Monarchy could be adopted to
between the member states. make for emergencies, a monarch need not consult
4. Power is shared in both cases between the general and anybody before necessary decisions are taken.
state government.
5. The two systems of government are set up to achieve 2009/25 Neco
certain pre-determined common objectives such as A monarchy refers to
common security. A. getting political office by election
6. The constitutions of the federal and confederal B. capturing political office by force
governments are usually written. C. selection into office by a council of state
7. The states in both confederal and federal are mainly D. hereditary right to a political office
heterogeneous. Answer
Monarchy is a form of government, which a family is called
dynasty, embodies the country’s national identity and one of its
members inherits the throne called king or queen. Monarchy
refers to the hereditary right to a political office. (D)

78
2019/2bi NABTEB 1995/10 Nov
What is monarchy? A good example of a constitutional monarch is
Answer A. the pre-colonial Emir of Gwandu
Monarchy may be defined as a type of government by one B. the Obi of Onitsha
individual. This individual may be a king, queen or C. Emperor Haile Selassie of Ethiopia
emperor. The essence of monarchy is the personification D. Queen Elizabeth II of England
E. King Khaled of Saudi Arabia
of the majesty and sovereignty of the state in an individual.
Answer
2009/20 Neco Exercise 5.31 The Queen Elizabeth II of England. She is a good example
The type of government that is headed by a king or queen of constitutional monarch. (D)
is called NB: King Charles III succeeded as the monarch of
A. monarchial B. federal C. presidential England, after the demise of his mother, Her Majesty,
D. republican Queen Elizabeth II on 8th September, 2022 at Balmoral
Castle, Scotland.
Forms of Monarchy 2019/8 Exercise 5.32
There are two forms of monarchy The two types of monarchy are
1. Constitutional monarchy. A. parliamentary and institutional
2. Absolute monarchy B. absolute and constitutional
C. military and traditional
Constitutional Monarchy D. democracy and constitutional
Constitutional monarchy is a monarchy system of
government where power is regulated by the constitution. 2002/14 Nov
The monarch can only operate those laws which are agreed A constitutional monarch is a ruler whose powers are
to by the elected parliament. The king or queen is bound to A. limited B. divine C. legitimate D. absolute
respect not only the letters of the constitution but also the Answer
laws of the state. It’s also inherited from one generation to Constitutional monarch simply means that the monarch’s
another. Britain is a good example of a constitutional power is limited by the constitution. (A)
monarchy. This simply means that the monarch’s power is
limited by the constitution. ABSOLUTE MONARCHY
Absolute monarchy is a form of monarchy, where there is
Features of Constitutional Monarchy no established constitutional authority to check the king’s
The following are some of the characteristics of a power. The King or Queen has unlimited power to operate.
constitutional monarchy: The king rules as the Head of government and Head of
1. The monarch is a ceremonial figure: He is the head of state. Example are Fredrick the Great of Russia (1743–
the executive, legislature and judiciary. He does not 1786), Louis XIV of France (1643–1715), etc. The throne
actually perform the functions of the organs of is also hereditary for the royal family from one generation
government, but they are performed on his behalf. He to another.
reigns but does not rule.
2. The positions of monarch are hereditary as it passes
from King to the eldest son or eldest daughter.
3. In a constitutional monarchy, there is a Prime Minister
who is the head of government.
4. The powers of the monarch are stated in the
constitution. As a result, opposition to the performance
of his duties is never witnessed.

2003/13
In a constitutional monarchy, the Head of state performs
mainly
A. executive functions B. judicial functions
C. administrative functions D. ceremonial functions
Answer
In a constitutional monarchy, the head of state performs
mainly the ceremonial functions on behalf of the state. The
monarch is seen as the father (king) or mother (queen) of
the nation. (D)

Frederick The Great of Russia (1743 – 1786)

79
2016/20 Neco
One of the features of an absolute monarch is that the ruler
A. is elected by the electorate
B. has a definite tenure of office
C. is elected by the representative of the people
D. wields the supreme power in a state
Answer
Absolute monarchy is a system when there is no
established constitution authority to check the king’s
power. The King or Queen rules as the Head of
government and Head of state. (D)

2005/3a Nov
Define an absolute monarchy
Answer
Absolute monarchy occurs when there is no established
constitution authority to check the king’s power. The king
or queen has unlimited power to operate.

2004/9 Exercise 5.33

Rule by divine right is a feature of
A. the republican system B. the federal state
C. absolute monarchy D. democracy

2010/17 Neco Exercise 5.34

Louis XIV of France (1643 – 1715) A good example of an absolute monarch is
A. Adolf Hitler of Germany
Features of Absolute Monarchy B. Benito Mussolini of Italy
1. The monarch has firm control over all the organs of C. Haile Selassie of Ethiopia
government. He has direct control over the legislature, D. Margaret Thatcher of Britain
executive and judiciary. He uses these institutions to
his advantage. He has the final say in the appointment
and removal of the officials of these institutions. Merit of Monarchy
2. The monarch is above the law. He can do whatever he The following are some advantages of monarchial system
likes without any challenge from any quarters. He is of government.
not answerable to anybody or even to the constitution 1. Monarchy is a natural institution, obedience to a king
of the country. is as natural as the obedience of a child to its parent. In
3. Some of the members of the legislature are appointed monarchy, the state is seen as an extension of the
while others inherit their membership. Elections are family, the king or queen being the father or mother
most times ruled out in the membership of the and the people his or her children.
legislature. 2. Monarchy is best adopted to deal with emergencies,
4. The monarch is not elected but appointed. He comes to for the monarch need not consult others before
power through hereditary right. When he dies the deciding on the necessary action.
rulership passes from the king or queen to the next 3. It motivates unity and orderliness in the society.
prince or princess. 4. The king or queen in some circumstances may serve as
5. The head of government, the monarch cannot be the protector of the people at large from the tyranny of
removed through any legal process like vote of no the few.
confidence or impeachment. He rules until he dies. 5. Where a hereditary kingship has been in existence for
Although, rare, he could be removed through a violent a considerable time, it is unwise and unnecessary to be
process like coup d’état or revolution. abolishing it. Democratic elements can be
incorporated into the system.
2001/5 Demerits of Monarchy
Which of the following best describes an absolute The following are the disadvantages of monarchy
monarch? He 1. The line of succession in a monarchy is not always
A. wields the supreme power in a state beneficial: Because a monarchy clearly defines the
B. is elected by an electoral college line of succession, it is possible for children to be
C. is elected by the electorate named as the head of state.
D. has a fixed tenure of office 2. There is little that can be done to stop a monarch’s
Answer power: In the traditional sense of a monarchy, the head
Absolute monarch is a form of monarchy, where there is of state has absolute control over the government.
no established constitutional authority to check the king’s They can decree something and it becomes law. If the
power. i.e. the monarch wields supreme power in the state monarch decides to become oppressive or violent,
(A) there is little the people can do about it.
80
3. No popular participation: Most monarchial 5. There are limitations to Limitations in power is
governments do not encourage popular participation of the exercise of power only available in
the people in government. Most of the members of the by the political leaders. constitutional
legislature are either appointed or by heredity as only monarchy.
a few could be elected. There is no fixed tenure of 6. Leaders observe and The absolute monarch
office of the monarch. He rules for life. abide to the provision power is absolute
4. No separation of power: The system does not support of the constitution. without limitations
the separation of powers and checks and balances. The while the constitutional
powers of the organs of government are under the monarch abides with
control of the monarch. When there is no separation of the constitution in day
powers, abuse of power occurs. Again, there will be no to day running of the
accountability on the part of the government to the system.
people. Abuse of power may occur. 7. There is popular Secessions to some
election; succession to political offices is
REPUBLICANISM different political through appointment.
A republican form of government can be defined as a offices is through
sovereign state headed by a president, elected for a fixed popular elections.
term of office. Republicanism is a political ideology in 8. It is democratic and There is respect for the
opposition of monarchy and tyranny. Republicans hold there is respect for the application of the rule of
that a political system must be founded upon the rule of rule of law. law because it’s not
law, the rights of individuals and the sovereignty of the democratic.
people. Examples of republican countries are the United
States, France, Ghana, etc. 2022/5 Neco
A state where sovereignty resides with the people can be
Features of Republicanism described as _____ society
1. Republic includes civic virtue of the citizen. A. a militarized B. a monarchical C. a republican
2. The power of government is held by the people. D. a totalitarian E. an autocratic
3. The people give power to leaders they elect to Answer
represent them and serve their interest. Republicanism is a political ideology in opposition of
4. The representatives are responsible for helping all the monarchy and tyranny where sovereignty resides with the
people in the country, not just a few individual. people (C)
5. Republicans system conducted periodical election.
6. Republicans hold that a political system must be 2019/24 Neco
founded upon the rule of law, the rights of individuals, A system of government in which governmental positions
and the sovereignty of the people. are acquired through popular elections is known as
7. In a republican system of government, elections are A. fascism B. confederation C. monarchy
held on the basis of universal adult suffrage. This D. republicanism
means all qualified adult voters are allowed to cast Answer
their ballots. Republicanism is referred to the ideology embraced by
8. In a republican system of government, the constitution members of a republic, which is a form of representational
is the supreme law of the land. Any other law found to government in which leaders are elected for a specific period
be in consistent with any provision of the constitution by the citizenry and law are passed. (D)
can be challenged in the court of law. If proven, such
law is declared null and void. 2009/19 Neco
A system of government in which the head of state is
The Differences between Republican and Monarchy elected for a fixed term of office is known as
System of Government A. republican B. monarchial C. confederal
Republicanism Monarchy D. federal
1. Head of state is the The monarch king or Answer
president. queen, president or A republican form of government can be defined as a
emperor is the Head of sovereign state headed by a president, elected for a fixed
state. term of office. (A)
2. He is popularly elected No election, leadership
by the people. is by hereditary. 2009/22 Neco
3. The president stays in The monarch does not Which of the following systems of government is more
office for a fixed term. have a fixed term. responsive to public opinion?
4. Elected representatives Representatives in A. oligarchy B. republican C. plutocracy
are accountable to the government are mostly D. monarchy
people. appointed and therefore Answer
are responsible or A republic guarantees a certain set of basic civic rights to
accountable to the every citizen, codified in a character or constitution, which
people. cannot be over ridden by majority rule. (B)

81
1993/2 Nov Exercise 5.35 2. Dictatorship: In military administration or government, all
Explain the republican form of government and state its rules and decisions are dictated to the people. All the
essential characteristics administrations are done by decrees; military government
is undemocratic in nature. Military rule give rise to
2005/18 Nov Exercise 5.36 dictatorship because of excess power wielded by the
In the republican system of government, the president is military governors or heads of state. Military dictatorship
the involves one man dictating what happens to everyone
A. prime minister B. representative of the monarchy under his rule, due to excess power being wielded by the
C. commander – in – chief of the armed forces head of state or military governor.
D. Head of parliament 3. Absence of separation of powers: In military rule, there is
always the absence of separation of powers because the
military combines the powers of the Legislature and the
MILITARY GOVERNMENT Executive together.
4. Imposition of military laws: One of the major
characteristics of military rule is the imposition of military
laws (Decrees and Edicts) on the country. This is usually
so because the military controls every institution of the
state when they are in power
5. Absence of democracy: In a military government, there is
usually no democracy. This is because the basic features
of democracy are not in line with dictatorship or
imposition of laws, which is usually the case in a military
government.
One of the essentials of democracy is the separation of
powers between the pillars of democracy (i.e. the
executive, legislature and the judiciary). But this is not so
during military rule. In most cases, the military will
combine the legislative and the executive arms of the
government and perform the functions of the arms of
government together. This is why the military is able to
make laws and execute the same law by themselves.
6. Absence of rule of law: Since the military can suspend or
modify all the laws of the country at any time and at its
Military parade of a Nigerian Head of State Gen. Sani Abacha convenience, there is no rule of law. Rule of law according
(1943 – 1998) to A.V Dicey is the Supremacy of the Law and Authority
The term Military is referred to as the armed forces comprising of the state over everybody in a political system.
the Army (Land), the Navy (sea troops) and the Air force (air In other words, whenever there is the rule of law, the law
troops). Military government is generally and forms of must be Supreme. Accordingly, nobody or authority can
government that is administered by military forces. A military alter the law at anytime without a unanimous agreement
regime is a system of government in which the military holds by everyone in the country.
the power of the state without being elected by the electorate. Actually, this is not so in military rule because, the head of
Military government is a dictatorship form of government, they the military government have the power and capacity to
take over or overthrow by coup, they uses decree not make any law or amend any law at any time. Conversely,
constitution. there is no rule of law in a military government.
th 7. Coups and counter coups: Military rule is contagious in
Nigeria, experienced her first coup on the 15 of January, 1966 nature. This is because if colonels in one country stage a
by Major Chukwuma Nzeogwu, Egypt also had her first coup in order to seize political power, colonels in another
experience of coup in 1952 when Colonel Abdel Nasser took country may be aspired also to carry out their own coups.
over power. Togo was the first country to experience coup in Coup simply means the overthrow of incumbent
West Africa in 1963 and in 1966, Kwame Nkrumah of Ghana government by the military. Coup and counter coups are
was also removed from power. common in Africa region. The most recent coup that
Features of Military Government happened in Africa is the overthrown of Mugabe, the
The followings are the features/characteristics of military President of Zimbabwe, by the military. Though the army
system of government: denied it was coup, but in all real sense it was a coup
because they succeeded in removing the sitting president.
1. Suspension of the constitution: Military government rules 8. Absence of election: During military rule, there is usually
by decrees instead of following the constitutional order. no periodic election in the country because even the law
Meanwhile, military administration is characterized by that provides for periodic elections is also suspended by
absence of rule of law, equality before the law and the military. The military officials are not elected as in the
fundamental human rights. During military regime the democratic system of government. Therefore, they are not
constitution of the country will be under halt, the army elected as such and are not representative of the people.
takes over the administration of the country and governs This means that in military rule, there is no existence of
with might and decree. political parties and the head of any military government
82
has the power to remain in his position as long as he wants. 2005/34 Neco Exercise 5.37
His decisions will be unquestionable and his office cannot Military governments are likely to be
be taken away from him except when there is another A. democratic B. civilized C. dictatorial
military body that comes and take over the power D. accountable
forcefully. In military rule, the people are not properly
represented unlike the civilian rule where electorate elects 1991/43 Exercise 5.38
their leader through election process. Military government usually lacks political
9. Trial of civilian officials: When army comes into power A. authority B. power C. legitimacy
through military coup d’état, one of its duties is to try the D. sovereignty
former politicians or former leaders especially the corrupt
government officials. The aim of these trials is for the
military to recover every looted fund from corrupt Reasons for Military Intervention in Government
politicians. Those who are found guilty of abuse of human Military intervention refers to the situation where the
right may be sentenced to prison for a duration of time. military moves out of their barracks and takes over
10. Abuse of human right: The abuse of human natural right political power from the civilian governments of the day.
is common with military regime. Brutality, torture and Normally, this is done through a coup d’état.
abuse of rights are one of the characteristics of military
rule. The army is known by use of “force” and “operations The following are reasons for military intervention.
obey the last order”, to handle the civilian population. The 1. Unhealthy rivalry among the major tribes. The
human right organization; Amnesty International has politicians of the day if accused by the military of
made series report against the Nigeria military over the engaging in tribal politics could lead to military
abuse of human right in the course of carrying out their intervention. For example in Nigeria, the political
official duty. Military system of government is the worst practice of the time was based on ethnicity, so that each
type of government, due to the abuse of fundamental of the major political parties was jostling for
human right, suspension of the constitution. Leadership by supremacy.
decree, coup d’état, dictatorship, absence of government, 2. Politicization of the army: Another cause of the
trial of civilian officers. military intervention is the politicisation of the army.
11. Practices OF hierarchical and centralised system of The army could be so politicized that one’s promotion
government: In trying to lead the whole country from the will no longer based on one’s experience,
center, the military usually adopt a system that is more qualification, skills and training.
centralised in nature in which there is no power sharing 3. Tribalism and Favouritism: Military overthrow the
between the central government and its component units. civilian government, when they notice high rate of
tribalism and favouritism in the society.
4. Nationalism: In some states, the army is identified
1990/35 Nov with nationalism, the protection of the general interests
Military regimes are regarded as an abnormality because and embodiments of the values of order and efficiency.
they 5. Economic Mismanagement: Mismanagement of fund
A. are unnecessarily harsh on the people can lead to military intervention.
B. lack legitimacy C. have the knowledge of politics 6. External Influence: Foreign complicity cannot be rule
D. are always corrupt out in military intervention.
E. appoint any military men as ministers 7. Bad government: Bad leadership style can lead to
Answer military intervention.
Military regime are regarded as an abnormality because 8. Regional difference: This may be so acute as to
they lack legitimacy, it is a system where the military precipitate crises leading to direct assumption of
forces themselves on people (civilians). The right of the power.
citizens were denied, they ruled by decree not constitution.
(B) Reasons why people reject Military Rule in West Africa
1. Suspension of the constitution: It allows the
fundamental human rights to be abused, through the
2004/46 Neco suspension of the constitution.
The organs of government which are normally fused in a 2. Primary Function: By the training of the Armed
military regime are the Forces, they are not meant to rule. Its primary function
A. civil service and the judiciary is to protect the state from external attacks.
B. legislature and the executive 3. No Opposition: It curtails the freedom of expression
C. executive and the civil service and the press as every opposition or even contrary
D. judiciary and the legislature views are crushed.
Answer 4. Military rule: Is characterized by corruption,
Legislature and executive are the organs of government tribalism, sectionalism, nepotism, etc.
which are fused in a military regime as the supreme 5. Is undemocratic: Military government is
military council. They will make their decrees and undemocratic and unconstitutional. It comes in by
implement it. (B) force of arms.

83
6. No accountability under military rule: There is no 2022/5 Neco
accountability to the people because the people did not Explain six reasons why democratic government is more
elect them in the first place. popular than military administration.
7. Arbitrary alterations of boundaries: In the process Answer
of state and local government creation, military rule 1. In a democratic government the constitution is held
often brings confusion in the country through arbitrary supreme whereas for the military administration the
alterations of boundaries. constitution is suspended.
8. It frustrates: Military rule frustrates all efforts at
establishing democratic government. 2. In a democratic government there is no collective
9. It is autocratic: Military rule is autocratic e.g. ruling responsibility because of separation of power. For the
by Decrees and Edicts. military administration, there is absence of separation
10. Sectional Rivalry: It usually leads to personality of powers because the military combines the powers of
conflicts and sectional rivalry within the armed forces. the Legislature and the Executive together.
11. Establishment of tribunals: The system undermines
the judicial power because of the establishment of 3. A democratic system of government allows strict
tribunals. application of checks and balances to ensure good
governance. This is usually absent in a military regime.
CAUSES OF THE FIRST MILITARY
INTERVENTION IN NIGERIA O-POLITICS 4. In a democratic system of government, the fixed term
1. Electoral Crisis: The Western Regional Electoral of office enshrined in the constitution guarantees
Crisis of 1965. political stability. The military government has no
2. General Electoral Crisis of 1964: The General fixed tenure, coups and counter coups is very much
Electoral Crisis of 1964 between the Nigerian National prevalent in the disposition of an incumbent
Alliance (NNA) and United Progressive Grand government.
Alliance (UPGA).
3. Inter-tribal Politics: The Inter-tribal Politics among 5. A democratic government promotes national unity,
the three major tribes Hausa-Fulani; Igbo and Yoruba. especially in an ethnically diverse society like Nigeria,
4. Census Crisis: The Census Crisis of 1962/63 was one this is not true for a military administration as it is
of the causes of the first military intervention in characterized by corruption, tribalism, sectionalism,
Nigerian politics. nepotism, etc.
5. Political Power: The inordinate ambition of the
military to taste political power. 6. In a democratic government, the citizenry and mass
6. Conflicts: There was inter and intra-party conflicts. media has a right or freedom of expression while the
7. Politicisation of the army: E.g. involvement of the military administration curtails the freedom of
army in the Western Region Crisis and the Tiv riots of expression and the press as every opposition or even
1964. contrary views are crushed.
8. Influence of the other groups in Africa: E.g. Egypt,
Togo and Central African Republic. 2005/33 Neco
9. Economic Mismanagement: There was economic The main cause of military intervention in government in
mismanagement by the politicians. West Africa was
10. Corruption, Nepotism/Sectionalism: Were rampant A. that soldiers wanted to form their own political parties
in the public service. B. the breakdown of democratic institutions
C. the need to grant the request of the colonial government
2022/58 Neco D. the soldiers wanted to take part in democracy
A. confederal B. federal C. parliamentary Answer
D. presidential E. republican The main cause of military intervention in government in
Answer West Africa was the breakdown of democratic institutions
This term ‘collective responsibility’ is most applicable in a leading to corruption, tribalism, nepotism, etc. The military
parliamentary system of government. (C). felt the need to stop such. (B)

2022/11 Neco 1993/48

In a federal democracy, any action of the executive that One of the ways to keep the military out of politics
contravenes the constitution is declared ____ by the court. A. imprison coup plotters B. execute coup plotters
A. abrogated B. arbitrary C. illegal C. crush military regime D. stop election rigging
D. inconsequential E. null and void Answer
Answer Military can be kept out of politics when the civilian
In federal democracy. Any action of the executive that government learned to do their things appropriately, by not
contravenes the constitution is declared null and void by rigging elections, allowing the choice of the people
the court (E) (electorate) to count well during and after general
elections. Avoid violence, influence of god–fatherism and
money bagging in our politics. (D)

84
1999/44 Neco 2003/16 Neco
The best way to keep military out of politics in developing In a unitary system of government, power is derived from
countries is to A. the judiciary B. the executive council
A. pay soldiers better salaries C. the constitution D. source of authority
B. imprison coup plotters C. outlaw coup planning Answer
D. ensure good governance In a unitary system of government, power is derived from
Answer source of authority which is the legislature. The prime minister
The only way to keep the military out of our politics in and his cabinet members are all legislatures. (D)
developing countries is by ensuring good governance.
Good governance means that processes and institutions 2013/15 Neco
produce results that meet the needs of a society, while In a unitary state, governmental powers are concentrated as the
making the best use of resources at their disposal. When A. component units B. local level
our leaders governed well, the military cannot penetrate the C. centre D. regions
government easily. (D) Answer
In the unitary state, governmental powers are vested at the
1991/48 central that’s centre. (C)
Which of the following best describes the system of
1985/11 UTME
government in Nigeria between 1922 and 1953?
In a unitary system of government
A. confederal B. federal C. unitary D. republican
A. political power is diffused
Answer
B. there is a high degree of centralization
Unitary system of government was the system of
C. there is no separation of powers
government in Nigeria between 1922 and 1953. (C)
D. parliament is very weak
1992/23 E. legislative powers cannot be delegated to local councils
Which of the following describes the term collective Answer – B
responsibility? In a unitary system of government, there is a high degree of
A. ministers are responsible to parliament centralization. A unitary state is a state governed as a single
B. the prime minister is responsible to parliament entity in which the central government is ultimately supreme.
C. permanent secretaries are responsible to parliament
D. cabinet minister jointly share praises and blames 2004/32 UTME
Answer In a unitary state, power is concentrated in the
There is collective responsibility in the unitary system of A. local governments B. constituent units of the state
government, the cabinet members and also the legislature C. major ethnic groups D. national government
members. (C) Answer – D
In a unitary state, power is concentrated in the national
2001/21 Neco government. A unitary system of government may be defined
A system in which one level of government exercises an as one is which all governmental powers are concentrated in
overwhelming authority over other can best be described as the hands of the single authority or central government.
A. confederal B. parliamentary C. unitary
D. presidential 1979/11 UTME
Answer The queen can do no wrong means
A unitary system of government is the type of government, A. the queen is above the law
where the government exercises an overwhelming B. the queen acts on the advice of her ministers on matters of
authority over other component units. The central public policy
government can delegate powers to the component units or C. the Queen is the effective centre of power in the United
subordinate institutions created by it, such as local Kingdom
government authorities. (C) D. the Queen has the loyalty of a vast number of the British
population
2002/27 Neco E. the Queen is intelligent and therefore can distinguish
In a unitary state, local authorities derives their powers
between right and wrong
from the
Answer – A
A. judiciary B. electorate
The queen can do no wrong means the Queen is above the law.
C. elected councilors D. legislature
This simply imply sovereign immunity or crown immunity.
Answer
Powers in the unitary states are vested at the central
1985/25 UTME
government, the legislature delegates authorities to the
Ceremonial and executive powers are usually fused in a
local government. (D)
A. unitary system of government
2019/17 NABTEB B. federal government
In unitary states, all governmental power are vested on the C. democratic system of government
A. president B. national government D. presidential system of government
C. influential individuals D. legislature E. parliamentary system of government
Answer Answer – D
In unitary system, all governmental powers are vested at Ceremonial and executive powers are usually fused in a
the central which is the national government. (B) presidential system of government.
85
2019/2020/60 (UNIZIK, AWKA) 1998/41
All are unitary state except one A recurrent problem of Nigerian federalism is
A. Ghana B. France C. Israel D. Germany A. national awareness B. acculturation
Answer – D C. assimilation D. dual citizenship E. national unity
Germany is a federal state, composed of 16 regions (Lander). Answer
The federal structure of 1949 was designed by representatives National unity is the problem of Nigeria federalism because of
of the already existing Lander in the parliamentarian council our diversity in nature. (E)
under Western Allied Supervision.
1989/2
1990/3 Nov What is a federal state? What are the problems usually
Why do some West African countries adopt the unitary associated with a federal system of government?
system of government while others do not? Answer
1. Tribal differences: Unitary system of government is best A federation also known as a federal state is a political entity
practiced in a country where people are homogenous in characterized by a union of partially self-governing provinces,
character and there are no sharp differences in religion, states or other regions under a central federal government
race, language, etc. (federalism). A federal government is a system of dividing up
2. Size of the country: Unitary system is best practiced in a power between a central national government, local, and state
small country. governments that are all connected to one another by the
3. No fear of domination: Unitary system has no different national government. Examples of the federal state include the
sections and their political power is at the central United States, India, Brazil, Mexico, Russia, Canada,
government, no domination by any tribe they have the Switzerland, Argentina, Nigeria, Australia, etc.
same language.
4. Loyalty to the central government: Unitary system works 2000/32 Neco
in a country where all the citizens show loyalty to the The powers allocated to the central government in a federation
central government. contained in the
5. Common language and culture: These factors can give A. central legislative list B. exclusive legislative list
reasons for the adoption of unitary system but most C. residual legislative list D. concurrent legislative list
African countries are diversifying in nature.
Answer
6. Absence of minority in the unitary system of government.
Exclusive legislative list is the list on which matters over the
2014/11 Neco federal authority and legislature are enumerated. This means
In a federal system of government, education and health are that only the central or federal government can legislate on the
examples of subjects in the exclusive list. Interference of the regional or
A. separation of powers B. reserved powers
state governments on matters in the exclusive list can be
C. concurrent powers D. exclusive powers
Answer declared null and void. (B)
Education and health are under concurrent list stipulated by the
2001/32 Neco
constitution. The education is secondary schools, territory
institutions and health sector i.e. general hospitals, federal In Nigeria, the concurrent list of powers belongs to the
medical centres and teaching hospitals. (C) A. local authority
B. executive, legislature and judiciary
2015/14 Neco C. federal and state government
In a federal system of government, the power shared between
D. state and local government
the central and state government is known as
A. legislative power B. executive power Answer
C. concurrent power D. judicial power The concurrent list of power belongs to the federal and state
Answer government, but the federal government decision supersedes
The concurrent legislative list is a function under the legislative the state. (C)
list that are to be exercised by both the central (federal) and
state governments. In case of conflict experienced in the course 2007/33 Neco
of exercising their functions, the powers of the central The executive list in a federal state includes
government will supersede that of the state government. (C) A. education B. market C. defence D. transportation

1998/16 Answer
A system where at least two levels of government derive their Exclusive powers are those powers reserved to the federal
powers from the constitution is called government. Only the federal government can conduct foreign
A. unitary B. cabinet C. federal D. presidential affairs, declare war, coin money, the right to maintain armed
Answer forces. The exclusive powers also include the right to levy
Federal system of government is the mixed or compound mode tariffs on imports and exports. The right to requisite trade
of government, combining a general government with state and
between states and among countries. The right to establish and
local government where there are a decentralization power and
autonomy of governance to the regional or federated states that maintain the postal system. (C)
share sovereignty with the federal government. (C)

86
2009/2010/38 (NDU, BAYELSA) 1986/10 UTME
All federal system of government have An important advantage of creating more constituent units in a
A. flexible constitutions B. industrialized economics federal state is to
C. written constitutions D. four layers of government A. enhance the people’s participation in government
E. heads of states who are also heads of government B. enable ambitious politicians gain political power
Answer – C C. make the state gain more power
All federal system of government have written constitution, D. curb the powers of the federal government
which makes the constitution to be rigid and reliable. Answer – A
An important advantage of creating more constituent units in a
1982/3 UTME federal state is to enhance the people’s participation in
In a federal system, powers that are allocated to both government.
central and state governments are called
A. exclusive B. concurrent C. arbitrary 1987/17 UTME
D. copyrights E. residual In a federal system of government.
Answer – B A. the central government shares powers equally with the state
In a federal system, powers that are allocated to both government
central and state governments are called concurrent. B. all the states of the federalism are equal in size and
Concurrent powers are powers that are shared by both the population
state and the federal government. These powers may be C. state courts control federal courts
exercised simultaneously within the same territory and in D. the central government has exclusive power over defence
relation to the same body of citizens. and foreign affairs
Answer – D
1982/24 UTME In a federal system of government, the central government has
A federal system of government is one is which exclusive power over defence and foreign affairs.
A. power is concentrated in the hands of one of the
government 1999/2 UTME
B. subordinate units of government exercise sovereign In a federal system of government, the centre is
power A. superior to the other components
C. the state governors can sue the central government B. inferior to the other components
D. powers is shared between the central government and C. equal to the other components
local government D. of unlimited jurisdiction
E. power is shared between the central and state Answer – A
governments In a federal system of government, the centre is superior to the
Answer – E other components. The federal government is the centre of a
A federal system of government is one is which power is federal system while state and local governments are the
shared between the central, state and component component units.
governments.
2010//10 UTME
The upper house in most federal system is created to
2007/2008/89 (UNIZIK,AWKA) A. ensure equality of federating units
In a federal state, powers are shared B. prevent excesses of the executive
A. between the central government and local government C. oversee and chock of the lower house
B. between the centre and other co-ordinate units of the D. enable experienced elders make inputs to governance
state Answer – A
C. among the major regions of the country The upper house in most federal system is created to ensure
D. among the federal ministers equality of federating units. The upper house in Nigeria
E. equally among the ethnic groups in the country federating system is called senate, the senate comprises of 106
Answer – B members, three members from each state because, and there
In a federal state, powers are shared between the centre and are three constituencies in each state. The federal capital
other co-ordinate units of the state. territory has a senator too.

1986/7 UTME 2011/37 UTME

The federal constitution which concedes to the component The component units of the Nigerian federation comprise
unit’s right to secede is that of A. federal, state, local government and federal capital territory
A. the United States B. Australia B. federal capital, territory, national assembly, Supreme Court
C. Brazil D. the Soviet Union and civil service
Answer – B C. national assembly, military, police and civil service
The Australia Federal constitution concedes to the D. constituency, ward, emirate and chiefdom
component unit’s right to secede. Answer – A
The component units of the Nigerian federation comprises of
federal, state, local government and federal territory.

87
2018/2019/4 (UI,IBADAN) 1988/14 UTME
Which of these items found in the concurrent list One of the important advantages of federalism is that
A. education and aviation B. health and currency A. Any component state can secede at anytime
C. aviation and defence D. health and agriculture B. each state can develop at its own pace
Answer – D C. each state can only spend money collected to it by the
Health and agriculture were the items found under the centre
concurrent legislative list. D. citizens cannot be taxed by both state and federal
governments
2017/30 UTME Answer – B
In a federal constitution, legislative powers that are shared by
One of the important advantages of federalism is that each
two levels of government are referred as
state can develop at its own pace. Allocation from the
A. exclusive B. extraordinary C. residual D. concurrent
federal government are given to states, based on the land-
Answer – D
mass, population and federal revenue generated from the
Concurrent is the federal legislative list that shares powers
state. While they uses the local income generated to
between two levels of government (the federal and state).
develop the state, some states are mega e.g. Lagos, Kano,
2015/2016/52 (NDU, BAYELSA) Abuja, Kaduna, Port-Harcourt, Abia etc. generates more
Impeachment as instrument of check on the executive is useful income and they develop faster than other small
mainly in a developing states i.e. Yobe, Nasarawa, etc.
A. federal system B. cabinet system C. unitary system
D. presidential system E. republican system 1994/34 UTME
Answer – A One major constraint on the smooth operation of
Impeachment as instrument of check on the executive is useful federalism in Nigeria is the
main in a federal system of government. Impeachment is the A. lack of an acceptable revenue allocation formula
process by which a legislative body or other legally constituted B. inability to conduct a successful census
tribunal initiates charges against a public official for C. high cost of administration
misconduct. D. frequent change of government
Answer – A
2014/2015/64 (UI,IBADAN) One main constraint on the smooth operation of federalism
Which of the following is not a reason for the adoption of a in Nigeria is the lack of an acceptable revenue allocation
federal system of government? formula.
A. cultural diversities B. security consideration
C. economic consideration D. limited resources 2009/2 UTME
Answer – D A major problem associated with the Nigerian federalism
Limited resource is not a reason for the adoption of a federal is
system of government in Nigeria. A. ethnic conflicts B. environmental pollution
C. boundary disputes D. fiscal allocation
2013/34 UTME Answer – A
Nigeria adopted the federal system of government because of The major problem associated with the Nigerian
A. uneven development federalism is ethnic conflicts. Ethnic conflicts is
B. the availability of limited resources disagreement between two or more tribes in the same
C. the adoption of state religion country.
D. the fear of domination of minorities
Answer – D 2016/34 UTME
Nigeria adopted the federal system of government because of One of the major problems of Nigerian federalism is
the fear of domination of the minorities. Minority status refer A. pre-colonial administrative structure among the units of
to a category of people who experience relative disadvantage federation
in relation to members of a dominant social group. B. imbalance in the structure and sizes of units of
federation
2017/2018/22 (UNIZIK, AWKA) C. lack of revenue to cater for the demands of the
Conditions for forming a federation do not include one of these federation
A. small population B. diverse ethnic group D. inadequate manpower to fill vacancies
C. geographical nearness D. fear of dominion Answer – B
Answer – D
Fear of dominion is not a condition. 1996/48
In a presidential system the head of government is called
2014/1 (OAU, IFE) A. prime minister B. Governor-General
Which of the following is not a consideration in the C. Executive – president D. Chancellor
formation of a federal system? Answer
A. size of the territory B. cultural diversity A presidential system is a system of government where an
C. population size D. the number of wealthy leaders executive branch is led by a president who serves as both
Answer –D head of state and government. The president is responsible
The number of wealthy leaders were not considered in the for implementing and enforcing the laws written by
formation of a federal system of government. legislature. (C)
88
1988/49 1993/49
Military governors were members of the supreme military Which of the following is not a true of a military regime? It
council under the A. rules by decree B. is undemocratic
A. Murtala Muhammed Regime C. is autocratic D. is transitory E. is benevolent
B. Yakubu Gowon regime Answer
C. Ibrahim Babangida regime A military regime is not a benevolent one, they uses force and
D. Olusegun Obasanjo regime decree on the people, fundamental human rights are limited.
Answer Benevolent means kindly and serving a charitable rather than a
Under Major General Yakubu Gowon, all the military profit–making purpose. The military regime is not a kind
governors were members of the supreme military council. government on the civilians. (E)
The supreme military council is a body that ruled after coup
d’etat. The supreme military council was the top highest 2015/9
a(i) Explain the term military rule
organ that ruled during the military regime. (B)
Answer
Military rule is a form of unconstitutional administration of a
state or country by members of the armed forces based on
1989/36 Nov
marital laws and edicts are used in their system.
One of the first action of military government when they
take over power in Nigeria is to
(ii) What is a military coup d’état?
A. detain all the politicians
B. appoint new ministers and commissioners Answer
A military coup d’etat is the forcible removal of an existing
C. tour the country to explain why they have taken over
government from power through violent means. Coup
D. suspend the constitution
d’état, also called coup, the sudden, violent overthrow of
Answer
an existing government by a small group.
The military government cannot work with the
(b) Outline three basic features of military rule
constitution, their first assignment after the coup is to
suspend the constitution and they will announce or Answer
1. Hierarchical and centralized.
pronounce some decrees. They uses decree in running their
2. Opposition of any kind is not allowed.
administration not constitution. Decree is an official order
3. Discipline and obedience is the order of the day.
that has the force of the law. (D)
4. Separation from civilian society e.g. barracks.
5. They uses their instrument of violence.
1991/33
6. Absence of the rule of law.
Military disagreement from politics involves all the
7. They uses decree, bye laws and edicts not constitution.
following except
A. drafting a new constitution 2002/30 Neco
B. drafting the ban on politics C. conduct of a census Under military government, local authorities issue bye–laws,
D. conduct of elections while state governments issue
Answer A. edicts B. decrees C. warrants D. orders
Military government coordinated census especially in Answer
Nigeria. (C) Under the military government, state government issue edicts.
An edict is an official order or proclamation issued by a person
1994/50 in authority. (A)
Power under military rule in Nigeria can be said to be
A. absolutely separated B. absolutely fused 1991/41
C. more separated than fused A country that has experienced incessant military interregnum
D. more fused than separated is said to have fallen into the
Answer A. military trap B. coup d’état trap C. praetorian trap D.
Powers under the military rule in Nigeria are more fused palace coup trap
together. The supreme military council ruled the nation Answer
without a constitution but decree. The power of the The praetorian trap is when a political system is unable to free
legislative and executive are fused together in the military its administration from the stronghold of its armed forces. (C)
regime. (D)
1998/19
2001/33 Neco Presidential system of government allows the
Rule by decree is associated with A. president to be a member of the legislature
A. military government B. totalitarian government B executive to be members of the legislature
C. democratic system D. delegated legislation C. judiciary to be part of the executive
Answer D president to select ministers from outside the legislature
Military government rule by decree is a style of Answer
governance allowing quick, unchallenged promulgation of The presidential system of government allows the president to
law by a single person or group, and is used primarily by select ministers from outside the legislature. The president
dictators, absolute monarchs and military leaders. (A) nominates his cabinet members to the legislature, the
legislature screens the nominees before their portfolio is
announced. (D)
89
1998/6 Nov 1997/15
In a presidential system, a president who is found guilty Impeachment as an instrument of checks on the executive
and removed by the legislature is said to have been is useful mainly in a
A. guillotined B. convicted C. impeached A. federal system B. cabinet system C. unitary system
D. sentenced D. presidential system
Answer Answer
Under the federal and presidential system of government In presidential system, the separation of powers means that
when a president is found guilty and removed by the no one branch of government is more powerful than the
legislature based on the constitution, the president is other and also, there is a system of checks and balances by
impeached. (C) which any given branch may correct errors or oversteps
2003/5 Neco committed by another branch. Presidential impeachment
What factors led to the increasing popularity of the for instance, is a means by which the legislative branches
presidential system of government in West Africa? may check. (D)
Answer
1. The presidential system resembles the traditional
African political system, as separating the office of 2013/16
Heads of state and that of government is not only Which of the following is true of a parliamentary system
meaningless in Africa but also difficult to achieve. of government?
2. The process of decision making is quick and orderly A. there is an executive president
because of the absence of opposition. B. fusion of powers is discouraged
3. It eliminates the parliamentary collective C. collective responsibility is emphasized
responsibility, a requirement of all cabinet resigning D. the prime minister is the head of the judiciary
because of one man’s mistake. Answer
4. The president is capable of instituting a strong In the parliamentary system of government, collective
executive that can promote at faster rate the process of responsibility is emphasized because the power of some
nation building. parliamentarians and executives are fused. For example,
5. It is easier to identify who has responsibility for certain the prime minister is the majority leader of the parliament
function and who is to blame for lapses and inaction. and also the administrative head of the state. (C)
6. The need to adopt a navel system led to the presidential
system of government. 1989/6
In the parliamentary system of government, ministers are
2015/2(i) Neco A. chosen from the House as well as outside
Explain the Presidential system of government B. collectively responsible to parliament
Answer C. representatives of various interests in the country
The presidential system is a form of government in which D. not members of the legislature
the president is the chief executive and is elected directly Answer
by the people. In this system all three branches – executive, Parliamentary system of government makes the ministers
legislative and judiciary are constitutionally independent to be collectively responsible to the parliament. (B)
of each other, and no branch can dismiss or dissolve any
other. 1990/24
2003/14 In a parliamentary system of government, the majority party
If a member of the legislature is appointed a minister, he A. executes its own laws only
forfeits his seat in the legislature. This is a feature of the B. legislates all binding laws
A. presidential system of government C. makes laws for the nation D. forms the government
B. parliamentary system of government Answer
C. communist system of government In a parliamentary system, the majority party forms the
D. unitary system of government government. The cabinet members are all from the majority
Answer party and headed by the prime minister, meaning that all the
The presidential system of government is a system where ministers and the Head of government (prime minister) are
the ministers are not part of the parliament/legislature. It is from the majority party. (D)
the system that practice separation of power between the
three organs of government. (A) 1992/28
2015/12 Neco In the parliamentary system of government the ceremonial
Which of the following system of government operates on head of state is the
the principle of checks and balances? A. Chief Justice B. Prime Minister C. speaker
A. theocracy B. presidential C. parliamentary C. D. president
monarchial Answer
Answer In the parliamentary system of government, the ceremonial
The presidential system of government operates under the head of state is the president. In some countries they are
principles of checks and balances, though the three organs called president while in others they are known as Queen’s,
of government are kept separately. They also connect with King’s or emperor. (D)
each other because they are interwoven. (B)

90
1980/24 2001/9 Nov
The cabinet system of government embody the principle of In the cabinet system of government, the prime minister is
separation of power because usually appointed from the
A. it does not encourage the appointment of the president A. party executive B. most vocal pressure group
B. the executive is not separate from the legislative D. majority ethnic group D. majority party in parliament
C. it gives less power to a prime minister than a president Answer
D. the executive is not directly appointed by the electorate In the parliamentary system of government, the real
Answer executive power rests with the majority party in
The cabinet system of government embodies the principle parliament. (D)
of separation of power because the executive is not
separated from the legislature. They are working together 2015/2bii
because the powers are all fused. (B) Cabinet system of government?
Answer
2005/16 Neco Cabinet system of government may be defined as one in
The principle of collective responsibility is central to the which the Head of state is different from the Head of
A. presidential system B. federal system Government and where there is no strict separation of
C. unitary system D. parliamentary system powers between the executive and the legislature. The
Answer main executive power is exercised by the prime minister,
Collective responsibility is also known as collective guilt who is the head of government.
is a concept in parliamentary system, in which individuals
are responsible for other people’s actions by tolerating, 2013/3 Neco
ignoring or harbouring them, without actively 3a. Define parliamentarianism
collaborating in these actions. (D) Answer
The system of government in which the executive branch is
2004/15 Neco legitimised by parliament. A parliamentary system is a
Which of the following system of government has system of democratic governance of a state where the
bicephalous executive? executive derives its democratic legitimacy from its ability to
A. parliamentary B. monarchial C. unitary command the confidence of the legislature, typically a
D. totalitarianism parliament and is also held accountable to that parliament.
Answer
The parliamentary system of government operates the dual b. Identify four differences between parliamentary and
executive. It is also called the bicephalous executive. In presidential system of government.
other words, the executive is headed by two persons, that Answer
is, a head of state, who performs the ceremonial functions Parliamentary system and presidential system are two
and a head of government who performs the governmental most popular forms of government. Below is a table
functions. (A) showing their major differences

1993/20 Nov Parliamentary System Presidential System

Bicephalous executives refers to 1 The queen/president is The executive
A. a strong executive system of government head of state while a president is both head
B. a weak executive arm of government prime minister is head of of state and
C. the dual executive heads in a political system government. government.
D. a monarchial system of government 2 The leader of the party The people elect the
E. the government by executive that won the election is executive president
Answer appointed as the prime through popular
Bicephalous executive refers to the dual executive heads in minister. ballot.
a political system i.e. parliamentary system of government 3 There is no separation of The principle of
where the head of state is quite different from the head of powers in this system. separation of powers
government. (C) is more pronounced.
4 Ministers are chosen by Individual
2001/14 Nov the prime minister from responsibility of
In the parliamentary system of government, the real his party men in the ministers is
executive power rests with the legislature. applicable
A. Head of state B. Chief Justice C. Speaker 5 The prime minister and The president and his
D. Prime Minister his ministers are part of ministers are not part
Answer the legislature. of the legislature.
In the parliamentary system of government, the real 6 The prime minister and The president can be
executive power rests with the Head of state. (A) his cabinet members can removed from office
be removed from office, by the legislature
if a vote of no through
confidence is passed in impeachment.
the executive.

91
7 There is parliamentary There is supremacy 1998/ 7 Nov
supremacy, not the of the constitution. The Head of state has powers to appoint his ministers from
constitution. either within or outside parliament in a
8 Britain is a good U.S.A is a good A. unitary system of government
example of a country example of a country B. federal system of government
operating cabinet system operating this system. C. cabinet system of government
of government. D. presidential system of government
9 There are effective Powers are fused, so E. parliamentary system of government
checks and balances there is no checks and Answer
among the three arms or balances in this The Head of state has powers to appoint his ministers from
organs of government. system. either within or outside parliament in a presidential system
of government (D)
2007/29 Neco
A characteristic of the parliamentary system is that 2003/23
A. separation of powers is not strictly observed In a parliamentary system of government, a vote of no
B. the prime minister combines the executive and ceremonial confidence leads to the resignation of
functions A. an individual minister B. the entire parliament
C. the president can dismiss any minister without much C. the prime minister D. the entire cabinet
hindrance Answer
D. the ministers are responsible individually to the president If a vote of no confidence passes in a parliamentary system
Answer of government the Prime Minister is required to either
The parliamentary system of government is a system resign or request the Governor General to dissolve
whereby the cabinet members/ministers are also in the parliament and call a general election.
House of parliaments as parliamentarians, there is no Option B and C is correct. (C)
observation of separation of powers in this system. (A)
2001/9 Nov
2013/22 Neco In the cabinet system of government, the prime minister is
Parliamentary filibuster refers to a usually appointed from the
A. a procedure of impeaching the president A. party executive B. most vocal pressure group
B. delay method of prolonging debates in parliament C. majority ethnic group D. majority party is parliament
C. process of passing bills into laws Answer
D. a special way of initiating money bills The prime minister is the majority party leader in the
Answer parliament. (D)
Filibusters also known as talking out a bill, are a tactic of
parliamentary procedure. It is a way for one person to delay 2007/31 Neco
or entirely prevent debates or votes on a specific proposal. Which of the following countries had practiced confederal
Filibuster in legislative practice, the parliamentary tactic system of government?
used in the United States. (B) A. Senegal and Gambia B. Mali and Senegal
C. Ghana and Sierra Leone D. Nigeria and Niger
2016/21 Neco Answer
A notable feature or cabinet system of government is Senegal and Gambia formed their confederation only after
A. collective responsibility president Diouf sent his troops into Gambia to save
B. the separation of powers President Jawara’s government from a coup. A year after
C. violation of human rights the December 1981 signing of the agreement to form
D. impeachment of the executive Senegambia, the confederation seems to be an empty
Answer postscript to the military intervention. It is a union more in
The fundamental principle underlying the working of the form than in substance. (A)
parliamentary system of government is the principle of
collective responsibility. In parliamentary system all 2015/13 Neco
ministers work with a team spirit. (A) Confederal system of government means
A. powerful centre and weak component units
1991/5 Exercise B. weak centre and powerful units
State the characteristic features of the cabinet system that C. powerful centres and powerful component units
distinguish it from the presidential system. D. weak component units and weak centre
Answer
1998/8 Nov Confederal system of government means the centre is weak
Under the parliamentary system, a general election is held to and not strong while the component units are very powerful,
A. form a government B. pass the finance bill the component units are the member countries. (B)
C. elect the speaker D. appoint ambassadors
E. dissolve the parliament

92
2019/11 Neco executive. The prime minister which is the Head of
The confederal system of government is unpopular Government is also a member of parliament. The
because prime minister drew his entire cabinet member from
A. the government operates oligarchy system the parliament, making them members of executive as
B. it does not follow due process well as the parliament. The prime minister is the
C. it discourages rapid development chairman or president over the cabinet meetings.
D. all the component units are sovereign v. Confederal: A confederation is a system of
Answer government in which sovereign states delegate power
Confederal system of government is unpopular because all to a central government for specific purposes but
the component units are sovereign. Even members prefers retains their respective distinction and sovereignty.
their state than the confederal union, each state in the union
tries to protect the image of their state not of the confederal b. State two advantages of the following:
union. (D) i. Unitary
ii. Confederal
2005/18 Neco
The practice of two or more sovereign states uniting for Answer
security and external affairs is called (i) Advantages of unitary system of government
A. totalitarianism B. confederalism C. republicanism 1. The cost of running a unitary government is relatively
D. sectionalism low as it avoids duplication of political institutions.
Answer 2. Quick action is taken in the area of decision making
Confederalism is coming together of independent countries in and execution. The central government alone takes
the same continent or as a world to discuss essential matters decision as they need not to consult any other authority
that would benefit members for advancement in economic, before taking decisions.
security, health, development, etc. (B)
(ii) Advantages of confederal system of government
2020/2 NABTEB 1. The component states have total control over their
Explain briefly the following systems of government: internal affairs.
i. Unitary: 2. It guards the weak states against powerful and wealthy
ii. Federal states.
iii. Presidential
iv. Parliamentary
v. Confederal 2018/4 NABTEB
4a. Describe presidential system of government.
Answer b. Highlight five characteristics of presidential
i. Unitary: A unitary state is a state governed as a single system of government.
power in which the central government is ultimately Answer
supreme. The central government may create (4a) The presidential system of government is the form of
administrative divisions such units exercise only the government in which the president is the chief executive and
powers that the central government chooses to is elected directly by the people. In the system, all the three
delegate. organs are the executive, legislative and judiciary.
ii. Federal: A federal system of government is a system Presidential system is the type of political organization in
whereby there is constitutional division of power which the president is the Head of State and the Head of
among the three tiers/levels of government (federal, Government. The president forms his government by
state and local government). It is administratively selecting the members of his cabinet either within or outside
controlled by the executive, legislature and judiciary. his political party. Examples of countries that practice the
In a federal state, the federal which is also known as presidential system of government are: Nigeria, Ghana,
central government represents the country in certain Kenya, Liberia, the United States, etc.
matters, especially defence, external affairs, currency,
national revenue, etc. In a federal system, every state (4b) The following are the characteristics of presidential
and local government has its own government. system of government.
However, state and local governments are still 1. President is chosen directly by the electorate (people)
subordinate to the central government. or indirectly by the Electoral College, for instance
iii. Presidential: The presidential system of government is South Africa have powerful presidents who are elected
the form of government in which the president is the chief by the legislative.
executive who is directly elected by the people, 2. The president controls two powerful offices. The head
representing the Head of State and the Head of of state and the Head of government.
Government. In the system, all the three organs are the 3. Separation of power is clearly distinct.
executive, legislative and judiciary. 4. The constitution in this form of system is supreme
iv. Parliamentary: Parliamentary system of government is because the constitution is based on a written
a system where by the Head of state is different from document. The constitution is also rigid to amend.
the Head of government. The Head of state exercises 5. Members of the executive cannot be members of the
ceremonial functions while the Head of government is legislative.
the prime minister that exercises the function of the
93
REVISION EXERCISES 13. State six features of unitary government and any four
1. In a unitary state, power is concentrated in the demerits.
A. local governments 14. Explain federalism.
B. constituent units of the state 15. Define Unitary System of government.
C. major ethnic groups D. national government 16. State five reasons of adopting federalism in Nigeria.
2. Unitary system of government is more suitable to a 17. Presidential system of government is based on the
country principles of democracy. Discuss.
A. with a relative small area and a homogenous 18. Explain the differences between parliamentary and
population presidential systems.
B. that is sparsely populated 19. 2a. Explain the concept of supremacy of parliament.
C. that possesses a strong and modern army b. What are the limitations of the concepts?
D. with a robust and dynamic economy 20. In what ways can the parliament control the executive
3. In a republic parliamentary system of government, the in a cabinet system of government?
ceremonial Head of state is the 21. State three differences between homogenous and
A. Chief Justice B. Prime Minister heterogeneous.
C. President D. Queen 22. Define monarchy and state the two types. Explain any
4. In a parliamentary system of government, executive one.
powers are vested in 23. Explain the following systems (i) Republican (ii)
A. the president B. parliament Representative government.
C. the party in government D. the cabinet 24. State some of the reasons for military intervention in
5. A governmental system in which constitutional most countries.
supremacy resides in the centre is 25. a) Write short notes on the following:
A. federal B. confederal C. unitary i. Communalism
D. parliamentary ii. Feudalism
6. A federal system of government can exist without iii. Communism
A. division of powers iv. Capitalism
B. supremacy of written constitution v. Socialism
C. an executive presidential system bi. Define the term ‘federalism’.
D. a rigid amendment procedure ii. What is monarchy?
7. In the presidential system in Nigeria, the chief
executive remains in office for
A. a period of eight years
B. as long as he enjoys popular support
C. a fixed term D. two terms
8. In a confederation, the constituency that a member of
legislature represents is a
A. region B. nation state C. senatorial district
D. parliamentary constituency
9. In which of the following systems is the power of the
component units more than that of the central
government?
A. monarchical B. federal C. unitary
D. confederal
10. A system of government where political powers are
inherited is called
A. monarchy B. diarchy C. democracy
D. aristocracy
11. A major problem of military governments in Nigeria is
the
A. absence of proper accountability
B. abolition of the post of ombudsman
C. absence of the rule of law
D. encouragement of foreign investors
12. The primary function of the armed forces of Nigeria is
to
A. promote and protect the security of the nation
B. promote the Head of state and commander–in–chief
of the armed forces
C. protect the citizens against corrupts and oppressive
politicians
D. project the country’s image by participating in
peace – keeping operations.

94
2019/2020/6 (UI, IBADAN) Exercise 6.1
Chapter Six A constitution performs the role of
A. law making B. law enforcement
CONSTITUTION C. communicating the ideals of leaders
D. stating the functions and limitations of citizens
A constitution is the fundamental laws, customs,
conventions, principles, rules and regulations according to 2014/8 Neco Exercise 6.2
which a particular government of a country or an A constitution is a
organization is established. It is also referred to as a body A. set of regulations and customs
of agreed rules and regulations stating on how the powers B. body of doctrine and principles
of governing a country are given and how these powers are C. set of principles and customs
to be exercised. It is the basic principles which all citizens D. body of rules, regulations and conventions
must abide with. It prescribes the extent and manner of the
exercise of a nation’s sovereign power. It is the 2017/14 Neco Exercise 6.3
fundamental and entrenched rules governing the conduct An agreed set of regulations, conventions and customs by
of an organization or nation state, and establishing its which a country or an organisation is governed is the
concept character, and structure. It is usually a short A. constitution B. sovereignty C. suffrage
document, general in nature and embodying the aspirations D. culture
and values of its writers and subjects.
Sources of Constitution
In some cases, such as the United States, the constitution The following are sources of constitution
is a specific written document. In others, such as the United 1. Historical Documents: Documents containing
Kingdom, it is a collection of documents, statutes, and historical records of people and their traditions forms
traditional practices that are generally accepted as part of the constitutional framing.
governing political matters. States that have a written 2. Conventions: Conventions are rules of practice that
constitution may also have a body of traditional or have been accepted because of their long usage.
customary practices that may or may not be considered to 3. Opinions of political and constitutional writers:
be of constitutional standing. Concepts such as Separation of powers, Check and
Balances, Rule of Law, Socialism, Capitalism etc. were
2013/3a Neco propounded by great writers on politics. The writings of
What is a constitution? Karl Marx for example, influenced the constitution of the
Answer former Union of Soviet Socialist Republic.
A constitution can be defined as the instrument of the 4. Constitution of other countries: Framers of a
government made by the people, establishing the structure country’s constitution may study the constitution of
of a country, regulating the powers and functions of the other countries and pick up best practices which are
government, rights and duties of individuals and providing then incorporated into the new constitution. It is
remedies for unconstitutional acts. believed that parts of the 1960 constitution of Ghana
were derived from the content of the American, French
2013/33 UTME and British constitutions.
A constitution is the 5. Customs and Norms: The customs and norms of the
A. written document of traditional practices people can also be the source of a constitution. These are
B. functional aspect of government activities the portions of the constitution that have not been written
C. supreme documents of the government down but which over the years have been accepted as
D. fundamental laws of the land practices under the constitution.
Answer – D 6. Constitutional Conferences: These are meetings at
A constitution is the fundamental laws of the land which which difficult constitutional issues are discussed and
guides the activities of the society. resolved in preparation for a new constitution. Decisions
at such conferences often form the basis for a new
2012/15 Neco constitution.
A constitution is the 7. Previous constitutions: Also, previous constitutions
A. written document of traditional practices serve as the source of a country’s new constitution. In
B. functional aspect of government activities coming out with a new constitution after a previous
C. supreme document of the government one has failed or after a long period of military rule,
D. fundamental laws of the land the earlier constitution is studied and aspects that are
Answer relevant are incorporated into the new one.
A constitution is the fundamental laws of the land, that 8. Acts of legislature: Another source of a constitution is
guides the government in their administrative operation the decision of a Constituent Assembly that has been
and it also guides the citizens on their rights and put together to draft a constitution for a country.
obligations in the state. (D) Proposals are forwarded to the constituent assembly
from various quarters of the country and these
proposals are thoroughly discussed and decisions
arrived at as to what to include and what not to include
in the proposed constitution.
95
9. Judicial precedents: These are rulings of the court that Hint: Devolution of power means statutory delegation of
have found their ways into the constitution. In powers from the central government of a sovereign state to
constitutional cases, especially, whenever a judiciary govern at a subnational level, such as a regional or local
rules on a matter before it, that then becomes the new level.
law. That decision is used as the bases of another
decision in the future, especially where the cases are 2014/2015/16 (UI, IBADAN) Exercise 6.4
similar. One of the following is not a source of constitution?
10. Treaties: Sovereign or independent states can enter A. customs and conventions B. civil service regulations
into bilateral or multi-lateral agreements with other C. historical documents D. judicial precedents
states. The agreements so reached are binding on all of 2009/16 Neco Exercise 6.5
them. States belonging to international organizations Which of the following is not a main source of
like ECOWAS, AU, the Commonwealth of Nations constitution?
and the UNO. Some decisions taken in these A. judicial precedents B. legislative decisions
organizations can form part of the member states’ C. previous constitution D. public deliberations
constitution.

2022/7 Neco Functions of Constitution

Which of the following is not a source of constitution? 1. It projects the form of government in the country.
A. acts of parliament B. conferences 2. It ensures the fundamental rights to its citizens.
C. conventions D. gazettes E. treaties 3. It directs the states in making legislations.
Answer – D 4. It lay out the procedures for several functions,
Gazettes is not a source of constitution administrations, legislation, and execution of the
government machineries.
2017/2018/32 (UNIZIK, AWKA) 5. It provides for the separation of powers.
One of the major sources of a constitution is 6. It provides for the independence of each organs:
A. judicial precedence B. political debate legislative, executive and judiciary.
C. opinion poll D. executive order 7. It upholds the sovereignty of the nation.
Answer – A 8. It acts as a check in maladministration and misuse of
Judicial precedence is one of the major source of a powers.
constitution. Judicial precedent are past judgments at law 9. It provides for accountability of the government to the
courts on constitutional matters and they often form the people of the country.
basis for a new constitution. 10. It provides for judicial review in case of laws violating the
Supreme procedure established by law (i.e. constitution).
2019/2020/5 (UI,IBADAN) 2019/18
Conventions and usages are rules based on A constitution performs the role of
A. Legal documents B. previous constitutions A. law making B. law enforcement
C. traditionist and customs D. none of the above C. communicating the idea of leaders
Answer – C D. stating the function and limitations of leaders.
Convention is a usual or accepted way of behaving, Answer
especially in social situations, often following an old way Constitution states the functions and limits the powers of
of thinking or a custom in one particular society. leaders. The constitution makes the state to project the form of
government that can be operated. (D)
2013/12 Neco
Which of the following is not a source of a country’s 1999/2 Nov
constitution? The essence of the constitution is to
A. legislative decisions B. past constitutions A. safeguard the rights and freedom of the citizens
C. writ of mandamus D. judicial precedents B. ensure tyranny and oppression of the masses
Answer C. encourages military intervention in politics
Writ of mandamus is not a source of any country’s D. suppress the views of the minority groups
constitution. (C) Answer
Hint: Mandamus is a judicial remedy in the form of an Correct option is A.
order from a court to any government, subordinate court Constitution is a safeguard of the rights and freedom of the
corporation, or public authority, to do some specific act citizens. Constitution helps the citizens to identify their
which that body is obliged under law to do, and which is fundamental rights.
in the nature of the public duty. 2012/16 Neco
A constitution is important because it
2006/12 Neco A. teaches moral values of the society
All the following are sources of constitution except B. prescribes rules for those who govern
A. acts of parliament B. devolution of power C. serves as a source of conflict in society
C. conventions D. customs D. describes the laws and admonishes obedience
Answer (B) Answer
Devolution of power is not a source of constitution. The constitution is essential because it describes the laws and
admonishes obedience.
96
Features of Constitution 6. It prevent conflict in the exercise of power. This is
1. The preamble – every constitution that has been possible because the constitution states all the
documented starts with preamble. functions and obligations of government and citizens
2. The constitution states the political structures of the 7. It allows for proper documentation.
government. 8. It helps to remove the dictatorial tendencies of the
3. The constitution also defines the political institution, rulers since their actions are compared with the powers
the power and functions of institutions in the society. allocated to them by the constitution.
4. The constitution also states the type of relationship that 9. It removes ambiguity normally experienced with the
would exist among institutions of government. unwritten constitution.
5. The constitution revealed the types of political system.
6. It also explains the types of administrative structure. Demerits of a Written Constitution
7. The constitution explains the fundamental human 1. Written constitutions are generally rigid.
right. 2. It can discourage reforms. The process of amendment
8. The tenure of office in government, were also stated in can take a very long time.
tenure of office of government. 3. Change cannot be effected quickly.
9. The constitution also explains how political leaders are 4. Written constitution is not suitable for some types of
elected. government e.g. unitary system of government.
5. Written constitution can cause frequent conflict among
2013/13 Neco the three arms of government especially, if their
Which of the following is not within the scope of functions were not properly spelt out.
constitution? 6. It has a tendency to cause political tension.
A. fundamental human rights B. organs of government
C. coup d’état D. preamble 2006/26 UTME
Answer A written constitution is distinguished by its
Coup d’état is not within the scope of constitution. Coup A. dependence on ordinary amendment procedures
d’état is a process of military forces taking over B. cumbersome and complex amendment procedure
power/government from the civilians by force. C. confiscation process D. reliance on case laws
Answer – B
1996/2 Nov Exercise 6.6 A written constitution is distinguished by its cumbersome
Outline the main features of a constitution. and complex amendment procedure. Cumbersome is
something that is difficult to deal with or handle, written
2012/17 Neco Exercise 6.7 constitution is cumbersome in nature because of its process
Which of the following cannot be found in a constitution? of amendment which is rigid.
A. fundamental human rights
B. manifestoes of political parties 2003/11 Neco Exercise 6.8
C. organs of government A written constitution should have
D. duties and obligations of citizens A. an easy process of amendment
B. the principle of judicial interpretation
Types of Constitution C. a hereditary process of succession
There are four types of constitution D. a properties franchise
1. Written constitution.
2. Unwritten constitution. 2008/15 Neco Exercise 6.9
3. Rigid constitution. A constitution whose provisions are printed and contained
4. Flexible constitution. in one document is a
A. flexible constitution B. written constitution
Written Constitution C. confederal constitution D. unitary constitution
A written constitution is a formal document defining the
nature of the constitutional settlements, the rules that
govern the political system and the rights of citizens and Unwritten Constitution
governments in a codified form. Countries like USA, Unwritten constitution is a constitution not embodied in a
Nigeria France, Canada, Ghana, and many other countries single document or codified in one single document.
of the world have written constitution. Unwritten constitution can also be defined as a guide that
governed the people, but are not written down in a single
Merits of a Written Constitution document. For example, Great Britain has different
1. It is written or documented down in a single document. constitution without attempting to bring them together.
For this reason, it can easily be obtained and studied.
2. It can easily be amended procedurally. Unwritten constitution as an uncodified constitution is a
3. It ensures political stability. type of constitution where the fundamental rules often take
4. It has easy reference in case of dispute. Judges in the the form of customs, usage, precedent and a variety of
law courts can easily turn to it while deciding cases. statutes and legal instruments. An understanding of the
5. It provides the means of assessment and measuring the constitution is obtained through reading commentary by
performance of the government. the judiciary, government committee or legal experts.

97
Merits of Unwritten Constitution 2001/12 Nov
1. An unwritten constitution has high degree of A constitution that is made up of statutes, customs,
flexibility. conventions and other usages is known as
2. Unwritten constitution are most suitable in time of A. unwritten constitution B. flexible constitution
emergencies. C. rigid constitution D. confederal constitution
3. It does not require special procedures for amendment. Answer
4. Unwritten constitution is easy to interpret. Unwritten constitution as an uncodified constitution is a
5. For an unwritten constitution, decisions are easily type of constitution where the fundamental rules often take
made and taken. the forms of culture, usage, precedent and a variety of
statutes and legal instruments. (A)
Demerits of Unwritten Constitution
1. Unwritten constitution does not have checks and 1989/7 UTME
balance systems as a result can easily be manipulated An unwritten constitution is one which
by political leaders. A. embodies only tradition and customs
2. Unwritten constitutions are not easily known since the B. relies on the memories of elders and priests
constitutions are not in single document. This makes C. codifies the basic laws in one document
it prone to abuse. D. embodies the basic laws in more than one document
3. It may lead to emergence of dictatorship. Answer – D
4. It creates ambiguities which can lead to general An unwritten constitution is one which embodies the basic
misinterpretations. laws in more than one document. Unwritten constitution is
5. It deprives citizens from knowing their rights and known as an uncodified constitution where the
duties hence undermining their ability to seek redress fundamental rules often take the form of customs, usage,
when rights are violated. precedent and a variety of statutes and legal instruments.
6. It does not make for easy reference/study.
7. Possible emergencies of conflict among the organs of 1988/7 Exercise 6.10
government due to none definition of their rules and Which of the following countries has an unwritten
power. constitution?
8. It makes the parliamentary members too supreme and A. Great Britain B. France
they can manipulate the constitution for their selfish C. United States of America
interest. D. Federal Republic of Germany
9. It is not suitable for multi-ethnic/multi-racial 2002/36 Neco Exercise 6.11
societies. Which of the following pairs of countries have unwritten
10. It cannot be easily turned to or studied the way we constitution?
study written constitution. A. Ghana and Germany B. Nigeria and America
C. Britain and Israel D. Nigeria and Ghana
2017/2018/87 (DELSU, ABRAKA)
An unwritten constitution is 1995/17 Nov Exercise 6.12
A. entirely based on case laws A constitution is said to be unwritten when
B. completely sourced from parliamentary law A. its provisions are tabulated
C. partially written and based on convention B. its provisions are not published by the government
D. completely unwritten and based convention C. it is not documented in a single volume
Answer – C D. only some of its provisions are written in a single
An unwritten constitution is partially written down in document
different document based on conventions, customs,
statutes, judicial principles which guide the operation of Differences between Written and Unwritten
government. Constitutions
Written Unwritten
2001/16 Neco 1. It is written and It is unwritten and not
Which of the following statements best describes an documented in a single documented in a single
unwritten constitution? document. document.
A. the legislature is always unicameral 2. The constitution is The constitution is flexible
B. the source of the constitution is Supreme Court verdicts rigid and difficult to and easy to amend.
C. there are no limitations on the powers of government amend.
D. the body of rules and laws cannot all be found in a single 3. A written constitution An unwritten constitution
document can easily be referred cannot be easily referred
Answer to for example, in law to because it is not written.
Unwritten constitution is the body of rules that is a courts.
document of rules and laws that cannot be found in a single 4. It is easily available in It cannot be easily
document. (D) a single document. documented.
5. The rights of Individual’s rights are not
individuals are stated.
entrenched in the
constitution.
98
6. Written constitutions Unwritten constitutions 5. Emergency situation and contingencies may not be
are not useful in are suitable in time of promptly attended to
emergencies. emergencies. 6. Rigid constitution are expensive, time and energy
7. It ensures and It cannot make for consuming.
encourages political political stability, since
stability, since methods of acquiring 2014/9 Neco
methods of acquiring powers are not properly A feature of a rigid constitution is that it requires
powers are clearly defined. A. amendment by the judiciary B. one – third majority
defined. for its amendment C. special amendment procedures
8. It protects the minority The interest of the Answer
against the domination minority is adequately A rigid constitution requires special amendment for its
of the majority. protected. procedures. (C)
9. Decisions are not Decisions are easily made
easily made because of because a few people are 2012/18 Neco
the large number of involved in the decision A rigid constitution is a feature of
people involved in making process. A. unitary system B. monarchial system
decision making C. federal system D. confederal system
processes. Answer
10. Method of amendment Method of amendment is A rigid constitution is a feature of federal system and
is clearly stated and no not stated. Arbitrary written constitution. (C)
one group or changes could be made in
individual can change the constitution by a few 2008/17 Neco
the constitution. selfish individuals. A constitutional amendment that is cumbersome is usually
11. Powers are functions Powers and functions are described as
of three organs of not clearly defined and A. flexible B. rigid C. unitary D. subtle
government are clearly stated. Answer
stated. A rigid constitution is usually described as cumbersome to
amend. Cumbersome means large or heavy and therefore
difficult to carry or use. Rigid constitution is difficult to
RIGID CONSTITUTION amend. (D)
A rigid constitution is defined as a constitution that is very
difficult to amend or change. It requires special procedures 2005/14 Neco
or process before the change can take effect and it is also A constitution is said to be rigid if it
time consuming. Most written constitution are rigid. A. can be amended by the president only B. is difficult
Countries that have rigid constitution include USA, Ghana, to amend C. is written D. is decreed by soldiers
Nigeria, Australia etc. Answer
When a constitution is difficult to amend or has a special
Merits of Rigid Constitution procedure for amendment, it is said to be a rigid
1. The rigid constitution, being precise and clear, constitution. (B)
discourages and combats ambiguity.
2. The ruling class cannot use the constitution to further 1990/37 Nov Exercise 6.13
its narrow interest. When a constitution is difficult to amend, it is said to be
3. The rigid constitution contributes to political stability. A. federal B. unitary C. written D. rigid
It cannot be misused by government having the
support of simple majority in the national legislate. 2007/26 Neco Exercise 6.14
4. A rigid constitution ensures adequate thought before A constitution that requires special procedures to amend is
the amendment of fundamental laws. referred to as
5. A rigid constitution protects the fundamental rights of A. flexible B. federal C. rigid D. unwritten
the individual.
6. The slow and difficult amendment procedures guard 1991/52 Exercise 6.15
against the emergence of a dictator in the country. One can identify a rigid constitution by its
A. amendment procedures B. length
Demerits of Rigid Constitution C. nature and scope D. salient provisions
1. The procedure of amendment of a rigid constitution is
very difficult, it becomes a problem for the country. 1993/9 Exercise 6.16
2. Rigid constitutions are resistant to change and Any constitution that has special rules for its amendment
innovations. is said to be
3. Slow economic growth may develop, when the A. flexible B. rigid C. confederal D. written
constitution is too difficult to amend.
4. There is too much reliance on the judiciary for the
interpretation of constitutional laws. In the process, the
judiciary may become politicised.

99
FLEXIBLE CONSTITUTION 1992/12 Nov
A flexible constitution is a constitution which can easily be Flexibility and rigidity of a constitution refers to
amended through an ordinary process and procedure of law A. the sources of the constitution
enactment. The amendment procedures is not difficult and can B. constitutional changes
C. the methods of sharing constitutional powers
easily be done by a simple majority in the legislature. A flexible
constitution may be written or unwritten. Countries that operate D. constitutional powers
flexible constitution includes Britain, Israel, New Zealand, E. the ease or difficulty of its amendment
Canada, etc. Answer
There are two different methods of amending (creating
Merits of Flexible Constitution changes in) a constitution and these methods are flexible and
1. The constitution can be easily amended with simple rigid. (B)
majority in the legislature.
2. The amendment process is fast and less time consuming. 1988/42
3. Flexible constitution promotes quick decision making and Flexible constitution is advantageous because it
implementation. A. guarantees political stability
4. Flexible constitution helps the legislature to replace B. prevents the passing of hasty bills by the legislature
obsolete laws with new ones to make the state relevant. C. can cope with emergency period
5. It helps the government to meet the needs of the people D. allows for continuity
easily. Answer
6. It promotes quick social, political and economic growth. Flexible constitution can cope with emergency period
because the constitution only need simple majority for its
Demerits of Flexible Constitution amendment. (C)
1. The provision of the constitution can easily be manipulated
by the government (leaders) for their selfish interest. 2005/15 Nov Exercise 6.17
2. It may lead to dictatorial rule as the political leader may Which of the following countries has a flexible
assume all the power to himself. constitution?
3. It is unsuitable for large states with heterogeneous society. A. New Zealand B. United States of America
4. It may lead to political instability due to constant changes C. Nigeria D. India
in the constitution.
5. Flexible constitution may lead to hasty passage of bills and 1988/6 Exercise 6.18
ill – conceived ones. A flexible constitution can only be amended by
6. Fundamental rights of individuals may be infringed upon A. two third (2/3) majority votes in the legislature
and it may increase the fear of minorities. B. referendum
7. A section of the country can use its influence or position to C. three quarters (3/4) majority votes in the legislature
amend the constitution to achieve sectional interest. D. simple majority vote in the legislature

2009/17 Neco 2016/14 Neco Exercise 6.19

A constitution whose procedure for amendment is the same as One advantage of a flexible constitution is that it
that of making an ordinary law is referred to as A. can lead to dictatorship
A. a unitary constitution B. an unwritten constitution B. can easily be manipulated
C. a flexible constitution D a confederal constitution C. is best suited for a federation
Answer D. can be amended by a simple majority
A flexible constitution is a constitution that can be amended in
the same way as passing an ordinary law. (C)
Differences between Rigid and Flexible Constitution
2006/13 Neco Rigid Flexible
A constitution is said to be flexible when its provisions are 1. Rigid constitution is one Flexible constitution can
A. known by the rulers B. scattered in several books that is very difficult to be amended easily.
C. mainly in one document D. easy to amend amend.
Answer 2. The process of amendment The amendment can easily
The provision of a flexible constitution is easy to amend. (D) is a complicated method. be done by simple
majority in the legislature.
2017/15 Neco 3. Most written constitutions A flexible constitution is
A constitution is considered to be flexible if it are rigid. unwritten or some are
A. can be amended by a simple majority written but are not
B. can be altered through special procedures documented in a single
C. requires two third majority document.
D. is difficult to amend 4. The constitution provisions The provisions of this
Answer cannot be easily constitution can easily be
A constitution is considered as a flexible constitution, if it can manipulated because there manipulated by powerful
be amended by a simple majority vote in the legislature. (A) is a legal procedure for its leaders for their own
amendment. interest.

100
5. Rigid constitutions are Changes and innovations 2. The federal constitution promotes grassroots political
resistance to change and can easily be brought in. participation.
innovations. 3. The provision of federal constitution protects the
6. The rights of individuals Fundamental rights of individual rights, both majority and the minority.
are enhanced and not citizens may be infringed 4. There are duplications of functions in federal constitution,
subjected to arbitrary upon and this may increase creating a platform for employment opportunities in the
change. the fear of the minority. system.
7. This constitution is suitable The constitution is suitable 5. A federal constitution helps unity in diversity especially in
for federal system of for unitary system of Nigeria because of the differences in tribes, culture,
government. government. language, belief, norms, etc.
8. It ensures political stability Political stability is not 6. There is autonomy of each unit to act and develop at its
because rights of the guaranteed. own pace.
people and how to acquire 7. A federal constitution ensures political stability in the
powers are defined. system.
9. Rigid constitutions are not Flexible constitution is 8. There is no particular tribe, religion; group or sectional
suitable for emergency most suitable for interest specially favoured in a federal state. All the states
issues. emergencies. are treated well as a unit of the federation.
10. There is no room for There is possibility of 9. The federal constitution is supreme and it is respected by
arbitrary rule. arbitrary rule. every tier of government. The constitution is supreme and
nobody is above the law.
FEDERAL CONSTITUTION
A federal constitution can be defined as one in which Demerits of a Federal Constitution
political powers are shared between the three tiers of 1. A federal constitution is too expensive to operate and
government, for example, the federal (central), state and maintain.
local government. The powers of each tier of government 2. A federal constitution is a rigid constitution, making the
are properly defined in the constitution. Autonomy of each amendment to be difficult. Amendment of the constitution
unit is guaranteed. involves 2⁄3 of the parliament and at the state assemblies
3⁄ equal supports.
The federal constitution has a legislative list which 4
3. A federal constitution creates a weak central government.
empowers the three tiers to function properly based on the
4. Citizens of the federation celebrate their states or regions
constitution. The exclusive legislative lists are for the
more than the national government.
federal government alone to legislate on.
5. A section of the country may have feelings of rejection and
would want to secede or break away.
Concurrent legislative list are for both the federal and state
6. The minority might feel neglected in the areas of provision
governments to legislate on. If there is a conflict or
of infrastructure, employment opportunities, social
disagreement in the exercise of these functions, the power
amenities etc.
of the federal government would prevail over the state.
7. Federal constitution might lead to unhealthy rivalry among
the states in the areas of revenue allocation formula.
Residual legislative list are for the local government alone.
8. This system brings about waste of resources both in human
Nigeria, United States, etc. have federal constitutions.
and materials because of duplication of functions at the
federal, state and local government level.
Features of a Federal Constitution
1. Federal constitution is rigid and written.
1998/8
2. The constitution of federal system of government is
A rigid constitution is said to be suited for a
supreme.
A. federal constitution B. socialist constitution
3. Powers are shared between the central government and
C. military constitution D. fascist constitution
other subordinate units e.g. federal, states and local
Answer
government.
A rigid constitution is suited for federal constitution and
4. The three organs of government – executive,
because of its diversity in nature, decisions and amendment of
legislative and judiciary have their powers and
the constitution must be deliberated on by the due process
functions defined and separated in the constitution.
before arriving at the right decision for the nation. (A)
5. Federal constitution adopts a bicameral legislature, for
example, senate and House of Representatives.
2018/2 NABTEB
6. There is autonomy of the units in the federation.
A constitution is federal if
7. Powers exercised by different organs of government
A. it is not unitary B. it is unwritten
are derived from the constitution.
C. central and component units are equal
D. there is division of powers between the central and
Merits of a Federal Constitution component units
1. Powers are shared between the federal and its
Answer
component units, for instance, state and local
A constitution can be called federal constitution when there is
government
division of powers between the central and component units.
(D)
101
1989/39 Demerits of Unitary Constitution
The constitution of the Federal Republic of Nigeria 1. Unitary constitution is only suitable for a country that is
A. promotes unity in diversity homogenous in ethnic composition, culture, language,
B allows for the dominance of the minority ethnic groups belief etc.
C. concentrates governmental power at one level of government 2. It can lead to dictatorship because all political powers are
D. advances the interest of the rich vested at the centre (central government).
E. ensures the dominance of one political party 3. Fundamental human right in this system could be denied.
Answer 4. There is low input of grassroots contribution to decision
Unity in diversity is a phrase that signifies the unity among people making because the grassroots is too far from the central.
with diverse cultural, religious beliefs, social status and other 5. It is not suitable for countries with large population.
demographic differences. Nigeria is a nation of large population
6. Unitary constitution wouldn’t be able to accommodate
consisting of people with different belief, tradition, religion, etc.
interest groups in the system.
(A)
7. There is low political participation of people in unitary
1997/12 Exercise 6.20 states.
The constitution of federal system is usually 8. The central government will have to tackle so many
A. written and rigid B. superior in content complex problems that lead to administrative delay.
C. difficult to understand
D. for the use of the federal government only 1999/16 Nov Exercise 6.22
A constitution that allows for only one source of authority is
1989/39 Nov Exercise 6.21 referred to as a
The constitution of the federal republic of Nigeria A. federal constitution B. confederal constitution
A. promotes unity in diversity C. rigid constitution D. unitary constitution
B. allows for the dominance of the minority ethnic groups E. flexible constitution
C. concentrates governmental power at one level of
government 2013/3b Neco
D. advances the interest of the rich Why do some countries use written constitution?
The following are the reasons for adopting a written
UNITARY CONSTITUTION constitution
Unitary constitution is a constitution where all the political 1. It is written or documented down in a single document.
power of the country is centralized and recognized only at the For this reason, it can easily be obtained and studied.
central government. Powers can be delegated at the component 2. It can easily be amended procedurally.
units by the central government. The central governments are 3. It ensures political stability.
empowered to create local government at anytime and give 4. It has easy reference in case of dispute. Judges in the law
them powers to make laws based on their localities. The most courts can easily turn to it while deciding cases.
famous examples of unitary constitution is Britain, Italy, 5. It provides the means of assessment and measuring the
France, etc. performance of the government.
Features of a Unitary Constitution
1981/22 UTME
1. The constitution of a unitary state is flexible in nature and
A constitution refers to
can be amended easily.
A. any written legal document
2. All powers are concentrated in the hands of a single central
B. basic rules for conducting the affairs of any organization
government.
C. the doctrine that power of government must be limited
3. Component units are created by the central government.
D. rules adopted in legislative procedures
4. There is supremacy of the legislature and not the
E. the separation of powers
constitution.
Answer – B
5. Citizens pay loyalty to only one government and that is the
A constitution refers to the basic rules for conducting the affairs
central government.
of any organization or a state.
6. The power of the component units are not from the
constitution but from central government.
1984/2 UTME
Merits of the Unitary Constitution A constitution is a legal document
1. The unitary state has a strong centre because all the A. drawn up by lawyers
political powers of the state are vested in the centre. B. enacted by military decrees
2. There is no conflict of authority and responsibility in a C. forming the basis upon which a government rules the
unitary form of government. country
3. A unitary system of government will make prompt D. which must not be altered by any succeeding government
decisions and take speedy actions. E. only likely to succeed in a country where there is union
4. A unitary system of government is less expensive. government
5. The unitary constitution is flexible, making it easy to Answer – C
amend. A constitution is a legal document forming the basis upon
6. There is unity, uniformity of law, policy and which a government rules the country. A constitution is a
administration. guideline that helps the society to function properly.
7. A unitary form of government is most suitable for small
countries.
102
1979/6 UTME 1992/6 UTME
A constitution of any country is basically Which of the following defines a constitution?
A. a mere pieces of paper A. any written legal document
B. a guide to how the country should be governed B. basic laws for the conduct of modern government
C. a document stating what the leaders do C. rules adopted in legislative proceedings
D. a document stating how to acquire power D. the doctrine that limits the powers of government
E. C and D Answer – B
Answer – B Constitution is the basic laws for the conduct of modern
A constitution of any country is basically a guide to how the government. Constitution states the relationships or bonds
country should be governed.
between the citizen and the state, and it defines the
structure, powers and functions of the organs of
1980/5 UTME
government namely: executive, legislature and judiciary.
When we talk about the constitution of any given country, we
mean
A. the general body of rules and principles controlling the 1988/4 UTME
distribution of governmental power Constitutions originate from a belief that there is need for
B. a guide book containing the functions of trade union A. limited government B. freedom of worship
movement C. full employment D. judicial independence
C. a document embodying rules and principles regulating the Answer – A
exercise of governmental power Constitutions originates from a belief that there is need for
D. a document defining the relations between the rulers and the limited government.
ruled
E. A, C and D above 1978/38 UTME
Answer – E The constitution of any given country must provide for
When we talk about the constitution of any given country, we A. the distribution of powers
mean the general body of rules and principles controlling the B. the rights and duties of the individual
distribution of governmental power. A document embodying C. the rule of law D. none of the above E. A, B and C
rules and principles regulating the exercise of government Answer – E
power. As a document defining the relations between the rulers The constitution of any country must provide for the
and the ruled. The constitution also stipulated the limits of distribution of powers among the levels and arms of
citizens and their leaders. government, the rights and duties of the individual must be
stipulated. The rule of law must be included.
1980/9 UTME
A constitution is a document
2002/41 UTME
A. drafted by the constituent assembly
One of the sources of a constitution is
B. which states in written form the basic laws governing a
country
A. common law B. corporate law
C. which spells out how the president is to be elected C. statutory law D. constitutional law
D. which forms the basis upon which a government rules a given Answer – A
state Common law is an unwritten body of laws based on
E. which states that the central government is superior to state judicial precedents and customs.
government
Answer – D 2018/34 UTME
A constitution is a document which forms the basis upon which Which of the following cannot be found in a constitution?
a government rules a given state. A. fundamental human rights
B. manifestoes of political parties
1981/2 UTME C. organs of government
The philosophy and fundamental laws of a country are contained D. duties and obligations of citizens
in its Answer – B
A. manifesto B. constitution C. piracy programme Manifestoes of political parties is a publication issued by a
D. decrees E. edicts political party before a general election. It contains the set
Answer – B of policies that the party stands for manifestoes of political
A constitution is the philosophy and the fundamental law of a parties cannot be found in a constitution.
state. It is a body of laws which determines how a state is
governed. 1988/20 UTME
Which of the following is not a mode of constitutional
1981/9 UTME
change?
Constitutions are useful documents because they
A. party manifesto B. formal amendment
A. suppress individual right and liberties
B. provide ammunition to different sides in ideological disputes
C. judicial decision D. statutory revision
C. reward the patriotic and punish traitors Answer – A
D. lay down broad guidelines for national political interaction Party manifesto is not a mode of constitutional changes.
E. high-light the procedures for the creation of new states
Answer – D
Constitutions are useful documents because they are lay down
broad guidelines for national political interaction.
103
2008/15 UTME Unwritten constitution is not documented in any single
The oldest written constitution is book and not codified in one document.
A. American constitution B. British constitution
C. German constitution D. Roman constitution 1982/19 UTME
Answer – A An unwritten constitution is one where
The oldest written constitution is American Constitution of A. no part of the constitution is ever written down
(1789) which outlines the composition of the legislature, B. whole constitution is not contained in anyone document
the executive, the judiciary and their powers, the C. the constitution is based on the wishes of the prime minister
fundamental rights of citizens and also mentions a method D. the constitution is based on what the Head of State demands
for its amendment. E. the constitution can be amended by a simple majority
Answer – B
1993/6 UTME An unwritten constitution is one where the whole constitution
A written constitution is one that is not contained in one document. It’s a constitution that is
A. cannot be modified or amended written in different document without codification for
B. can only be amended by the highest legislature body reference purpose.
C. is contained in a single document
D. is drawn up by draftsman 1983/8 UTME
Answer – C An unwritten constitution operates in
A written constitution is one that is contained in a single A. Guinea B. USA C. Great Britain D. China E. Nigeria
document. Answer – C
Great Britain is a good example of country that operates
1981/7 UTME unwritten constitution.
Under the United States constitution
A. congress is supreme B. the Supreme Court is dominant 2005/12 UTME
C. the presidency is clearly superior in practice to the other An unwritten constitutions are
two branches of government A. not subject to judicial review
D. black Americans enjoy preferential treatment to B. is only partially unwritten
compensate for past injustices C. is not written at all
E. no branch of government can function without D. a made up solely of a set of concentration
cooperating with other E. none of the above
Answer – E Answer – B
Under the U.S.A. constitution no branch of government An unwritten constitutions are only written partially in
can function without cooperating with another. separate document without codification.

2008/14 (OAU, IFE) 1981/8 UTME

The government of one of the following countries operate The Britain constitution, by being unwritten
an unwritten constitution. A. encourages the dominance of the prime minister
A. the United States B. gives room for the development of conventions
B. the Union of Soviet Socialist Republic C. makes the parliamentary system unworkable
C. Post-apartheid South Africa D. allows unquestionable parliamentary sovereignty
D. the United Kingdom E. enables the queen to do no wrong
Answer – D Answer – B
The United Kingdom is the government that operates an The British constitution, by being unwritten gives room for
unwritten constitution. the development of conventions, which easily be amended.

1997/6 UTME 1979/10 UTME

An important aspect of an unwritten constitution is that it A good example of a country with a largely unwritten
A. is easy to understand by everybody constitution is
B. safeguards the monarchy A. the United States of America
C. contains customary laws and convention B. the Soviet Union
D. is not easily amended C. Nigeria
Answer – C D. the United Kingdom
Unwritten constitution important aspect is that it entails E. Sierra Leone
customary laws and conventions. Answer – D
The United Kingdom is a good example of a country with
2014/9 (OAU, IFE) a largely unwritten constitution.
A constitution is classified as unwritten when it
A. does not emanate from the legislature 2011/15 UTME
B. provides for separation of powers The earliest classification of constitutions was the work of
C. originates from Britain A. K. C. Wheare B. Plato C. Aristotle D. J. J. Rousseau
D. is not contained in any single document Answer – C
Answer – D The earliest classification of constitution was Aristotle.
After studying constitution of the Ancient world.
104
1997/1 Nov 2012/2013/42 (UNIZIK, AWKA)
State five main sources of a nation’s constitution. The distinction between a flexible and a rigid constitution
Answer is based on
1. History of the people. A. entrenched clauses B. distribution of power
2. Acts of parliament, form some part of constitutional C. amendment procedure D. written and unwritten aspects
framing. E. whether it is unitary or federal
3. Customs and traditions. Answer – C
4. Past constitution. The difference between a flexible and a rigid constitution
5. Conventions. is based on amendment procedure.
6. Constitutional conference.
7. Judicial precedents. 1994/8 UTME
What is the major distinguishing characteristic between
1989/4 flexible and rigid constitutions?
What factors should be considered in drawing up a A. manner of documentation B. one is unwritten
constitution? C., amendment procedure D. degree of legality
Answer Answer – C
In drawing up a constitution, the following factors need to Amendment procedure is the main distinguishing
be considered: characteristics between flexible and rigid constitution.
1. The constitution must first have the introduction which
is also known as preamble, stating the ideological 2017/10 UTME
position of the constitution. A type of constitution that is difficult to amend is described
2. The method and the procedure for amending the as
constitution. A. written and flexible B. rigid and written
3. The features of the constitution. C. unwritten and rigid D. flexible and rigid
4. The functions of the organs of government and the Answer – B
relationship that exist among them. Rigid and written and are the type of constitution that is
5. The form or structure of government. difficult to amend.
6. The rights, duties and obligations of citizens to the
state. 2017/2018/84 (DELSU, ABRAKA)
7. The duties and functions of government towards the A constitution is classified as rigid if
state and its citizens. A. it requires special procedures to amend
2009/2 Neco B. its core provisions are made by decree
Outline six disadvantages of an unwritten constitution C. all its provisions cannot be amended
Answer D. any of its provisions can be amended
Disadvantages of unwritten constitutions are the Answer – A
following A rigid constitution is a constitution that requires special
1. It can be manipulated by political leaders. procedures before amendment. Plebiscite is a vote by the
2. It may lead to emergence of dictatorship. people of an entire country or district to decide on some
3. It deprives citizens from knowing their rights and issue. It’s a direct vote in which the entire electorate is
duties. invited to accept refuse a proposal.
4. It lacks codification of fundamental rights of citizens
undermining the ability to seek redress when rights are 2008/26 UTME
violated. One merit of a written constitution is its
5. It creates ambiguities which can lead to general A. legibility B. total flexibility
misinterpretations. C. rigidity D. ease of reference
6. It is not suitable for multi-ethnic/multi-racial societies. Answer – C
7. It does not make for easy reference/study. One merit or advantage of a written constitution is its
8. Not easy to ascertain unconstitutional acts. rigidity in the procedures of its amendment. The slow and
9. Possible emergencies of conflict among the organs of difficult amendment procedure guard against the
government due to none definition of their rules and emergence of a dictator in the country.
power.
2013/14 UTME
1981/17 UTME We say that a constitution is rigid if
Constitution have been classified as rigid or as flexible A. the sources are too many
according to B. the constitution is foreign
A. whether they were written or unwritten C. it has no chapter on human right
B. whether they were popular or unpopular D. the provisions are too detailed
C. the relative ease or difficulty of the writing process E. the process of changing it is too cumbersome
D. the relative difficulty of the amending process Answer – E
E. all of the above A rigid constitution is a constitution that the process of
Answer – D amendment is too cumbersome. A constitution that have
The constitution amendment has been classified into rigid specific procedure of amendment is called rigid.
or flexible.
105
1984/6 UTME 2009/24 UTME
When a constitution is difficult to amend we say it An advantage of flexible constitution is that it allows for
A. federal B. unitary C. written D. fragile E. rigid A. political awareness B. constitutional stability
Answer – E C. reduction of ambiguities D., ease of amendment
When a constitution is difficult to amend, we say it is a Answer – D
rigid constitution. An advantage of flexible constitution is that it allows for
ease of amendment. Ease is absence of difficulty.
1991/10 UTME
Unlike the British, the United States constitution is 2018/35 UTME
A. rigid, federal and written A rigid constitution is a feature of
B. flexible, unitary and unwritten A. unitary system B. monarchical system
C. rigid, written and confederal C. federal system D. confederal system
D. flexible, federal and unwritten Answer – C
Answer – A A rigid constitution is a feature of federal system of
The United States constitution is rigid, federal and written. government.
While the British constitution is flexible, unitary and
unwritten. 2011/2012/15 (NDU, BAYELSA)
The constitution of the Federal Republic of Nigeria
2014/2015/34 (UI,IBADAN) A. promotes unity in diversity
When a constitution is not difficult to amend, it is said to B. allows for the dominance of the minority ethnic groups
be C. concentrates governmental power at one level of
A. rigid B. systematic C. flexible D. federal government
Answer – C D. advances the interest of the rich
Flexible constitution is a constitution that maybe E. ensures the dominance of one political party
amendment by the ordinary process of legislation and is Answer – A
therefore relatively easy to amend. The constitution of the Federal Republic of Nigeria
promotes unity in diversity. Unity in diversity is used as an
1991/9 UTME expression of harmony and unity between dissimilar
A flexible constitution is one that is individuals or groups.
A. amended periodically B. easy to amend
C. amendable with difficulty D. easy to interpret 1978/2 UTME
Answer – B A constitution is federal if
A flexible constitution is one that be changed without great A. it provides for a presidential system
difficulty, though few constitutions will be able to be B. it is unwritten C. it is not unitary
changed by the process used to change ordinary laws. D. the central and component units or authorities are
coordinated and equal
2012/12 UTME E. there is a division of powers between a central and
An example of a country with a flexible constitution is number of other component authorities
A. South Africa B. Britain Answer – E
C. Benin Republic D. the United States of America A constitution is federal, if there is a division of powers
Answer – B among the federal, state and local governments, through
The United Kingdom’s constitution is flexible, because the legislative list exclusive, concurrent and residual lists.
any of its constitutional institutions and rules can be
abrogated or modified by an act of parliament. 1987/14 UTME
Which of the following is not a unique feature of federal
2013/15 UTME constitution?
Which of the following constitutions is more suitable for A. division of powers B. at least two levels of government
centralization of political power? C. supremacy of the constitution
A. unwritten constitution B. rigid constitution D. independence of the constitution
C. written constitution D. flexible constitution Answer – D
Answer – D Independence of the constitution is not a feature of the
Flexible constitution is more suitable for centralization of federal constitution.
political powers because of the delegation of legislation.
2009/12 UTME
2016/29 UTME The power to nominate members of the judiciary at the
A flexible constitution is one which is federal level under the 1998 constitution is vested in the
A. known to all the citizens B. popular with the legislators A. Federal Judicial Service Commission
C. easily amended D. written by the parliament B. Supreme Court C. National Judicial Council
Answer – C D. Nigerian Bar Association
A flexible constitution is a constitution that maybe Answer – C
amended by the ordinary process of legislation is therefore The national judicial council have the power to nominate
relatively easy to amend. members of the judiciary at the federal level under the 1999
constitution.
106
2002/16 UTME 2001/9 UTME
The final interpretation of the provisions of a federal An important function of a constitution is that it
constitution is vested in the A. provides a framework for the study of government
A. council of state B. head of state B. facilitates cross-fertilization of ideas of governance
C. highest court of the land D. highest legislative body C. serves as the fountain head of authority for the exercise
Answer – C of power
The final interpretation of the provisions of a federal D. promotes citizen participation in government and
constitution is vested in the highest court of the land. The administration
Supreme Court is the highest court within the hierarchy of Answer – C
courts in many legal jurisdictions and the final court is Constitution serves as the fountain head of authority for the
court of appeal. exercise of power in any country.

2012/2013/50 (UNIZIK,AWKA) 2005/13 Neco

Which of the following countries does not operate a federal An agreed set of rules prescribing the governance of a
constitution? country can be called the
A. United State of America B. Canada C. Nigeria A. constitution B. charter C. manifesto D. mansard
D. France E. Switzerland Answer
Answer – D A constitution is an agreed set of rules prescribing the
France does not operates a federal constitution but unitary governance of a country. (A)
state or constitution.

2015/2016/69 (NDU, BAYELSA) 1996/14

A federal constitution is usually A constitution can best be described as
A. flexible B. unwritten A. the compiled laws of a state
C. written and flexible D. rigid and written B. a general book of laws
Answer – D C. the fundamental laws to guide the government of a state
A federal constitution is rigid and written in nature. D. a detailed code of conduct for politicians
Answer
2011/2012/10 (NDU, BAYELSA) A constitution is an aggregate of fundamental principles or
Which of these countries does not operate a federal established precedents that constitute the legal basis of a
constitution? polity, organisation or other type of entity, and commonly
A. USA B. Nigeria C. Canada D. France determine how that entity is to be governed. (C)
Answer – D
France does not operate a federal constitution. 1997/11
A constitution can be defined as
2015/2016/63 (NDU, BAYELSA) A. the rules guiding parliamentary procedures
The essence of the constitution is to B. a legal document to guide judges
A. safeguard the rights and freedom of the citizens C. the constituent elements of a contractual agreement
B. ensure tyranny and oppression of the masses D. the rules guiding the affairs of an institution of society
C. encourage military intervention in politics Answer
D. suppress the views of the minority groups A constitution is a set of rules that guides how a country,
Answer – A state or other political organisation work. (D)
The essence or importance of the constitution is to ensure
the fundamental rights to its citizens.
1999/3 Nov
1979/7 UTME A constitution serves as the
In general constitutions are designed to provide A. framework for political integration
A. legal remedies for all political problems B. embodiment of civil rights and privileges
B. clear alternatives to military take-overs of elected C. instrument for power sharing among political parties
government D. fundamental laws by which society is governed
C. general arrangements, rules and national objective Answer
within which political activities are conducted A constitution serves as the fundamental laws that
D. codes of ethics for politicians and punishment for those governed the society on how to run their day to day
who break the laws of the land activities. (D)
Answer – C
Constitutions are general designed to provide general 2019/2020/7 (UI,IBADAN)
arrangements, rules and national objectives within which A constitution that require two-third majority for its
political activities are conducted. amendment is regarded as being
A. federal B. written C. flexible D. rigid
Answer – D

107
2008/8 UTME 3. Customs and Norms: The customs and norms of the
An example of a state with an unwritten constitution is people can also be the source of a constitution. These are
A. Canada B. India C. Britain D. France the portions of the constitution that have not been written
Answer – C down but which over the years have been accepted as
Britain is an example of a state (country) with an unwritten practices under the constitution.
constitution. 4. Constitutional Conferences: These are meetings at
1988/3 which difficult constitutional issues are discussed and
Unwritten constitution means that the constitution is resolved in preparation for a new constitution. Decisions
A. not written down B. based only on conventions at such conferences often form the basis for a new
C. not contained in any single book constitution.
D. not approved 5. Acts of legislature: Another source of a constitution is
Answer the decision of a Constituent Assembly that has been
Unwritten constitution is referred to as one in which the put together to draft a constitution for a country.
fundamental principles of the organization and powers of Proposals are forwarded to the constituent assembly
a government are not documented or codified in one single from various quarters of the country and these
documented. (C) proposals are thoroughly discussed and decisions
arrived at as to what to include and what not to include
1999/24 Neco in the proposed constitution.
A cardinal feature of a rigid constitution is that it
A. can only be amended by the judiciary 5b) Five forms of constitution:
B. requires a special procedure for its amendment 1. Written Constitution: A written constitution is a
C. requires 2/3 majority for its amendment formal document defining the nature of the
D. requires the votes of the electorate for its amendment constitutional settlements, the rules that govern the
Answer political system and the rights of citizens and
A rigid constitution is the type of constitution that needs governments in a codified form. Countries like USA,
special procedure for its amendment. (B) Nigeria France, Canada, Ghana, and many other
1988/8 countries of the world have written constitution.
A rigid constitution is said to be best suited for a 2. Unwritten Constitution: Unwritten constitution is a
A. federal government B. socialist government constitution not embodied in a single document or
C. military government D. unitary government codified in one single document. For example, Great
Answer Britain has different constitution without attempting
A rigid constitution is suitable for a federal system of to bring them together.
government because the constitution is written. (A) 3. Rigid Constitution: A rigid constitution is defined as
a constitution that is very difficult to amend or
1994/8 change. It requires special procedures or process
When a constitution contains complicated and long before the change can take effect and it is also time
procedure for its amendment, it is said to be consuming. Most written constitution are rigid.
A. written B. flexible C. unitary D. rigid Countries that have rigid constitution include USA,
Answer Ghana, Nigeria, Australia etc.
A rigid constitution is complicated and has a long 4. Flexible Constitution: A flexible constitution is a
procedure for its amendments. (D) constitution which can easily be amended through an
ordinary process and procedure of law enactment.
1998/8
The amendment procedures is not difficult and can
A constitution that requires a complex procedure for the
easily be done by a simple majority in the legislature.
amendment of its provision is described as
A flexible constitution may be written or unwritten.
A. unwritten B. flexible C. classified D. rigid
Countries that operate flexible constitution includes
Answer
Britain, Israel, New Zealand, Canada, etc.
A rigid constitution is a constitution that requires a
5. Federal Constitution: A federal constitution can be
complex procedure for its amendment. (D)
defined as one in which political powers are shared
5a. Explain five sources of a constitution. between the three tiers of government, for example,
b. Explain five forms of constitution. the federal (central), state and local government. The
Answer: powers of each tier of government are properly
The following are sources of constitution defined in the constitution. Autonomy of each unit is
1. Historical Documents: Documents containing guaranteed. Nigeria, United States, etc. have federal
historical records of people and their traditions forms constitutions.
part of the constitutional framing.
2. Constitution of other countries: Framers of a REVISION EXERCISES
country’s constitution may study the constitution of 1. A constitution is a
other countries and pick up best practices which are A. set of regulations and customs
then incorporated into the new constitution. It is B. body of doctrine and principles
believed that parts of the 1960 constitution of Ghana C. set of principles and customs
were derived from the content of the American, French D. body of rules, regulations and conventions.
and British constitutions.
108
2. The constitution of any given country must provide for
A. the distribution of powers B. the rights and duties
of individual C. the rule of law
D. A, B and C
3. In general, constitutions are designed to provide
A. legal remedies for all political problems
B. clear alternatives to military take-over of elected
government
C. general arrangements, rules and national objectives
within which political activities are conducted
D. codes of ethnic for politicians and punishment for
those who break the laws of the land
E. rigid ideological frameworks for nations that
operates the constitutions
4. A constitution is a document
A. drafted by the constituent assembly
B. which states in written form the basic laws
governing a country
C. which speaks out how the president is to be elected
D. which forms the basis upon which a government
rules a given state
E. which states that the control government is superior
to state government
5. The distinction between a flexible and a rigid
constitution is based o
A. entrenched clauses B. distribution of powers
C. amendment procedure
D. written and unwritten aspects
6. Constitutional disputes between states in a federation
can only be settled by
A. parliament B. the Supreme Court
C. a tribunal D. the court of appeal
7. When a constitution is difficult to amend we say it is
A. federal B. unitary C. written D. rigid
8. One of the sources of a constitution is
A. corporate law B. statutory law
C. constitutional law D. common law
9. A constitution that requires a plebiscite or a
referendum to be amended is
A. rigid B. unwritten C. flexible D. written
10. Define constitution.
11. Identify the sources of constitution.
12. State seven features of constitution and explain any
four.
13. Mention the types of constitution.
14. Differences between written and unwritten
constitution.
15. Discuss the importance of rigid constitution to
federalism.
16. Why is flexible constitution suitable for unitary system
of government? Discuss.
17. Explain two ways of amending constitution.
18. State four merits of unitary constitution.
19. Explain any four reasons why some countries adopt
written constitution or merits of written constitution.
20. a) List five sources of a country’s constitution.
b) Write short notes of the following:
i. Rigid constitution.
ii. Flexible constitution

109
time. The president has complete control over the
Chapter Seven composition of the cabinet. He/she is free to appoint
his/her ministers from anywhere, even outside his own
STRUCTURE AND ORGANISATION political party and parliament. However, the exercise of
OF GOVERNMENT power of the appointment of the ministers is subject to the
The structure and organization of government are approval of the upper house that is, the senate as it is the
separated into three political division of powers which is case in Nigeria. The ministers are individually responsible
known as organs or arms of government in a modern to the president, while the president is responsible directly
political system. The three arms are executive, legislature to the people and the constitution. The ministers only act
and judiciary. The constitution of most countries has in an advisory capacity to the president, while the president
defined the functions of each arms in details. For example, exercise both executive and ceremonial powers of the state.
the executive functions are to formulate policies and
implementations, the legislature is for law making and Functions of the Executive
amendments, the judiciary functions are for the The basic function of the executive is implementation of
interpretation, settlement of disputes and punishment of laws through the assistance of the bureaucracy.
offenders. Bureaucracy refers to the civil service, which is a
permanent institution that assists the political class to
THE EXECUTIVE fulfill their promises to the people.
Meaning of the Executive
The executive arm of government is a branch of The functions of the executive are as follow:
government that formulates policies and carries out law 1. Implementation of laws and policies: The executive
implementation in the country. The head of the executive is charged with the duty of implementing laws and
is always the number one citizen of the country. The policies of government. It makes use of the public
executive is also known as the cabinet which gives (civil) servants and law enforcement officials for the
direction on the affairs of a state. The function of the execution and enforcement of laws.
executive largely depend on the type of constitution in 2. Maintenance of law and order: A peaceful
operation in a particular country. For example, the environment ensures good government. The executive
functions of the executive in a presidential system of has the responsibility of ensuring national security. It
government, as in the USA, is different from the must protect the lives and property of the citizens.
parliamentary system of government Britain. 3. Formulation and execution of government policies:
It formulates and executes policies on national and
foreign issues for the state. It decides why and how the
state would relate with states and actors at the
international arena. It also decides how things are done
domestically.
4. Appointment of top officials of government: The
executive has the power to appoint and remove top
officials of the state from government.
5. Making laws through its power of delegated
legislation: The executive exercises the power of
delegated legislation. Delegated legislation is a rule or
regulation made by a person, persons or non–
legislative bodies according to an Act of Parliament.
On behalf of the parliament the Executive makes some
laws.
The Nigerian Coat of Arm 6. Preparation of the budget: The executive draws up a
budget on proposed government activities. It
Composition of the Executive determines the sources of income and disbursement of
The executive is in two forms: Parliamentary executive public money on the approval of the parliament. It also
and Presidential executive. The executive is known as proposes ways and means of getting money to execute
cabinet or council of ministers. In a parliamentary system policies and programmes of government.
of government, the executive comprises the prime minister 7. Overseeing the day-to-day running of the
and other ministers. The Prime minister is the head of administration: It coordinates the activities of various
government and the leader of government business. The agencies of government to achieve desirable results as
president who is the head of state is not part of the cabinet. well as controls the whole machinery of government
The ministers are normally chosen from the parliament and activities. It also determines the direction of the
they are collectively responsible to the parliament. In other country on national and international issues.
words, there is collective responsibility of all ministers. 8. Power of Pardon and amnesty: It is the only chief
Ministers share the success and failures of the government executive that has the power to pardon criminals and
together. They rise and fall together at the same time. violators of the state law.
In a presidential system of government, the executive
comprises the president and other ministers. The president
is the head of state and head of government at the same
110
9. Initiation of bills: The executive initiates most bills 1992/14 Exercise 7.3
for the parliament that will cater for the welfare of the Which of the following is not a function of the executive
people and ensure good government. This is a arm of government?
legislative function which it performs. Draft bills are A. interpretation of law B. preparation of budget
prepared by the civil servants for executive C appointment of top government functionaries
presentation to the legislature. D. enforcement of law E. formulation of policy
10. Signing of bills by the chief executive: The president
must assent to bills enacted by the parliament before 1995/5 Exercise 7.3
they can become law. This is known as presidential Which organ of government is vested with the
assent. responsibility of initiating bills and commending them to
11. Quasi-judicial function: It performs some quasi- the legislature for consideration? The
judicial functions such as investigation of corruption A. Federal House of Representatives
cases through the setting up of a tribunal/commission B. Executive C. Congress D. Senate E. Judiciary
of inquiry.
12. Guarantees the fundamental human rights of its 1998/20 Exercise 7.4
citizens: The executive government ensures that the The executive arm of government refers to a body which
fundamental human right of its citizens is guaranteed. A. supervises councilors B. makes laws
13. Control of the armed forces: The chief executive (the C. administer the laws D. supervises election
president) is also referred to as the commander-in- E. interprets the law
chief of the armed forces. Thus, the executive suggests
2004/22 Neco Exercise 7.5
and decides where and when the armed forces carry
The primary function of the executive is to
out their assignments.
A. interprets laws B. punish law breakers
14. Negotiation of treaties and agreement: Foreign
C. make laws D. implement government policies
affairs are part of the functions of the executive. The
executive negotiates and concludes treaties with other
countries to strengthen the bond of friendship and Types of Executives
national interest. The treaties and agreements must There are different types of executives and the following
ensure promotion of national interest and world peace. should be considered.
1. Single and plural executives.
2006/14 Neco 2. Parliamentary and non– parliamentary executive.
The power to pardon any citizen charged with any criminal
offence lies with the 1. Single executive: Is a system whereby the control of the
A. legislature B. executive executive rest with one individual, who does not share
C. human rights organisation D. judiciary power with others. The president of the United States of
Answer America is a good example of single executive. The
Amnesty is an official pardon for people who have been president and his ministers are not colleagues, they depend
convicted of political offences. The power of amnesty is given on him for assessment of their progressive reports and he
to the presidents and governors by the constitution. (B) sees them as his advisers, agents and eyes in all the
ministries.
1997/10
Which of the following comprises the president, the Plural executives: This is a system when the directing
ministers, civil servants and the police? The authority is exercised not by one individual for a term but
A. armed forces B. judiciary C. legislature a group of persons having co – equal authority. The best
D. executive E. council modern example of the plural executive is the Swiss
Answer Federal Council which consists of seven councilors who
The executive comprises of the president, vice president, are almost at par as far as executive powers are concerned.
secretary of the federation, the ministers, permanent The Chairman of the council is selected only for a term of
secretaries, governors, Armed Chiefs and the Inspector one year and is merely the first among equals as other
General of Police (I.G). (D) members of the council are his colleagues not agents or
advisers. The President of the Swiss Federation
1994/13 Exercise 7.1 (Switzerland) is the Chairman of the Federal Council and
The executive is a body that exercises the usual powers of a chairman.
A. formulates and implements the policies of government
B. executes and robbers 2. Parliamentary executives: Is a system where the
C. is the most important arm of government executive or cabinet members are from the parliament. The
D. executes contract E. interprets the law power of the executive and parliamentarians are fused
together. The British system is a parliamentary executive,
1990/28 Nov Exercise 7.2 the parliament hold offices for long as it commands the
Which branch of government is responsible for confidence of that parliament.
implementing law? The
A. public service commission B. local government Non parliamentary executives: The executives in the USA
C. executive D. legislature E. judiciary are chosen independently of the legislature and holding
office for a fixed term.
111
Increased Powers and Functions of the Executive Arm items, medication, transportation and housing will be
of Government affordable.
1. Power to initiate bills: The executives are the initiators 4. Development occurs: When our leaders are honest
of bills to the legislature. and straight forward in governance, human and
2. Emergency period: In the modern government, the material development will occur in the country.
power to emergency period is empowered to the Human beings will be given adequate training and
presidential offices, government and legislature must education. Infrastructural facilities will be fully
work together. provided and maintained. Industries will be built and
3. Policy–making: Policies implemented by the made to function well.
executive which was decided at party levels sometimes 5. Hardwork occurs: When the chief executive of the
erode the powers of the legislature. country, states and local governments are honest and
4. Control of the armed forces: The executive controls have integrity, the citizens will be hard working. The
the armed forces and the police and other executive country will witness the recognition and reward for
instruments thereby adding to the growth of influence merit and excellence. There will be dignity of labour
and power of the executive in modern governmental and innovation in the country.
system. 6. Social justice and equality: There will be equal
5. Quasi–Judicial powers: Is the power to pardon (the access to the basic necessities of life. There will be
prerogative of mercy). This has added to the growth of equal access to political power. The poor and the
the powers of the executive. disadvantaged will be protected. Equity, fairness and
6. The issue of dependence: The judiciary and the social security will be witnessed in the country.
legislature depend on the executive to affect their
decisions. Control of Power of the Executive
7. Power of delegation: The executive exercises the The executive is subject to some control measures to
power of delegated legislation. This goes against the prevent its abuse of power. Control can be exercised over
theory of separation of power and also erodes the the executive in the following ways:
power of the legislative arm of government. 1. Constitutional limitation: Constitutional checks are
placed on the exercise and functions of the executive.
2000/4 Nov Exercise 7.6 This may involve exercise of legislative authority
Why have the powers of the executive arm of government which involves the weakening of the power of the
increased in recent times? executive through amendment of certain laws. The
legislature can enact a new law to erode the powers of
Honesty and Integrity of the Executive the executive. It can even pass a vote of no confidence
Honesty and integrity are hallmarks of every good on the government.
government. Honesty and integrity entail truthfulness and 2. The media: This is by playing the role of the watch-
consistency of actions, values, methods, measures, dog, as the fourth estate of the realm, the mass media
principles, expectations and outcomes of the day-to-day controls the executive by beaming a searchlight on its
activities of the executive. The quality of the character of activities.
the executive should be evident in their functions as an arm 3. Role of public opinion: Public opinion is the
of government. The Chief executive who may be the barometer through which the performance of any
President of the country, the Governor at the state level or government is determined by the masses. The opinion
the local government chairman and his staff must be of members of the public on executive actions and
upright, truthful and straight forward in their dealings. policies may make the government unpopular. A
They must uphold the principles of the constitution and popular opinion may lead to the erosion of the powers
abide by their oath of office. Transparency and not and influence of the cabinet, or protest on certain
corruption should be the watchword of the executive. This national issues.
helps to check the power of the executive. 4. Appointments: Some appointments and decisions of
the executive has to be approved by the legislature in
The advantages of honesty and integrity are: presidential system of government.
1. Accountability: The chief executive and those in the 5. Change of government: A change of government by
executive will evaluate themselves both during and peaceful or violent means could be used if the
after their tenure. The citizens can easily asses them to government becomes unpopular or unreasonable.
know if they lived to their oath of office or not. 6. Parliamentary system of government: There is the
2. Bribery and Corruption: A saying goes that if the emergence of “Shadow cabinet” or the “Opposition
head is rotten, the whole body will be rotten. It goes bench” in the system.
that if the leaders are corrupt, the followers will be 7. Presidential system of government: In this system, the
corrupt. The corrupt leaders will not be comfortable in president can be impeached, while in the parliamentary
fighting against bribery and corruption. However, if system, a vote of no confidence can be passed in the
our leaders are upright and sincere in all their executive.
activities, bribery and corruption will be eliminated 8. Availability of resources and control of budget: The
from the society. effective operation of the power of the executive
3. Standard of living: The standard of living of the depends on the provision of sufficient funds for its
people will improve. The quality of goods and services activities. The legislature may reduce the estimates
available to Nigerians will improve. The cost of food (budget) of the executive. This will affect the
112
performance of the executive since it has no authority 2. Amendment of the constitution and laws: The legislature
to spend public money without legislative consent. amends the constitution. In our country (Nigeria) the
9. Periodic elections: The power of the electorate to vote a legislature can amend certain clauses of the constitution
government out of power also exercises some degree of with a two third majority.
control on the executive. 3. Control of the executive arm of government: It maintains
10. Compliance with international treaties and agreement: control over policy and administrative actions of the
The executive has constitutional power to sign treaties and executive to check its excesses. It can invite any top
enter into agreement with other countries. It is compulsory government functionary for clarifications during question
for the government to honour international treaties and time in parliament.
agreements. Also, the domestic policies must not 4. Approval of annual budget of government: It approves
undermine international obligations. A nation must the annual budget of the country. The legislature has power
interact with other actions to ensure world peace and over government’s purse. Government cannot spend the
harmony. nation’s money without the approval of the legislature.
11. Legislative Control: The power of the executive can also 5. Approval of key appointments of government: It gives
be controlled by the legislature through the delay or approval to nominees of the chief executive. The
disapproval of executive nominations of top official legislature approves major appointments to key positions
appointees. such as the ministers, advisers, ambassadors and other top
12. Challenged in courts: Actions of the executive could be government officials. This is done to ensure that only
challenged in courts and such acts could be declared capable and honest persons are appointed into such
unconstitutional, null and void. positions.
13. Judicial application: Certain writs e.g. habeas corpus, 6. Power of Impeachment: It has power to impeach the Head
mandamus, injunction etc. could be used to compel the of state if he commits a very serious offence.
executive to do certain things. 7. Power of Investigation: It can carry out investigation on
issues of national interest concerning government officials,
THE LEGISLATURE organizations, individuals, etc. it does this by setting up
The legislature is also known as parliament in some countries. committees to thoroughly examine issues of public
The legislature is an organ of government with primary concerns.
functions of law making. It is the centre of decision making and 8. Quasi-judicial function: It performs semi-judicial
amendment of constitution in the state. The legislature has two function in some countries. The legislature may set up a
main types, namely unicameral and bicameral legislature. committee to investigate a case of gross misconduct by any
Unicameral legislature refers to one (single) chamber or public officer.
legislature house, while bicameral legislature consists of two 9. Representation: It is a form of representative government
chambers or legislative houses. in Nigeria as members of the National Assembly represent
the interest and values of people from different
The legislature bears different names in different countries. constituencies.
In Nigeria, it is known as National Assembly which 10. Administrative control: The legislature exercise control
comprises the Senate and the House of Representatives. It over the administrative authorities, e.g. departments,
is called Congress in the United States, while in Britain, it corporation and other administrative agencies. It also
is called the Parliament. exercise financial control over them and can as well
abolish them at will.
11. Ratification of treaties: The legislature ratifies treaties and
external agreements entered into by the executive arm of
government.
12. Approval for the declaration of war: The legislature
approves the declaration of war and a state of emergency
proposed by the executive.
13. Public enlightenments on national issues: It performs
enlightenment campaigns for the citizens through its
activities like debates, newsletters, television and radio
talks, and the conduct of public hearings. The legislators
are required to report the proceedings of the house to their
constituencies.
14. Settlement of disputes: It often settles disputes among the
The National Assembly communities within a state. Motions may be passed to
intervene on certain issues that are likely to breach the
Functions of the Legislature peace of the nation.
The functions of the legislature are as follows: 15. A forum for public opinion: The legislature serves as
1. Lawmaking: The primary function of the legislature is law a forum for the citizens to air their grievances. It speaks
making. It makes or enacts laws for the promotion of the for the people on the business of the government. The
promotion of the welfare of the people and for the socio- legislature serves as a medium through which the
economic development of the country. The legislature is demands and interests of various groups making up the
also empowered to examine and discuss bills before society are articulated and aggregated until a
passing them to law. compromise is arrived at for the interest of the state.
113
16. Oversight function: Oversight is a major function of 1989/26 Exercise 7.9
the legislature. It refers to monitoring of policies and The primary function of a legislature is the
activities of the executive. Members of parliament may A. appointment of the president B. making of laws
pay visits to the sites of projects to confirm or ascertain C. voting bills D. monitoring of the judiciary
level of performance. Legislators may question the E. re assignment of civil servants
government functionaries during question time and
also has authority to summon executive members to 2002/6 Nov Exercise 7.10
parliament to answer questions relating to their Which of the following is a function of the legislature?
departments. By this, the public is kept informed of A. limiting press freedom B. arresting criminals
government activities. Committee system is normally C. approving government policies
adopted to carry out its oversight function. It allows D. interpreting the constitution
effective legislation in parliament as well as gives
expert advice to the whole house on some technical 1993/4 Exercise 7.11
issues. One way by which the legislature checks the executive is by
A. delaying the promotion of some ministers
B. ordering the dismissal of corrupt cabinet ministers
2003/29 Neco C. withholding the salaries of ministers
The law making body in Nigeria is called the D. demanding the review of any executive action
A. congress B. presidium C. national assembly E. appealing to the Supreme Court
D. parliament
Answer
Nigeria’s federal legislative body is called National Types of Legislature
Assembly, consists of two houses. The House of There are two types of legislature and these are
Representatives and the Senate. All members of the National 1. Bi-cameral legislature.
Assembly are elected directly every four years. (C) 2. Uni-cameral legislature.

Bi-Cameral Legislature
2000/42 Neco Bi-cameral legislature is a legislative system with two
legislative chambers or houses. The two chambers or
In the federation of Nigeria, states are equally represented
in the Houses are known as upper and lower chambers in most
A. senate B. House of Representatives countries. The lower house is referred to as the second
C. Judiciary D. National population Commission chamber. Members of the lower chamber are usually
Answer elected through universal adult suffrage, while members of
In Nigeria, all state have equal representatives in the the upper house may be elected or nominated based on
senate, three (3) each from the state and one (1) hereditary rites. Bicameral legislature exists in Nigeria,
representing the federal capital which of them 109 senatorsBritain, the United States, Canada and Australia. In
in the federation. (A) Nigeria, the legislative Houses are known as National
Assembly: the House of Representatives and the Senate. In
2001/18 Neco USA, their legislative houses are called congress: The
Apart from making laws, the legislature has the important House of Representatives (Lower Houses) and the Senate
function of (Upper House). Britain is called the Parliament: The House
A. implementing executive decisions of Common (Lower house) and the House of the Lords
B. advising the judiciary C. appointing the civil servants (Upper House).
D. checking the executive power
Answer In Nigeria, we have 109 senators and 360 members of the
The legislative (National Assembly) has a check on House of Representatives, USA have 435 members of
executive by being able to pass, with 2/3 majority, a bill House of Representative and 100 senators. The Britain
over president’s veto. Legislative has a further check on have 650 common members and 300 lords in their upper
executive through power of discrimination in house.
appropriation of funds for operation of executive. (D)
1998/12
2019/25 NABTEB Exercise 7.7 The legislature of a federal system of government is
The Nigerian legislature at the federal level is called usually
A. House of Assembly B. House of Senate A. unicameral B. multicameral C. bicameral
C. National Assembly D. parliament D. rigid E. flexible
Answer
1989/5 Exercise 7.8 The federal system of government legislature are usually
The laws which the state legislators make normally pass bicameral legislature that have two houses, it’s generally called
through the National Assembly. The National Assembly is divided into
A. the commissioner B. the process of deliberations two chambers, the senate and the House of Representatives; it
C. the judiciary D. Some committee in the civil service is also called the lower and upper houses. Some even
differentiate them with their furniture red (senate) and green
chamber (House of Representatives). (C)
114
1997/2 Nov Merits of Bicameral Legislature
What is bicameralism? Give reasons why some states 1. Law–making: Bicameral legislature makes it possible for
adopt it. better laws to be made in the country, since bills are
Answer properly debated on in bicameral legislature.
Bicameralism can be defined as a process or act of carrying 2. Equal and adequate representation: Bicameral
out legislative functions by the two chambers of the legislature makes room for equal and adequate
National Assembly in a country. The two chambers are the representation of the people in a federal state.
lower and upper chambers. The following countries have 3. Checks and Balances: The existence of two chambers
two legislative chambers e.g. Nigeria: House of provides checks and balances on the legislative process.
Representative (lower chamber) and the senate (upper 4. Mature and experience persons: Bicameral legislatures
chamber), in Britain: House of Common (lower chamber) gives room for people of political and administrative
and House of Lords (Upper) and in USA: House of experience since each state will be well represented.
Representative (lower) and the senate (upper). 5. Check on the Executive: The existence of a second
chamber provides a more effective check on the executive
Reasons why some states adopt it than a single – chamber legislature. The party in power can
1. Bicameralism gives room for thoroughness in the easily control and manipulate a single chamber legislature
process of law making because the two houses do have but such may not be easy in bicameralism.
opportunities to debate and examine the bill properly 6. Defends Individual freedom: The bicameral
before becoming laws. legislature defends individual freedom against the
2. The existence of two chambers, give a good platform tyranny of a legislature that is made up of a single
of checks and balances of the legislative process. interest.
3. The second chamber makes room for mature and 7. Stability enthroned: The adoption of bicameralism
experienced persons to participate in the process of law creates an equilibrium between conservatism and
making. radicalism. The younger people are known for their
4. Bicameral system helps to guarantee equality of seas radical postures while older persons are conservative.
and protects minority interests. The members of the upper house are older while those
5. A bicameral legislature is a safe-guard against the of the lower house are younger in age and their level
deposition of a single chamber. of intelligence differs.
6. The delay in law making creates the opportunity for 8. Proper scrutiny: A bicameral legislature protects the
people to scrutinize properly the bill before it becomes interest of minority groups to be properly expressed on
a law. the issues concerned before bills are passed by
7. Most modern states embrace bicameral legislature delaying the bills in the two chambers.
because it is more democratic. 9. Division of labour: Bicameral legislatures result in
8. Bicameralism defends individual freedom against the division of labour in certain aspects of the functions
tyranny of a legislature that is made up of a single performed by the legislature between the two
interest. legislative chambers.
9. The second chamber allows for the special 10. Despotism of a single chamber: The second chamber
representation of interest groups, such as socio – of bicameral legislature checks the excesses and
economic, traditional and aristocratic. guides against the tyranny or dictatorship of a one
chamber.
2001/29 Neco 11. More democratic: Most modern states embrace bi–
When there is a second chamber in a federal state, it cameral legislation because it is more democratic.
A. makes up for the imbalance in the representation in the
lower house Demerits of Bicameral Legislature
B. ensures that the judiciary is independent of the 1. Dumping ground: The second chamber of bicameral
executive legislature may be used as a dumping ground for
C. reduces the power of the electorate political rejects at the polls, if its membership is by
D. alone makes laws for the country nomination or appointment.
Answer 2. Duplication of functions: A bicameral legislature
The second chamber which is the senate made up equal encourages duplication of functions, since they
representations for all states of the federation. (A) perform the same function.
3. Delay in law making: Bicameral legislature is very
2006/16 Neco Exercise 7.12 slow and time-consuming in lawmaking process. This
The number of chambers in a bicameral legislature is brings delay in making law.
A. four B. three C. two D. one 4. Wastage of Resources: Bicameral legislatures waste a
lot of public fund because the government will try to
2010/26 Neco Exercise 7.13 maintain the two legislative chambers and the
Bicameral legislature is the same as paraphernalia that go with it.
A. legislature with two chambers 5. Time of emergencies: A bicameral legislature is not
B. one chamber legislature good for passing bills in times of emergencies because
C. the upper house in any legislature of delays that result from having two chambers. Many
D. the lower house in any legislature legislators have to go through the bills before they are
passed or carried out.
115
6. Rivalry: It may lead to unhealthy rivalry between the 2010/25 Neco Exercise 7.14
two legislative houses because of the problem of The most important function of the upper House in a
power distribution. This may lead to unhealthy federation is to
competition between the two houses. A. serve as the highest court of the land
7. Inactiveness as a result of aging: In a bicameral B. ensure equal representation of the component units
legislature, most of the members assigned in the C. provide a place for retired politicians in the legislature
second chamber have advanced in age and are mostly D. invites politicians for questioning
inactive.

2017/17 Neco 2001/19 Neco Exercise 7.15

Bicameralism is necessary in a federal state to demonstrate Which of the following is a demerit of bicameral
that legislature?
A. the executive is adequately represented A. the scope for political participation is limited
B. localized interests receive adequate representation B. passing of bills into acts is delayed
C. representation in the upper house is based on population C. no safeguard for the minority group
D. representation of the rich in society is taken care of D. there is tendency for despotic rule
Answer
Bicameralism is necessary in a federal state because of our 1998/9 Nov Exercise 7.16
diversity in nature to demonstrate that localized interests A second chamber is essential because it
receive adequate representation that’s minority interest. A. prevents hasty passage of laws
(B) B. maybe used as a means of finding employment for
political rejects
2013/21 Neco C. may not delay law making process especially in time of
Bicameralism is adopted because it emergency
A. guards against intra party clashes D. strengthens the authority of local government
B. prevent arbitrary law making E. is an experience venture
C. projects party manifestoes
D. is the only system available
Answer Unicameral Legislature
Bicameralism is adopted because it prevent arbitrary law Unicameral legislature is a system of a single chamber
making. Arbitrary law is the hallmark of domination, (single legislative house) in a country. The legislative
illegitimate power, despotism. The expression arbitrary functions are performed by only one chamber with
power usually refers to an authority that is free to act members directly elected by the electorate. It functions
following nothing but his own will, without considering better in a country with a small population and is usually
any limits and constraints. (B) operated in a unitary state. Israel, Bulgaria are examples
of countries with unicameral legislature.
1990/4 GCE
Outline the merits and demerits of bicameral legislature Merits of Unicameral Legislature
Answer 1. Quick lawmaking process: It allows speedy passage
Merits of bicameral legislature of bills into laws.
1. Law making have two houses for the debate and laws 2. Time-saving: It does not allow time wasting by
were not made or passed in haste. members of parliament. It is easy to reach a consensus
2. Checks and balances on the legislative process. by members.
3. It encourages equal representatives even by the 3. Absence of rivalry: It prevents conflict which
minorities. normally occurs between the two houses of parliament.
4. It defends individual freedoms 4. Less expensive to run: Unicameral legislature
5. Representation of interest groups. prevents wastage of resources. It reduces the cost of
6. It allows for division of labour. running the government by avoiding duplication of
7. It checks the excesses of the executive. structures and functions. The money for payment of
8. Proper scrutinizes of bills. salaries and allowances for members of the second
9. Its more democratic chamber can be used for other useful economic
ventures.
Demerits 5. Promotion of national interest: Members of
1. Too expensive to run. parliament often show commitment and loyalty to the
2. Delaying the passage of bills. nation as against primordial sentiments.
3. Time of emergencies is not always good for these long 6. Political dumping grounds: Political dropouts have no
processes. access to power as only the best brains are elected to
4. Rivalry between the two houses may exist. serve the country.
5. Waste of resources both human, materials and 7. Ideal for small country: A uni–cameral legislature is
financial. ideal for small countries with homogeneous social and
6. Dumping grounds for those rejected at the polls by the economic organisation.
electorate can be nominated.

116
Demerits of Unicameral Legislature 9. Federal states adopt Unitary states adopt
1. Unsatisfactory bills: The bills are unsatisfactory as it bicameral unicameral legislature.
is not properly checked and some are hastily passed 10. Useful to countries with Useful to countries with
into laws against public interest. large populations. small populations.
2. Enthronement of tyranny: It can also lead to the 11. Most countries that Most countries that
establishment of tyranny and abuse of their powers. practice bicameral practice unicameral
3. Representation: There is no provision for adequate legislative are not legislative are culturally
representation of different interest groups in the culturally homogenous. homogenous.
legislature. 12. It promotes democracy. It does not promotes
4. It is unpopular: The system is unpopular and not too democracy.
suitable for good democratic government.
5. Dictatorship: The legislature can easily dominate the
executive. It may result in abuse of power, as there is Honesty and Integrity of the Legislature
no second chamber to serve as watchdog over Honesty and integrity in the legislature connotes that
legislators. Thus, a dictatorial regime can easily members of the parliament are found to be men and women
emerge. of honour and integrity. This is important because the fate
6. Executive Control: The executive can easily control and future of the entire nation, i.e. the people they represent
the parliament. lies in the hands of the legislature. Honesty and integrity
7. Work Burden: It allows for much burden of work in go hand in hand.
the hands of the legislators.
8. Federal System: It may not be appropriate for a Honesty simply means truthfulness and straight
federal system of government. forwardness. An honest person does not intend to deceive
or to manipulate the truth. He speaks what actually he
believes to be true.
2009/28 Neco Exercise 7.17 Integrity is personal honesty. It is the ability to act
A system whereby there is only one legislative chamber according to one’s beliefs and value at all times.
parliament is referred to as
A. unicameral legislature B. confederal legislature Integrity means consistency, priority and uncorruptedness.
C. monarchial legislature D. bicameral legislature It is honesty and truthfulness or accuracy of one’s actions.
Integrity avoids unwarranted exceptions for a particular
2005/19 Neco Exercise 7.18 person or group. It involves universal application. In law,
A unicameral legislature has it applies to those in positions of authority and to those led.
A. two houses B. one house C. three houses It requires that one should not act according to any rule that
D. one head of state one would not wish to see generally followed. For
examples one should not steal unless one would want to
2015/16 Neco Exercise 7.19 live in a world in which everyone is a thief.
Quick decision making is an advantage of
A. unicameralism B. constitutionalism From all these, one can easily say that honesty and integrity
C. federalism D. republicanism are very important in law making. Our legislators in the
National Assembly (Senate and House of Representatives),
State House of Assembly and local government councilors
Differences between Bicameral and Unicameral must be honest in their duties. They must also have
Legislature integrity. When these occur, utmost benefits are derived.
Bicameral Unicameral a. Good laws: They will make good laws. The laws made
1. Checks and balances Absence of checks and will be for the good of all citizens of the country. They
present. balance. will not make laws that will benefit a section or a group
2. Two legislative houses Only one legislative of people.
present. houses exists. b. Oversight duties: One of the oversight duties of the
3. It represents different It does not represent legislators is to monitor, evaluate and supervise the
segments of the society different segments of the activities of government establishments, ministries
fairly. society fairly. and departments. They will ensure that these
4. Very expensive to Less expensive to operate organizations do their jobs very well. In the end, peace
operate. and progress reign in the society.
5. Slow in passing bills. It quick in passing bills. c. Discipline: When honesty and integrity exist in our
6. Protects interests of Does not protect interest legislative houses, there will be self-control and self-
minorities. of minorities. restraint among the members. The rule of law is
7. Unhealthy rivalry exists Unhealthy rivalry does respected. Both the legislators and the citizens will
among the two not exist because only a obey rules and regulations. There will be orderliness in
chambers. house exists. the legislatures.
8. It prevents dictatorship. It encourages
dictatorship.

117
BILLS A bill is proposed legislation under consideration by a
The legislative arm of government makes law for a state. legislature. A bill does not become law until it is passed by
A bill is proposed legislation under consideration by a the legislature and in most cases, approved by the
legislature. A bill does not become law until it is passed by executive. Thus a motion is a formal proposal put forward
the legislature and in most cases, approved by the for the consideration of the house or a select committee
executive. Once a bill has been enacted into law, it is called while a bill is a draft of a proposed law based upon the
an act of the legislature or a statute. A bill is the draft of a motion. In general, a motion cannot become a law but it
legislative proposal, which becomes a law after receiving can lead to the development of a bill that may see the light
the approval of both the house of the parliament and the of the day and eventually be passed by both houses of the
assent of the president. parliament to finally become a law.

The sub-parts of a bill are known as clauses, while the sub- A motion becomes a bill when it has been adopted and later
parts of an act are known as sections. passed and sent for the approval of both houses of
The preparation of a bill may involve the production of a parliament.
draft bill prior to its introduction as a bill into the
legislature. The legislature gives bills numbers as they 1998/11
progress. In the legislature, a private member’s bill is
A. introduced by a member of parliament
Types of Bills B. related to matters of local interests
There are four types of bills: C. related to matters of sanitary nature
1. Public bill or government bil:l A public bill is a D. introduced by the executive
proposed law that affects the public as a whole that is E. introduced by a member of cabinet
why it is been called government bill. In the legislative Answer
process, a public bill is a bill which proposes a law of A private bill is normally introduced by a parliamentarian
general application throughout the jurisdiction in or law maker. (A)
which it is proposed, and which if enacted will hence
become a public law or public act. It is usually a bill 2000/41 Neco
proposed by the executive arm of government. It The bill introduced by a member of the legislature is
requires seven days notification before the bill can be known as
introduced to the house. A. a private member’s bill B. an executive bill
2. Private member’s bills: This is a bill introduced by C. a state bill D. a political party’s bill
any member of the parliament in his/her own private Answer
capacity. The members of parliament are free to A private member’s bill is the bill introduced by a member
introduce bills on any area of their interest. This is of the legislature. (A)
unlike public bills which apply to everyone within
their jurisdiction. This bill introduced by a 2002/17 Nov
parliamentarian or law maker requires one month A proposal in the legislature that may later become law is
notices before introduction in the house. called
3. Private bill: This is a bill that is sponsored by an A. motion B. explanation C. petition D. bill
organized institution or person outside the parliament. Answer
It often focuses on private/local interests of a particular A bills is a proposal in the legislature that may later
body or locality. become a law. (D)
4. Appropriation bill: This is also known as money bill
or financial bill. It is concerned with budgeting in a 2012/9 Neco
country that is, the raising and spending of public A bill is a draft which is awaiting the consideration of the
money. It is the most important bill in the legislature. A. executives B. party clauses C. legislature
It is usually introduced by the executive arm of D. judiciary
government. Answer
A bill is the draft of a legislative proposal which becomes
Author’s Question a law after receiving the approval of both the houses of the
Differentiate between Motion and Bill. parliament and the assent of the president. (C)
A motion is a proposal moved by a member of the house
(parliament) to attract the attention of the house to 2014/13 Neco
something urgent or of public interest. It may be merely an Statutes are
opinion on a matter that might be considered urgent to be A. bills passed by local government
taken up by the house for discussion. B. laws passed by the judiciary
C. bills passed by the executive
A motion may be discussed by the house and even passed D. laws passed by the parliament
by the house but it does not mean that any more action may Answer
logically follow. When the discussion on a motion takes Statute is an act of a legislature that declares, proscribes,
the shape of bill, it is deemed as proposed law that is or commands something, a specific law, expressed in
submitted to the parliament for consideration and approval. writing. A statute is a written law passed by a legislature
on the state or federal level. (D)
118
2002/17 Nov Exercise 7.20 amendments, but they are usually minor. A motion will
A proposal in the legislature that may later become law is be raised for the adoption of the bill and, thereafter, the
called bill is ready for the third reading.
A. motion B. explanation C. petition D. bill 5. Third reading: A third presentation of a bill to a
legislative assembly is the stage of a legislative process
2005/19 Nov Exercise 7.21 in which a bill is read with all amendments and given
A bill requires the president’s assent to become a law after final approval by a legislative body. In a bicameral
A. second reading B. committee stage C. report stage legislature, a clean copy of the bill is forwarded to the
D. third reading second house. The same legislative process is observed
in the second chamber.
1995/21 Exercise 7.22
An appropriation bill is NB: This stage does not allow major amendment, just
A. state boundary adjustment B. a state creation bill minor changes in the wordings.
C. private member bill D. a monetary bill
E. an impeachment bill 6. Joint Conference If the bill is passed, it is sent to the
upper house where it passes through similar stages as
passed in the lower houses. Any further amendment
The Procedure on How a Bill could Become a Law in suggestions requires both houses (lower and upper
the Parliament. houses) to have joint committee set up to polish the bill
A bill passes through many stages before it becomes an Act finally. The report is either accepted or rejected by the
or Law. The various stages are: joint conference. After passing the bill by the
A. Introduction: legislature, the clerk sends it to the president for assent.
Bills can be introduced using the following 7. Approval: Any bill passed by the legislature usually
procedures: requires the approval of the executive such as the
i. Leave: A motion is brought before the chamber monarch, president or governor to become law through
asking that leave be given to bring in a bill. Such appending of signature or proclamation. In few cases,
motion is then considered by the house on a day approval may be refused or reserved by the chief
appointed for the purpose. executive. The refusal is known as a veto in
ii. Government motion: In a jurisdiction where the presidential system. However, the legislature may be
executive can control legislative business, a bill able to override the veto by means of a super majority
may be brought in by executive fiat. vote.
A bill may come into force as soon as it becomes law
B. Legislative stages: or it may specify a later date to come into force. At
Bills are generally considered through a number of times, different parts of an act may come into force at
readings. difference times. The assenting to a bill is known as
1. First reading: The first stage of the bill is the bill Presidential Assent in Nigeria.
presentation. The clerk of the House could read out the 8. Promulgation: The act only takes effect from the date
title of the bill. At this point, there is no opposition it is published in the government gazette.
against the bill, the bill would be registered and printed
into leaflets for members to study. 2022/20 Neco
2. Second reading: The bill is now introduced by a After which of the following stages will a bill be taken to
member (law maker) or a minister, the bill would be the report stage in the parliament?
read the second time. The bill then goes for a second A. committee stage B. first reading C. report stage
reading. At this stage, the general merits of the bill are D. second reading E. third reading
considered by members. There is a full parliamentary Answer
debate on the contents of the bill. It is the critical stage After the committee stage in the parliament a bill be taken
of the bill when a bill may be killed or proposed for to the report stage if adopted it will be ready for the third
further consideration. There is a thorough debate at reading. (A)
this stage. However, it is out of order to criticise a bill
at this stage for technical defects in drafting. If the 2002/33 Neco
majorities are in favour, the bill will automatically After which of the following stages will a bill be said to
move to the next stage. have reached the report stage in parliament.
3. The committee stage: After the second reading, the A. committee stage B. first reading
bill is referred to a standing committee by the Rules C. second reading D. third reading
Committee, which considers the bill line by line by Answer
proposing amendments if necessary. It has power to If the majority carries the vote at the second reading, the bill
block or clear it for further debate. The bill is given would automatically move to the committee stage and
special consideration and attention. The standing thereafter to the report stage. (A)
committee examines the bill in detail, holds public
hearings, proposes amendments and makes reports.
4. The report stage: The standing committee reports
back to the committee of the whole house with the
revised bill. The bill may be subjected to further
119
2019/11 NABTEB Magistrate Court, Sharia Court, Customary Court, Alkali
The refusal of the president of a country to sign a bill Court, etc. It is only the Supreme Court that has power over
passed by the parliament into law after all necessary constitutional interpretation in the country. The judges are
consultations is called regarded as members of the bench while the lawyers are
A. vote of no confidence B. veto members of the bar. The selection of judges must be based
C. collective responsibility D. lobby on laid down rules, merit and competence to ensure a
Answer strong and independent judicial institution for the
Veto is a constitution right given to the president to reject dispensing of justice.
decisions or proposal made by a law making body. (B)

1992/3 Exercise 7.23

Explain the various stages of passing bill into law.

Procedure for Constitutional Amendment

1. Legislative amendment procedure: This has to do
with those in which the legislature may make
constitutional amendments, but subject to certain The Supreme Court of Nigeria
restrictions, not in line with the passing of ordinary
laws. This is always with written constitutions and Features of the Judiciary in a State
about two third of the two Houses of parliament must 1. Impartiality: Judiciary is an organ that is not partial in
approve it. handling of cases. The judiciary is not a creation of the
2. Referendum and initiative amendment procedure: executive or legislative and so cannot be influenced by
This is the people’s consent based on the majority for them. The judiciary sees everybody as equal before the
constitutional amendment. For example, in law and ensures fair treatment of clients before the court.
Switzerland, about 50,000 voters through referendum 2. Judiciary as the interpreter of the constitution: It is
and initiative are required for the passing of such the duties of the judiciary to interpret the constitution
amendments. of the state properly based on the case.
3. Federal amendment procedure: The amendments is 3. Political neutrality: The judiciary comprises of the
with the component units of the federation and is judges, barristers, lawyers, and Senior Advocates of
essentially the consent of the majority of the voters. Nigeria (SAN). Judges do not engage in partisan politics
About three quarter of the units or states making up the but acts as arbiter in cases of political disagreement. An
federation must be obtained before the amendment arbiter is a person with power to decide a dispute or a
scales through as in the U.S.A., Nigeria etc. This is person or agency whose judgment or opinion is
done to protect the smaller units from being dominated considered authoritative.
by the larger ones. 4. Permanence: The judiciary is a permanent institution
4. Judicial Amendment: A constitution especially a that cannot be erased, it remains and exists from one
written one can be amended through judicial political regime to another. They are the custodian of the
interpretations of some sections of the constitution. state laws.
5. Conventional and Customary Amendment: Some 5. Stable tenure of office of judges: Under article 35.4.1 of
sections of unwritten constitution may change as a the constitution no judge of the Supreme Court or the
result of long usage which will affect some High Court may be removed from office except for stated
conventional acts and customary practices. misbehavior or incapacity, and then only upon resolution
6. Coup d’état Amendment: Though this is an passed calling for his removal. Stable tenure increases
unconstitutional act, some sections of the constitution skill by taking advantage of experience.
are suspended or amended with decrees when military 6. Professionalism: The judiciary is made up of judges who
junta intervenes in the politics of a country. are legal experts. This enhances the integrity and
efficiency of jurists. A jurist is an expert of law or
someone who researches jurisprudence. Such a person
JUDICIARY can be an academic, legal writer, law lecturer and law
Judiciary is the third organ of government. The judiciary is practitioner (lawyer) depending on legislation in the
the court system of any state. It is made up of courts and respective jurisdiction.
judges. The basic function of the judiciary is the 7. Independence: Article 35.2 of the constitution state that
interpretation of law and settlement of disputes. In Nigeria, all judges shall be independent in the exercise of their
the judiciary has two main classes. judicial functions and subject only to the constitution and
i. Superior courts; and the law. The judiciary is made independent of the
ii. Inferior courts executive and the legislature, in order to avoid undue
interferences and delays in the judicial process and to
The superior courts are the Supreme Court, the Court of promote separation of power.
Appeal, Industrial Court, and State and Federal High 8. Judicial immunity: Judges enjoy judicial immunity in
Courts. The Supreme Court is the highest and final the course of carrying out their duties. They are free from
appellate courts. It has the Chief Justice of Nigeria (CJN) arrest or prosecution for statements uttered in the process
as the head of the judiciary. The inferior courts include the of determining cases.
120
9. Due process: The judiciary operates according to the 9. Determination of electoral petitions: The judiciary
legal requirement that the state must respect all legal hears petitions from aggrieved politicians on election
rights that are owed. matters.
10. Code of conduct: A code of conduct is a written 10. To conduct judicial inquires: Judges are very often
collection of the rules, principles, values, and called upon to head enquiry commissions constituted
employee expectations, behaviour and relationships to enquire into serious incidents resulting from the
that an organization considers significant and believes alleged errors omissions on the part of government or
are fundamental to their successful operation. The some public servants. Commissions of enquiry headed
judiciary has prescribed code of conduct in integrity. by a single judge are also sometimes constituted for
` investigating important and complicated issues and
Functions of the Judiciary problems.
1. Interpretation and application of laws: One of the
major functions of the judiciary is to interpret and 2005/21 Neco
apply laws to specific cases. In the course of deciding The judiciary is an organ of government which
the disputes that come before it, the judges interpret A. rules the country according to laws
and apply laws. Every law needs a proper B. makes laws for the country
interpretation for getting applied to every specific case. C. gives legal backing to government’s budget
This function is performed by the judges. The law D. settle disputes in accordance with the law
means what the judges interpret it to mean. Answer
2. Guardian of the constitution: The judiciary acts as the Judiciary is the organ of government that interprets the laws and
guardian of the constitution. The constitution is the settles disputes in accordance with the laws of the land. (D)
supreme law of the land and it is the responsibility of
the judiciary to interpret and protect it. For this 2009/26 Neco
purpose, the judiciary can conduct judicial review over The head of the judiciary arm of government is known as
any law for determining as to whether or not it is in A. Chief Justice B. Attorney-General
accordance with the letter and spirit of the constitution. C. a judge D. an advocate
In case any law is found ultra vires (unconstitutional), Answer
it is rejected by the judiciary and it becomes invalid for Attorney-General is the head of the judicial arm of
future. This power of the court is called the power of government. The Attorney General represents the state in
judicial review. legal proceedings. The Attorney General is legal adviser to
3. Protection of rights: The judiciary has the supreme each Government Department and certain public bodies. It
responsibility to safeguard the rights of the people. A also represents the public in all legal proceedings for the
citizen has the right to seek the protection of the enforcement of law and the assertion or protection of
judiciary in case his rights are violated or threatened to public rights. (B)
be violated by the government or by private
organisation or fellow citizens. In all such cases, it 2014/12 Neco
becomes the responsibility of the judiciary to protect Which of the following is not a function of the judiciary?
the rights of the people. A. settlement of disputes
4. Equity legislation: Where a law is silent or B. maintenance of law and order
ambiguous, or appears to be inconsistent with some C. interpretation of law D. protection of rights
other law of the land, the judges depend upon their Answer
sense of justice, fairness, impartiality, honesty and Maintenance of law and order are the duties of the
wisdom for deciding the cases. Such decisions always executive arm of government through the police not the
involve law making and it is usually termed as equity judiciary organ. (B)
legislation.
5. To give justice to the people: The first and foremost 2011/32 Exercise 7.24
function of the judiciary is to give justice to the people The institution connected with law adjudication is the
whenever they may approach it. It awards punishment A. judiciary B. police C. government
to those who after trial are found guilty of violating the D. executives
laws of the state or the rights of the people.
6. Settlement of disputes/conflicts: The courts settle 1993/2 Nov Exercise 7.25
disputes in a state by pronouncing judgment The organ of government that interprets the constitution is
accordingly. By this, it ensures peace relations among the
the citizens and institutions of government. A. executive B. judiciary C. parliament
7. Power to get its decisions and judgment enforced: D. presidency
The judiciary has the power not only to deliver
judgment and decide disputes, but also to get those 2004/3 Neco Exercise 7.26
enforced. It can direct the executive to carry out its What are the characteristics of the judiciary in a state?
decisions.
8. Advisory functions: Courts are often given the 2007/34 Exercise 7.27
responsibility to give advisory opinions to the rulers on The primary function of the judiciary is to
any legal matter. A. make laws B. enforce laws C. interprets laws
D. maintain law and order
121
2019/1 Neco Exercise 7.28 C. The judiciary is the supreme organ of the state
The constitutional power given to the judiciary to interpret D. the judiciary is responsible to the people
legislative acts, executive and administrative actions and E. judges are not influenced in the discharge of their duties
to declare its constitutionality or otherwise is A. judicial Answer
power B. separation of power Judiciary independence means that judges are not
C. judicial review D. administrative processes influenced in the discharge of their duties or function by
the other branch or private. (E)

The Independence of the Judiciary 2001/11 Neco

Judicial independence is the concept that the judiciary Judicial independence means that the courts are
should be independent from the other arms of government independent of the
(executive and legislature). That is, court should not be A. civil service and the bar
subject to improper influence from other arms of B. executive and the legislature
government or from private or partisan interests. The C. legislature and the monetary justice
judges must demonstrate fairness in the dispensation of D. executive and the military
justice. Answer
Judicial independence is the concept that the judiciary be
An independent judiciary means a justice system that is not independent from the other arms of government (executive
influenced by either the legislature or executive arm. It is and legislature). (B)
free to make decisions based upon laws, not upon men or
pressure from other groups. An independent judiciary is 2022/3 Exercise 7.29
created to guarantee equal justice to all. Outline five reasons for which the judiciary is kept
Judicial independence is a basic feature of a democratic independent of the control of the executive and legislature.
government and is necessary for the following reasons:
i. To enable the judges to act impartially in carrying out Ways by which the efficiency of the judiciary can be
their duties. guaranteed in safeguarding the rights of a citizen
ii. To ensure that the judges act without fear or favour and 1. Appointment: The appointment of the judges and
not to be partisan in the discharge of their duties. magistrates should be made by the judicial service
iii. To safeguard the fundamental rights of the citizens. commission based on the act of their promotion not by
iv. To enable the judges to have courage to declare any the executive or legislature.
action or policy of government unconstitutional if it 2. Dismissal: As long as the executive does not appoint
violates the provisions of the constitution or any other judges, they should also not be involved in their
law. dismissal.
v. To prevent abuse of power, particularly from the 3. Independence of the judiciary: Judges must be
executive. It gives the judges the power to check the independent from the absolute control of either the
excesses of the executive and legislators. executive or the legislature. The judiciary should be
vi. To ensure public trust and confidence in the judiciary. free from arbitrary control.
4. Promotion of judges: Promotion of judges and
magistrates should be done by judicial service
commission.
5. Remuneration: The remunerations of the judges in
terms of salaries, allowance and pensions must be
fixed and charged in the consolidated revenue funds of
the state. This is to ensure financial autonomy of the
judiciary. A judge cannot be harassed by reducing his
salaries.
6. Judicial immunity: Is a legal immunity which protects
judges and others employed by the judiciary from
liability resulting from their judicial actions. Judges
cannot be sued for whatever he/she says in the law
Scale of Justice court. Decisions of judges are not subject to debate in
the parliament.
2012/2a Neco 7. Separation of power: The theory of separation of
What is independence on the judiciary? powers must be followed carefully with principles by
Answer the three organs of government.
Judicial independence is the ability of courts and judges to 8. Security of tenure: The judges should have security of
perform their duties free of influence or control by other their tenure in office, as long as they abide by the
branch of government, whether governmental or private. constitution of the land with good behaviour. No other
arm of government should be given the legal right to
1992/12 remove such judge from his office.
Judiciary independence means that 9. Security: Security should be provided for judges in
A. judges are above the law their offices and homes, to avoid political and personal
B. judges can do no wrong intimidation.
122
10. Funding: The funding must be from the consolidated 10. Disregard for the constitution: In a military
fund through the judicial commission. The executive government, the laws are not adhered to. The
should keep its hand off funding the judiciary. provisions of constitution and judicial independence
11. Judges must not belong to any political party: Judges are disregarded for the decree.
should not belong or have the interest of any political
party at heart. So that there will be fair judgment, when 1997/9
necessary. The judiciary is independent when judges are
12. Establishment of judicial service commission: The A. popularly elected in political offices
commission would be in charge of appointment of judges, B. free to join any political party of their choice
their remuneration, security, immunity, promotion etc. C. free from external control and interference
D. empowered to amend the national constitution
Factors that Limit Judicial Independence E. absolutely free to control the executive and legislature
There are some restrictions which may undermine freedom Answer
of the judges in carrying out their functions. When the judiciary is independent, the judges are free from
1. Executive encroachment: The executive may try to external control and interference in their judicial duties.
bring the judiciary under its control. The threats of (C)
removal may reduce their impartiality in the
dispensation of cases, especially if government is 1995/6
involved in such matters. A judge may not be fair if The independence of the judiciary can be enhanced in all
there is a threat of dismissal from the government. In the following cases except where
African states, governments often manipulate judges A. judges are granted special immunity
to give judgments in their favour. This is against public B. judges are paid handsome remuneration
interest. C. judges are politically neutral
2. Supremacy of the parliament: Parliament is regarded D. the salaries of judges are drawn from a consolidated
as the supreme organ of government, especially in a fund
parliamentary system of government. In Britain, the E. the president is also the Chief Judge
legislature may revoke new laws to override judicial Answer
pronouncements. The constitution may even be The president can never be a chief judge because the
amended by the legislature to suit its own purpose. president is the chairman of the executive organ of
3. External influence: Some judges are members of government. (E)
secret societies and cults. A judge who belongs to such
secret societies tends to give protective cover to 1997/8
criminals or favour them in the determination of cases. An important reason for granting the judiciary the power
4. Constitutional limitations: There are some of judicial review is to enable it to
constitutional limitations on the exercise of power of A. uphold the supremacy of the constitution
the judiciary. Judges must conform to the provisions B. promote freedom of the press
of the law in the determination of cases. Judges must C. elevate the judiciary above the other organs
act on the basis of the provisions of the law as against D. demonstrate the independence of the judiciary
his personal sentiments and opinions. Answer
5. Party influence: Party influence undermines the Judiciary independence is the attributes granting the
power of judges. This is why a judge must not engage judiciary the power to judicial review. (D)
in partisan politics. A judge who is a member of a
political party may tend to favour his members who 1994/2
have cases before him. How can the efficiency of the judiciary be guaranteed in
6. Poor conditions of service: If the state does not treat safeguarding the rights of a citizen?
its judiciary well, it gives room for its independence to Answer
be abused. The efficiency of the judiciary can be guaranteed in
7. Inadequate personal and facilities: There are not safeguarding the rights of a citizen through:
enough personnel to handle the huge number of cases, 1. Appointment: A neutral body not the executive or the
especially in Nigeria. Also, there are no facilities to legislature to be the officials of judiciary.
enhance the speed and fair justice of the cases at hand. 2. Dismissal: The executive should not be involved in
These distorts the independence of the judiciary. dismissal of judges, since they were not involved in the
8. International law and treaties: The provisions of appointment process.
international laws and treaties often limit the power of 3. Separation of power: The theory of separation of
national courts on certain matters. The national courts powers must be followed carefully with principles by
must respect and honour international obligations on the three organs of government.
certain judicial cases. 4. Remuneration: The salaries and allowances of
9. Creation of special tribunals: The creation of certain judges/magistrate should come from consolidated
tribunals is an erosion of the power of the judiciary. fund.
Tribunals do not usually follow the strict legal 5. Funding: The funding must be from the consolidated
technicalities in the determination of issues. Often fund through the judicial commission. The executive
times, there is no room to appeal the decisions of such should keep its hand off funding the judiciary.
tribunals.
123
6. Immunity: Immunity of the judges will ensure Argument against plea bargaining
efficiency of the judges. 1. Outright abuse: Today plea bargain is used more
7. Promotion: The promotion should come from the frequently than before especially in the case of crime.
judicial service commission not from the executive or For example, a situation in which an accused person is
legislature approval. charged with embezzling public fund to the tune of
8. Independence of the judiciary: Judges must be totally N30 million, he agrees to return the sum of N15
free from every control and interference of the other million in a plea bargain. This is indeed wrong and
arms of government. should be corrected or rejected outright.
9. Political neutrality: Judges should avoid involvement 2. Limitation to the application of the rule of law: Plea
in political activities. bargaining is a limitation to the application of the rule
10. Security of tenure of office: Judges should have of law because all citizens are supposed to be treated
security of the office tenure, when they conduct equally whether rich or poor, no matter your status.
themselves well in the office. 3. Embezzlement of public fund: Many officials of
11. Security: Judges need to be provided with security in government even those that are custodians of public
their homes and offices. funds may began to embezzle funds with impunity.
4. Punishment of offenders: In plea bargaining, a
1995/6 Exercise 7.30 criminal case could be concluded without a trial that is
The judiciary can only be independent when a wrong signal to the judiciary organ.
A. law and order are maintained 5. Hard work will no longer be encouraged: Plea
B. people obey laws bargaining is an easy way out of making quick money
C. the executive arm performs its duties without much effort and hard work.
D. there is security of tenure of office for judges
E. it is headed by an independent citizen 2022/9 Neco
A legislation made by ministers prior to parliamentary
2007/36 Exercise 7.31 approval is provisional order
Establishment of an independent judiciary is a way of A. order-in-council B.
safeguarding citizens C. statutory instrument D. special procedure order E.
A. rights B. obligations C. privileges warrants
D. education Answer
A legislation made by ministers prior to parliamentary
1992/21 Exercise 7.32 approval is provisional order (B)
One of the measures contained in Nigeria’s independent
constitution to ensure the independence of the judiciary 2004/24 Neco
was the establishment of the The term unicameral means
A. Privy Council B. judicial service commission A. legislative assemblies B. parliamentary elections
C. public complaints commission C. one chamber parliament
D. judicial review commission D. complete absence of parliament
E. West African court of appeal Answer
A unicameral legislature is the system with one chamber
PLEA BARGAIN parliament. (C)
Plea bargain is an arrangement between prosecutor and
defendant whereby the defendant pleads guilty to a lesser 1984/11 UTME
charge in exchange for a more lenient sentence or an The three principal organs of government are the
agreement to drop other charges. The plea bargain also A. Legislature, public service and judiciary
called (plea agreement or plea deal) is an agreement in a B. political parties, executive and judiciary
criminal case between the prosecutor and the defendant C. executive, legislature and public corporations
whereby the defendant agrees to plead guilty to a particular D. legislature, executive and judiciary
charge in return for some concession from the prosecutor. E. judiciary, local government and legislature
Answer – D
A plea bargain allows a criminal case to be settled out of The three principal organs of government are the
court, usually well in advance of a trial. A plea deal allows legislature, executive and judiciary.
a defendant to plead guilty to one or more criminal counts
in exchange for a reduction in charges or sentences. Most 2009/22 (OAU, IFE)
criminal cases are ultimately resolved with the assistance The arm of government mainly responsible for the
of a plea bargain arrangement. 90 percent of all criminal implementation of law in Nigeria is the
cases negotiated plea deal for the resolution. A. judiciary B. police C. legislature D. executive
Answer – D
Plea bargaining is never automatic and may not be The executive arm of government is the arm that is
implemented arbitrarily. Here in Nigeria, the Attorney responsible for the implementation and formulations of
General of the Federation should be the head of policies (laws) in Nigeria.
prosecution. He is supposed to give his approval to any
plea bargaining agreement before such agreement could be
presented to the presiding judge.
124
2014/2015/24 (UI, IBADAN) 2010/24 Neco
The branch of government that sets agenda for other organs Which of the following measures will ensure the
is known as independence of the judiciary? Judges
A. the bureaucracy B. the legislature A. salaries must be handled by foreign banks
C. the executive D. the mass media B. salaries must be fixed and not subject to arbitrary review
Answer – C C. must not be separated from the executive
The executive arm of government is the branch that set D. must be controlled by the president
agenda for other organs of government. i.e. initiation of Answer
bills, etc. The measures which will ensure the independence of the
judiciary is that the judge’s salaries must be from
2003/3 UTME consolidated account and not subject to arbitrary review. (B)
A collegial executive is a government in which power is
vested in a
A. president B. monarch C. committee D. parliament 2001/17 Nov
Answer – C To be able to settle disputes between the federal
Collegial executive is a system in which a number of government and the component states, judiciary must be
people forms a council which rotates the chairmanship of A. subordinate to the federal government
the council and leadership of government in turns among B. subordinate to the government
its members. It was used during Olympio’s rulership in C. the supreme organ in the state
Togo. Due to its intricacies, it is not a common form of D. independent of the federal and unit government
administration. Answer
The judiciary must be independent from the federal and the
2017/9 UTME component units to be able to settle disputes among them,
A system of local council that allows for rotational without favouritism but based on the constitution. (D)
leadership is known as
A. single executive B. dual executive 2020/13 UTME
C. multi-executive D. collegiate executive As an executive, the commissioner is charged with the
Answer – D responsibility of
A collegial executive is a government in which power is A, implementing laws B. judicial overview
vested in a committee. A committee is a number of persons C. Giving loans D. making laws
who have been selected from a large body to deal with Answer – A
special administration. As an executive, the commission is charged with the
responsibility of implementing laws. Implementation is the
2018/2019/56 (NDU, BAYELSA) process of putting a decision or plan into effect; execution.
A collegial executive is a government in which power is The executive ensures that all policies formulated were
vested in a implemented in the system of the state.
A. monarch B. parliament C. president D. committee
Answer – D 2013/22 UTME
A collegial executive is a government in which power is The class that oversees the implementation of government
vested in a committee. decisions and policies is the
A. executive B. clerical C. technical D. administrative
2007/18 UTME Answer – A
The executive is mainly concerned with the Executive organ of government is the arm that oversees the
A. confirmation of appointments B. approval of treaties implementation of government decision and policies.
C. approval of budgets D. implementation of policies Oversees means to supervise (a person or their work),
Answer – D especially in an official capacity.
The executive primary function is formulation and
implementation of policies in the state. 1999/9 Neco
The end of each session of the legislature is called
2009/42 UTME A. dissolution B. suspension C. closure
The executive checks the excesses of the legislature D. prorogation
through Answer
A. assent to bills B. the use of veto power The end of each session of the legislature is called
C. the ratification of treasures D. issuance of orders prorogation. Prorogation is the action of proroguing, or
Answer – A ending an assembly, especially a parliament, or the
The executive checks the excesses of the legislature discontinuance of meetings for a given period of time,
through assent to bills. Assent is the process of expression without dissolution of parliament. The term is also used for
of approval or agreement. The executive have the the period of discontinuance between two legislative
constitutional power to assent the bills that passes through sessions of a legislative body. (D)
the legislative.

125
1999/25 Neco 1992/17
The life of the legislature comes to an end during Which of the following principal official of the house is
A. prorogation B. adjournment C. the end of a session not an elected parliamentarian? The
Answer A. leader B. speaker C. deputy speaker D. clerk
Dissolution is the action of formally ending or dismissing E. Chief whip
an assembly, partnership or official body. (C) Answer
A chief whip is an official of a political party not elected
2010/27 Neco as parliamentary whose task is to ensure party discipline in
A short break in parliamentary session is referred to as a legislature. This means ensuring that members of the
A. Suspension B. Recess C. dissolution party vote according to the party platform, rather than their
D. Termination own individual ideology or the will of their constituencies.
Answer The chief whip is appointed by the party. (E)
Recess is a general term for a period in which groups of
parliamentary are temporarily dismissed from their duties. (B) 2012/Neco/23
Which of the following acts as check on the executive in
2014/Neco/15 control of the finance of a state? The
Which of the following bodies has the right to change the A. Judiciary B. Civil service C. Press
laws of the country? The D. legislative
A. Judiciary B. Ombudsman C. legislature Answer
D. executive The legislative acts as a check on the executive in control
Answer of raising and spending of money and approves it as
The legislature is the only organ of government that is proposed by the executive. (D)
empowered with amendment of constitution with 2/3
majority. (C) 1996/SSCE/16
Question time in the legislature affords members the
2012/8 Neco opportunity to
Laws made by non–legislative bodies are called A. Raise important questions outside the agents
A. judicial review B. delegated legislation B. Challenge court decisions
C. criminal laws D. case law C. Executive government policies
Answer D. Ask more questions
Delegated legislation is law that is not passed by an Act of E. Criticism of government policies
Parliament but by a government minister or a delegated Answer
authority. (B) Question times are tools that the parliamentary members
use to raise important questions outside the agenda to seek
2008/13 Neco information or to press for action. They oblige ministers to
Abuse of powers by extra – legislative bodies set up by the explain and defend the work, policy decisions and actions
legislature is checked through of their departments. (A)
A. recall B. general election C. parliamentary control
1988/5 SSCE
D. impeachment
Discuss the functions of modern legislature.
Answer 1. Law making is the main function of the legislature.
Parliamentary control is a medium which the parliament This law making directs and helps to guarantee peace
holds a vote and force individual ministers, or even the and stability of a country.
entire government, to resign. This is also known as voting 2. Amendment of the constitution
on a declaration of no confidence. (C) 3. The legislative checks the excesses of the executive.
4. The legislature approves appointment of ministerial or
Ambassadorial made by the president.
1992/16
5. The legislature controls the public income and
The act of influencing legislation by persuading legislators expenditure.
is known as 6. The legislatures are linked between government and
A. electioneering B. lobbying C. gerrymandering the people.
D. socialization E. indoctrination 7. It investigates activities of other branches of
Answer government, if it is necessary.
Lobbying is a form of advocacy with the intention of 8. It educates and enlightens the citizens through their
debate (deliberation) sections.
influencing decisions made by the government by individuals
9. The legislatures are empowered by the constitution to
or more usually by lobby groups; it includes all attempts to impeach any president that refused to abide by the role
influence legislators and officials, whether by other of the constitution.
legislators, constituents, or organized group. (B) 10. It has the right to remove judges.

126
2011/31 Neco 2004/24 Neco
The body charged with the responsibility of preparing a The term unicameral means
new constitution in a country is the A. legislative assemblies B. parliamentary elections
A. electoral commission B. constituent assembly C. one chamber parliament
C. judicial service commission D. Electoral College D. complete absence of parliament
Answer Answer
A constituent assembly or constitutional assembly is a A unicameral legislature is the system with one chamber
body or assembly of popularly elected representative parliament. (C)
which is assembled for the purpose of drafting or adopting
a constitution or similar document. (B) 1978/41 UTME
The idea of collective responsibility in the executive
branch of government means that
2019/16 NABTEB A. no single member of the executive can take any
Which of the following is the symbol of authority of the responsible decision
legislature? B. a member of the executive has no out of decisions made
A. gavel B. speaker C whip D. mace in that body
Answer C. a member of the executive cannot publicly criticize
The mace of the senate also serves as a symbol of authority. decisions collectively made without first resigning
It is also displayed at the senate president’s rostrum every D. responsible within the executive is not unilateral
session. As with the House of Representatives, the E. parliament must ratify executive decision collectively
sergeant–at–arms also serves as the custodian of the mace. reached
(D) Answer – C
The collective responsibility of the organ of executive aim
2001/18 Nov of government is that a member of the executive cannot
The major role of the speaker of any legislature is to publicly criticize decisions collectively made without first
A. deliver speeches in the parliament resigning.
B. preside over sittings of the legislature
C. prepare the agenda of the house 1979/21 UTME
D. discipline party members in the legislature Which of the following governs a state in between
Answer meetings of the legislature?
The speaker of any legislature presides over sitting of the A. the legislative organs B. the upper house
legislature by making rules on procedures, announce the C. the lower house D. the executive E. the judiciary
results of votes, and the like. The speaker decides who may Answer – D
speak and has the powers to discipline members who break The Executive governs a state in between meetings of the
the procedures of the chamber. (B) legislature.

1978/3 UTME 1980/11

The executive is The executive is the body that
A. a committee of the legislature A. executes armed robbers B. interprets laws
B. the body that makes the law C. implements law D. enacts law
C. the body that executes the policies of government E. none of the above
D. the highest organ of government Answer – C
E. the body which enforces the law The executive is the body that implements laws.
Answer – C
The executive is the body that execute the policies of 1989/2
government. The executive is the branch of government The judicial organ of government is the body which
that is responsible for the day-to-day management of the A. implements the law B. makes the law
state. Under the doctrine of the separation of powers, the C. punishes law makers D. rewards law makers
executive is not supposed to make laws (roles of the E. interprets the law
legislature), nor to interpret them (roles of the judiciary). Answer
The judicial organ of the government is the body that
1978/21 UTME interprets the laws of the land. (E)
Which of the following would act for the Head of state
when he is out of the country 1990/4 Nov
A. the chief justice of the Supreme Court The main function of the judiciary is to
B. the chief of staff army A. serve as the watchdog of the executive
C. the chief of staff, supreme military headquarters B. enact laws C. execute the laws of the land
D. the chief of staff, air force D. interpret the laws E. protect the interest of accused
E. the general officer commanding first division persons
Answer – C Answer
The chief of staff, supreme military headquarters would act The main function or the primary assignment of the
for the head of state, when he is out of the country. judiciary is to interpret the law. (D)

127
2005/2 Neco 2016/24 Neco
To promote justice in a state, judges must The judicial order requiring a detained person to be
A. belong to the ruling party brought before a judge is the writ of
B. punish people who oppose them A. Habeas Corpus B. Mandamus C. prohibition
C. enjoy security of tenure of office D. Certiorari
D. not socialize with the people Answer
Answer Habeas Corpus is a writ requiring a person under arrest to
Judges must enjoy security of tenure in office, so that they be brought before a judge or into court, especially to secure
can promote justice in a state. (C) the person’s release unless lawful grounds are shown for
their detention. (A)
2006/18
The verdicts of judges which are binding on lower courts 2017/18 Neco
are called judicial Which of the following strengthens the power of the
A. orders B. precedents C. council D. oaths Supreme Court against the executive and the legislature?
Answer A. judicial precedent B. judicial review
Judicial precedents means the process whereby judges C. court injunction D. oath sharing
follow previously decided cases where the facts are of Answer
sufficient similarity. The doctrine of judicial precedent Judicial review is the power vested on the judiciary organ to
involves an application of the principle of state decisions, review some of the activities and actions of the executives and
i.e. to stand by the decided. (B) legislature of government, if necessary. (B)
2006/19 2002/4 Nov
The judicial organ of government is the body which The settlement of disputes in a democracy is the primary
A. initiate bills B. interprets the law C. makes law function of
D. maintain law and order A. judges of the law court B. council of Oba’s
Answer C. the executive D. the law makers
The judiciary is the third organ of government that is Answer
responsible for interpretation and application of the laws It is the duty of the judges of the law courts to settle
when they are broken or violated. It is made up of judges disputes in a democratic government through the
and the courts of law. (B) stipulation of the constitution. (A)

2008/24 2002/6 Nov

Which of the following protects liberties of individuals in Highlight the functions of the judiciary in your country.
the state? Answer
A. executive B. legislature C. judiciary 1. To give justice to the people.
D. cabinet 2. Interpretation and application of laws.
Answer 3. Role in law making.
The judiciary has the supreme responsibility to safeguard 4. Equity legislation.
the rights of the people in the state. (C) 5. Protection of rights.
6. Guardian of the constitution.
2012/25 Neco 7. Power to get it decisions and judgments enforced.
The responsibility of the judiciary is to 8. Running of the judicial administration.
A. make rules B. formulate decisions C. arrest 9. Advisory functions.
offenders D. adjudicate cases 10. To conduct judicial inquiries.
Answer 1996/1 Nov
It is the responsibility of the judiciary to adjudicate cases. What are the problems faced by the judiciary in the
Adjudication is the legal process of resolving a dispute. It performances of its functions.
is the formal giving or pronouncing of a judgment or Answer
decree in a court proceeding, also the judgment or decision 1. Judicial corruption: Transparency international, rank
given. The entry of a decree by a court in respect to the Nigeria among the most corrupt countries in the world.
parties in a case. (D) Unfortunately, the judiciaries were not exempted.
Judicial corruption is abuse of judicial power for
2013/24
private gain is no longer an aberration or isolated
When a court of law declares an action of the executive
conduct. Due to judicial corruption, people are
ultra vires, it implies that
increasingly moving away from the notions of courts
A. the action is illegal and above the power given
as impartial dispensers of justice, to the mode of “cash
B the executive has to implement the action
and carry”. Anyone who pays money or has the power
C. such an action should be passed into law
to advance judge’s career can dictate the judgment and
D. only the legislature can deal with such an action
away court ruling and orders in this favour.
Answer
Ultra vires means acting or doing beyond the executive legal
power or authority. When the action of the executive is ultra
vires it means the action of the executive is illegal and above
the power given. (A)
128
2. Intimidation of judges: Rich and powerful resist 2010/7 UTME
attempt to mediate conflicts and disputes through the In the process of implementing laws, the executive sometime
judicial process. Bribery usually involves money, but perform
may also include promises of election to the higher A. judicial function B. bureaucratic function
bench, typically to the Court of Appeal. C. oversight function D. legislative function
3. Poor conditions of service: If the state does not treat Answer – C
its judiciary well, it gives room for its independence to In the process of implementing laws, the executive sometime
be abused. perform oversight functions.
4. Inadequate personal and facilities: There are not
2012/6 UTME
enough personnel to handle the huge number of cases,
One judicial function performed by the executive is
especially in Nigeria. Also, there are no facilities to
A. granting of amnesty B. implementing judicial orders
enhance the speed and fair justice of the cases at hand.
C. ensuring obedience to law D. appointing judges
These distorts the independence of the judiciary.
Answer – A
It is within the power of the executive (President) to grant
amnesty.
1999/2 Neco
Judicial review means the process by which 2004/23 Neco
A. judges review past court decisions and judgments Independence of the judiciary connotes that
B. the court determines the constitutionality of the actions A. judges must be allowed to participate in politics
of rulers B. court judges are free to administer oaths of office
C. judicial precedents are implemented C. judiciary must not be involved in law making
D. the court settled disputes between citizens and D. judges must be free from any influence
government Answer
Answer Judicial independence is the ability of courts and judges to
Judicial review is a type of court proceeding in which a perform their functions free of any kind of influence. (D)
judge reviews the lawfulness of a decision or action made
by a public body. In other words, judicial reviews are 1995/13 Nov
challenges to the way in which a decision has been made, Judicial independence is to ensure that the judiciary
rather than the rights and wrongs of the conclusion A. is free to do whatever it likes
reached. (B) B. performs its functions without fear or favour
C. can make laws through judicial review
D. remains the organ that executes the law
1994/28 UTME E. does not tamper with the functions of the executive
A court order compelling the executive or its agencies to Answer
produce an unlawfully detained person is called a writ of Judicial independence ensures judiciary functions of the judges
A. mandamus B. subpoena C. habeas corpus D. injunction without fear or favour when performing their duties. (B)
Answer
The “Great writ” of habeas corpus is a fundamental right 2019/2010/32 (UNIZIK, AWKA)
in the constitution that protects against unlawful and The major role of national legislature is to
indefinite imprisonment. (C) A. scrutinize and criticize the executive branch
B. step into political vacuum created by weak executives
1995/4 UTME C. expose and supervise the government
The executive arm of government includes that D. make laws for the general welfare of citizens
A. police B. courts C. national assembly D. senate E. find ways and means to get money for governments
president Answer – D
Answer – A The major role of national legislature is to make laws for the
The police is part of the executive arm of government. general welfare of citizens.
2018/2019/32 (NDU, BAYELSA)
1999/12 UTME The main function of the legislature is
The most important function of the executive organ of A. to implement law B. to enforce law C. to make law
government is to D. to interpret law E. to nullify law
A. formulate policies B. give assent to bills Answer – C
C. control foreign policy D. enforce laws The primary function of the legislature is to make laws.
Answer – D
The primary function of the executive is to enforce laws 1979/23 UTME
and to maintain law and order in the state. Whenever a The legislature is
breach of law takes place, it is the responsibility of the A. the body which administers the law
executive to plug the breach and bring the offenders to B. the body which makes law
book. C. a body of local government councilors
D. the body which interprets the law
E. none of the above
Answer – B
The legislature is the body which makes law.
129
1980/10 UTME 1982/35 UTME
The legislative arm of a government is always The Nigerian Federal Legislature is
A. the parliament A. bicameral B. unicameral C. called the House of Assembly
B. the cabinet D. called the House of Representatives E. the Senate
C. the highest organ of government Answer – A
D. the body that makes laws The Nigerian Federal Legislature is bicameral because it
E. which states that the central government is superior to state consists of two Houses; the House of Senate and the House
government of Representatives.
Answer – D
The legislative arm of government is always the body that 1982/46 UTME
makes laws. The main function of the legislative council in British
Colonies West Africa was to
1980/32 UTME A. advice the Governor on policy B. make the law
In all countries, the role of law making and law interpretation C. execute the law D. interpret the law
revolve respectively on E. act as a disciplinary body for the civil servants
A. the executive and judiciary Answer – A
B. the judiciary and legislature The legislative council in British colonies in West Africa
C. the judiciary and executive were to advise the Governor on policies.
D. the legislature and judiciary
E. the legislature and executive 2011/2012/4 (UNIZIK, AWKA)
Answer – D Bicameralism refers to
In all countries, the role of law making and law interpretation A. a one-chamber legislature
revolve respectively on the legislature and judiciary. The B. the process of voting in the legislature
primary function of the legislature is to make the laws and the C. the upper chamber in a legislature
judiciary interprets the laws. D. a two-chamber legislature
2012/32 UTME E. legislature in all sovereign states
The main function of the national assembly is to Answer – D
A. fix salaries for all the state governors Bicameralism is the practice of having a legislature divided into
B. make laws for the country two separate assemblies, chambers, or houses. A bicameral
C. pass motions on the welfare of the legislature system describes a government that has a two-house legislative
D. direct public attention to the excesses of public officials system, such as the House of Representatives and the senate
E. condemn the South African government for its policy of that make up the USA Congress or Nigeria National Assembly.
apartheid
Answer – B 1983/33 UTME
The main function of the National Assembly is to make laws The legislature in every state of the Federal Republic of
for the Country. Nigeria’s federal legislative body, the national Nigeria is called the
assembly, consists of two houses – the House of A. State National Assembly
Representatives and the senate. All members of the National B. State Legislature Council
Assembly are elected directly every four ways. C. State Traditional Council
D. House of Assembly
1981/33 UTME E. State House of Representatives
In order to qualify for membership of the House of Answer – D
Representatives in Nigeria, a citizen must have attained the age House of Assembly or State House of Assembly is what the
of state legislature is called in Federal Republic of Nigeria.
A. 21 B. 18 C. 30 D. 45 E. 48
Answer – C 1986/4 UTME
With enactment of the new law, the age requirements for Legislative supremacy exists in
candidates seeking a seat in the senate and the House of A. Britain B. France C. Soviet Union D. Nigeria
Representatives in Nigeria, which were previously set at thirty- Answer – A
five years and thirty years of age for senate and House of In Britain, there is legislative supremacy because some
representative respectively, have been reduced by five years each. legislators are also executive.
Senate qualification age is now thirty years and House of
Representatives is now twenty-five years. 2018/2019/78 (NDU, BAYELSA)
1981/46 UTME Bicameral legislature exists
The highest legislative body in Nigeria is the A. where cameramen are allowed to cover the proceedings
A. National Council of Otafe B. State Assembly of the legislature
C. House of Representatives D. Senates B. to prevent the concentration of powers in one legislative
E. National Assembly house
Answer – E C. to provide jobs for more politicians
The highest legislative body in Nigeria is the National Assembly. D. to ensure that just laws are passed
The National Assembly of the Federal Republic of Nigeria is a Answer – B
bicameral legislature established under section 4 of the Nigerian Bicameral legislatures exists to prevent the concentration
Constitution. of powers in one legislative house.
130
2019/3a NABTEB 2001/26 UTME
Differentiate between bill and motion The central legislature of Nigeria became bicameral in
Answer A. 1945 B. 1951 C. 1950 D. 1963
A motion is a proposal moved by a member of the house to attract Answer – C
the attention of the house to something urgent or of public interest. The central legislature of Nigeria became bicameral in
It may be merely an opinion on a matter that might be considered 1960. McPherson constitution of 1951 created two
urgent to be taken up by the house for discussion. A motion may chambers regional legislatures known as the house of
be discussed in the house and even passed by the house but it chiefs and the house of assembly in the northern and
doesn’t mean that any more action may logically follow. When western region. Coming then to independence constitution
the discussion on a motion takes the shape of a bill, it is deemed as of 1960. Bicameral legislatures were adopted in both the
a proposed law that is submitted to the parliament for federal and regional government including the eastern
consideration and approval. region.
A bill may come from the government, a private member or a 2018/2019/81 (NDU, BAYELSA)
committee, and it deals with matters that are of interest to public A law passed by the legislature and assented to by the
or the government. Thus a motion is a formal proposal put forward executive is
by a member that is put forward for the consideration of the house A. a presidential proclamation B. a decree
or a selected committee while a bills is a draft of a proposed law C. a legislature order D. an act
based upon the motion. The proposed law is presented to the Answer – D
parliament for its penisal, discussion, and approval. In general, a An act is the law passed by the legislature and assented by
motion on itself cannot become a law but it can lead to the executive.
development of a bill that may see the light of the day and
eventually be passed by both houses of the parliament to finally
2003/28 UTME
become a law. The expenditure of public funds by the executive in
1987/23 UTME Nigeria is controlled by the
The termination of a session of a legislature by A. judiciary B. ministry of finance
proclamation issued by the head of state is called C. legislature D. president
A. prorogation B. dissolution C. plebiscite D. summons Answer – C
Answer – A Legislature controls the expenditure of public funds by the
Prorogation is the termination of a session of a legislature executive in Nigeria.
by proclamation issued by the head of state.
2002/33 UTME
1988/17 UTME Legislative control of public corporations in Nigeria is
A major weakness of unicameral legislature is that it effected through
A. delays legislation B. is unsuitable for a unitary state A. the dissolution of their managements
C. breeds struggle for power B. the reorganization of their boards
D. does not provide a check against hasty legislation C. bye-laws D. acts of the national assembly
Answer – D Answer – D
The main demerits of the unicameral legislature is that it Legislative controls the public corporations in Nigeria
does not provide a check against hasty legislation. through acts of the National Assembly. An act of
parliament is a form of legislation that is passed by both
1988/22 UTME House of Parliament that is, the House of Representatives
Attempts to influence legislation by persuading and the senate, with an objective to create a new law or to
legislatures are known as change an existing law.
A. Socialization B. gerrymandering
C. lobbying D. electioneering 2003/6 UTME
Answer – C One of the duties of the legislature is to
Lobbying is an attempts to influence legislation by A. implement laws B. adjudicate disputes
persuading legislature. Lobbying is a form of advocacy C. promulgate decrees D. exercise oversight
with the intention of influencing decisions made by the Answer
government by individuals or more usually by lobbying Legislative oversight is a tool used by the legislature to
groups; it includes all attempts to influence legislators and perform its role of checks and balance in a democracy. (D)
officials, whether by other legislators, constituents, or
organized groups. 2004/37 UTME
Unicameral legislature is a common feature of
1988/31 UTME A. unitarism B. federalism
Which of the following principal officials was NOT a C. presidentialism D. parliamentarism
member of the state house of assembly? Answer – A
A. the leaders of the house B. the speaker Unicameral legislatures are typical in small countries with
C. the deputy speaker D. the clerk of the house unitary system of government e.g. Denmark, Sweden,
Answer – A Britain, Finland, Israel, etc.
The leader of the house of state house of assembly is not a
principal official.
131
2015/7 UTME 2017/2018/91 (DELSU, ABRAKA)
The upper house of the legislature is responsible for the The legislature of Nigeria under the 1999 constitution is
A. Assent to bill B. signing of treaties composed of
A. 108 senators and 350 members of the House of
C. approval of declaration D. passage of appropriation
Representatives
Answer – D B. 109 senators and 350 members of the House of
The upper house of the legislature is responsible for the Representatives
legislature is responsible for the passage of appropriation C. 100 senators and 250 members of the House of
bill. An appropriation bill also known as supply bill or Representatives
D. 109 senators and 360 members of the House of
spending bill, is a proposed law that authorizes the
Representatives
expenditure of government funds. It is a bill that sets Answer – D
money aside for specific spending. In most democracies, The National Assembly of the Federal Republic of Nigeria is a
approval of the legislature is necessary for the government bicameral legislature established under section 4 of the Nigerian
to spend money. Constitution. It consists of a senate with 109 members and a 360
member House of Representatives. There are equal
representation with three (3) senator representing Federal Capital
2014/2015/61 (NDU, BAYELSA) Territory, Nigeria and single-member district, plurality voting in
The state legislature in the second republic of Nigeria was the House of Representatives.
called the
A. National Assembly B. Legislative Council 2011/2012/49 (UNIZIK, AWKA)
One of the following was the female speaker of the house of
C. Traditional Council D. House of Assembly representative.
E. House of Representative A. Uche Ekwunife B. Abike Debiri C. Patricia Etteh
Answer – D D. Margaret Ekpo E. FUnmilayo Kuti
The state legislature in the second republic of Nigeria was Answer – C
called the House of Assembly. Patricia Etteh was the first female speaker of the Nigerian House
of Representatives.

2015/22 (OAU,IFE) 2014/2015/25 (UNIZIK, AWKA)

A modern legislature performs all the following functions Bicameral legislatures are common feature of
except A. monarchical system B. confederal system
A. ratification of treaties B. oversight functions C. federal system D. unitary system E. communical system
Answer – C
C. collection of tax revenue D. passing bills into law Bicameral legislatures are common feature of the federal system
Answer – C of government because of the diversity of culture in the nation of
Collection of tax revenue in not the function of modern federalism and the large size with population of the state.
legislature.
2019/2020/41 (DELSU, ABRAKA)
The legislature will not perform its functions effectively if
2008/5 UTME A. The process of passing laws takes unduly long time
Which of the following is not one of the functions of the B. legislatures engage in constituency project
modern legislature? C. legislatures are political godfathers
A. making laws B. collecting taxes D. staff at the national assembly is loyal
Answer – C
C. ratification of treaties D. performing oversight functions
The legislature will not performs their functions effectively if
Answer – B legislatures are political godfathers. Political godfathers can be
Collection of taxes is not the function of a modern seen as political elites or political class who wield much power
legislature. through which they participate in, or influence the making of,
decisions that allocate resources within and among social units.
God-fatherism is a system in the political cycle that denies
2014/2015/26 (UI, IBADAN)
citizens of their rights to social services which they termed
The central legislative body in Britain is referred to as dividends of democracy.
A. National Assembly B. Knesset
C. Parliament D. Congress 2013/22 Neco
Answer – C Parliament filibuster refers to a
A. a procedure for impeaching the president
The United Kingdom referred to their legislative (central)
B. delay method of prolonging debates in parliament
as parliament. The UK has a bicameral parliament C. process of passing bills into laws
consisting of the House of Lords (the upper House D. a special way of initiating money bills
composed of both hereditary and life peers (28 members) Answer
and the House of Commons (the elected lower house). The A filibuster is a political procedure where one or more members
of parliament or congress debate over a proposal piece of
legislature debates issues and votes upon bills.
legislation so as to delay or entirely prevent a decision being made
on the proposal. (B)

132
2010/28 Neco 2003/18 UTME
The term guillotine in the legislature refers to A meeting of the legislature is usually brought to an end
A. allocation of time to a bill with
B. passing a bill into law A. a dissolution B. an adjournment
C. voting a bill into law C. suspension D. a prorogation
D passing an appropriation bill Answer – B
Answer A prorogation marks the end of a parliamentary session. It
Guillotine is a limit on the amount of discussion allowed is the formal name given to the period between the end of
about a particular law in parliament, made by setting a fixed a session of Parliament and the state of opening of
time before a final vote must be taken. Guillotine motions Parliament that begins the next session.
have been used by government to limit the amount of time
spent on debating a particular stage of bill in the House of 2004/14 UTME
Commons in UK. (A) The two chambers of elected national representations in
Nigeria are called
2006/17 Neco A. the National Assembly B. house of assembly
In the legislature, a filibuster is one who C. the senate D. the parliament
A. is in charge of party discipline Answer – A
B. presents party bills by making parliamentary system The two chambers of elected national representatives in
C. does not take part in law making Nigeria are called the National Assembly.
D. prevents the passage of a bill by making long speeches
Answer 2007/25 UTME
Filibuster is an action such as prolonged speaking which An exception to the mandate of the legislature is the
A. enactment of laws B. oversight of the executive
obstructs progress in a legislative assembly in a way that does
not technically contravene the required procedures. (D) C. representation of the citizenry
D. conduct of external relations
2009/31 UTME Answer – D
The committee that scrutinizes budget proposal in the Conduct of external relations is not the mandate of the
legislature is the legislature but the executive.
A. rules and business committee
B. public accounts committee 2008/14 UTME
C. finance committee An example of a country that operates a bicameral
D. appropriation committee legislature is
Answer – D A. Nigeria B. Sierra-Leone C. Kenya D. Libya
The appropriation committee is the committee that Answer – A
scrutinizes budget proposal in the legislature. Nigeria is a good example of a country that operates a
bicameral legislature.
2010/8 UTME
The legislative body of the United State of America is the 2009/26 UTME
A. parliament B. national assembly C. congress D. council Prorogation is the bringing of a session of a parliament to
Answer – C an end through
The United States legislative body is called congress. The A. royal proclamation B. final reading
USA congress is the bicameral legislature of the federal C. guillotine D. impeachment
government of the United Sates and consists of the House Answer – C
of Representatives and the senate. Prorogation is the bringing of a session of a parliament to
an end through guillotine.
2010/9 UTME
Unicameralism is a feature of the legislature in 1989/8 UTME
A. Israel B. the United States Unicameralism refers to
C. the United Kingdom D. Ghana A. a two-chamber legislature
Answer – A B. the process of secret voting in the legislature
The Kinesset (Israel’s Unicameral Parliament) is the C. the lower chamber in a legislature
country’s legislative body. D. a one-chamber legislature
Answer – D
2012/30 UTME Unicameralism refers to a one-chamber legislature, Israel
Members of the senate in Nigeria’s first Republic were is a good example of unicameral system of legislature.
A. elected directly by the people
B. elected by Electoral College
C. nominated by the regional and federal government
D. nominated by the president of the house
Answer – C
Members of the senate in Nigeria’s first Republic were
nominated by the regional and federal government.

133
2009/2010/78 (NDU, BAYELSA) 2015/2016/70 (NDU, BAYELSA)
The law-making body in Nigeria is called the The end of each session of the legislature is called
A. Congress B. Presidium A. dissolution B. suspension C. closure D. prorogation
C. National Assembly D. Parliament Answer – A a
Answer – C Prorogation is the end of each session of the legislature.
The law-making body in Nigeria is called the National
Assembly that consists of two houses, House of 2015/20 (OAU, IFE)
Representatives and the Senate. The legislature performs the following functions except
A. determines the general direction of public policies
1987/12 UTME B. investigating and monitoring the activities of the official
An important function of the legislature is of government
A. judicial review C. exercises power of appointment of government officials
B. review of executive policies and actions D. enforcing the law
C. lobbying Answer – D
D. defending government policies The legislature performs the following functions except
Answer – B enforcing the law. Enforcement of law is the function of
Another essential function of the law-maker is to review of the executive arm of government.
executive policies and actions.
1995/5 UTME
1990/33 UTME
Unicameral legislature is often criticized for
The legislative organ of federal government in the first
A. restricting the scope of participation
republic in Nigeria was the
B. cheapening the opportunity for participation
A. parliament B. judiciary
C. condoning the participation of traditional rulers
C. legislative council D. national assembly
D. narrowing participation to the military
Answer – A
Answer – A
The legislative organ of the federal government in the First
Unicameral legislature is often criticized for restricting the
Republic was the parliament.
scope of participation.
1994/14 UTME
19997/12 UTME
The act of brining a legislative session to an end only for
business to continue later is called During the second republic in Nigeria, the branch of the
legislature responsible for ratifying presidential nominees
A. adjournment B. prorogation C. resolution B. abrogation
Answer – B for appointments was the
A prorogation marks the end of a parliamentary session. A. senate B. council of states
C. house of representation D. public service commission
1994/19 UTME Answer – A
The principle whereby a legislator’s tenure is abruptly The senate was the second republic in Nigeria, it was the
brought to an end by his constituency is known as branch of the legislature responsible for ratifying
A. rejection B. reference C. recall D. return presidential nominees for appointment.
Answer – C
The principle whereby a legislator’s tenure is abruptly 1999/16 UTME
brought to an end by his constituency is known as recall. Legislative control over delegated legislation can be
performed through
2001/12 UTME A. withdrawal of delegated powers by the judiciary
One of the advantages of a bicameral over a unicameral B. nullification of unconstitutional legislation
legislature is that it C. investigation into an exercise of delegated power
A. is cheap to maintain B. promotes social equality D. approval of legislation by the chief justice
C. takes less time for bills to be passed Answer – C
D. prevents the passage of ill-considered bills Legislative control over delegated legislation can be
Answer – D performed through investigation into an exercise of
One of the advantages of a bicameral over a unicameral delegated power.
legislature is that it will prevent the passage of ill-
considered bills. 2001/2 UTME
The standing committee of a legislature is one
2015/2016/71 (NDU, BAYELSA) A. whose members stand while deliberating
Which of the following is a demerit of bicameral B. that has statutory responsibilities
legislature C. that performs adhoc functions
A. the scope for political participation is limited D. that has all legislators as members
B. passing of bills into acts is delayed Answer – C
C. no safeguard for minority The standing committee of a legislature is one that
D. there is tendency for despotic rule performs adhoc functions.
Answer – B
The demerit of bicameral legislature is passing of bills into
acts is delayed.
134
1993/32 UTME 1979/12 UTME
In Nigeria, the function of the council of state is A congressional bill can become a law without presidential
A. judicial B. investigative C. legislative D. advisory assent when
Answer – C A. the president is careless enough to forget to sign the bill into
law within a certain number of days
In Nigeria, the function of the council of state is the legislative
B. a bill was in the first instance, passed by both House of
duties of making-laws and amendments of laws.
Congress with a two third majority
C. each of the two houses voting with a two-third majority
2020/28 UTME passes a bill which has been vetoed by the president
Under the 1999 constitution, the appointment of ministers and D. the country is at war
ambassadors must be ratified by the E. in none of the conditions stated above
A. House of representatives B. Senate Answer – C
A congressional bill can become a law without presidential
C. Presidency D. National Council of State
assent when each of the two Houses voting with a two-third
Answer – B majority passes the bill which has been vetoed by the president
The senate under het 1999 Constitution, approves the into an acts of parliament (laws).
appointment of ministers and ambassadors.
2009/2010/90 (NDU, BAYELSA)
1991/19 UTME A bill that applies to the whole population and is intended
A bill becomes an Act of parliament after it has been to promote the general welfare is called
A. a private bill B. a decree
A. passed by the parliament
C. an appropriation bill D. a public bill E. an edict
B. signed by the head of state Answer – D
C. processed through the committee of the house A public bill is a bill that deals with the matters or problems
D. debated in the house that affect the whole population and is intended to promote
Answer – B the general welfare of the people.
A bill becomes an act of parliament (law) after it has been
signed by the head of state. 1988/21 UTME
A tax law is a
A. private bill B. speaker’s bill C. public bill D. judicial
1995/6 UTME bill
A legal document yet to be enacted into law but still under Answer – C
debate in the legislature is known as A tax law is a public bill under monetary bill.
A. an edict B. a decree C. a white paper D. a bill
Answer – A NDU 2014/2015 (75)
A tax law emanates from
A bill is a legal document yet to be enacted into law but still
A. the speaker’s bill B. a public bill C. a judicial bill
under debate in the legislative houses. D. a private bill E. the commissioner’s bill
Answer – B
2001/11 UTME A tax law emanates from a public bill.
In the legislative process, a bill is a
A. motion accepted for debate B. motion rejected after debate 1992/12 UTME
C. proposal before the legislature The most critical debates on a bill and amendments to it
take place during the
D. law passed by the legislature
A. first reading B. second reading C. third reading D.
Answer – C assent
In the legislative process, a bill is a proposal before the Answer – C
legislature aim of government. The most critical debates on a bill and amendment takes
place during the third reading. At the third reading a
2011/9 UTME thorough examination is done on the bill in order to
A bill is a draft which is awaiting the consideration of the improve on the actual drafting of the bill only verbal
A. executive B. party caucus C. legislature D. judiciary amendments maybe made here, at this stage of the bill, it
can be passed or rejected.
Answer – C
A bill is proposed legislation under consideration by a 2019/2020/13 (NDU, BAYELSA)
legislature. A bill does not become law until it is passed by the A law passed by the legislature and assented to by the
legislature and in most cases, approved by the executive. executive is
A. an act B. a presidential proclamation
C. decree D. a legislative order
Answer – A
An act is the law passed by the legislature and assented to
by the executive.

135
2006/42 UTME 1997/3 UTME
A bill could become law without the president’s assent it The judiciary assigns clear meaning to the laws by
A. overruled by the Supreme Court A. interpretation B. enforcement
B. supported by a two-third’s majority of the legislature C. adjudication D. revision
C. necessitated by a state of emergency Answer – A
D. assented to by the Chief Justice The judiciary also plays a role in law-making. The decision
Answer – B given by the court really determine the meaning, nature and
A bill could become law without the president’s assent i scope of the laws passed by the legislature. The
supported by a two-third majority of the legislature. interpretation of laws by the judiciary amounts to law-
making as it is these interpretations which really define the
2007/11 UTME laws.
The process of law-making by the legislature begins with
A. initiating a bill B. commanding debate 2013/3 (OAU, IFE)
C. a public hearing D. the first reading The head of the Nigerian judiciary is the
Answer – A A. Attorney-General and Minister of Justice`
The process of law-making by the legislature begins with B. Chief Justice of the Federation
initiating a bill. The bill initiator informs the clerk of the C. President of the Court of Appeal
House by making sure the draft of the bill reached him, the D. Solicitor-General of the Federation
clerk of the house will then notify the members of the Answer – A
Parliament of the presence of such of bill. The clerk of the The judicial council is headed by the Attorney General of
House will read out the title of the bill. It will then be the Federation, who also serves as the Minister of Justice.
printed out in leaflets and circulated to all members for The Attorney General is appointed by the president.
them to study before the second reading which the date will
also be fixed. 2016/40 UTME
The judiciary controls the executive in federal states
2012/14 (OAU, IFE) through
The final stage in the process of enacting legislation is A. delegated legislation B. judicial overview
A. assent B. final reading C. notification D. guillotine C. judicial review D. motions
Answer – A Answer – C
The final stage in the process of law-making is the The judiciary controls the executive in federal states
presidential assent (meaning signing of bills into laws). through judicial review. Judicial view is the power of the
court of a country to examine the actions of the legislative,
executive and administrative aim of the government and to
1978/4 UTME determine whether such actions are consistent with the
The judiciary is constitution. Actions judged inconsistent are declared
A. an arm of the executive B. the body which makes law unconstitutional and, therefore, null and void.
C. a body of lawyers D. the body which interprets the law
E. none of the above 2016/23 UTME
Answer – D Rule adjudication is a primary function of the
The judiciary is the body which interprets the law of the A. judiciary B. executive C. government D. legislature
state. Answer – A
Rule adjudication is a primary function of the judiciary –
2011/2012/5 (NDU, BAYELSA) Rule adjudication. Adjudication refers to the legal process
The primary function of the judiciary is to of resolving a dispute or deciding a case.
A. interpret laws B. make laws C. regulate behaviour
D. execute laws E. safeguard independence 2015/3 (OAU, IFE)
Answer – A In Nigeria, promotion of judges is the responsibility of the
Interpretation of laws is the primary assignment of the A. Council of Legal Education
judiciary arm of government. B. Attorney-General and Minister of Justice
C. Judicial Service Commission
1984/17 UTME D. Chief Justice of the Federation
The judicial organ of government is the body which Answer – C
A. implements the law B. makes the law Judicial service commission promotes judges in Nigeria.
C. punishes law makers D. interprets the law
E. rewards law makers 2008/2009/21 (NDU, BAYELSA)
Answer – D The head of the judiciary in every state of the federal
Judicial organ of government is the body which interprets Republic of Nigeria is called
the law. A. Honourable Chief Justice B. Head of Judicial Service
C. Chief Judges D. Grand Khadi
E. President Customary Court of Appeal
Answer – C
The Head of the Judiciary in Nigeria Federalism is the
Honourable Chief Justice.
136
2017/2018/30 (UNIZIK, AWKA) 1981/15 UTME
Which organ is referred to as “the last hope of the common The decision of the Supreme Court of Nigeria
man?” A. subject to appeal B. subject to judicial review
A. the parliament B. the judiciary C. final D. B and C E. none of the above
C. the executive D. the legislative Answer – C
Answer – B The decision of the Supreme Court of Nigeria is the final.
The judiciary is referred to as the last hope of the common
man through the administration of justice in the court of 1991/4 UTME
law. Case-laws are made by the
A. Legislature B. Executive C. Judiciary
1995/10 UTME D. Attorney-General and Minister of Justice E. President
The power of the courts to declare legislative enactment as Answer – C
unconstitutional is known as judicial Case-laws are made by the judiciary. Case-laws is the
A. ruling B. review C. interpretation D. edict collection of past legal decisions written by courts and
Answer – B similar tribunals in the course of deciding cases, in which
Judicial review is the power of the courts to declare the law was analyzed using these cases to resolve
legislative enactments as unconstitutional, null and void. ambiguities for deciding current cases.

1995/13 UTME 1985/20 UTME

Laws made by the attorney-general and minister of justice Which of these not a member of the judiciary?
are called A. the Chief Justice B. a High Court Judge
A. temporary laws B. bills of attainder C. a Magistrate D. a Lawyer E. a Grand Khalid
C. case laws D. ex post facto laws Answer – D
Answer – D Lawyers are not members of the judiciary organ of
Laws made by the attorney-general and minister of justice government. A lawyer also called attorney, counsel, or
are called ex post facto laws. Ex post facto laws is a law counselor is a licensed professional who advises and
that makes illegal an act that was legal when committed, represents others in legal matter.
increasing the penalties for an infraction after it has been
committed, or changes the rules of evidence to make 1986/34 UTME
conviction easier. The constitution prohibits the making of Judges in Nigeria enjoy security of tenure
ex post facto law. A. if they are appointed by the president
B. if they have the support of the Nigerian Bar Association
1997/14 UTME C. if they are of good behaviour
The order used by the court against unnecessary detention D. during the life of the government which appoints them
is Answer – C
A. interlocutory injunction B. habeas corpus Judges in Nigeria enjoy security of tenure if they are a good
C. that of extradition D. mandamus behaviours.
Answer – B
The order used by the court against unnecessary detention 1986/37 UTME
is habeas corpus. Habeas corpus is a writ of habeas corpus In Nigeria, the highest Court for Muslims is the
(which literally means to produce the body) is a court order A. Alkali Court B. Sharia Court of Appeal
demanding that a public official (such as a warden) deliver C. Supreme Court D. Upper Area Court
an imprisoned individual to the court and show a valid Answer – A
reason for that person’s detention. In Nigeria, the highest court for Muslims is the Sharia
Court of Appeal.
2003/13 UTME
Constitution disputes in states with written constitutions 1990/4 UTME
are resolved by the The pronouncement of judges which have the force of law
A. ombudsman B. judiciary C. electorate D. legislature are called
Answer – B A. judgments B. judicial oaths
Constitutional disputes in states with written constitution C. orders-in-council D. judicial precedents
are resolved by the judiciary with the uses of constitutional Answer – D
references. The pronouncement of judges which have the force of law
are called judicial precedents. Precedent or authority is a
1980/46 UTME legal case which establishes a principle or rule that a court
The highest court in Nigeria is called the or other judicial body utilizes when deciding subsequent
A. Federal Court of Appeal B. High Court cases.
C. Upper Area Court D. Supreme Court
E. Sharia Court of Appeal
Answer – D
Supreme Court is the Highest Court in Nigeria.

137
1990/5 UTME 1989/18
Constitutional disputes between states in a federation can Bicameralism refers to
only be settled by A. a one chamber legislature
A. parliament B. the Supreme Court B. the process of voting legislature
C. the upper chamber legislature
C. a tribunal D. the court of appeal
D. a two chamber legislature
Answer – B E. legislatures in all sovereign states
Constitutional disputes between states in a federation can Answer
only be settled by the Supreme Court. The Supreme Court Bicameralism refers to a two chamber legislature, for
of Nigeria is the Highest Court in Nigeria and is located in example, Nigeria bicameral legislative system: the senate
the Central District, Abuja. and the House of Representatives. (D)

1999/22 UTME
1992/32 UTME
Indirect legislation can be achieved by
The highest court in Nigeria before 1963 was the A. judicial interpretation and precedent
A. Supreme Court B. High Court B. passing of bills and making of decrees
C. Judicial Committees of the Privy Council C. passing a private considering a bill
D. Court of Appeal Answer – A
Answer – B Indirect legislation can be achieved by judicial
The highest court in Nigeria before 1963 was the judicial interpretation and precedent.
committees. The Judicial Committee of the Privy Council
2000/18 UTME
(JCPC) is the highest court of appeal in Nigeria before The Supreme Court, through its interpretations of the
1963. Constitution, is a
A. protector of the state B. guardian of freedom
1993/12 UTME C. participation in the politics of the state
In the West Minister system of government, formal D. preserves of the status quo
Answer – B
legislation can take the following forms except
The Supreme Court, through its interpretations of the
A. royal proclamation B. orders in council constitution is a guardian of freedom to the citizens.
C. act of parliament D. ministerial pronouncement
Answer – D 2001/3 UTME
In the Westminster system of government, formal Where the constitution is Supreme, unconstitutional acts of
legislation can take royal proclamations, orders in council the executive and the legislature can be checked by the
and act of parliament, except ministerial pronouncement. courts through
A. recall B. judicial
The Westminster system or Westminster model is a type of
C. vote of no confidence D. impeachment
parliamentary system of government that incorporates a Answer – B
series of procedures for operating a legislature that was With the judicial review, the judiciary by the court can
first developed in England, key aspects of which include check on unconstitutional act of the executive and
an executive branch made up of members of the legislature, legislature, such unconstitutional acts are then declared
and that is responsible to the legislature, the presence of null and void.
parliamentary opposition parties; and a ceremonial head of
2013/21 UTME
state who is different from the head of government. The
In judicial administration, the term “the bench” refers to
term comes from the palace of Westminster, the current the
seat of the parliament of the United Kingdom. A. lawyers B. litigants C. registrars D. judges
Answer – D
2009/2010/42 (UNIZIK, AWKA) In judicial administration, the term “the bench” means all
In Nigeria, appellate cases form Courts of Appeal go to the judges taken together. It distinguish them from the Bar
A. the Senate B. the House of Representative (which represent the attorneys or barristers).
C. the Supreme Court D. the Judiciary Advisory Council
E. the Executive Council
Answer – C 2015/6 UTME
In Nigeria, appellate cases from Courts of Appeal go to the The judiciary contribute to the development of
Supreme Court. Appellate Court hear and review appeals constitutions through
from legal cases that have already been heard and ruled on A. judicial review B. historical records
in lower courts. Appellate courts exist for both state and C. bye-law D. acts of parliament
federal matters but feature only a committee of judges Answer – A
often called justices. The judiciary constitutes to the development of
constitutions through judicial review.

138
2015/13 UTME 2009/8 UTME
In the judicial parlance writ means A condition for judicial independence is the appointment
A. restraining order B. prohibitive order of judges by the
C. acquitting order D. sentencing order A. civil service commission B. judicial service commission
Answer – A C. low review commission D. code of conduct bureau
In the judicial parlance writ means restraining order, Answer – B
judicial parlance is a particular way of speaking or using A condition for judicial independence is the appointment
words, especially a way common to lawyers, SAN, of judges by the judicial service commission.
Barristers or interest.

2019/2020/51 (UNIZIK, AWKA) 1994/4 UTME

The first female Senior Advocate of Nigeria is The principle of judicial independence makes sense only
A. Mary Odili B. Mukhtar Aloma when judges
C. Folake Solanke D. Funmilayo Kuti A. have freedom to try any case
Answer – C B. are themselves above the law
Chief Folake Solanke (born 29 March 1932), SAN, CON, C. have permanent tenure of office
is a Nigerian Lawyer, administrator, and social critic. She D. can join any political party of their choice
is the first Nigerian female lawyer to wear the silk gown as Answer – A
senior counsel. The principle of judicial independence makes sense only
when judges have freedom to try any case.
2014/2015/38 (UI, IBADAN)
____ plays rule adjudication role in Nigeria. 1997/3 UTME
A. the civil service B. the legislature Judicial independence in a modern democracy can be
C. the executive D. the judiciary ensured by
Answer – D A. the confirmation of the appointment of judges by the
The judiciary plays rule adjudication role in Nigeria. legislature
B. the provision that judges can only be removed from
1983/48 UTME office by the president-in-council
In Nigeria, the institution that preserves civil liberty is theC. making judges independent of the ministry of justice
A. Public Complaints Commission D. safe guarding the security of tenure of judges
B. Federal Electoral Commission Answer – D
C. Law Court D. National Security Organization Judicial independence in a modern democracy can be
E. Police Commission ensured by safe guarding the security of tenure of judges.
Answer – C
In Nigeria, the Institution that preserves Civil liberty is the 2003/7 UTME
Law Court. The independence of the judiciary can be undermined
through the
2009/45 UTME A. politicization of the appointment of judges
In order to dispense justice impartiality, the judiciary B. appointment of the minister of justice as the attorney
primarily needs general
A. discipline B. logistic C. motivation D. independence C. confirmation of the appointment of judges by the
Answer – D legislature
The judiciary organ of government need to be independent D. payment of the salaries of judicial officers by
to be able to dispense justice without partiality. government
Answer – A
2013/11 (OAU, IFE) The independence of the judiciary can be undermined
The independence of the judiciary can be enhanced by the through the politicization of the appointment of judges.
following except
A. when judges hold office for a fixed term 2004/42 UTME
B. when judges cannot be removed from office even when Independence of the judiciary is pertinent because it
they commit crimes accords the judiciary the power to
C. appointment of judges by an independent body A. dismiss any judge who has breached the judicial code
D. political neutrality of judges of conduct
Answer – B B. determine a fixed salary for judges
The independence of the judiciary can be enhanced when C. determine a fixed term of office for the judges
judge’s holds office for a fixed tenure, when appointment D. enable the judges to try and decide cases without bias
of judges is by an independent body like judicial service Answer – D
commission and not by the president, and when there is Independence of the judiciary is pertinent because it
political neutrality of the judges. When judges cannot be accords the judiciary the power to enable the judges to try
removed from office even when they commit crimes, it’s and decide cases without interferences from the other
not a factor that enhances judiciary independence. organs of government.

139
2008/2009/9 (NDU, BAYESLSA) 3. The committee stage: After the second reading, the
In Nigeria appellate case from Courts of Appeal go to bill is referred to a standing committee by the Rules
A. the senate B. the house of representative Committee, which considers the bill line by line by
C. the Supreme Court D. the judiciary proposing amendments if necessary. It has power to
Answer – C block or clear it for further debate. The bill is given
In Nigeria appellate case from courts of Appeal go to the special consideration and attention. The standing
Supreme Court for the final judgment. committee examines the bill in detail, holds public
hearings, proposes amendments and makes reports.
2003/29 Neco 4. The report stage: The standing committee reports
The law making body in Nigeria is called the back to the committee of the whole house with the
A. congress B. presidium C. national assembly revised bill. The bill may be subjected to further
D. parliament amendments, but they are usually minor. A motion will
Answer be raised for the adoption of the bill and, thereafter, the
Nigeria’s federal legislative body is called National bill is ready for the third reading.
Assembly, consists of two houses. The House of 5. Third reading: A third presentation of a bill to a
Representatives and the Senate. All members of the National legislative assembly is the stage of a legislative process
Assembly are elected directly every four years. (C) in which a bill is read with all amendments and given
final approval by a legislative body. In a bicameral
2019/25 NABTEB legislature, a clean copy of the bill is forwarded to the
The Nigerian legislature at the federal level is called second house. The same legislative process is observed
A. House of Assembly B. House of Senate in the second chamber. This stage does not allow major
C. National Assembly D. parliament amendment, just minor changes in the wordings. After
Answer this stage a joint conference will be held if successful,
The Nigerian legislature at the federal level is called it goes on for assent and promulgation.
National Assembly. (C)
2022/2 Neco
2000/42 Neco 2a. Define independence of the judiciary.
In the federation of Nigeria, states are equally represented b. Discuss five ways the executive arm of government
in the interfere with the independence of the judiciary.
A. senate B. House of Representatives Answer
C. Judiciary D. National population Commission (2a) Judicial independence is the concept that the judiciary
Answer should be independent from the other arms of government
In Nigeria, all state have equal representatives in the (executive and legislature). That is, court should not be
senate, three (3) each from the state and one (1) subject to improper interference or influence from other
representing the federal capital which of them 109 senators arms of government or from private or partisan interests.
in the federation.
(2b) The following are ways by which the executive
2022/1 Neco interferes with the independence of the judiciary
1. Define a bill (i) The constitution has endowed the President with the
b. State and explain the five stages through which a bill power of prerogative of mercy and with the exercise
must pass before it becomes a law of this power, the independence of the judiciary is
Answer interfered with, e.g. Pardon granted to a convict.
(1a)A bill is proposed legislation under consideration by a (ii) It is incumbent on the executive (President) to appoint
legislature. A bill does not become law until it is and remove judges of the High, Appeal, and Supreme
passed by the legislature and in most cases, approved courts.
by the executive. (iii) The judiciary depends on the executive for funds.
(iv) Emoluments and salaries of the judges and other
(1b) Bills are generally considered through a number of members of the judiciary come from the executive
stages. Five of such stages include: (iv) The power to promote the judges and magistrate is
1. First reading: The first stage of the bill is the bill with the executive arm of the government, this is a
presentation. The clerk of the House could read out the means of interference.
title of the bill. At this point, there is no opposition
against the bill, the bill would be registered and printed REVISION EXERCISES
into leaflets for members to study. 1. One of the ways the executive performs legislative
2. Second reading: The bill is now introduced by a functions is through
member (law maker) or a minister, the bill would be A. administrative review B. extrajudicial decision
read the second time. The bill then goes for a second C. judicial review D. delegated legislation
reading. At this stage, the general merits of the bill are 2. The executive is
considered by members. There is a full parliamentary A. a committee of the legislature
debate on the contents of the bill. It is the critical stage B. the body that makes the law
of the bill when a bill may be killed or proposed for C. the body that executes the policies of government
further consideration. D. the highest organ of government

140
3. As an executive, the commissioner is charged with the
responsibility of
A. implementing laws B. writing laws
C. giving loans D. making laws
4. Rule adjudication is the main function of the
A. executive B. president C. legislature
D. judiciary E. national assembly
5. An important function of the legislature is
A. judicial review
B. review of executive policies and actions
C. lobbying
D. defending government policies
6. Bicameralism refers to
A. a one chamber legislature
B. the process of voting in the legislature
C. the upper chamber in a legislative
D. a two chamber legislature
7. The two chambers of elected national representatives
in Nigeria are called
A. House of Assembly B. The National Assembly
C. the parliament D. the senate
8. The judiciary is
A. an arm of the executive
B. the body which makes laws
C. a body of lawyers
D. the body which interprets the law
9. The judiciary assigns clear meaning to the laws by
A. interpretation B. enforcement
C. adjudication D. revision
10. The court that has ultimate power to interpret the
constitution is the
A. Court of Appeal B. Supreme Court
C. Magistrate Court D. High Court
11. Discuss the executive arm of government.
12. What are the three organs of government?
13. State functions of the legislature.
14. Discuss how the executive is controlled.
15. Identify types of legislature and their duties.
16. Explain the processes of passing a bill into law.
17. Explain the following terms: (i) bill (ii) law
(iii) parliament
18. Discuss judiciary.
19. State five reasons why the judiciary need their
independence.
20. Explain the basic functions of judiciary.
21. Describe any three branches of government.
22. Give three functions and three limitations of the
legislature.
23. a. Differentiate between bill and motion.
b. Explain four stages of passing a bill in the
parliament.

141
Chapter Eight 1990/17 Nov
The rule of law is an aspect of
BASIC PRINCIPLES OF GOVERNMENT A. a totalitarian government B. an autocratic government
C. a monarchial government
THE RULE OF LAW D. a feudal government E. a democratic government
The rule of law is defined as the supremacy of law over Answer
everybody in a political system. In every civilised society, The rule of law is an aspect of a democratic system of
laws are made to protect the lives and properties of the government. (E)
citizens and not to oppress or expose them to unnecessary
threats. These laws must follow certain rules and they must 1993/4 Nov
define rule of law. The rule of law means in part that
A. every man is protected by the laws of the land according
Rule of law, is the mechanism, processes, institution, to his rank
practice, or norm that supports the equality of all citizens B. all citizens, except the Head of state are subject to the law
before the law, secures a non-arbitrary form of government C. personal freedom is subject to arbitrary but official
and more generally prevents the arbitrary use of power. interference
Rule of law was developed by Professor Albert Venn D. instant punishment could be meted out to a criminal caught
Dicey, in his book, “Introduction to the Law of in the act
Constitution (1885)”. The rule of law according to Dicey E. the law is supreme
means that no man is punishable or can be lawfully made Answer
to suffer in body or goods except for distinct breach of law The rule of law means that the law of the state is supreme
and no man is above the law. He assigned three principles and is above every person, law maker, executive, etc. The
or meanings to rule of law. Firstly, it means supremacy or law is not a respecter of persons. (E)
predominance of the law as opposed to the influence of
arbitrary power. The second principle is equality before the 1993/13 Exercise 8.1
law and thirdly, it states that the constitution must be based Rule of law means
on the rights of the people. A. that only the National Assembly can make laws
B. that no one is above the law
Professor A. V. Dicey was a political leader with his C. that only the head of state is above the law
ideologies that political leaders should govern the people D. the absence of a military
according to the provisions of the constitution of the
country. So that the state can abide by the rules and the 2009/10 Neco Exercise 8.2
followers will also be happy to perform their duties as The doctrine of the rule of law is credited to
citizens. A. J. J. Rouseau B. John Locke C. A. V. Dicey
D. Thomas Hobbes

1994/10 Exercise 8.3

The rule of law is observed
A. wherever laws are considered to be supreme
B. where laws are clearly laid down
C. in a community of law abiding citizens
D. in western democracies
E. in countries governed by civilians

1996/6 Exercise 8.4

In which of the following political systems is the rule of
law likely to be most enhanced?
A. military B. parliamentary C. fascist
D. monarchical E. totalitarian
Answer
Rule of law is enhanced in democracy because it helps to
preserve and ensure the core principles of democracy are
adhered to. The underlying promise of the rule of
employment law implies that every citizen is subject to and
accountable under the law, including law makers and those
in government positions. (B)

Professor Albert Venn Dicey

142
Principles of Rule of Law 2000/3 Neco
The following are the principles of the rule of law as The rule of law refers to the principle of
propounded by Professor A. V. Dicey. A. legality and impartiality
1. Principles of equality: The right to equality is the right B. the supreme power of the rulers
of all human beings to be equal in dignity, to be treated C. the immunity of judges from legal actions
with respect and consideration and to participate on an D. the orderly executives of government
equal basis with others in any area of economic, social, Answer
political, cultural or civil life. This principle is the view that the law should be impartial
2. Principle of impartiality: Is a principle of justice in dealing with offenders. This means no person should be
holding that decisions should be based on objective punished for any offence until there are facts established
criteria, rather than on the basis of bias, prejudice, or by the court. An accused person is still regarded as a
preferring the benefit to one person over another for suspect by law and should not be detained for more than
improper reasons. twenty four hours, without producing the individual in
3. Principle of individual rights: Individual right is a court. (A)
moral principle defining and sanctioning a man’s
freedom of action in a social context. Every individual, 2008/11 Neco Exercise 8.5
a right of his freedom to act on his own judgment for The principle of rule of law can be defined as
his own goals, by his own voluntary, uncovered A. supremacy of the national assembly
choice. B. subordination of the legislature to the judiciary
C. supremacy of the law over all the people in a state
Other Principles and Features of the Rule of Law D. supreme authority of traditional rulers
1. Supremacy of the law: The supremacy of law over
every individual established. 2009/11 Neco Exercise 8.6
2. Access to legal facilities: Any accused person should Equality before the law is a principle
A. separation of powers B. checks and balances
be allowed access to his lawyer and other facilities that
C. collective responsibility D. rule of law
might be helpful in the preparation of his case.
3. Provisions of the constitution: Every government 1995/20 Exercise 8.7
should rule the people according to the established A necessary companion of the rule of law is
laws and provisions of the constitution. A. a special military tribunal
4. Avoidance of arbitraries: The government should B. the constant harassment of pressmen
rule in accordance with the laws of the land and not C. the supremacy of the ordinary law
D. the trial of suspects in camera
arbitrarily.
E. a corrupt judiciary
5. Fair hearing: Anybody arrested for any offence is still
a suspect and should be given a fair hearing. 1990/24 Nov Exercise 8.8
6. The law should be made public: Trail cases in courts One of the basic principle of the rule of law is the
should be made public as well. A. the absence of arbitraries B. the existence of two
7. Right to appeal: The individual should have the right sets of laws for the rich and the poor
to appeal when not satisfied with the judgment of the C. imprisonment without trial
D. the exercise of legislative and judicial powers by the
lower court.
executive
8. Backdating of laws: laws must not be back dated.
9. Rights of individuals: Rights of individual should be 1992/2 Nov Exercise 8.9
enforced and guaranteed. Define the concept of the rule of law, and discuss essential
principles.
1993/19
Equality before the law implies that Limitations to the Rule of Law
A. the law does not respect the people 1. Delegated legislation: Today the British parliament
B. everybody can do what he/she likes has no time to go into the details of the law, because
C. no one citizen can sue the other the number of laws which are introduced in the
D. there is inequality between the executive and the citizens parliament is very high. Secondly, the parliament lacks
E. the executive cannot be controlled by the legislature. technical knowledge which is needed for the
Answer formulation of complicated laws. Therefore, the
It states that laws should be applied equally to all citizens parliament only discusses the outlines and the main
of a country, irrespective of their economic or political principles of the bills and passes them. The
status. Nobody should be above the law. (A) responsibility for framing detailed rules and
regulations lies with the cabinet or the executive. This
system is called Delegated legislation. The minister
with the help of their permanent secretaries, make
many rules and regulations for every law. This makes
the rights of the citizens to be violated.

143
2. Lack of equality before law: Many critics are of the Reasons for Upholding the Rule of Law
view that the principle of equality before the law has It is important that the rule of law be upheld in a state for
become a myth in England. They say that in 1947 the following reasons:
crown proceedings act the public servants enjoy 1. Protection of fundamental human rights of citizens:
certain privileges and immunities in government top Adherence to the rule of law ensures that the rights of
offices. citizens as entrenched in the constitution are
3. Immunity of the heads of states: He may not be sued guaranteed.
or appear in court. This privilege is not extended to the 2. Supremacy of law: It ensures that the law is supreme
citizens and it is a limitation to the rule of law. over all institutions and persons. It also prevents the
4. Delayed justice: Justice delayed is agreed to be justice governance of a state on the basis of the whims and
denied. Some suspects have spent several years and caprices of the ruler.
months in custody without their cases been treated. 3. Equality of all citizens: The principle of the rule of
5. Discretionary powers: The administration cannot be law ensures equality of all citizens before the law. The
run smoothly these days without giving certain rich and the poor are treated equally, that is, everyone
discretionary powers to the government officers. It is is regarded as equal before the law.
the discretion of the Ministry of Foreign affairs to give 4. Unlawful detention: The rule of law has established
a certificate of citizenship to a foreigner or not. In case the rights of the individual to sue the government or
a foreigner is considered undesirable, the foreign law enforcement agency for unlawful arrest and
ministry of affairs can order him or her to leave the detention.
country. In England, the executive issues passports, 5. Press Freedom: The rule of law enforces freedom of
but in case of the refusal to issue passports, no suit can the press and makes it more functional.
be filled in the court against the authorities, it is also 6. Protection against arbitrary rule: Where the rule of
limitation to the rule of law. law prevails, citizens are protected from arbitrary
6. The rich and the privileged few: The rich and the exercise of power. When there is abuse, they can go to
privilege few often use their wealth, position and court to seek redress.
influence to prevent justice. This is a limitation to the 7. Rights to appeal: The right of the individual to appeal
application of the rule of law. is assured, especially when he is not satisfied with the
7. Types of government: The type of government system judgment of the lower court.
can also be a factor of limitation to the rule of law 8. Check on dictatorial tendencies: An ambitious leader
especially a dictatorship system of government. with dictatorial tendencies is less likely to achieve such
8. The military in politics: The intervention of the ambitious intentions where the rule of law prevails.
military into political government and suspension of 9. It facilitates the achievement of good governance:
the use of constitution in the administration affairs, is The rule of law is conducive to an orderly society
a great limitation to the application of the rule of law. which in turn tends to promote good governance and
The decree they use is a force instrument for obedient. development.
9. State of emergency: A state of emergency is a situation 10. It boosts citizens’ confidence in the state: The
in which a government is empowered by the predictability and stability guaranteed by the rule of
constitution to perform actions or impose policies that law increases the confidence of citizens in the state.
it would normally not be permitted to. A government
can declare such a state during a national disaster, civil
unrest, armed conflict, medical pandemic (e.g. corona Factors that can ensure the enforcement of the rule of
virus) epidemic or other biosecurity risk. This is a law
limitation to the rule of law. 1. Independent judiciary: To ensure enforcement of the
10. Customs and traditions: Some customs and traditions rule of law, the judiciary organ of government must be
when properly observed especially in the rural areas, independent from any form of influence.
is limited to the rule of law. 2. Press freedom: The freedom of the press or media is
11. Attitude to the government: In most cases, the the right to circulate opinions in prints without
executive might refuse to honour the decision of the censorship by the government.
court. While the law stated that nobody is over the law. 3. Checks and balances: The theory of checks and
balances must be ensured to enforce the rule of law by
2008/10 Neco Exercise 8.10 not making any organ to be powerful than another.
Which of the following negates the principle of the rule of 4. Separation of powers: The powers of the three organs
law? of government must be separated in the constitution,
A. independence of the judiciary B. trial by a jury for efficiency of enforcing the rule of law.
C. immunity of some citizens D. trials in open court 5. Democracy: Democracy is the main political power or
system that accommodates the principles of the rule of
1990/2b Nov Exercise 8.11 law.
What are the problems associated with the application of 6. Period of detention of suspects: Citizens should not be
the concept? detained for more than 24 hours. It has been stipulated
in the constitution, but the law agents are not keeping
2002/2bii Neco Exercise 8.12 this code of the law.
Give (ii) two limitations of the rule of law

144
7. Education of citizens: The citizens must be educated 11. Secret Trials: The government can engage itself in
to know their duties and obligation so that they can secret trials of some suspects believed to be their
defend themselves when their freedoms are political enemies.
entrenched. 12. Denied Defense Lawyers: If accused persons are
8. Retrospective laws: A retrospective law is one that is denied defense Lawyers, especially of their own
to take effect, in point of time, before it was passed. choice or denied the right to appeal, when not satisfied
9. Extra adjudicating bodies: There should be with the judgment of the lower court. These clearly
establishment of extra – adjudicating to complement violates the rule of law.
the court law e.g. ombudsman. Ombudsman is an 13. Misuse of para-Military organisation: The
official appointed to investigate individuals’ government of a state can violate the principle of rule
complaints against a company or organization, of law through the misuse of para-military
especially a public organization. organisation.
10. Enforcement agents: The country needs the existence 14. Failure of government: The failure of government to
of well-equipped and efficient law enforcement give adequate publicity to laws in the state
agents. significantly violates the rule of law.
11. Supremacy of the law: The law of the state is supreme
every citizen is subject to the law. FUNDAMENTAL HUMAN RIGHTS
12. Equality: The law made every citizen to be equal Fundamental human right is referred to natural or
irrespective of their status, title, wealth and influences. inalienable rights and privileges to be enjoyed by citizens
13. Public trial: Trial of suspects must be made public and or a country, which are stipulated in the constitution. Such
journalists or pressmen should not be bond for rights include freedom of speech, movement, religions,
covering the proceedings. education, association, freedom from slavery etc.
14. Quick dispensation of justice: Justice must not be These rights can be positive or natural in nature. Positive
delayed but must quickly be dispensed, because justice rights are those rights which one enjoys on moral grounds.
delayed is justice denied. They are usually enjoyed by people irrespective of their
15. Right to appeal: Citizens have legal rights to appeal places of origin, sex, race, religion or political opinion.
for a case when they are not satisfied with the Rights whether positive or natural can be classified into
judgment of the lower court. political, social and economic.
16. Redress in court: Citizens should know their rights
and be prepared to seek redress in courts whenever These are the rights United Nations adopted from the
these rights are violated. Universal Declaration of Human Rights in 1948: Articles
16 30. The (UNO) United Nations Organisation has urged
Ways government of a state can violate the principle of all member states and government of the world to
the rule of law incorporate in their constitution.
1. Self-interest: Manipulation of the constitution to suit
the selfish interest of the executive instead of the
national interest. Reason why Fundamental Human Right is entrenched
2. Interference: The principle of the rule of law could be in Constitution
violated if the government flouts the decisions or 1. To protect citizen’s rights: The need to protect
interferes with the independence of the judiciary. citizen’s right can warrant their inclusion in the
3. Ineffective control: Delegated legislation may lack constitution. The constitution is the most important
effective control from the executive. law in any society. Rights being important too, are
4. Legislative check on the executive: The inability of entered into the constitution. This makes rights to be
the legislature to check the excesses of the executive fundamental to the people.
could give room for the violation of the rule of law. 2. UN directive: The need to comply with the UNO’s
5. Human right violation: Disrespect for Fundamental directive on human rights can prompt its inclusion in
Human Rights by government and its agents. the constitution. The UNO’s General Assembly on
6. Emergency Periods: There is limitation of the rights 10th December, 1948 gave details of human rights
and freedom of citizens by government during which every country should entrench in its constitution
emergency periods. and enforce. Every country has no option than to
7. Undue Delay: There could be undue delay of trials of entrench them in its constitution.
suspect by government as a result of political reasons. 3. To seek redress: Citizens seek redress for the
8. Social and Political Discrimination: Social and violation of their rights in law courts. As these rights
political discrimination by government e.g. religion, are entrenched in the constitution, it is easy to know
ethnicity, gender, etc. are acts of rule of law violation. when a citizen’s right are trampled upon. If they are
9. Special Tribunals: The establishment of special not documented, it would be difficult to know what the
tribunals and extra judicial bodies can violate the rights are let alone seeking redress.
principle of the rule of law. 4. To make for reference: In other for easy reference,
10. Backdated Laws: The government can make fundamental human rights are entrenched in the
retrospective legislation or backdated laws thereby constitution. In case of need, people can conveniently
violating the principle of the rule of law. pick them up from the constitution. But if they are not
put down in the constitution, it would be difficult to
know what our rights are, let alone using them.
145
5. To stop bad rule: It prevents dictatorship. Rulers that LIBERTY
have tyrannical tendencies are pruned to size by the Liberty is defined as the ability or willingness to do
entrenchment of these rights in the constitution. It something and the power of doing what has been
becomes easy for the ruler and the ruled to know when conceived without interference or influence from any other
their rights are trampled upon. source. Liberty in simple terms, is the ability to do as one
pleases. In modern politics, liberty is the state of being free
1995/9 Nov within society from oppressive restrictions imposed by
Legally sanctioned claim which citizens could make on the authority on one’s way of life, behaviour, or political
state are called views. In philosophy, liberty involves free will. As
A. obligations B. liberties C. privileges contrasted with determination, liberty means the condition
D. the rule of law E. fundamental human rights in which an individual has the ability to act following his
Answer or her own will and alternatively achieve their potential
Fundamental human rights are the legally sanctioned without interference from other people or the authorities.
claims which citizens could make on the state. (E)
According to the declaration of the rights of man (1789),
1999/13 Neco the maximum freedom an individual has is the power to do
Which of the following is usually expected to be everything that does not injure another. The rights of
entrenched in a constitution? citizens are enshrined in the constitution. Therefore
A. ownership of landed property modern concept of liberty involves two main ideas:
B. fundamental human rights 1. The individual: The individual want to express his
C. electoral and regulations personality and freedom in thought, words and actions.
D. registration of political parties The state of being free within society from oppressive
Answer restrictions imposed by authority on one’s way of life,
Fundamental human right is usually entrenched in the behaviour or political views.
constitution to protect the rights of citizens. (B) 2. Freedom: Freedom is the ability or right to act, speak,
or think as one wants without hindrance or restraint.
2013/10 Neco Exercise 8.13 i. Private liberty: This is the ability to exercise freedom
Fundamental human rights seek to of life, e.g. freedom of religion and personal security.
A. promote the dignity of man This is mainly individual (personal) to oneself.
B. train political activities ii. Political liberty: These are the right that citizens are
C. encourages economic activities empowered that is constitutional in a state. They
D. enthrone mob rule include the right to vote and be voted for, freedom of
speech, press, thought, assembly, association etc.
2015/6 Neco Exercise 8.14 iii. Economic liberty: This implies the right to work and
Fundamental human rights are entrenched in constitutions the security to find reasonable significance, earning
purposely to one’s daily living, reasonable hours of labour,
A. ensure freedom of speech adequate wage, etc.
B. guarantee the liberty of citizens
C. promote good governance Civil Liberty: Rights of Citizenship
D. promote trade Civil liberty is rights and privileges which the state creates
to protect its citizens. The following are the right of
2017/25 Neco Exercise 8.15 citizens.
Which of the following is a fundamental right? Right to 1. The right to life: This is the basic of all the rights.
A. life B. education C. criticize government Right to life is the belief that a being has the right to
D. public office live and in particular should not be killed by another
entity including government. This right shall be
2017/20 Neco Exercise 8.16 protected by law. No one shall be arbitrary deprived of
Fundamental human rights can be defined as his life. The state imposes maximum penalty of capital
A. freedom enshrined in the constitution punishment on those who attempt to kill others and
B. the provisions of the constitution of the ruling political also attempts suicide.
party 2. The right to work: The right to work is the concept
C. the provisions of the local government constitution that people have a human right to work, or engage in
D. regulations about workers’ welfare productive employment, and may not be prevented
from doing so
1996/10 Exercise 8.17 3. Personal safety and freedom: It is a right a person’s
A major reason for enshrining fundamental human rights got from legal and uninterrupted enjoyment of his life.
in the constitution is to 4. Religious freedom: This is the right to follow any kind
A. make the constitution flexible of religion or belief. The religion of individuals in the
B make the constitution supreme society must be respected by one another. Every
C. protects the rights of office holders citizen has its own freedom to his/her faith without
D. prevent military intervention interference.
E. protect the rights of individuals in the society

146
5. Education: The right to education varies from state to 4. Democracy: Under democracy, the political power is
state. In Britain, for example all the children in with the majority (masses) and so freedom is
elementary schools have the full and legal right to free guaranteed.
education at that section, while in some countries 5. Fundamental human rights: This universal
education is a right. declaration on human rights is usually enshrined in a
6. The right of association: Freedom of association written constitution, embodying the civil and political
encompasses that an individual has the right to join or rights of the citizens and placing some limitations on
leave groups voluntarily. Associations are mainly to the powers of those in government.
promote the interest of its members, socially,
economically, religiously and psychologically. 1993/3 Exercise 8.18
Freedom of association. However, can be limited when The rights of the individuals are the
a person joins secret cults. A. demands he can make on the state
7. Freedom of speech and press: Freedom of speech is B. claims he can make against others
the liberty to speak openly without fear of government C. claims the law allows him to make against the state
restraint. Freedom of press is the rights to circulate D. claims those in government are willing to entertain
opinions in print without censorship by the E. essentials he requires for a successful living
government.
8. Right to own property: Everyone has the right to 2009/3 Neco Exercise 8.19
own property alone as well as in association with Civil rights in a country are enjoyed by
others. No one shall be arbitrary deprived of his A. citizens B. aliens C prisoners D. refugees
property. This was declared in article 17 of the 1948
universal declaration of human rights. 2006/19 Nov Exercise 8.20
Right to life means that
A. life has no duplicate
Political Liberty B. nobody has the rights to kill a fellow human being
Political liberty is the right of an individual to participate C. everybody has the right to live forever
in government of his/her country. These rights are D. life is one’s private property that could be taken at will
enshrined in the constitution of the state. The political
liberty of the individuals in the state entails the following: 2004/4b Neco Exercise 8.21
1. The right to vote: This is the right to exercise one’s Highlight the five ways of safeguarding the rights of a
political franchise (or more simply franchise). It is the citizen in a state.
right to vote in public or political elections. All adults
have the rights to vote which is also known as 2008/8 Neco Exercise 8.22
universal adult suffrage. Highlight any six ways by which the rights of a citizen can
2. The right to be voted for: Universal adult suffrage also be protected.
gives every adult that are of sound mind, the right to
vote and be voted for, every country have their ages
indications for all political offices. CONSTITUTIONALISM
3. Periodic election: Democratically, powers are not Constitutionalism is based on the belief that the powers of
given to any form of government for life. There is need the various organs of government should be stipulated and
for election after every four years or five years to make regulated by the constitution, so that the three organs of
the politics stable and developing. government can function effectively based on the
4. Equal eligibility for political offices: Every adult constitution without denying or violating human dignity.
citizen of sound mind that has not convicted has the
right to apply for any political office by contesting Constitutionalism can also be defined as the doctrine that
through election. governs the legitimacy of government actions.
5. The right to criticize the government: This is based on Constitutionalism checks and sets limits, not only to the
the right of the individual, e.g. speech, publication and activities of the government officials but also to the actions
membership of association. of the people making up the political system.

Factors that can safeguard the liberty of individuals Factors that Can Promote Constitutionalism
1. Law: The law is the constitution that guides the 1. There should be strict adherence to the provisions of
administrative functions of the state. The law is an the constitution of the land by everyone including the
important condition that safeguards the liberty of the leaders.
individuals. 2. The Fundamental Human Rights of the people must be
2. Independence of the judiciary: The judiciary and entrenched into the constitution.
judges needs to be free from interference, so that they 3. The government must be accountable and transparent.
can safeguard the liberty of individuals based on the 4. The judiciary must be independent in carrying out its
constitution. duties hence all forms of external interference is
3. Vigilance: This is a sure safeguard to freedom. This prohibited.
means that citizens are always at alert and ready to 5. The elected political offices must be of a fixed term
fight any unreasonable interference with their rights. basis.

147
6. There should be an elaborate process for amending the Purposes of Constitutionalism
constitution. 1. Equality before the law: Constitutionalism urged
7. There should be in existence freedom of speech and equality treatment for both rulers and citizens.
that of the mass media. 2. Supremacy of the law: It also stresses the supremacy
8. The right to vote and be voted for by every adult must of the law that nobody is above the law.
be entrenched in the constitution. This process must be 3. Fundamental human rights: The principle of
carried out periodically through an electoral process fundamental human rights which are enshrined in the
and should be free and fair. constitution is enhanced in constitutionalism for
9. The principle of the rule of law must be strictly protections of individuals right e.g. rights to life,
adhered to and nobody irrespective of the political or freedom of movement, speech, etc.
social strata should be above it. 4. Rights to vote and contest election: Based on the
10. The criticism of opposition parties, pressure groups, universal adult suffrage every adult has the right to
masses, etc. of the incumbent government must be vote and be voted for any political elections.
duly tolerated. 5. Enforcement of the people’s rights: Only the
11. There should exist a multi – party system. constitutional court of law has the right to enforce
people’s rights.
6. Limitations of functions: The functions of the organs
1996/16 of government are stated in the constitution with their
Constitutionalism denotes that limitation based on their areas of duties.
A. the constitution is largely made up of conventions
B. the provision of the constitution is strictly adhered to RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN CONSTITUTION AND
C the constitution is not easy to amend CONSTITUTIONALISM
D. there is constitutional Head of State Constitution is referred to as a body of agreed rules and
Answer regulations, stating on how the powers of governing a
Constitutionalism denotes that the provision of the country are given and how such powers are to be exercised.
constitution is strictly adhered to, its ideas, attitudes, The principle of constitutionalism states that the political
patterns and belief. (B) powers of the various organs (executive, legislature and
judiciary) should be defined with limitations in place for
2002/4 Neco effective performance of their functions.
Constitutionalism is synonymous with
A. separation of powers B. supremacy of law Constitution and constitutionalism also checks and set
C. delegated legislation D. checks and balances limits not only to the actions of government, but also the
Answer actions of ordinary citizens. Constitution and
Constitutionalism is synonymous with supremacy of law. constitutionalism stresses the rights, duties and obligations
Meaning it is a system that checks and sets limits, not only to of all citizens. All that constitutionalism is stressing are
the actions of government but also to the actions of the people entrenched in the constitution.
making up the political system. Constitutionalism deals with
equality and supremacy of law. (B) 2009/2010/34 (UNIZIK, AWKA)
The term, rule of law means
1997/13 Exercise 8.23 A. nobody is above the law
Constitutionalism emphasizes that those who govern the B. everybody is equal before the law
state should do so according to C. we are being governed by lawyers
A. their whims and caprices D. A and B above
B. laid down rules of public behaviour E. none of the above
C. the direction of judges Answer – D
D. the dictates of their egos The term rule of law means nobody is above the law and
everybody is equal before the law.
1998/26 Exercise 8.24
Constitutional government means a government 1979/22 UTME
A. run by constitutional lawyers When a government sincerely strives to make fair treatment
B. without a constitution and observance of law, the foundations in its society will say
C. that applies arbitrary rules that the government observes
D. subject to constitutional provisions A. the rules of gerontocracy
E. headed by an absolute monarch B. the rule of bureaucracy
C. the rule of law
2015/1 Exercise 8.25 D. the iron rule of oligarchy
(a) Explain constitutionalism E. the rule of popular sovereignty
(b) State four factors that can promote constitutionalism. Answer – C
When a government sincerely strives to make fair treatment
and observance of law, the foundation sin its society will say
that the government observes the rule of law. Rule of law is the
absolute supremacy or predominance of law over everybody;
both the rulers and the ruled and all decision taken in a country.
148
1980/13 UTME 2004/1 Neco
The term ‘rule of law’ is applicable only Constitutional government is run
A. in western-type democracies A. by lawyers B. by the politicians
B. in socialist countries C. by applying arbitrary rules
C. in developing countries D. according to the law of the land
D. in states where laws are supreme Answer
E. if the regime is not military Constitutional government is run according to the law of the
Answer – D land. (D)

1985/7 UTME 1994/15 UTME

The rule of law implies Which of the following violates the principle of the rule of law?
A. the rule of lawyers A. arbitrary increase of prices by traders
B. that only the head of state is above the law B. criticism of government actions by the press
C. the absence of a military government C. arbitrariness of government policies
D. that no one is above the law D. arbitrariness of individuals in the society
E. that only the national assembly can make laws Answer – C
Answer – D Arbitrariness of government policies is the violation of the
The rule of law implies that no one is above the law, and principle of the rule of law.
everybody in the state is equal, no matter your status.
1998/12 UTME
2009/5 (OAU, IFE) The principle by which both the governors and the governed
The term Rule of Law refers to situations in which are bound by the laws is called
A. layers are the rulers B. laws are supreme A. constitutionalism B. constitutional supremacy
C. the judiciary is independent D. parliament makes laws B. rule by decree D. rule of law
Answer – B Answer – D
The term Rule of law refers to situations in which laws are The principle by which both the governors and the governed
supreme. are bound by the laws is called rule of law.

2012/13 UTME 1999/18 UTME

The rule of law is a negation of The notion on equality before the law is the same as the
A. equality before the law principle of
B. supremacy of the law A. supremacy of the constitution
C. limited power B. rule of law C. independence of the judiciary
D. absolute power D. social equality
Answer – D Answer – B
The rule of law is a negation of absolute power. A negation The rule of law is the same as the notion on equality before the
is a refusal or denial of something, meaning the rule of law law.
is a denial of absolute power by the ruler. The ruler and the2000/2 Nov
ruled are all under the law (constitution). Describe six main factors that can ensure the operation of the
rule of law
1990/14 UTME Answer
The rule of law implies that 1. The judiciary must be free from the control of the ruling
A. judges interpret the law B. lawyers interpret the law government.
C. everyone is subject to the law 2. The remuneration of judges should be made free from the
D. the legislature makes the law executive control.
Answer – C 3. Provisions should be made for the right to appeal.
The rule of law implies that everyone is subject to the law. 4. The citizens must understand their right and be prepared to
That means the law of the state is supreme and it’s above defend them.
everyone. 5. Adequate publicity should be given to the law to enable the
citizens to know their rights and limitations.
1993/14 UTME 6. The fundamental human right of citizens must be entrenched
The principle of the rule of law stipulates that in the constitution to safeguard the liberties of the citizenry.
A. only judges interpret the law 7. The mass media should be allowed to assess and criticize
B. law-makers above the law public policies and programs, to enable them to protect the
C. everyone is equal before the law interest of the citizens.
D. lawyers make laws 8. The principle of separation of powers should be followed to
Answer – C avoid conflict between the major arms of government, and
The principle of the rule of law stipulates that everyone is possibly check the excesses of each arm. The checks and
balances inherent in the principle would not help to eliminate
equal before the law. No one is above the law.
the emergence of authoritarian and tyrannical rule.
9. Trial of suspects must not be secretly conducted, but in public
where they could be represented by defense lawyers of their
choice and justice served based on the constitution.

149
2002/2bi 2018/10 Neco
Give (ii) two advantages of the rule of law. Rule of law can be limited by
1. It promotes the freedom of the judiciary. A. power B. state of emergency C. legitimacy
2. It also enhances the freedom of the individuals. D. checks and balances
3. Promotes qualitative life. Answer
4. Preserves the constitution. Rule of law can be limited by state of emergency. A state
5. Prevents arbitraries and dictatorship. of emergency is a situation in which a government is
empowered to perform actions or impose policies that will
1993/5 limit the fundamental human rights because no freedom of
The rules of law presuppose that all men are equal before the
movement. (B)
law but in practice this is not always true. Discuss.
Answer
The limitation of the rule of law is expressed by the following:
1. Immunity of the head of state. 2011/2 Neco
2. Brutality by the law enforcement agents e.g. police and In what six ways can a government of a state violate the
soldiers. principle of the rule of law?
3. Diplomatic immunity. Diplomats representing their Answer
countries in different countries cannot be prosecuted in The government of a state can violate the principle of the
the countries because they are serving their father’s land. rule of law in the following ways:
4. Parliamentary immunity or legislative immunity is a 1. Equality before the law: Without equality before the
system in which members of the parliament or legislature law, the rule of law has meaning only for the few.
are granted partial immunity from prosecution. Before 2. Political and social order: When the state has no
prosecuting, it is necessary that the immunity be political or social order, the law cannot be applied.
removed, usually a superior court of justice or by the Slow and
parliament itself. It means the parliamentarians are above 3. Arbitrariness: Arbitrary application of the law means
the law and we are not equal before the law. a breakdown of rule of law.
5. Customs and traditions: customs and traditions of African 4. Form of government: The form of government that
countries can limit the application of the rule of law. the state operates also matters. Dictatorship breaks
6. Corruption: corruption is another strong instrument that down the rule of law by self-evident or decrees.
can affect the application of the rule of law. Justice can 5. A constitution without legitimacy: A constitution
be denied when a judge is corrupt. without legitimacy cannot be respected by the people,
7. Influential citizens: Influential citizens are also wealthy
and thus its principle cannot be upheld.
the two characteristics work together. They can use their
6. Checks and balances: Lack of constitutional checks
power (influence) or money to buy justice that was
supposed to be served by a judge or magistrate. and balances in our society, can lead to government
officials to becoming too powerful and supreme for the
2000/4 UTME constitution (law).
The rule of law is a cardinal principle associated with 7. Parliamentary immunity.
A. democratic systems B. federal systems 8. Diplomatic immunity.
C. communist systems D. feudal systems 9. Head of state immunity.
Answer – A 10. Declaration of state of emergency.
The rule of law is a cardinal principle associated with
democratic systems of government. Democracy works with 1995/8 Nov
the principles of equality, fundamental human right and Which of the following is against the principle of rule of
supremacy of the constitution which is also applicable with law?
the rule of law principles. A. parliamentary immunity B. equality before the law
C. impartiality of the judiciary D. due process of the law
2009/12 Neco E. fundamental human right
Which of the following is a limitation to the doctrine of rule Answer
of law? The principal of the rule of law is against parliamentary
A. diplomatic immunity immunity because it leads to corruption and bribery. (A)
B. private ownership of property
C. rights of enlightened citizens
2003/20 UTME
D. political authority of the executive
The operation of the rule of law is undermined by the
Answer
A. unfriendly attitude of pressure groups
Diplomatic immunity is a principle of international law by
which certain foreign government officials are not subject to B. existence of administrative tribunals and special immunities
the jurisdiction of local courts and other authorities for their C. conspiracy by the two houses of the legislature to impeach
officials. It ensures diplomats are given safe passage and are the president
considered not susceptible to lawsuit or prosecution under the D. inability of the press to discharge its responsibilities
host country’s laws. The privilege of exemption from certain Answer – B
laws and taxes granted to diplomats by the state in which they The operation of the rule of law is undermined by the
are working. It limits the application of the rule of law (A) existence of administrative tribunals and special
immunities of the executives.

150
1992/6 2010/29 Neco
A good citizen must be The rights of individuals are usually enshrined in the
A. an educated and honest tax payer A. law books B. courts C. constitutions
B. ready to assist law enforcement agents D. journals
C. wealthy and ready to save his country Answer
D. educated and obedient to the law The rights of individuals are fundamental human rights which
E. educated and ready to assist the poor are usually enshrined in the constitution of the state. (C)
Answer
A good citizen must be ready to assist law enforcement 2010/30 Neco
agents for maintenance of law and order. (B) A citizen’s freedom of movement may be restrained if he
A. has refused to salute the Head of state
B. has been convicted by the courts
C. refuses to vote at elections
1992/8 D. criticizes the government
Freedom of the press helps it to Answer
A. be above board B. escape libel charges A citizen’s freedom of movement may be restrained if he has
C. plays a watchdog role D. educate the masses on politics been convicted by the courts. Convicted means having
E. be loyal to the government been declared guilty of a criminal offence by the verdict of a jury
Answer or the decision of a judge e.g. imprisonment. (B)
Freedom of the press helps to serve as a watchdog to the
government, it keeps the government awake to fulfill their 1995/12
promises during their campaign manifesto. (C) The limitation on the right to life can be found
A. among the people B. in the case of a convicted person C.
1993/12 in the executive D. in the government
The concept of social justice implies that E. in the legislature
A. fairness to all citizens Answer
B. freedom for every citizen The limitation on the right to life can be found in the case of a
C. security for all citizens convicted person. The penalty by the court of law, when a person
D. to everyone according to his needs is declared guilty of murder is death. (B)
Answer
The concept of social justice implies fairness to all citizens. 1999/7
Social justice is based on the concept of human rights and The rights to freedom of speech means that people are free to
equality, and can be defined as “the way in which human A. express anything they like about government
B. disobey the government of the day
rights are manifested in the everyday lives of people at
C. express opinion within the limits of the law
every level of society”. (A)
D. participate in government
Answer
2002/6 Neco The right to freedom of speech means that people or citizens
A citizen’s right to expression can be limited if he are allowed to express opinions within the limits of the law.
A. pays taxes when due B. serves as witness in court (C)
C. commits slander, libel or sedition
D. fail to vote during election 2012/26 Neco
Answer One of the limitations on freedom of speech is
A citizen’s right of expression can be limited if he commits A. libel B. trespassing C. bye – laws
slander, libel or sedition. Slander means making false and D. unlawful detention
damaging statements about someone, libel means Answer
publishing false statement that is damaging to a person’s Libel is a method of defamation expressed by print, writing,
reputation, (a written defamation) and sedition is a speech pictures, signs, effigies or any communication embodied in
or conduct of inciting people to rebel against the authority physical form that is injurious to a person’s reputation,
of a state or monarch (king). (C) exposes a person to public hatred, contempt or ridicule, or
injures a person in his/her business or career. (A)
2006/20 Nov
A citizen’s right is limited by 2014/14
A. a state of emergency B. a free press Slander limits a citizen’s freedom of
C. an independent judiciary D. the rule of law A. expression B. movement C. association
Answer D. religion
A state of emergency is a situation of national danger or Answer
disaster in which a government suspends normal Slander limits a citizen’s freedom of expression. Slander is
constitutional procedures in order to regain control over the also known as oral or spoken defamation. Slander is the
situation, it can be through restriction of movement or legal term for the act of harming a person’s reputation by
removal of political elected leader to a sole administrator to telling one or more other people something that is untrue
manage the challenges. (A) and damaging about that person. Slander can be the basis
for a lawsuit and is considered a civil wrong. (A)

151
1993/15 Nov 6. Libel or sedition: When an individual defamate other
Which of the following could arise when there is no person’s character, business or career, such individual
freedom of the press? can be deprived of his/her freedom of expression.
A. newspapers will not circulate 7. The type of government: The democratic government
B. newspapers would be banned by the government respects the constitution and the rule of law, while the
C. the police can arrest journalists military or any form of dictatorship government are
D. both editors and reporters would be enemies of the not respecters of the constitution or the fundamental
police human rights that was enshrined in it.
E. freedom of expression would be jeopardized 8. Arrest of individual: When an individual is arrested by
Answer the police or any of the law enforcement agents to an
Freedom of expression to be jeorpadised means freedom offence, the person must wait patiently before his/her
of expression is at danger of being harmed or damaged. appearance in court, such period of waiting is
(E) restriction on his rights.
9. Child Street Hawking: Sending children to the streets
1993/17 Nov to haw, limits their rights.
People obey laws mainly because of
A. their wish to enthrone anarchy 2009/4a
B. the love for other members of the society Define the right of a citizen
C. the fear of sanctions Answer
D. their position and affluence in the society The right of a citizen are those claims and privileges that
E. the need to be recognized and respected belong to an individual by virtue of citizenship, especially
Answer the fundamental freedoms and privileges guaranteed, e.g.
People obey laws mainly because of the fear of sanctions. freedom of movement, speech, right to life, property,
Sanction means a threatened penalty for disobeying a law religion, association, press, etc.
or rule, official permission or approval for an action. (C) Answer
The following are the ways by which a citizen’s right can
2018/11 NABTEB be safeguarded.
When the right of an individual is violated, he or she can 1. Independence of the judiciary: The judiciary organ
go for redress through the should be independent from any interference from the
A. local government council other organs of government, so that their functions on
B. judicial branch of government how to protect the rights of individuals can be operated
C. legislative branch of government safely without bias.
D. executive branch of government
Answer 2. Fundamental human rights: The fundamental human
The judicial branch of government is the third organ of rights must be entrenched into the constitution to
government that interprets the law and settles disputes. (B) safeguard the rights of the people legally.

1999/3 Nov 3. Political education: The citizens should be educated

Under what circumstances can the rights of the individual politically for them to identify their rights and
be restricted? obligations as citizens.
Answer
The rights of the individual can be restricted under the 4. Human right commission: There is need for the
following circumstances. establishment of Human Right Commission, where the
1. Imprisonment: If an individual is convicted by a court masses can channel their complain. Examples of such
of law and imprisoned, such person’s right can be commission includes: Ombudsman and parliamentary
restricted. commissions for justice and fair hearing.
2. State of emergency: State of emergency can be declared
when there is natural disasters like earthquake, flood, or 5. Rule of law: The laws and provisions of the state is
man-made disasters e.g. riots, war, etc., t in such supreme. Government should also guarantee freedom
situations, here will be restriction of individuals rights and rights of the citizens.
e.g. movement.
3. Epidemic or pandemic: There must be restriction on 6. Freedom of the press: The press should be given the
individuals if there is any epidemic or pandemic in the freedom to express their opinions and criticize the
society to reduce the level of contraction examples of government with bans.
epidemic/pandemic includes small pox, cholera,
corona virus, measles, etc. 7. Democratic rule: This allows the people to participate
4. Death sentence: The conviction of an individual may in the decision making of the state.
result in his facing death by firing squad or by hanging,
if the person kills, he/she must also die by law. 8. Education: Government should create or encourage its
5. National security: An individual can be detained in the citizens to be educated, it would also enlighten them
interest of the state for information, etc. about their rights and duties.

152
2008/3 Neco 2018/2019/80 (NDU, BAYELSA)
Highlight any six ways by which the rights of a citizen can Equality before the law is component of
be protected A. separation of powers B. checks and balanced
Answer C. the rule of law D. constitutional law
1. Entrenchment of Fundamental Human Rights in the Answer – C
constitution. Equality before the law is component of the rule of law.
2. The principle of the rule of law. One of the principles and features of the rule of law is
3. Independence of the judiciary. equality before the law.
4. Freedom of press is vital.
5. Vibrant opposition party. 2004/26 Neco
6. Existence of pressure groups. The philosophy and fundamental laws of a country are
7. Enlightenment programmes for right awareness of contained in her
citizens. A. manifesto B. decrees C. edicts D. constitution
8. Respect for international conventions on Human Answer
Rights by the government. The United Nations Organization has urged all member
9. Establishment of Human Right Commission e.g. states and government all over the world to incorporate the
Ombudsman or public complaints commission. fundamental laws into their constitution. (D)
10. Proper and efficient enforcement of law and order. 1990/20 Nov
11. Doctrine of separation of powers with appropriate Fundamental human rights are best guaranteed in a society
checks and balances. by the
12. Reduction of poverty in the society. A. military B. police C. vigilante group
D. constitution
2011/14 (OAU, IFE) Answer
The fundamental assumption on which the idea of the rule Fundamental human rights are best guaranteed in a society
of law is based is when it is stipulated in the constitution. The citizens are
A. supremacy of the constitution B. rationality of human beings sure of their right when their constitution defines it. (D)
C. equality of human beings D. love for social justice
Answer – A 2018/14 Neco
The fundamental assumption on which the idea of the rule The fundamental law of a country refers to its
of law is based is supremacy of the constitution. A. acts of parliament B. conventions C. constitution
D. judicial precedence
1990/1 Nov Answer
Differentiate between constitution and constitutionalism The fundamental law of a country refers to its constitution.
Answer (C)
Constitution is a body of agreement rules and regulations
that states how powers are shared among the organs of 2010/15 Neco
government with their limitations while Constitutionalism Which of the following is not a fundamental human right?
is the principles behind the sharing of political powers A. right to life B. right to vote
among the three organs of government, it stresses that their C. freedom of movement D. freedom of religion
functions should be accompanied with limitations, so that Answer
each organs can remain within its own jurisdiction of duty Fundamental human rights are rights that mainly promote the
without interference to others. Constitutionalism also dignity of man, such rights include: the right to life, security,
stresses to check the activities of the organs through the and protection from inhuman treatment, freedom from slavery,
doctrine of separation of power with appropriation of the right to seek redress in court, freedom from unlawful
checks and balance that even the individual’s actions detention and imprisonment, freedom of movement,
would also be monitored in constitutionalism. It urges that association, expression, freedom of the press, etc. Right to vote
the constitution is supreme, should be fair and there should is a civic right under universal suffrage. (B)
be equal treatment between the leaders and followers, no
one is above the law. 1991/37
The three basic fundamental rights of citizens are
2018/29 UTME A. salvation, property and freedom of thoughts
A. U. Dicey popularized the principle of B. life, liberty and property
A. rule of law B. democracy C. free movement, free education and property
C. political culture D. separation of powers D. freedom of movement, speech and religion
Answer – A E. right to employment, education and property
The rule of law was further popularized in the 19th century Answer
by British Jurist A. U. Dicey. The three basic fundamental rights of citizens are right to
life, liberty and property that was why the United Nations
Organisation urged all nations to incorporate fundamental
human rights into the constitution. (B)

153
1997/16 Fundamental human rights are entrenched in a
Fundamental human rights are entrenched in the constitution for the following reasons:
constitution of a state in order to 1. For protection of citizens’ right.
A. encourage unlimited freedom 2. To seek redress, if rights of citizens are violated.
B enable the court to punish offenders 3. It prevents dictatorship of leaders.
C. restrict the liberty of citizens 4. It can be easily used as point of reference in the court.
D. make the government popular 5. It is complied with UNO’s directive.
E. guarantee the liberty of citizens 6. No government can easily affect a change on the
Answer fundamental human rights agreement.
The fundamental rights are entrenched into the constitution
to guarantee the liberty of citizens. (E) 2003/2a and b
(a) Outline any three fundamental human rights of a
2000/4 Neco Citizen.
Freedom of speech is a fundamental human rights enjoyed (b) What are the limitations of these rights?
by citizens but it may be limited if
A. loyalty is not shown to the ruling party (a) The fundamental human rights of a citizens include:
B. it exposes the wrong doings of the government 1. Right to life
C. it endangers the security of the state 2. Right to personal liberty.
D. it is used to cause embarrassment to the judiciary 3. Right to own property.
Answer 4. Right to dignity.
Freedom of speech can be limited when it endangers the 5. Right to private and family life.
security of the state. (C) 6. Right of religion
7. Right to freedom of expression and press.
2007/3a Neco
8. Right to peaceful assembly and association.
3a. Define fundamental human rights
9. Right to freedom of movement.
b. Highlight five means of safeguarding fundamental
10. Right to education.
human rights in a state.
(3a) Fundamental human rights refer to natural or (b) The limitation are as follows:
inalienable rights and privileges to be enjoyed by citizens 1. In the event of war or political crises, the government
of a country, such rights are entrenched in the constitution may declare a state of emergency, thereby criticizing
of the state. The fundamental human rights are of three the citizens violating the law of the land. For instance,
basis: Right to life, liberty and property. It is the right that a person may be sentenced to prison if he has been
restores back human dignity and values. found guilty of an offense by a court of law and this
would limit his fundamental right to movement and
(3b) Five means of safeguarding fundamental human association.
rights in the state include: 2. Able bodied citizens are sometimes conscripted into
1. Entrenchment of fundamental human rights in the the armed forces in time of war in order to safeguard
country’s constitution. the territorial integrity of the country.
2. Freedom and independence of media. 3. Ban on movement and association as sometimes seen
3. Enactment of laws that protects the rights of individuals. in some countries, limit the free movement of citizens
4. Independent of judiciary. in the country.
5. Public opinion must be used for protection of citizen’s 4. Forceful acquisition of property such as land, for state
right against violators. use limits the right of ownership by citizens.
6. Respect for the rule of law. 5. Laws of sedition, libel and slander limit the citizens’
7. Respect for international laws and conventions. fundamental rights of ownership by citizens.
8. Existence of institutions such as the ombudsman and the 6. Right of freedom of thoughts, conscience and religion
public complains commission. can be restricted by the type of government in power.
9. Citizens must be politically educated to defend their rights. Fascist or totalitarian always restricts freedom of
10. Provision of free legal aids. religion.
11. Doctrine of separation of power must be thoroughly 7. Right to dignity of human person can be limited by law
practiced. enforcements, brutality, ignorance, illiteracy, poverty
12. Checks and balances theory should be applied in the etc.
government.
2022/2 Neco
1994/3 Discuss six factors that limit the application of rule of law
Explain the term fundamental human rights. Why is it in a sovereign state.
entrenched in a constitution? Answer
Answer The following are factors that limit the application of rule
Fundamental Human Rights are the basic rights and freedom of law in a sovereign state:
that belong to every person in the world, from birth until death. 1. Lack of equality before law: Many critics are of the
These basic rights are based on shared values like dignity, view that the principle of equality before the law has
fairness, equality, respect and independence. These values are become a myth. This a major limitation to the rule of
defined and protected by the constitution. law.
154
2. Immunity of the heads of states: Heads of states may 1978/6 UTME
not be sued or appear in court. This privilege is not Rights are
extended to the citizens and it is a limitation to the rule A. claims which the law allows
of law. B. claims against the states
3. Delayed justice: Justice delayed is agreed to be justice C. claims against other individuals
denied. Some suspects have spent several years and D. claims which are natural to man
months in custody without their cases been treated. E. what are written in the constitution
4. The military in politics: The intervention of the Answer – A
military into political government and suspended the Rights are claims which the law allows. A moral or legal
use of constitution in the administration affairs, is a entitlement to have or do something is called a right.
great limitation to the application of the rule of law.
The decree they use is a force instrument for obedient. 1979/1 UTME
5. The rich and the privileged few: The rich and the Which of the following is not a fundamental human right?
privilege few often use their wealth, position and A. freedom of speech B. freedom of religion
influence to prevent justice. This is a limitation to the C. freedom of the press D. freedom of association
application of the rule of law. E. none of the above
6. State of emergency: A state of emergency is a situation Answer – E
in which a government is empowered by the All of the option are fundamental human rights, freedom
constitution to perform actions or impose policies that of speech, freedom of religion, freedom of the press and
it would normally not be permitted to. A government freedom of association.
can declare such a state during a national disaster, civil
unrest, armed conflict, medical pandemic (corona 1979/5 UTME
virus) epidemic or other biosecurity risk. It is The essence of the United Sates of America’s constitution
limitation to the rule of law. is that
A. it is based on the concept that all men are created equal
1989/15 and are endowed with rights
Fundamental human rights of citizens are provided for in B. the Supreme Court is the most politically powerful
A. United Nations Charter branch of government in the country.
B. the North Atlantic Treaty Organization C. it is a peculiarly North American document
C. the O.A.U charter D. it protects checks and balances between the states and
D. Amnesty International Edict the federal government and within the federal government
E. the constitution of state Answer – A
Answer The essence of the United States of America’s constitution
The fundamental human rights of citizens are provided in is that it is based on the concept that all men are created
the constitution of the state. (E) equally and are endowed with rights.

2014/6 (OAU,IFE) 1980/15 UTME

The clear formulation of the principle of rule of law is Fundamental Human Rights of citizens are provided for in
largely associated with A. the United Nations charter
A. Montesquieu B. Bodin C. Yar’Adua D. Dicey B. the North Atlantic Treaty Organization
Answer – D C. the O.A.U Charter
The clear formulation of the principle of the rule of law is D. Amnesty International Edict
largely associated with A. U. Dicey. E. the constitution of state
Answer – E
2017/2018/24 (UNIZIK, AWKA) The fundamental human rights of citizens are provided for
The rule of law demand that a government should not be in the constitution of the state. Every State enshrined the
A. constitutional B. arbitrary C. legislatic D. authoritative fundamental human rights in their constitution for
Answer – D references.
The rule of law demands that a government should not be
authoritative that means absolute power. 1984/18 UTME
A constitutionally defined set of individual rights which
2010/14 Neco governments are obliged to protect constitutes
The rule of law is limited by A. statutory rights B. equality rights
A. free press B. diplomatic immunity C. customary rights D. civil rights
C. constitutionalism D. separation of power E. natural rights
Answer Answer – D
Diplomatic immunity limited the rule of law because it Civil and political rights are a class of rights that protect
made diplomats to be above the law in any country they individuals’ freedom from infringement of government,
are working. (B) social organizations, and private individuals. They ensure
one’s entitlement to participate in the civil and political life
of society and the state without discrimination or
repressions.

155
2014/2015/33 (UI, IBADAN) 1992/13 UTME
The three fundamental rights of citizens are The fundamental rights of citizen include
A. salvation, property, freedom of thought A. social security and free speech
B. employment, properly and social security B. religious freedom and collective aggression
C. life, liberty and property C. Immunity from libel and right to employment
D. loyal party members
D. right to life and liberty
E. qualified adult citizens
Answer – C Answer – D
The three fundamental rights of citizens are right to life, The fundamental rights of citizens include right to life and
liberty and property. Locke wrote that all individuals are liberty.
equal in the sense that they are born with certain
“inalienable” natural rights. Among these fundamental 1999/15 UTME
natural rights, Locke said, are “life, liberty and property”. One instrument for safeguarding the rights of citizens is
Locke believed that the most basic human law of nature is
A. judicial interpretation B. presidential pardon
the preservation of mankind.
C. legislative intervention D. writ of habeas corpus
1986/21 UTME Answer – D
Which of the following is not a fundamental human rights Writ of habeas corpus is one of the instrument for
in Nigeria? safeguarding the rights of citizens.
A. right to education B. right to personal liberty
B. freedom of thought D. freedom of conscience 2002/14 UTME
Answer – A
To ensure the rights and freedom of citizens, the power of
Right to education is not a fundamental human right in
Nigeria. the arms of government must be
A. fused B. incorporated C. separated D. rotated
1987/6 UTME Answer – C
Fundamental rights are best guaranteed by To ensure the rights and freedom of citizens, the power of
A. independent judiciary B. good leadership the arms of government must be separated.
C. effective legislature D. efficient civil service
Answer – A
Fundamental rights are best guaranteed by independent 2017/1 UTME
judiciary. When the judiciary are independent, there will Which of the following is a foremost right of a citizen?
be no impartial judgment or, interferences from other A. Religious right B. Academic right
organs of government. The right of citizens will be C. Right to life D. Private life
preserved with good interpretation and judgment. Answer – C
Undoubtedly, the phenomenon of life is the most important
1989/46 UTME
phenomenon in the universe. The most important principle
Fundamental human rights of citizens are provided for in
A. the United Nations Charter of inherent rights is the right to life for mankind. This has
B. the OAU Charter been unanimously accepted by all schools of thought.
C. the Constitution of Amnesty International
D. the 1979 Constitution of Nigeria 2008/2009/18 (NDU, BAYELSA)
Answer – D Fundamental Human Right of citizens is provided for in
The 1979 Constitution of Nigeria enshrined the A. Charter B. The North Atlantic Treaty Organization
fundamental human rights of citizens. C. The A.U Charter D. Amnesty International Edict
E. the Constitutions of the State
1990/20 UTME Answer – E
Habeas Corpus is an essential process for safeguarding the The constitution of the state, guarantees all the
right of citizen to fundamental human rights.
A. vote B. personal liberty
C. own property D. freedom of speech 1978/34 UTME
Answer – B If the rights of the individual are violated or threatened
Habeas Corpus is an essential process for safeguarding the
where can he go for redress?
right of citizen to personal liberty. The “Great writ” of
habeas corpus is a fundamental right in the constitution that A. the executive branch of government
protects against unlawful and indefinite imprisonment. B. the legislative branch of government
Habeas Corpus has historically been an important C. the local government council
instrument to safeguard individual freedom against D. the judicial branch of government
arbitrary executive power. E. the ministry of internal or home affairs
Answer – D
The judicial branch of government has the right to
individual violation and threatens.
156
2015/2016/53 (NDU, BAYELSA) 2009/2010/40 (UNIZIK, AWKA)
Fundamental human right are entrenched in the constitution of When we talk about adult male suffrage we mean
a state is order to A. all adults can vote B. all adults males can vote
A. encourage unlimited freedom C. all men who pay tax can vote
B. enable the courts to punish offenders D. all adults males who pay tax can vote
C. restrict the liberty of citizens E. all men can vote
D. make the government popular Answer – B
E. guarantee the liberty of citizens When we talk about adult male suffrage we mean all adults males
Answer – E can vote.
Fundamental human right are entrenched in the constitution of 1982/28 UTME
a state in order to guarantee the liberty of citizens. Universal suffrage means
A. adult participation in politics
2015/2016/68 (NDU, BAYELSA) B. giving voting rights to women above the age of 21
The rights to freedom of speech means that people are free to C. property ownership
A. express anything they like about government D. citizens who understand why they vote
B. disobey the government of the day E. the right of qualified adults to vote
C. express opinions within the limits of the law Answer – E
D. participate in government Universal suffrage means the right of qualified adults to vote in a
Answer – C country.
The rights to freedom of speech means that people are free to
2009/24 (OAU, IFE)
express opinions within the limits of the laws. Universal Adult Suffrage means all
A. adult citizens can vote B. citizens can vote
2017/2018/31 (UNIZIK, AWKA) C. qualified citizens can vote D. literate citizens can vote
The law of libel limits a citizen’s right of freedom of E. males can vote
A. association B. movement C. worship D. expression Answer – A
Answer – D Universal adult suffrage (also called universal franchise, general
The law of libel limits a citizen’s right of freedom of suffrage, and common suffrage of the common man) gives the
expression. right to vote to all adult citizens, regardless of wealth, income,
gender, social status, race, ethnicity, political stance, or any other
2017/2018/75 (UNIIZIK, AWKA) restriction.
The concept of social justice implies
A. fairness to all citizens B. freedom for every citizen 2011/30 Neco
C. equality of citizen D. security for all citizen The principle of rule of law was popularized by
A. Gabriel Almond B. Charles Montesquieu
Answer – D
C. Jean Bodin D. A.V. Dicey
The main concept of social justice implies fairness to all
Answer
citizens. Social justice refers to a fair quotable division of A. V. dicey was the propounder of rule of law. A. V. Dicey stated
resources, opportunities and privileges in society. that rule of law means there should be lacking of arbitraries or
wide discretionary power. In other words, every act will be
1990/2a controlled by law. According to Dicey the English man were ruled
Explain the concept of rule of law by the law and law alone. (C)
Answer
The rule of law is the principle that all people and institutions 2013/7 Neco
are subject to and accountable to law that is fairly applied and The rule of law was observed when
enforced, the principle of government by law. Rule of law A. democracy is practiced B. laws are kept secret
means that no person no matter your social, economic and C. revolution is encouraged D. only the elite can govern
political standing (executive, legislature, etc.) that is above the Answer
law. The law of the land (state) according to A. V. Dicey is The United Nations (UN) system, the rule of law is a principle of
supreme meaning above. In another definition, the rule of law governance in which all persons, institutions and entities, public
means that no government or its officials can enforce laws that and private, including the state itself are accountable to laws that
are unfair or unjust. are publicly promulgated, equally enforced and independently
adjudicated, and which are consistent with international human
1978/49 UTME right norms and standard. All these attributes are found in a
The principle of universal adult suffrage refers to democratic government. (A)
A. the right of all adult people to vote
2001/6
B. the structure of political parties
A country where no one is punished except where a breach of law
C. the legal nature of a construction
is established before the ordinary courts operates
D. the right to free speech A. a totalitarian system B. delegated legislation
E. all of the above C. mosaic law D. the rule of law
Answer – A Answer
The main principle of universal adult suffrage refers to the right According to A. V. Dicey in his book ‘introduction to the law of
of all adult people or citizens to vote in an election. It also constitution 1885’ no man is punishable or can be lawfully made
encompasses the right to be voted for into a political office. to suffer in body or goods except for distinct breach of law and no
man is above the law. That is the rule of law. (D)
157
1992/15 UTME 12. Identify some limitations to fundamental human
Universal adult suffrage is usually restricted in most rights.
political systems to 13. Explain civil liberty.
A. those with landed property B. literates 14. Discuss the concept of equality before the law.
C. citizens D. those not more than 70 years old 15. State six factors that can ensure the enforcement of the
Answer – C rule of law.
Universal adult suffrage is usually restricted in most 16. Mention and explain any five fundamental human
political systems to citizens only. rights of citizens.
17. Explain any three factors that can safeguard the liberty
2009/27 UTME of individuals.
The right of all eligible citizens to vote and be voted for a 18. Explain constitutionalism.
referred to as
A. gender equality B. political mandate
C. restricted franchise D. universal suffrage
Answer – D
Universal suffrage is the right of all eligible citizens to vote
and be voted for.

2013/18 UTME
The right of citizens to vote is
A. universal suffrage B. nationality suffrage
C. electoral suffrage D. adult suffrage
Answer – A
Universal suffrage is the right of citizens to vote

2017/28 UTME
Universal adult suffrage permits all
A. citizens to vote B. qualified male to vote
C. qualified citizens to vote
D. female to vote
Answer – C
Universal adult suffrage permits all qualified citizens to
vote.

REVISION EXERCISES
1. The term ‘rule of law refers to a situation in which
A. lawyers are the rulers B. laws are supreme
C. the judiciary is independent
D. parliament makes laws
2. Fundamental rights are best guaranteed by
A. independent judiciary B. good leadership
C. effective legislature D. efficient civil service
3. The principle of the rule of law stipulated that
A. only judges interprets the law
B. law makers are above the law
C. everyone is equal before the law
D. lawyers makes law
4. The application of the rule of law can be limited by
A. giving judges full authority
B. involving emergency power
C. securing the tenure of offices of judges
D. insulating judges from partisan politics.
5. What are the duties and obligations of a citizen in
state?
6. Who is a citizen of a state?
7. Explain the declaration of Human Right of 1948.
Discuss.
8. Define the rule of law.
9. State four differences between a constitutional and
constitutionalism.
10. Discuss the three basic principles of the rule of law.
11. Explain fundamental human rights.

158
2005/4a Exercise 9.2
Chapter Nine Describe separation of powers.

BASIC PRINCIPLES OF GOVERNMENT Merits of Separation of Powers

1. Protection of liberty and rights: The theory of
separation of powers allows for protection of the
SEPARATION OF POWERS
Separation of powers is a doctrine of constitutional law liberties and rights of the individuals, and protects him
under which the three branches of government (executives, or her from different forms of despotism and
legislative and judiciary) are kept separately. This system oppression.
2. Incase in government’s efficiency: As powers are
or doctrine made the three organs of government to
distributed among the government departments, these
function based on their jurisdictions as stated by the
departments gain deep knowledge about the matters
constitution. The system permits no interference in each
they are concerned with, and become more efficient.
other duties and absolute power is not granted to any
Separation of powers helps to reduce the workload on
organs. Each organ is empowered with checks and
any particular arm of government.
balances of another. There will be chaos, violence,
3. Promote order in governance: All the three arms of
dictatorship, tyranny and oppression if there is no
separation of powers. Separation of powers implies that the government are allocated their separate functions. A
strict application of the principle would ensure that
functions of government of law making, execution and
each performs its role and that only. This ensures that
adjudication should be handled by different organs of
there is order in the management of the state.
government without interference.
4. Prevent abuse of power: Separation of powers
accompanied by checks and balances is an effective
The theory of separation of powers was established in 1748
tool against abuse of power and arrogance of power.
by Baron de Montesquieu in his book ‘The Spirit of Laws’
As powers are distributed among three different
(De L’Espirit des Lois). The intention behind a system of
departments, these departments enjoy only limited
separated powers is to prevent the concentration of power by
powers which prevent rise of dictatorship. The concept
providing for checks and balances. The separation of power
is good in the sense that it is able to check tyranny on
model is often imprecisely and metonymically used
the part of those in government.
interchangeably with the trias politica principle. While the
5. Ensures judicial independence: Judicial
trias politica model is a common type of separation, there are
independence is the concept that the judiciary should
governments that have more or fewer than three branches.
be independent from the other branches of
government. In almost every constitution, the judiciary
is clothed with the powers to have the final say in all
1999/18 Nov
constitutional disputes and to be able to declare null
The principle of separation of powers means that
and void to the actions of other arms of government.
A. the powers of the legislature have been eroded
6. Stable political system: Separation of power
B. the judiciary is powerless
guarantees stable political system in most states.
C. there is no restriction on the powers of the executive and
7. It is democratic: Separation of power is an essential
the judiciary
characteristic of a modern political system.
D. each organ of government should not perform the
8. Peaceful administration: The system promotes
function of the other
peaceful running among the three organs of
Answer
government.
Separation of powers means the political powers of the
state has to be divided into three departments or organs. i.e.
2003/5 Neco
the executive, legislature and judiciary, each of them The purpose of Montesquieu’s separation of power is to
carries out their functions without interferences from theA. prevent tyranny by the government
other organs. (D) B. uphold the supremacy of parliament
C. ensure equality before the law
1994/16 D. guarantee free and fair elections
The theory of separation of powers was for the first time Answer
clearly formulated by The purpose of Montesquieu’s theory of separation of
A. Baron de Montesquieu B. Albert Dicey powers is to prevent tyranny by the government, meaning
C. Lord Bryce D. Jean Bodin E. Jean Austin to prevent a state under a cruel and oppressive government
Answer or rule. (A)
The theory of separation of power was first introduced by
Baron de Montesquieu in 1748 in his book title “spirit of 2001/15 Nov Exercise 9.3
law”. (A) The main reason for the application of the principle of
separation of power is to
1989/15 Exercise 9.1 A. allow the legislators a free hand in fixing their remuneration
Separation of powers was popularized by B. allow the president a free hand in the running of the affairs
A. Karl Max B. Adam Smith C. A. V. Dicey of the state
D. Baron Montesquieu C. protect citizen’s rights and liberties
D. make allowances for coalition governments

159
Demerits of Separation of Powers Checks on the Powers of the Executive in the
1. Inequality of powers: The theory of separation of Presidential System
power is based on the principle of equality of powers, 1. International Treaties or Agreements: A treaty is an
but this principle is flawed. In the parliamentary agreement between or among two or more parties. The
system, the legislature which represents the people are executive must honour any treaty entered into on
the most powerful while in the presidential, the behalf of the state. Sanctions may be imposed to
executive is the most powerful. punish non-compliance.
2. Separation of powers leads to jealousy: Separation of 2. Supremacy of the Constitution: The executive
power leads to jealousy, suspicion and friction among derives its tenure, power and functions from the
the organs of government. constitution. The provisions of the constitution,
3. Administrative complications: It results in therefore, serve as a check on the powers of the
administrative complications. It becomes difficult to executive.
forge cooperation, coordination and harmony among 3. Ratification of Treaties: The legislature can check
the organs of government. the powers of the executive through ratification of all
4. Not fully attainable: This theory is not fully attainable. treaties entered into by the executive.
The executive has some role in rule making, and the 4. Public Opinion: The various opinions expressed
legislature also performs some judicial functions. For through the mass media and pressure groups serve as a
example, impeachment which is judicial in nature is check on the powers of executive. No responsible
done by the legislature. government acts against the opinions of the people.
5. Checks and balances: This can bring about the 5. Ombudsman: This was first established in Sweden in
inability of government to take prompt and quick 1809. In Nigeria, it is known as Public Complaints
decisions on matters that needed urgent attention. Commission. This is a body or person who helps to
6. Factor of rigidity: The application of the principle of redress the grievances of the aggrieved. This checks
separation of powers can hinder the smooth running of the powers of the executive.
government. 6. Writ of Mandamus: This is the power of the judiciary
to compel the executive to perform their duties.
Separation of Powers in the Presidential System of 7. Writ of Habeas Corpus: This is a judicial order
Government requiring a detained person to be brought before a
1. President/heads of government: The president is the judge or into court, especially to investigate the right
executive chairman of the state; he has no sit in the of the law to keep in prison. This is to check the powers
congress or parliament. of the executive to detain.
2. Separation of powers: There is a clear separation of
powers in the presidential system of government 2009/13 Neco
among the three branches of government. Which of the following principles is emphasized among
3. Dissolution of parliament: The parliament or congress the three organs of government?
cannot be dissolved by the president unless its tenure A. separation of powers B. centralization
is complete. C. delegated legislation D political participation
4. Appointment of judges: The president appoints Answer
judges, and they preside over judgments on Separation of power is the main key in presidential system
presidential matters or government officials. of government, that is the theory that divides the
5. Judicial review: The judges are empowered by the constitution of a state into department and their functions
constitution to review over the activities of the are also stipulated. It guards the system against tyranny
legislature and the executive; it also has the power to government. (A)
declare their acts invalid, null and void or
unconstitutional. 2005/4b Neco
6. The term of the judge office: The tenure of judges is How does separation of powers operate under presidential
made independent of the executive. system of government?
7. Individual responsibility: The cabinet members have Answer
their own individual responsibility not collective like 1. In presidential system of government, the legislature
the parliamentary system. makes laws, the executive implements the law and the
8. Presidential election: The president is elected in the judiciary interprets the law.
office through direct election and popular support of 2. None of the three organs of government interferes with
the electorate. powers and functions of the other organs.
9. Impeachment: The president can only be removed 3. No one person or organ of government combines the
from his office through impeachment by the legislature, executive and judiciary functions or
parliament, if found guilty of the offences charged powers.
against him. 4. There is the operation of checks and balances.
10. Checks and balances: Checks and balances are 5. No single person takes up membership of more than
properly conducted in presidential system of one organ of government.
government.

160
Separation of Powers in the Cabinet System of Checks and balances are various procedures set in place to
Government reduce mistakes, prevent improper behaviour, or decrease
1. No clear separation of powers: There is no clear the risk of centralization of power. Checks and balances
separation of powers between the executive and the usually ensure that no one person or department has
legislature in the parliamentary system because some absolute control over decisions. It clearly defines the
powers are still fused assigned duties, and force cooperation in completing tasks.
2. Ministers sits in parliament: Ministers in this system
belong to both the executive and legislative organs of Merits of Checks and Balances
government. 1. Excessive use of power: It prevents excessive use of
3. The cabinet presents policies: The cabinet decides on power by an organ of the government.
the policy which is to be put before the parliament for 2. Orderliness and Efficiency: It makes for orderliness
discussion. and efficiency in the exercise of their functions.
4. The executive forms an integral part of the 3. Respect for human rights: Respects for human rights
legislature: The executive organ of government tends are promoted through checks and balances.
to have full control of the legislative organ and even 4. Strict Compliance with the Constitution: The
the judiciary. application of the principle of checks and balances
5. Statutory Orders: Ministers take part in its leads to strict compliance with the provisions of the
proceedings, initiate laws and have power to issue constitution.
statutory orders. 5. Control of power: Checks and balance helps to
6. House of the Lords: In Britain one chamber of the control powers among the organs of government.
legislature, ‘The House of the Lords’ is the final court 6. Decision – making: It makes for a thorough decision
of Appeal. making process in the country.
7. Judicial Review: The executive appoints judges, the
judge presides over judgment on the conduct of Demerits of Checks and Balances
government officials. 1. Interference: There are evidence that some organs of
8. Vote of no confidence: The parliament can pass a vote government are interfering with each other e.g. the
of no confidence on the entire cabinet to be removed. president assent the bill, the legislative approves
This is a check on the power of the cabinet. ministers, ambassadorial, other appointments.
9. The Lord Chancellors: The Lord Chancellors in 2. Impeachment: The power of impeachment bestowed
Britain are members of the three organs of upon the legislature is inimical to the working of
government. checks and balances.
10. Removal of Judges: The legislature has the power to 3. Power of veto: The veto power of the executive can
present an address to the crown for the removal of affect the principles of checks and balances.
judges. This is a check on the powers of judges. 4. Power of the president: The president is too powerful,
it engages in the duties of the legislative and judicial
1995/9 Exercise 9.4 e.g. Amnesty.
There is no separation of powers in a cabinet system
because 2007/24 Neco Exercise 9.6
A. members of the executive are also members of the Which of the following is a benefit of the principle of
judiciary checks and balances? It
B. the president is also a member of parliament A. enables the executive exercise absolute power
C. the prime minister and his cabinet ministers are also B. encourages loyalty of the judiciary to the executive
members of parliament C. rules out disagreement among the organs of government
D. some elected parliamentarians are also judges D prevents domination of one organ of government by
E. ministers are also members of the judiciary another

2004/13 Neco Exercise 9.5 2017/13 Neco Exercise 9.7

The principle of ‘Separation of powers’ is less applicable The principle of checks and balances is important because it
in a A. prevents each organs of government from being
A. parliamentary system of government dictatorial
B. unitary system of government B frees other organs from judicial control
C. confederal system of government C. makes the organs to confront themselves
D. federal system of government D. makes the government to perform it civil responsibility

CHECKS AND BALANCES 1996/11 Exercise 9.8

Checks and balances is the theory where each of the three The security and ratification of major executive decisions
branches of government can limit the powers of the others. by the legislature are an application of
For example the ability of the executive, legislature or A. the rule of law B. separation of powers
judiciary, checking the activities of one another. This way, C. delegated legislation D. fusion of powers
no one branch becomes too powerful. Each branch ‘check’ E. checks and balances
the power of the other branches to make sure that the power
is balanced between them.

161
REPRESENTATIVE GOVERNMENT 2005/3a Neco Exercise 9.10
Representative government, also known as indirect What is a representative government?
democracy, can be defined as a government of elected
representative of the people. Representative government is Features of Representative Government
founded on the principle of elected officials representing a 1. Periodic election: Periodic election is one of the major
group of people, as opposed to direct democracy. These attributes of representative government. In most
officials elected must be accountable and responsible to the political systems, their elections are between five to
electorate who elected them in a general election conducted four years.
on the principle of universal adult suffrage to represent them
and take decisions on behalf of the people (electorate). 2. Free and fair election: Elections are supposed to be
Representative government entails that the representative,
free and fair in representative government. The choice
though they represent some interest, remain free agents in
of the people should be their representation for peace
acting. They:
i. act in support of what they believe is an effective majority
and trust.
of their constituents’ desire;
ii. act in support of what they believe is in the constituent’s 3. Independent electoral commission: Electoral
interest; and commission is a body that conducts, prepare ad announce
iii. act in support of what they believe is in the state’s elections results, they need to be independent, so as to be
interest. free and fair in their conducts.

2001/21 Neco 4. Universal adult suffrage: All adult citizens should be

A system of government that is made up of elected people is given the opportunity to vote and be voted for in any
referred to as political elections, if they have the requirements for the
A. representative government B. socialist government post.
C. capitalist government D. feudalist government
Answer 5. Rule of law: The provisions of the constitution must
Representative government, also known as indirect be obeyed and observed by all. The constitution is
democracy, is defined as a government of elected supreme in representative government.
representatives of people. (A)
6. Freedom of choice: The electorate should be given the
2014/7 Neco right or freedom to decide on the political party and
Representative government is alternatively called candidate of their choice through casting of votes.
A. Rule of law B. indirect democracy
C. separation of powers D. classical democracy 7. Up to date electoral register: Electorate must update
Answer their voter’s cards and registration to limit fraud.
Representative government is alternatively called indirect
democracy, it is a system where citizens of a country vote for 8. Constituencies: There should be well defined
government representatives to handle legislation and ruling constituencies, which will promote efficiency in the
the country on their behalf. (B) elections and it will also help to detect electoral
malpractices.
2002/3 Nov
A representative government implies government by 9. Political education: Political education should be a must
A. party executive B. selected few for the citizens, so that they can identify symbols or logo
C. elected representatives D. judicial representatives of parties. It will also help them to know their political
Answer right and to reduce invalid ballot papers.
A representative government simply means government by
elected representatives through electoral system. These 10. Free press: The press should be given freedom to
elected meet to debate and make laws on behalf of the whole educate the citizens about the political parties, their
community or society. (C) manifestoes, integrity of each contesting candidates,
their biography, etc. It would enhance political
1995/6 Nov ideology of many electorates.
A representative government exists under
A. fascism B. theocracy 11. Existence of law courts: People should have free
C. cabinet system D. military rule access to the courts whenever they are aggrieved.
Answer 2009/15 Neco
Representative government exists under cabinet system of A true representative government is one that
government where citizens vote to elect people to represent A. resists freedom of movement
their interest and concerns in authorities. (C) B. recognizes unlimited franchise
C. observes customs and traditions
2002/10 Neco Exercise 9.9
D. allows devolution of governmental powers
A representative government is one in which
A. the executives controls the judiciary Answer
B. half of the parliament is popularly elected A true representative government is one that allows
C. traditional from the majority in parliament devolution of governmental powers. Devolution is the
D. the ultimate power resides with the people statutory delegation of powers from the central
government of a sovereign state to govern at a subnational
level, such as regional or local government level. (D)
162
1989/24 guided and enlightened on political issues so as not to
Representative democracy is characterized by make uninformed decisions.
A. free election and proper register of voters 9. Wealth Distribution: There should be a fair
B. unlimited expenditure of political parties distribution of wealth and ownership of property
C. a politically educated electorate within a society
D. representative of the poor only
E. rule of interest groups
Answer 2016/6 Neco Exercise 9.14
A representative democracy is characterized by a Which of the following hinders the establishment of a
politically educates electorate. (C) representative government in a state?
A. mass illiteracy B. existence of pressure group
2005/3bi Exercise 9.11 C. vibrant political culture
State two features of representative government. D. independent electoral commission

1995/18 Exercise 9.12 2005/3bii Neco Exercise 9.15

A representative government can be established through Outline three conditions necessary for a representative
A. a general election B. a military coup government.
C. an imposition D. espionage E. apartheid
Merits of Representative Government
1992/25 Nov Exercise 9.13 1. This system of government promotes and ensures
All the following are features of representative government greater participation of the people (electorate) in
except government
A. military rule B. equality of rights 2. This system of government, when operating as it
C. legitimacy of government D. periodic election should, is a highly efficient form of government.
E. secession 3. It provides thorough representation of the general
public.
Condition for the Establishment of Representative 4. It makes the process of decision making easy and time
Government saving since the representatives will have to make
1. Rule of law: There is need for every citizen and decisions on behalf of the majority.
political leader to know the supremacy of the 5. Controls can be put into place to limit the individual
constitution that they must all abide by its provisions. actions of an elected official.
2. Written constitution: Representative government should 6. Representative government makes the system to have
have a written constitution documented in a single stable political government.
volume which would help everyone to know the rules 7. Election is the yardstick of representative government.
and regulation that governed them at all aspects of the 8. The elected leaders are accountable to the electorate
state. under this system of government.
3. Universal adult suffrage: Every qualified adult should 9. Representative government is based on respect of the
be allowed to vote and be voted for in any political rule of law and obedience to its provisions.
election.
4. The multi-party system: Representative government Demerits of Representative Government
should practice multi-party system. It makes the 1. It discourages political participation when the
opposition party to belike a watch dog, trying to see representatives do not represent their needs.
the weakness of the ruling party. It makes the farmers 2. The strong activities of the opposition party can delay
party to remain in power. certain important national issues.
5. Independent and impartial judiciary: The 3. The majority still rules at the expense of the minority.
representative system makes the government to be 4. It is still a costly form of government.
independent in deciding their cases without 5. This form of government encourages deception and
interference of other organs of government. Judges electoral malpractices.
should be impartial when presiding over their cases. 6. It makes for corrupt practices among the politicians
6. Fundamental human rights: The fundamental human who may want to acquire power at all costs.
rights should be entrenched into the constitution; it 7. Illiteracy is another limitation that makes some voters
gives the citizens essential rights e.g. right to life, not to cast their votes properly.
freedom of association, religion, movement, press, 8. There is no true independence of the judiciary; as the
speech etc. judiciary may be under the control of the government
7. An electoral process: An electoral process should be in power.
created with an independent electoral commission 9. Representative government has duplications of
which would be in-charge of electoral process functions, thereby leading to wastage of public funds.
completely. This is a good condition necessary for the 10. It gave honest citizens, the medium to agree with the
establishment of representative government. saying that politics is a dirty game. This ideology
8. People’s opinion: The opinion of the electorate should scares away responsible and honest men and women
be respected, especially issues that has to do with the from contesting in the election.
national interest. Also, the electorate should be well

163
2022/4 Neco 1980/24 UTME
To ensure rights and freedom of citizens, the powers of the The basic elements of the United States constitution is that
organs of government must be A. it presupposes and relies upon the existence of a highly
A. fused B. incorporated C. rotated D. separated E. suspended educated and very articulate electorate
Answer – D B. presidents like Richard Nixon cannot get away with gross
To ensure rights and freedom of citizens, the powers of the abuse of power
organs of government must be separated. C. it guarantees the enjoyment of equal rights and protection
of every citizen
1978/5 UTME D. murderers who are found guilty by law courts are executed
The “separation of powers” means the same thing as on electric chairs
A. a presidential system of government E. it embodies the concept of separation of powers
B. checks and balances C. the rule of law Answer – E
D. supremacy of the judiciary E. none of the above The basic elements of the United States constitution is that it
Answer – B embodies the concept of separation of powers.
The separation of powers refers to checks and balances, the
division of government responsibilities into distinct branches 2018/6 Neco
to limit any one branch from exercising the care functions of The theory of separation of powers is associated with
another. The intent is to prevent the concentration of power A. Jean Bodin B. Baron de Montesquieu
and provide for checks and balances. C. A. V. Dicey D. J.J. Rousseau
Answer
2009/2010/37 (UNIZIK, AWKA) The theory of separation of powers is associated with a French
Separation of powers is primarily a man called Baron de Montesquieu. (B)
A. means of ensuring parliamentary supremacy
B. restriction on the powers of the executive 1980/27 UTME
C. device to limit the powers of the executive to enhance The principle of the separation of powers in the new constitution
individual freedom of Nigeria is different from that of the USA because
D. means of guaranteeing the independence of the judiciary A. traditional rulers can play a dominant role
E. means of institutionalizing opposition B. there are two houses of the National Assembly
Answer – B C. the president is above the law
Separation of powers is primarily a restriction on the powers D. the vice president is not the president of the senate
of the executive. Separation of powers means that the three E. the senate has the power of veto
branches of government are separated. The three branches are Answer – D
as follows: The legislature – the part that makes laws, the The principle of the separation of powers in the new constitution
judicial branch – the part that decide if the law has been of Nigeria is different from that of the USA because in the Nigeria
broken and the executive – which is the part that implements system, the Vice President is not the president of the senate but this
laws and policies. is not so in the system of the USA.

1980/3 UTME 1981/16 UTME

The principle of separation of power ensures The doctrine of the separation of powers is based on the
A. the erosion of executive power assumption that
B. that the legislature is supreme A. those who hold power may encroach on the liberties of the
C. the preservation of the fundamental liberties of the citizens powerless
D. that all the branches of government have equal powers and B. power corrupts and absolute power corrupts absolutely
functions C. man is a political animal
E. that the rights of the ethnic minorities are safeguard D. man has inalienable right E. A and B
Answer – C Answer – E
The principle of separation of powers ensures the The doctrine of the separation of powers is based on the
preservation of the fundamental liberties of the citizens. assumption that those who hold power may encroach on the
liberties of the powerless, that power corrupts and absolute power,
1980/12 UTME corrupts absolutely.
The principle of separation of power implies that
A. the executive is supreme B. the executive is powerless 2011/2012/2 (NDU, BAYELSA)
C. power is shared by different but co-ordinate organs in the The principle of the separation of powers implies that the three
state main organs of government work
D. the rule of law obtains A. separately B. independently and co-operatively
E. power is shared by competing departments in the state C. against one another
Answer – C D. reluctantly and gradually for the executive
The principle of separation of power implies that power is E. together in the increase of other nation
shared by different but co-ordinate organs in the state. The Answer – B
system of separation of powers divides the tasks of the state The principle of the separation of power implies that the three
into three branches: legislative, executive and judicial. These main organs of government work independently and co-
tasks are assigned to different institutions in such a way that operatively. Separation of power refers to the division of a state’s
each of them can check on others. As a result, no one government into branches, each with separate, independent
institution can become as powerful in a democracy as to powers and responsibilities, so that the powers of one branch are
destroy the system. not in conflict with those of the other branches.

164
1985/13 UTME 1988/9 UTME
The theory of separation of powers was for the first time The doctrine of separation of powers is associated with
clearly formulated by A. Montesquieu B. Locke C. Marx D. Hobbes
A. Jean Bodin B. Jean Austin C. Baron de Montesquieu Answer – A
D. Lord Bryce E. A. V. Dicey The doctrine of separation of powers is associated with
Answer – C Montesquieu. Separation of powers was coined in the 18th
The theory of separation of powers was for the first time Century by Charles Louis Baron Montesquieu.
clearly formulated by Baron de Montesquieu. The term
separation of powers was initiated by Charles de 1998/2 Nov
Montesquieu. For the very first time, it was accepted by How the legislatures do checks the power of the president
Greece and then it was widespread by the Roman Republic in a presidential system of government?
as the constitution of the Roman republic. Answer:
1. The legislative branch has the power to approve
1999/4 Nov presidential nominations, control the budget, and can
Describe six features of a representative government. impeach the president from office.
Answer 2. The legislative can check on corrupt executives by
Features of representative government probing.
1. The powers of the elected representatives are defined by a 3. The legislative check the unconstitutional activities of
constitution that establishes the basic laws, principles, and the executive and put them back to order based on the
framework of the constitution. constitution.
2. The constitution may provide for some forms of limited 4. The legislative are the mouthpiece of the people, so
direct democracy such as recall elections and ballot they are used as correcting tools for the executive.
initiative elections.
3. An independent electoral commission which would
handle the proceedings/announcement of election results. 1989/6 UTME
4. Elected representatives may also have the power to select The major advantage of the principle of separation of
other government leaders, such as a prime minister or powers is that it provides for
president. A. an executive premier B. a powerful legislature
5. There is always periodic election in most representative C. a very strong executive D. checks and balances
government system once within five or four years. Answer – D
6. Law court is also an attribute of representative system, The separation of powers provides a system of shared
where electorate can channel their dismay during or after power known as checks and balances. Three branches are
election. created in the constitution with separated functions but
7. Freedom of choice by the electorate. The electorate have interwoven.
the right to vote for any party or candidate of their choice
without fear. 1990/11 UTME
The principle of separation of powers is fundamental to the
8. Up to date electoral register is very essential, it guides the
independent electoral commission on their preparation A. parliamentary system B. presidential system
processes. C. totalitarian system D. federal system
9. Universal adult suffrage is an agreement that allows only Answer – B
adults to vote and be voted for in an election. The principle of separation of powers is fundamental to the
presidential system. The presidential system of
10. Political education is important, it helps the electorate to
know their political rights. government gives room for the three organs of government
which operates separately and independently without the
2002/9 Nov interference of the other organs. The principle of
Which of the following is not necessary for a separation of powers makes no organ of government to be
representative government? more powerful than the other.
A. an elected judiciary B. free and fair election
C. an independent electoral commission 2007/22 Neco
D. an efficient police force Which of the following is a means of establishing
Answer representative government?
An elected judiciary is not necessary/feature of a A. the existence of functional political parties
representative government. (A) B. the existence of paramilitary groups
C. operations of checks and balances
2005/12 Nov D. the operation of rule of law
A representative government is characterized by Answer
A. minority rule B. free and fair elections The operation of the rule of law helps in the establishment
C. marginalization of minority ethnic groups of the representative government. It helps the rule and the
D. supremacy of the opinion leaders ruled to know the supremacy of the constitution and
Answer everyone in the state must respect and abide with it. (D)
Free and fair elections is one of the most vital
characteristics of representative government, it shows that
the choice of the people are their representations. (B)
165
1995/2b 1995/9 UTME
What conditions are essential for the existence of a The goal of the theory of separation of powers is to
representative government? A. make the executive dependent on the legislature
Answer B. give more powers to the legislature
The following are conditions necessary for a representative C. protect individual liberty
government: D. create efficiency in the judiciary
1. The electoral commission should be independent to be Answer – C
able to handle the affairs of the electoral processes. The goal of the theory of separation of powers is to protect
2. Elections should be periodic, free and fair for the trust individual liberty. The Theory of Separation of powers
emphasizes that, in order to retain political freedom, it is
of the representatives.
necessary to separate the state apparatus into legislative,
3. Delimitations of electoral constituencies should be
executive, and judicial branches with each one having a
well defined. separate state function (legislative powers, executive powers,
4. Fundamental human rights should be entrenched in the judicial powers).
constitution.
5. Written constitution is important for references and it 2018/2019/76 (NDU, BAYELSA)
guides the people to know what the constitution One major factor that differentiate the presidential from the
entails, what they need to do and what they should parliament system is
expect from the government. A. separation of power B. judicial independence
6. People’s opinion should be given respect especially for C. passage of bills D. party system
national issues. Answer – A
7. Independence of the judiciary. This will make the The major factor that differentiate the presidential from the
judgment of the Judiciary to be sound and without parliament system is separation of power. The presidential
interference. system of government is designed with the system of
separation of powers because of the diversity in nature of the
2019/2020/43 (DELSU, ABRAKA) system. The three organs must work separately but
Despite the doctrine of separation of power, the legislature interwoven for effectiveness while some powers in the
plays quasi-judicial role as a result of its parliamentary system of government are fused i.e. the Prime-
A. investigative powers B. financial powers minister (the head of government) is also a parliamentarian.
C. emergency powers D. appropriation power The ministers (cabinet members) are also parliamentarians.
Answer – A
The doctrine of the separation of powers, is such that the 1999/5
The idea of separation of powers as a political concept was
legislature plays quasi-judicial role as a result of its
developed by
investigative powers. Quasi-judicial is the action taken and A. Louis Montesquieu B. A. V. Dicey
discretion exercised by public administrative agencies or C. Thomas Hobby D. Karl max E. Jean Bodin
legislative bodies that are obliged to investigate and Answer
ascertain facts and draw conclusions from them as the Louis Montesquieu is the same person as Baron de
foundation for official actions. Montesquieu. The name of the man was Charles – Louis de
Secondat, Montesquieu was the ideology he had to divide
2002/17 Neco
government powers into three branches “separation of
The principle of checks and balances modifies the theory
powers”. (A)
of
A. delegated legislation B. supremacy of the law 2000/19 UTME
C. separation of powers D. rule of law Separation of powers is a principle which enables each arm
Answer of government to
The principle of checks and balances transform the theory A. probe one another B. overlap the functions of the other
of separation of power into the modern democracy. (C) C. carry out its constitutional functions
D. moderate the scope of the constitution
1990/53 Answer – C
Montesquieu propounded his theory of separation of Separation of powers is a principle which enables each arm
powers based on his impression that the of government to carry out its constitutional function. The
A. British government was successful because its organs constitution stipulated the functions of the three arms of
were separated in both personal and function government: legislature-law-making, executive-formulation
B. British government was successful because its organs and implementations of policies, and judiciary interprets and
were fused in both personnel and functions settles disputes.
C. French government was democratic
D. British government had two legislative houses 2018/11 Neco
E. British government was autocratic The principle of separation of powers becomes meaningful
Answer when it is linked with the concept of
Montesquieu’s (The spirit of the law – 1748) which states A. the certainty of the law B. checks and balances
that “There can be no liberty where the legislative and C. legality of the law D. judicial independence
executive powers are united in the same person or body”. Answer
The principle of separation of powers becomes meaningful
He emphasized on separation of powers in the three organs
when it is linked with the concept of checks and balances.
of government and functions. (A)
(B)
166
2002/21 UTME 2017/2018/16 (UI, IBADAN)
The application of the principle of separation of powers Where there is absence of separation of powers, there could
seems impracticable because power is be
A. centralized B. fused C. separated D. delegated A. good governance B. promotion of individual freedom
Answer –B C. abuse of power D. checks and balance
The application of the principle of separation of powers Answer – C
seems impracticable because power is fused. Where there is absence of separation of powers, there could
be abuse of power in the state. Some few individual will
2004/25 UTME turn themselves to dictator in the state.
The principle of separation of powers was made popular
by 2019/14 NABTEB
A. Thomas Hobbes B. John Locke C. Niccolo Machiavelli Who was the propounder of separation of powers?
D. Baron de Montesquieu A. John Locke B. Adam Smith
Answer – D C. Baron de Montesquieu E. Thomas Hobbes
The principle of separation of powers was made popular Answer
by Baron de Montesquieu. Charles –Louis de secondat, Baron de Montesquieu who is
generally referred to as simply Montesquieu was a French
2006/29 UTME judge, man of letters and political philosopher. He is the
The principle of separation of powers is intimately related principal source of the theory of separation of powers,
to which is implemented in many constitutions throughout
A. checks and balances B. the bureaucratic process the world. (C)
C. democratic rule D. the rule of law
Answer – A 2014/2015/22 (UI,IBADAN)
The principle of separation of powers is intimately related Separation of powers denotes _____
to checks and balances. A. separation of governmental powers but not separation
of persons
2010/14 UTME B. separation of governmental power and separation of
The principle of separation of power is best practiced in the persons
A. Presidential System B. Parliamentary System C. separation of persons only
C. Monarchical System D. Feudal System D. separation of powers of governments only
Answer – A Answer – B
The principle of separation of power is best practiced in the Separation of powers denotes that separation of
presidential system of government because of the nature of governmental powers and separation of persons. In the
the system that deals with diversity in nature. presidential system of government, the executive,
legislature and judiciary and different persons, in different
2006/19 (OAU, IFE) organs. The powers are not fused in an individual.
The benefits of separation of powers include the following
except
A. prevention of tyranny B. checks of abuse 1991/14 UTME
C. promotion democracy with free and fair election The notion of checks and balances guarantees that
D. avoidance of arbitrariness A. the executive is able to control the legislature
Answer – C B. the judiciary can stop all executive actions
Promotion of democracy with free and fair election is not C. each branch of government acts as a watchdog over
a benefit of separation of powers. The theory or principles other branches
of separation of powers deals with division of D. the legislature is subordinate to the judiciary
powers/functions among the three arms of government. Answer – C
The constitution stated their function and each other must The notion of checks and balances guarantees that each
function separately. branch of government acts as a watchdog over other
branches.
2017/2018/5 (UI, IBADAN)
Which of the following is the aim of separation of powers 1994/11 UTME
A. enhance democracy B. prevent tyranny The essence of checks and balances is to
C. promote justice and fairness A. enhance the functioning of government and prevent
D. make the executive more powerful arbitrary use of power
Answer – B B. ensure that people have their own rights
The main aim of separation of powers is to prevent C. make sure that power is not delegated to other bodies or
tyranny. Tyranny is a cruel, harsh and unfair government individuals
in which a person or small group of people have power D. prevent political parties from putting pressure on
over everyone else. Self-expression and individuality are government
the greatest weapons against tyranny. Answer – A
The essence of checks and balances is to enhance the
functioning of governments and prevent arbitrary use of
power.
167
1997/11 UTME 3. The principle checks and balances is necessary
The principle of checks and balances is found mainly in because it
A. parliamentary system B. presidential system A. prevent governments from becoming dictatorial
C. monarchies system D. oligarchies B. prevents the executive from the other organs
Answer – B C. makes the executive stronger than the other organs
The principle of checks and balances is found mainly in D. leaves each organ of government independent of the
presidential system of government. judiciary
4. Fundamental rights are best guaranteed by
2002/14 UTME A. independent judiciary B. good leadership
The principle of checks and balances reinforce separation C. effective legislative D. efficient civil servant
of powers in order to 5. The representative offices are
A. prevent an unconstitutional change of government A. political B. social C. demonstration
B. make the legislature more powerful D. riot
C. prevent the emergence of dictatorship Answer – A
D. protect the powers of the executive 6. Who among the following is a representation of his/her
Answer – C people?
The principle of checks and balances reinforce separation A. headmistress B. businessman C. senator
of powers in order to prevent the emergence of D. teacher
dictatorship. Answer - C
7. Representative government is through
2018/2019/82 (NDU, BAYELSA) A. counting B. house of house campaign
The principles of checks and balances empowers the C. rallies/convention D. electoral system
judiciary to Answer – D. `
A. invalidate the actions of other arms 8. Define separation of powers.
B. administer the criminal justice system 9. State six merits and demerits of separation of powers.
C. abrogate the law D. apply the law 10. Explain separation of powers in the presidential
Answer – A system of government in full details.
The principle of checks and balances empowers the 11. What is check and balance?
judiciary to invalidate the actions of other arms of 12. Explain how to operate the system of checks and
government. balances in a federal state.
13. Explain representative government.
2014/13 UTME 14. State the features of representative government.
Which of the following is a feature of checks and balances? 15. Outline five conditions necessary for representative
A. code of conduct B. judicial precedent government to be efficient.
C. judicial immunity D. judicial review
Answer – D
Judicial review is a feature of checks and balances in
presidential system of government.

2017/39 UTME
An important element of the doctrine of separation of
powers is
A. delegation of power B. checks and balances
C. rule of law D. concentration diffusion of powers
Answer – B
Checks and balances is an important element of the
doctrine of separation of powers.

REVISION EXERCISES
1. The principle of separation of power ensures
A. the erosion of executive power
B. that the legislature is supreme
C. the preservation of the fundamental liberties of the
citizens
D. that all the branches of government have equal
powers and functions
2. The principle of the separation of powers implies that
the three organs of government work
A. separately
B. independently but cooperatively
C. against one another
D. together in the interest of other nations
168
Forms of Political Participation
The following are some forms of political participation:
Chapter Ten 1. Voting in elections: Voting is a form of political
participation because it gives opportunity of electing
BASIC PRINCIPLES OF GOVERNMENT 2
representatives to the people
2. Belonging to political parties: When a citizen
POLITICAL PARTICIPATION
belongs to any political party, the individual will take
Political participation is defined as the process whereby
active part in political activities e.g. campaigns, rallies
individuals get themselves involved in the political affairs
and other forms of political meetings.
of their country in form of decision-making concerning the
3. Contacting public officials: Expressing opinions to
choice of government, policy implementation, etc.
leaders is one avenue of political participation. The
The citizens are expected to take part in the political
number of people contacting public officials at all
activities like policy implementations, voting in elections,
levels of government has risen markedly over the past
helping a political campaign or rallies etc. These civic
three decades. E-mail has made contacting public
activities are what are known as political participation, and
officials cheaper and easier than the traditional method
they are a critical part of any democracy. As the name
of mailing a letter.
suggests, political participation simply means that a person
4. Donating money, time and resources to a campaign:
is participating in the political process by making his or her
The number of people who give money to a candidate,
opinions and beliefs known. In the social sciences, the term
party, or political organization has increased
‘political participation’ is often used to describe an action
substantially since the 1960s. Over 25 percent of the
taken by a citizen to influence the outcome of a political
public gave money to a cause and 17 percent
issue. Political participation can also be defined as the
contributed to a presidential candidate in 2008. Direct
process whereby individual get themselves involved in the
mail and e-mail solicitations make fundraising easier,
political activities and in the decision making of their
especially when donors can contribute through
country.
candidate and political-party websites. A positive side
effect of fundraising campaigns is that people are made
Political participation includes a broad range of activities
aware of candidates and issues through appeals of
through which people develop and express their opinions
money.
on the world and how it is governed and try to take part in
During campaigns, people may work for political
and shape the decisions that affect their lives. These
parties or candidates, organize campaign events, and
activities range from developing thinking about disability
discuss issues with family and friends. Generally,
or other social issues at the individual or family level,
about 15 percent of Americans participate in these
joining disabled people’s organizations or other groups and
types of campaign activities in an election year. New
organizations, and campaigning at the local, regional or
media offer additional opportunities for people to
national level, to the process of formal politics, such as
engage in campaigns. People can blog or participate in
voting, joining a political party, or standing for elections.
discussion groups related to an election. They can use
social media sites, like Facebook, instagram, etc. to
Types of Political Participants
recruit supporters, advertise for campaign events, or
There are two types of political participants. These are:
encourage friends to donate money to the candidate.
(i) Active Participants: These are the people who are
5. Running for Office: Another avenue for political
deeply involved in the political activities of their state.
participation is running for office. Being a public
They do this by voting and contesting for elections,
official requires a great deal of dedication, time,
belonging to a political party and attending party
energy, and money. About 3 percent of the adult
meetings, rallies and campaigns. These active political
population holds an elected or appointed public office.
actors are known as gladiators.
6. Participating by Protesting: Political protest activity
(ii) Inactive or passive participants: These are the
represents another sphere of political participation.
people who develop lukewarm attitude towards the
Protests involve unconventional, and sometimes
political activities of their state. They may only be
unlawful, political actions that are undertaken to gain
interested in voting and not contesting. They do not
rewards from the political and economic system.
belong to a political party and do not attend meetings,
Protest behaviour can take many forms. People can
rallies and campaign. They are known as spectators.
engage in non-violent acts of civil disobedience where
they deliberately break a law that they consider to be
1991/54 Exercise 10.1
unjust. This tactic was used effectively during the
Which of the following actions is not a political
1960s civil rights movement in the United States.
participation?
Other forms of protest behaviour include marking
A. voting at an election B. contesting an election
public spaces with graffiti, demonstrating, and
C. joining a political party D. bribing an electoral office
boycotting. Extreme forms of protest behaviour
E. payment of income tax
include acts that cause harm, like bombing a building
or rioting. Members of social movements may resort
1991/1 Exercise 10.2
to rioting when they perceive that there are no
What is political participation?
conventional alternatives for getting their message
across.

169
7. Participating in support activities: People also can 3. Satisfaction of Psychological needs: Some people
take part in support activities, which are more passive participate in politics so as to win the approval of others, and
forms of political involvement. They may attend of themselves, that is, to prove that they can win elections and
concerts or participate in sporting events associated dominate or control others. A former president of Nigeria,
with causes, such as the “Race for the cure” for breast Chief Olusegun Obasanjo is vocal in and out of office and
cancer. These events are designed to raise money and gives the impression of one who enjoys the klieg light.
awareness of societal problems, such as poverty and 4. Desire to Increase Understanding of the political
health care. Support activities can lead to active environment: The desire to understand the political
participation, as people learn about issued through environment (e.g. the operation of government) may be the
reason for political participation.
these events and decide to become involved.
5. Evidence of affirmation of loyalty: People may participate in
8. Symbolic participation and symbolic non-
politics (e.g. voting at election) to show loyalty to a party, to
participation: People also can engage in symbolic a candidate or to a public office.
participation, routine or habitual acts that show support 6. Low Cost of Participation: Participation in politics (e.g.
for the political system. People salute the flag and voting or attending a political rally) may be considered
recite the pledge of allegiance at the beginning of a reasonable since the costs are extremely low. But in places
school day and they sing the national anthem at where violence is perpetrated at campaign grounds as in
sporting events. Symbolic acts are not always Suleija Maiduguri and Jos, during the April 2011 elections,
supportive of the political system. For example, some the people may be compelled to calculate the opportunity cost
people may refuse to vote to express their of attending rallies, or even voting.
dissatisfaction with the government. 7. Civic Duty: Political participation is a civic duty. There is, for
example a feeling that one has a duty to vote.
2019/15 NABTEB Exercise 10.3 8. Basic for common action: Political participation may
Which of the following is not a form of political provide a basis for common action especially if the common
participation? interest of a certain group in the society is threatened in some
A. campaign activities B. voting activities way.
C. travelling to other countries 9. Entertainment value of politics: Some people enjoy politics
D. evaluating the performance of government because of its comical and dramatic aspects. In some cases, a
rally or a campaign is like a jamboree and some people enjoy
2011/2b Neco Exercise 10.4 the drama and spectacle. Similarly, many people regard
Highlight any four methods of political participation. participation (e.g. voting of reading about politics) as a
pleasure rather than a cost.
The Purpose of Political Participation 10. Decision making: When citizen participate in politics, it
1. Group Pressure: People may be pressurized to gives them the advantage to contribute their quota in the
participate in politics. The pressure may come from the decision making of the country.
11. Failure of past governments: Due to the experience of the
family to maintain the political dynasty, pressure may
failure of the past government, it encourages honest citizens
also come from Peer group and also from the local
to participate in politics, so that they can improve the decision
community i.e. to represent the community if the making processes, social and basic amenities of the citizens.
person has done previous beneficial activities to the 12. For respect and prestige: Some individuals are involved in
people of the area and also from religious group e.g. to politics for their ego and interest in life.
head a religious cause. 13. Occupation: Some individuals sees politics as a profession,
2. Realization of Economic Interest: People often seek they engaged based on the monetary aspects, materials, etc.
to improve their economic or material well-being that they would benefit.
through political means. Investing in a political project 14. Avenue for money making: Some individuals see politics as
may be as rewarding (if not more rewarding) as an avenue for money making.
investing in oil business. For example, a former Senate 15. Management of the nation’s resources: Some individuals
President in Nigeria’s Fourth Republic once with enough resources and skill take part in politics, because
categorically stated that politics is business and a they want to be involved in managing equitably the nation’s
Senator has a right to seek returns on his investment. economic resources.
He must have spoken for most Nigerian politicians
who go into politics to amass wealth. It is a notorious
fact, for example, that the emoluments of Nigerian
lawmakers are completely at variance with the
country’s wages and income policy. Although there
are more direct means of advancing one’s economic
interest (for example by working, by trading, by
saving, etc.), yet the returns on political investment
may be very high. But more importantly, people who
have resources may go into politics to defend their
property from attack by those who have no property
who, in a democracy, are usually in the majority. This
may partly explain why the majority of those who take Citizens involved in a protest
part in politics are those who already have immense
economic resources.
170
2008/14 Neco Exercise 10.5 Centralization refers to the process in which activities
The primary purpose of political participation is to seek involving planning and decision-making within an
A. or hold political office organization are concentrated to a specific leader or
B. membership of a pressure group location. In a centralized organization, the decision-
C. for judicial appointment making powers are retained in the head office, and all other
D. military training for politicians offices receive commands from the main office. The
executives and specialists who make critical decisions are
Factors Affecting Political Participation based in the head office.
1. Lack of trust in the government: When previous
governments have been failing the people in their The degree of centralisation is highly experienced in a
promises, the people would not trust in government Unitary State. Britain, France, Denmark, Norway, etc. are
again. centralized states.
2. Poverty: Politics in Nigeria is said to be money and 2007/25 Neco
money is politics. Many charismatic individuals were The degree of centralization is high in a
denied opportunities of participating in decision A. unitary system of government
making process of the country because of lack of B. confederal system of government
money. C. federal system of government
3. Often removal of elected government: The frequent D. representative government
removal of elected government by the military Answer
intervention in politics affects political participation. A unitary state is a state governed as a single entity in
4. Illiteracy/ignorance: The uneducated citizens are not which the central government is ultimately supreme. The
showing any interest in political participation because central government may create administrative decisions.
they see politics as the birthright of the educated Such units exercise only the powers that the central
citizens. government chooses to delegate. The degree of
5. Fear of intimidation: The fear of intimidation may centralization is high in a unitary system. (A)
deny many citizens the rights of expressing their
opinions freely and this may affect political 1992/2a Nov Exercise 10.8
participation. To be intimidated means to be frightened Explain the term centralization
or to make someone be in awe, fear or afraid.
6. Apathy or lack of interest: Apathy is a strong barrier 1991/49 Exercise 10.9
in politics. Apathy means a state of indifference, or the Centralisation of power is a basic feature of a
suppression of emotions such as concern, excitement, A. federal government B. unitary government
motivation, or passions. An apathetical individual has C. presidential government
an absence of interest in a concern about politics, D. parliamentary government E. confederal government
emotion, etc.
Reasons for the Adoption of Centralization
1993/22 Exercise 10.6 1. Homogenous society: Centralization of government is
Which of the following is not a hindrance to political best practiced in a homogenous state, where there is no
participation? sharp difference in their cultures, values, ethnicity and
A. ignorance B. lack of interest C. fear religious systems.
D. party system E. intimidation 2. Small country: Centralization is best practiced in a small
country where the government has representative from
1991/45 Exercise 10.7 every group/ethnicity in the society.
Political participation in Nigeria is limited by all the 3. No constitutional division of labour: In centralised
following except system there is no constitutional division of labour
A. decree B. voter’s register C. religion because most of their functions are fused. The cabinets
D. residence E. age (ministers) are also parliament members. There is no
division between the component and the central
government in their constitution.
CENTRALISATION 4. Strong central government: The central government
Centralisation is the process by which political powers of is a very strong government in unitary system of
planning and decision-making within an organization or government. The central government has all the
nation is concentrated at the central. The highest degree of powers of the state.
centralization is achieved where all powers of government 5. Delegation of functions: Since all the powers of the
are vested in a central authority. In a centralized state are with the central government, the central
government structure, the decision-making authority is government delegate powers or functions to the
concentrated at the top, the single central authority, and all component units.
other lower levels follow the directions coming from the 6. Flexibility: The constitution of the unitary system of
top of the government structure, that is, the central government is flexible. It can be amended easily,
authority. because most of the constitution is written in different
books not documented in a single volume and
sometimes, the constitution will be agreed on without
documentation.
171
7. Constitutional policy: The central government is 5. Limited political participation: There is limited
empowered by the constitution to amend the political participation. In this situation, only a few
constitution. In the same process, it was used to pass citizens take part in decision making while a very large
laws. Britain and France adopted this method. percentage of the people are denied participation.
8. No conflict of authority: All the powers in the state 6. Dictatorship: Centralisation may encourage
are in the hands of the central government, conflict in dictatorship as too much power is placed in the hands
the exercise of these functions will not arise. of the central government.
7. Amendment of the constitution: The central
2013/14 Neco Exercise 10.10 government alone can easily amend the constitution
Centralisation of power is a feature of a for selfish purpose.
A. federal system B. unitary system 8. Small Territories: It is only workable in small
C. confederal system D. presidential system territories. This system may not work in countries like
Nigeria and USA.
Advantages of Centralization
1. Strong Political System: Because the powers of the 2001/10 Neco
government are given to one authority, it leads to a A disadvantage of centralized administration is that
strong political system state. It makes the government A. wide powers are allocated to sub national bodies
able to tackle day to day challenges as there is no B. the influence of the central administration is easily felt
disruptive tendency as seen in a decentralized system. by the local people.
2. Uniformity of development: The level of development C. local people are not easily exploited by the sub national
is uniform in all part of the state. There is no agents
duplication of offices and resources. It ensures that D. sub-national bodies are denied initiative in decision
functions and resources of the state are coordinated. making
3. Less bureaucratic: Centralization is less bureaucratic Answer
and simple to operate. Centralisation makes the people not to be active in politics,
4. Flexible Constitution: The method of amending the it also denies the state and local government (component
constitution is easy because of the flexibility of the units) powers of initiating decisions because the power of
constitution. the state is at the central government. (D)
5. Direct decision making: The decision making of the
political system is very direct and clear.
6. Keen interest in State’s welfare: The central power Decentralisation
maintains a large “encompassing interest” in the Decentralization is the process by which the activities of
welfare of the state it rules since it stands to benefit an organization, particularly those regarding planning and
from any increase in the state’s wealth and/or power. decision making are distributed or delegated away from a
In the sense, the incentives of state and ruler are central, authoritative location or group.
aligned.
7. Certainty of power: The certainty of power is assured. Decentralisation in government is a system of government
This type of political government makes all the laws where power is shared between the central government and
and executes them. The central authority is held other components units, within a political system.
responsible for all the blames and praises of the state. Decentralization in other word can be defined as a federal
8. Cost: The cost of running a centralized- administration system of government. Nigeria, U.S.A, etc. are good
is relatively lower than the decentralized examples of decentralization in a society. Rising
administration. The reason is that functions are not government expenditures, poor economic performance and
duplicated. the rise of free market-influenced ideas have convinced
governments to decentralize their operations, to induce
1992/2b Nov Exercise 10.11 competition within their services, to contract out the
What are the advantages of centralization? private firms operating in the market, and to privatize some
functions and services entirely.
Disadvantages of Centralization
1. Poor Decision making: Decisions may be Political decentralization signifies a reduction in the
misunderstood while being passed on and lower authority of national governments over policy making.
position regions or county do not have the decision- This process is accomplished by the institution of reforms
making power, therefore it requires an efficient and that either delegates a certain degree of meaningful
well-organized top central government. decision-making autonomy to subnational tiers of
2. Imbalanced Attention: Attention and support for each government, or grant citizens the right to elect lower-level
department or city may not be balanced. officials, like local regional representatives. Depending on
3. Ineffective government: Delay of work information the country, this may require constitutional or statutory
may result in inefficiency of the government. reforms, the development of new political parties,
4. Inconsistent Economy: Discrepancies in the economy increased power of legislatures, the creation of local
and information resources between the center and political units, and encouragement of advocacy groups.
other places are significant.

172
1994/11 2006/11 Neco
In which of the following systems of government is The concept of decentralization includes all the following
decentralization a common feature? elements except
A. unitary government B. confederal government A. decentralization B. devolution
C. socialist government D. fascist government C. delimitation D. delegation
E. federal government Answer
Answer The concept of decentralization includes all the options
Decentralization is a common feature of a federal system except delimitation. (C)
of government, where powers are constitutional
decentralized between the federal government and its 1993/27 Nov
component units. (E) The term decentralization means that powers are
distributed
1999/1a Nov Exercise 10.12 A. among the several units within a political system
What is decentralization? B. among the three organs of government
C. between the president and his ministers
D. between the police and the army
Types of Decentralisation E. among the powerful people in the state
There are two types of decentralization. Answer
1. Devolution. The term decentralization means that powers are
2. Deconcentration. distributed among the several units within a political
system. (A)
Devolution
Devolution is the statutory delegation of power from the 2013/2a Neco Exercise 10.13
central government of a sovereign state to govern at a Explain decentralization of power.
subnational level, such as a regional (state) or local
government. It is a form of administrative decentralization. Advantages of Decentralization
Developed territories have the power to make legislation 1. Closer Governance: It brings government closer to
relevant to the area and thus granting them a higher level the people, and thus enables citizens to be better
of autonomy. Devolution differs from federalism because informed and to better understand the conduct of
the devolved powers of the state or local government public business. This facilitates the forging of a strong
maybe temporary and are reversible, the power of the state relationship between the governors and the governed
resides with the central government. Britain is a good and identification of the people with their government,
example. which helps to reduce alienation from the political
2001/9 Neco process. It also serves to reduce disruptive/anti-social
A practice by which semi-autonomous units are given part behaviour by citizens in seeking to get their concerns
of governmental powers and functions is known as addressed, or taken into consideration.
A. decentralization B. distribution 2. Greater Political Participation: Placing
C. devolution D. decongestion responsibility for managing local affairs and for local
Answer level rather than central government will afford
Devolution is a system by which semi-autonomous citizens greater access to, and ability to influence the
(independence) units are given governmental powers and policy/decision-making process. Civil society will
functions to make legislative decisions. (C) now consider local government to be worthwhile
partners, as they will be easily accessible, and will
2007/23 Neco have the resources and authority to respond to
Devolution of power is associated with a representations.
A. decentralized political system 3. Conducive Environment: It provides a conducive
B. feudal political system environment for creation of a civic culture of
C. totalitarian political system cooperation, tolerance and trust among the various
D. centralized political system groups/elements which comprise the local society.
Answer 4. Matters of local interest: Communities will find it
Devolution of power is associated with a decentralized easier to pursue their development objectives, and
political system. Devolution is one of the types of obtain support from local government, by their
decentralized political system. (A) participation as a full partner in the local governance
process.
Deconcentration 5. Growth Stimulation: It facilitates/stimulates the
Deconcentration is the system whereby the central growth/empowerment of civil society institution and
government sets policies for the local areas only. The networks, as citizens perceive the benefits of working
central government appoints some officials with some in collaboration with local government to advance
powers and delegated authority to carry out specific their interests. They will therefore organize themselves
assignments, thereby regulating government policies at the into appropriate organizational forms, to pursue that
local government level. France is a good example, another objective.
good example is the Nigeria system where local
government are agents of the federal government.
173
6. Quick development: Quick development is achieved to the sharing of power between the centre and the
in a decentralized system because every unit has the component units; that is, the sharing of power or the
tendency to develop even faster than others. delegation of authority by the top, to the middle and low-
7. Competition among units in terms of development: level units.
In a decentralized state, there is competition among To determine whether an organization is centralized or
various units (state) that helps in developing better decentralized greatly depends on the location of the
than others. decision-making authority, and the degree of the decision-
8. Absence of dictatorship: The supremacy of the making power at the lower levels. The table below shows
constitution is decentralized and the application of the the differences between centralization and
rule of law removed the tendency for dictatorial decentralization:
government.
9. Political Unity: Political unity is achieved because the Centralization Decentralization
system integrates many ethnic groups within the same i. It is the retention of It is the dissemination of
political system. power and authority with authority, responsibility
10. Function Specification: Decentralisation spelt respect to planning and and accountability
out/stipulate the functions of the three organs and decision-making. between the centres and
levels of government. the component units.
ii. It involves a systematic It involves a systematic
1993/9 Nov and consistent dispersal of authority.
One of the advantages of a decentralized government is reservation of authority.
that iii. Communication flow is Communication flow is
A. the cost of administrative is highly reduced vertical; that is, from the open and free.
B. power is exercised only by those at the headquarters top to the bottom.
C. the impact of government policies is easily felt by the iv. Decision-making is Decision-making is
people slow. comparatively fast.
D. corruption among government officials is reduced v. There is fusion of power. There is separation of
Answer powers.
The impact of government policies is easily felt by the vi. The power of decision- The power of decision-
people (C) making lies with the making lies with the
central authority. central authority and the
1999/1b Nov Exercise 10.14 component units.
State four advantages of decentralization. vii. It is best suited for a It is best suited for a large
small country. country.
Disadvantages of Decentralisation viii. There is suppression of In allays the fear of
1. Costly to Operate: There is duplication of genuine demands of domination of minority
government institutions. This raises the cost of minority groups by the groups.
administration of government. majority groups.
2. Delay in taking quick decision: It delays the process ix. It often overlooks the It can better serve diverse
of quick decision making due to under – consultation. specific needs of smaller interest as it targets
3. Uneven Development: Decentralization does not and local communities in smaller communities and
make for even development in the component units, their laws and bills. minorities with their laws
since some units are richer than others, it helps the and bills.
richer units to develop faster.
4. Weak Centre: The centre is weak because of the
Similarities between centralization and
autonomy of the various units.
Decentralization
5. Sectionalism: Decentralization can breed
i. Both systems can be effective to promote economic
sectionalism, since the country is composed of
growth and political stability.
different units, interest groups, beliefs etc.
ii. In both cases, the central government maintains a
6. Resource limitation: There may not be adequate certain degree of control.
human and material resources to administer local units.
7. Possibility of Friction leading to Conflict: There is
the possibility of friction which may lead to conflicting
DELEGATED LEGISLATION
interest between the centre and the local units, and the
Delegated legislation may be defined as laws, rules and
tendency towards disintegration and secession from regulations made by other organisation/bodies or persons
the centre.
other than the legislature but sanctioned by the legislature.
Again, delegated legislation is any law made by anybody,
Differences and Similarities between Centralisation authority or agency empowered by statute to do so.
and Decentralisation Delegated legislation is administrative law-making in
As already stated in the course of this study, centralization action. It is law-making by a public authority, other than
and decentralization are the two types of structures found
the parliament.
in government. Centralization of power means the power
of planning and decision-making is exclusively in the
hands of the central authority, while decentralization refers
174
It is the delegation of legislative powers to a department of Queen/King. These orders are mostly ratified by the
government such as government ministry, agencies, Privy Council (highest Court of Appeal in the United
institutions and local authority, e.g. Independent National Kingdom) which is a body that advises the crown on
Electoral Commission (INEC), Power Holding Company political and government issues of the state.
of Nigeria (PHCN), Economic and Financial Crimes 3. Provisional orders: A minister could be given the
Commission (EFCC), Independent Corrupt Practices and power to run an undertaking e.g. transports
other Related Offences Commission (ICPC), National cooperation, but at this stage, it is provisional or
Agency for Food and Drugs Administration and Control temporary until confirmed by parliament.
(NAFDAC), etc. Any delegated legislation made by any 4. Special procedure orders: The minister makes the
government department or local authority must conform to order and presents it to the parliament. The order
the act of parliament. This means they must act within the comes into force after 14days, unless petitions of a
power given to them by the legislature. general objection have been lodged against it.
5. Statutory instrument: Ministerial regulation is
2022/14 Neco governed by statutory instrument acts. These
One of the ways the executive performs legislative instruments are mainly directed to rules applicable to
functions is through the country. For example, no smoking in public
A. administrative review B. bill sponsorship institutions (schools, health institutions etc. as directed
C. delegated legislation D. execution of the law by the ministry of health).
E. extra-judicial function 6. Rules of professional bodies: There are rules and
Answer ethics guiding activities of every member of a
By way of delegated legislation, the executive performs professional body e.g. NMA and NRA. These rules are
legislative functions. (C) constitutionally legal and must be adhered to.
7. Warrants–search and bench warrants: This is a legal
2005/14 Nov document that is signed by a judge and gives the police
The practice of delegated legislation violates the principle of the authority to do something e.g. a warrant to search
A. separation of powers B. representative government or arrest someone.
C. constitutionalism D. political participation
Answer 2001/20 Neco
Delegated legislation violates the principle separation of One form of delegated legislation is
powers. (A) A. case laws B. statutory instruments
C. conventions D. manmade laws
1990/34 Nov Exercise 10.15 Answer
Delegated legislation refers to law made by Statutory instrument is a form of delegated legislation
A. members of the legislature which allows the provisions of an Act of parliament to be
B. legislative legislature subsequently brought into force or altered without
C. other bodies authorized by the legislature parliament having to pass a new act. They are also referred
D. the legislature and the judiciary to as secondary, delegated or subordinate legislation. (B)

2005/5 Nov Exercise 10.16 2002/31 Nov

Orders and regulations issued by bodies other than the A bye-law is made by
legislature is known as A. congress B. local government
A. centralization B. decentralization C. parliament D. electoral college
C. delegated legislation D. executive legislature Answer
Bye law is a regulation made by a local authority or
2006/10 Neco Exercise 10.17 corporation. A bye law is a rule made by a company or
Which of the following does not have the power of society to control the actions of its members. (B)
delegated legislation?
A. minister B. market men and women 2008/12 Neco Exercise 10.18
C. state government D. registered professional bodies Which of the following is not a delegated legislation?
A. statutory instruments B. bye laws
C. orders in council D. public opinion
Types of Delegated Legislation
The following are the seven types of delegated legislation. REASONS FOR DELEGATED LEGISLATION
1. Bye-law: A bye law is a rule or law established by an 1. Technicalities of matters: Apparently, the technicalities
organization or community to regulate itself as of some matters is one of the reasons for delegated
allowed or provided for by some higher authority. The legislation. The rate at which bills are passed by the
higher authority generally a legislature through the Act legislature might sometimes be so enormous that they may
of parliament, establishes the degree of control that the come across or pass bills that may be so technical in nature.
by-laws may exercise. These technicalities can only be known by those who will
2. Orders in court: Orders in courts is an example of operate and regulate the law. In this situation therefore, the
proclamations by a king or queen. Britain is a good legislature must delegate its powers of law making to those
example of proclamation to give orders on some that will regulate the law in order to make further rules and
matters having the backing of the law by the regulations relating to the enforcement of such bill.
175
Examples of matters that are technical in nature are; state of emergency in the Federation of any part thereof.
regulations dealing with safety of consumer goods, safety The civilian administration of Obasanjo Declared a state
at the work place, detailed precautions to be taken against of emergency in Plateau and Ekiti states respectively in
the misuse of drugs, detailed guidelines to guide 2006/2007 using this power.
communication industry and their customers, detailed
guidelines and precaution of environmental pollution, etc. 6. Regional development: It is also the argument of some
legal scholars that one of the reasons for delegated
In these areas, the legislature cannot make detailed legislation is to sustain regional development. Where a
regulations relating to the operation of this law, so the need particular region is deemed to be developed and such
to delegate powers to the operators who are technical development needs to be sustained, the law here may be
experts become necessary because it provides for a power delegated. Many countries adopted this method. For
of constant adaptation to unknown further conditions example, in Iraq, the Kurds were given some limited
without the necessity of amending the regulation. This powers through delegation of powers to manage the Iraq
perhaps will suggest that experts experience is needed in Kurds. Nigeria too adopted this method from 1960 – 1966
the execution of delegated power. prior to the creation of states. This is undoubtedly one of
the good reasons for delegated legislation in most
2. Unforeseen problems: Another reason why the countries.
legislature will delegate its law making powers is to ensure
that unforeseen problems are handled properly when they 7. Pressure relief: Evidently, the activities of law making are
arise. Sometimes in the course of operation or execution of not easy task for the parliamentarians; the process the bill
a particular enacted legislation, problem may arise which will follow through before becoming a law are tedious.
are not foreseeable at the time of making the bill, and this Oversight functions undertaken by the legislatures are also
can only be tackled by those in control of the execution. If tedious; hence, it will lead to increase of work and task if
the problem cannot be averted, the need to give them they are to legislate on every piece of legislation. This is
powers to enact other rules or regulations to control or obviously another reason for delegated legislation. In order
solve the problems becomes imperative. This is indeed a to reduce this pressure on their part, it becomes necessary
good and cogent reason for delegated legislation. that they must delegate powers to the administrative
officers. This relief will enable the legislature to
3. Trivial matters: It is not the duty of the legislatures to concentrate on principles rather than details of social
legislate on trivial matters relating to operation or regulation as well as matters of local interest. By this,
execution of all laws enacted by them. Trivial issues relate delegated legislation also ensures that law are well drafted.
to such issues that are left to the discretion of other officers
in charge of the implementation of the law. For example, 8. Limited time: The work of the legislature supposed to be
the Banking and insurance Law involves a lot of issues for a limited time, while the execution of the law made by
which can be regulated only by the Central Bank Governor them is for long time unless such law is repealed, modified
through the powers conferred on him. or abrogated. This indeed suggests that time constraint
may incapacitate the legislatures to take care of every law.
4. Saving time of legislatures: Due to multiplicity of passing In light of this, there is need to delegate powers to
bills by the legislature, and coupled with the procedure the Administrative Officers who are deemed to be in seat until
bills will have to pass through before they will become they retire to control other aspects of the implementation
law, time is of essence in law making and for the of the law, even if it will extend to making other subsidiary
legislatures alike. For this reason, delegated legislation is laws.
very important. It will automatically save the time of the
legislatures, as time needed to deliberate on rules and 9. Dynamism of events: It is a known fact that events and
regulations will be judiciously utilized in other important issues are not static, but changes from time to time. This is
law processing. This is also one of the good reasons for the more reason why delegated legislation is necessary in
having delegated legislation. every part of the world. In my view, delegated legislature
is an inevitable necessity. The impact of dynamics of
5. Emergency situations: One important areas where events makes law to be dynamic. Laws must be changed
delegated legislation is very vital is during emergency to meet the current demands of the society. Meanwhile,
situation. In Nigeria, the president is empowered to law maker while making laws are not in a position to take
legislate and control the situation. Emergency period care of these dynamic changes. Hence, they have to
connotes the period when the federation is at war, and there delegate their law making powers to Administrative
is in force a resolution passed by the National Assembly officers to legislate on their behalf to meet the current
declaring that a state of public emergency exist or a changes of the society. In Nigeria, for example, section
resolution of each house of parliament supported by not 153 of the 1999 Constitution which provides for the
less than two third of all the members of the House Revenue Mobilization Allocation and Fiscal commission
declaring that democratic institutions in Nigeria are was established to regulate the changing needs of the
threatened by subversion. Section 305 of the 1999 allocation of revenue to various tiers of governments.
Constitution of the Federal Republic of Nigeria is clear on
this position by providing that, the president may by
instrument published in the official Gazette of the
government of the Federation; issue a proclamation of
176
Reasons why delegated legislation is often criticized or 2004/17 Neco Exercise 10.19
demerits of delegated legislation Which of the following is not a reason for delegated
1. It violates the principle of the rule of law: It violates the legislation?
principle of the rule of law which lays emphasis on the A. technicalities of modern legislation
freedom of citizens. B. the need for flexibility
2. It violates the principle of parliamentary supremacy: C. to reduce the powers of the legislature
This is because other bodies or organisation are equally D. to ensure speedy legislature
involved in performing legislative functions.
3. It violates the principle of separation of powers: 1993/16 Exercise 10.20
Delegated legislation also violates the principle of One of the criticisms against delegated legislation is that it
separation of powers and the sovereignty of the legislature. A. gives too much power to all organs of government
4. Lack of publicity: The numerous bye laws, rules and B. enhances separation of powers
regulations are not known to the common citizen because C. encroaches on parliamentary power
they are not well publicised. D. is not practiced in advanced countries
5. It is undemocratic: Delegated legislation lacks E. is only practiced in large countries
democracy as too much delegated legislation is made by
unelected people who are not qualified lawmakers. Control of Delegated Legislation
6. The executive: The executive may tend to grow more There are several ways of controlling delegated legislation,
powerful than the legislature. some of which are the following:
7. There are too many law making bodies: Delegated 1. Parliamentary control: Parliament exercises control
legislation involves too many law-making bodies. The over delegated legislation in that when the Act of
power of the judiciary to review the activities of the parliament is created, parliament stipulate in the Act of
legislature is made difficult. parliament the parameters with regard to delegated
8. Abuse of power: The power to make laws outside the legislation. There are scrutiny committees which
parliament can easily be abused. Ministers or local consider delegated legislation within a bill as it passes
government authorities can use their offices to further their through the Houses of parliament.
selfish interest against the general public. The ruling party2. Judicial Control: Delegated legislation is also subject
can equally use delegated legislation to ban opposition to control through the court. The court monitors and
political parties from meeting. controls all the rules and regulations made by
9. Parliamentary Procedures: There is lack of procedural delegated legislation. If the rules and regulations are
quality in law making. The necessary details required in the not according to the provision of the constitution, the
normal legislative process is absent in delegated legislation. judiciary will declare it unconstitutional i.e. invalid,
10. Difficulty in checking the excesses of public officials: It is null and void.
difficult to check the excesses of public officials exercising
3. Ministerial Control: Activities of ministries, public
delegated legislation because they are not responsible to the corporations and department under ministerial
electorate. jurisdictions are controlled by the minister. Most of the
11. Effect on Fundamental Human Rights: Laws can be bye – laws, rules and regulations are treated by the
enacted in retrospect with adverse effect on the fundamental minister, who can be summoned by the parliament to
human rights of the citizens. Parties in power may use laws
explain their uses. The minister also has the power to
negatively to weaken opposition political parties.
dissolve the board of directors of most of these
2002/13 Neco ministries, corporations and department within their
Under delegated legislation, the institution empowered to make jurisdiction.
laws is the 4. Auditing or Financial Control: Government’s
A. press B. pressure group C. executive periodic auditing of the spending pattern of various
D. political parties ministries, corporations and parastatals to prevent
Answer misuse of public fund is a form of control on delegated
Delegated legislation empowers the executive as institutions in authority.
their states and local governments to make bye laws based on 5. Public Opinion: The public opinion towards most of
their customs and tradition that will be suitable for the people these organisation could be negative or positive. For
of the locality. (C) example, the opinions of public towards electricity
companies are negative. Therefore, with the negative
2012/9 Neco impression of the public, government can respond
Delegated legislation is unpopular because it positively through the restructuring of the entire
A. quickens the law making process corporation.
B. receives wide publicity 6. Accountability of ministers: Ministers are in most
C. is not made by the legislation cases summoned in parliament to account for the rules
D. caters for emergency situation and regulations, bye-laws made in their various
Answer ministries.
Delegated legislation is unpopular because it is not made by the 7. Financial Control: Most of these bodies or
legislature. When law is made by statutory instrument, the organisation depend to a large extent on government
public are not normally notified of it whereas with acts of for allocations to meet their running cost. The
parliament. (C) government can withdraw these allocations as a
control measure.
177
8. The mass media: The press can also act as a control 2002/13 Neco
of delegated legislation, their criticisms over rules and Under delegated legislation, the institution empowered to
regulations governing the activities of these make laws is the
organisation. A. press B. pressure group
9. Petitions: This is also a way of controlling delegated C. executive D. political parties
legislation, people can write petitions against an Answer
organisation on issues affecting them e.g. Corruption. The executive empowers the delegation legislation in their
10. Obnoxious Law: The control of delegated legislation various ministries and parastatal to make bye laws, rules
will help to safeguard citizen’s liberties from and regulations that governs the organization. The head of
obnoxious laws. each ministry is a minister. (C)

Importance of Delegated Legislation to Modern

Government 1978/12 UTME
1. Reduction of work load: Delegated legislation has Delegated legislation is legislation
succeeded in reducing the pressure of work on A. made by minister acting under an act of parliament
parliament. B. made by judicial tribunals
2. Emergencies: Delegated legislation is useful in the C. which is not submitted to parliament
case of emergencies e.g. in cases of external D. made by a local government
aggression, the executive can take quick decisions. E. made by a parastatal
3. Time saving: Delegated legislation saves time in the Answer – A
parliament. Delegated legislation is legislation made by minister acting
4. Technical language: Technical languages are very under an act of parliament.
useful in government policies.
5. Efficiency: Delegated legislation makes for efficiency 2009/2010/35 (UNIZIK, AWKA)
and precision. Another name for delegated legislation is
6. Experiment: It is useful where experiment is desired. A. administrative legislation B. executive legislation
Most local governments have achieved something C. subordinate legislation D. all of the above
realistic through this experiment. E. none of the above
7. Adjusting to changing situation: With this Answer – D
development, modern governments can adjust to Another name for delegated legislation is administrative,
changing situation and easily take care of legislation, executive legislation, subordinate legislation
contingencies. etc.

2013/8 Neco Exercise 10.21 1980/20 UTME

Delegated legislation is necessary because it Delegated legislation
A. helps to promote dictatorship A. means sharing responsibility between central and local
B. prevents even development government on a fifty-fifty basis
C. it is useful in times of emergencies B. decentralizes responsibility for law making subject to
D. gives a lot of power to the president agreed controls from the centres
C. as permitted, is almost impossible to control
1994/12 Exercise 10.22 D. decentralizes problem without providing suitable solutions
An advantage of delegated legislation is that it Answer – B
A. may amount to the usurpation of the powers of Delegated legislation decentralizes responsibility for law
parliament making subject to agreed controls from the centres. The aim
B. may be too loosely defined of delegated legislation is to facilitate this law making
C. enables contingencies to be taken care of process, the legislature delegate’s part of its law making
D. maybe passed without adequate consultation function to individuals, groups of individual, ministries,
E. may be inadequately published corporations, local governments, etc.

1995/19 Exercise 10.23 1985/10 UTME

Delegated legislation is suitable for Delegated legislation is the power to make laws by
A. relieving the parliament of its workload A. local councils when parliament is in recess
B. enthroning the rule of law B. bodies other than parliament
C. ensuring the fusion of powers C. the international law commission
D. checking the executive arm of government D. military rulers
E. safeguarding the citizens’ liberty E. parliament
Answer – B
2000/34 Neco Exercise 10.24 Delegated legislation is the power to make laws by bodies
Delegated legislation has the advantage of other than parliament. Examples of bodies that can be
A. enlightening the public about law making procedure delegated for legislation in a nation are order-in-council, bye
B. saving parliamentary time laws by local government authorities, ministerial
C. reducing expenses of the legislature authorization or orders, special procedure orders and warrants
D. preventing the executives from becoming too powerful by high court judge or police officers.
178
1989/10 UTME 1995/11 UTME
Delegated legislation is justified by the Bye-laws made by the Minister of Transport for exercise of
A. superior knowledge of issues by the executive A. delegated power B. parliamentary power
B. fear that public debates in parliaments would endangers C. statutory power D. residual power
national security Answer – A
C. slow and unwieldy process of decision-making in Bye-laws made by the Minister of Transport for exercise of
legislative house delegated power. Bye-laws are rules and regulations made by
D. constitutional superiority of the executive over the local government authorities or local councils, public
legislative branch of government corporations and other similar bodies for the smooth running
Answer – C of their responsibilities. These bye-laws have effects only
within the areas of jurisdiction of these authorities that made
Delegated legislation is justified by the slow and unwieldy
them.
process of decision-making in legislative house when
legislation is delegated, it enhances the legislative process.
2008/2009/1 (NDU, BAYELSA)
A typical form of delegated legislation is
1992/4 UTME A. acts of parliament B. decree C. bye-law D. gazette
One criticism of delegated legislation is that it Answer – C
A. subjects citizens to executive decrees A typical form of delegated legislation is bye-law, bye-law
B. makes laws too flexible are laws made by local governments, public corporations,
C. makes laws too technical ministries. These powers are conferred on them through the
D. is not useful in emergency situation Acts of parliament.
Answer – D
One criticism of delegated legislation is that it is not useful 2011/2a Neco
in emergency situation because it has its own process of Explain the concept of political participation.
administration. Answer
Political participation can be defined as a broad range of
1996/2 Nov activities where people develop and express their opinions on
Delegated legislation refers to the politics. It can also be defined as citizen’s affecting politics.
A. powers of government agencies to make laws Political participation is often used to describe an action taken
B. laws made by the legislature by a citizen to influence the outcome of a political issue.
C. transfer of law making power to the executive and
judiciary arm 1991/1b
How does a citizen participate in politics?
D. laws made by government agencies as authorized by the
Answer
legislature
The following are ways of a citizen participating in politics.
E. law making power granted by the legislature 1. Contesting elections: When individuals stand as a
Answer candidate seeking for elective public offices under the
Delegated legislation refers to the laws made by government platform of political party.
agencies as authorized by the legislature. (D) 2. Voting in elections: Voting is a form of political
participation because it gives one the opportunity to
1993/13 UTME participate in electing their representative.
Delegated legislation is disadvantageous because it 3. Sponsoring political parties: Sponsoring political
A. erodes the principle of separation of powers parties financially is another form of political
B. makes hasty review of legislation possible participation. Wealthy citizens sponsor political parties
C. disallows quick action during emergencies as their way of political participation.
D. increases the work of the legislature 4. Holding of public offices: Holding of public offices is
Answer – A another form of political participation; it allows the
Delegated legislation is disadvantageous because it erodes officer to contribute to decision making process.
the principle of separation of powers. Delegated legislation 5. Belonging to political parties: When a citizen belongs
fused the duties of the ministers with the legislative bodies to any political party, the individual will take active part
together. Separation of powers is not always observed in in political activities e.g. campaigns, rallies and other
the administration of delegated legislation. forms of political meetings.
6. Polling agents: The polling agents are members of
political parties; their parties will appoint them to
2004/2a
represent them at the polling stations.
Explain decentralization
7. Partial participation: A citizen can be a partial
Answer participant by attending political campaigns, rallies,
Decentralisation has to do with the sharing of powers writing articles on politics.
between the central government and other constituent 8. Observing postures: These are those who their political
units, within a political system. In decentralized political participation is merely observation of political events.
system, political powers are constitutionally shared These types of people do not identify with any of the
between the central (federal) government and other political parties but take part by listening to radios and
component units i.e. state and local governments. Federal television during political discussion.
system of government is a good example of decentralized
system.

179
2017/37 UTME 1995/2 Nov
Delegated legislation is the Of what use is delegated legislation to modern government?
A. limitation of responsibilities Answer
B. transfer of responsibilities to agencies There are several reasons why delegated legislation is important.
C. deferring of responsibilities of agencies 1. It avoids overloading the limited parliamentary timetable as
D. facilitation responsibilities of agencies delegated legislation can be amended and made without having
Answer – B to pass an act through parliament, which can be time consuming.
Delegated legislation is the transfer of responsibilities from 2. Delegated legislation allows law to be made by those who have
the legislature to the agencies. the relevant expert knowledge. By way of illustration, a local
authority can make law in accordance with what their locality
needs as opposed to having one law across the board which may
2002/18 UTME
not suit their particular area.
Delegated legislation becomes unavoidable when 3. Delegated legislation can deal with an emergency situation. It
A. legislators cannot reach a consensus arises without having to wait for an act to be passed through
B. issues under consideration are technical parliament to resolve the particular situation.
C. issues under consideration are personal 4. Delegated legislation can be used to cover a situation that
D. legislators have to proceed on a recess parliament had not anticipated at the time it enacted the piece of
Answer – B legislation, which makes it flexible and very useful to law
Delegated legislation becomes unavoidable when issues making. Delegated legislation is therefore able to meet the
under consideration are technical. Technical languages is changing needs of society and also situations which parliament
useful where technical languages are involved in had not anticipated when they enacted the Act of parliament.
government policies.
1998/2
2013/2 UTME Give reasons why delegated legislation is often criticized.
Power that is delegated is exercised Answer
A. by devolution B. directly C. by coercion D. indirectly The following are reasons why delegated legislation is often
Answer – A criticized.
Power that is delegated is exercised by devolution. 1. It may erode the legislative function of parliament. Erode
Devolution is the statutory delegation of powers from the meaning gradually wear away, worn away by natural agents,
central government of a sovereign state to govern at a destroy or be gradually destroyed.
subnational level, such as a regional or local level. It is a 2. It does not allow the electorate to easily have a particular party
responsible for the success or failures of government policies.
form of administrative decentralization.
3. It may lack adequate consultations.
4. It violates the principle of parliamentary supremacy in unitary
2004/27 UTME system of government.
Delegated legislation refers to the laws made by 5. It violates the principle of separation of powers in the federal
A. non-legislative bodies B. legislature system of government.
C. military government D. civilian governments 6. It may lack effective parliamentary control.
Answer – A 7. It may endanger the liberty of the citizens if fundamental human
Delegated legislation refers to the laws made by non- rights are not entrenched into the bye laws, rules and regulations.
legislative bodies. The legislative bodies will delegate 8. It is not democratic because the delegated legislation agents are
legislative to agencies. Delegated legislation is a term not elected by the electorate but appointed by the executive.
which covers the vast amount of legislation made by
Government Agencies and the Governor-General under 2008/19 UTME
authority of Acts of Parliaments, which delegate this power An advantage of delegated legislation is
to agencies. This type of legislation is also known as A. supremacy B. convenience
subordinate legislation. C. effectiveness D. efficiency
Answer – D
1999/14 Neco Delegated legislation makes for efficiency and precision.
One of the advantages of delegated legislation is that
A. lessens the work of parliament 2011/17 UTME
B. lessens the work of legal draft men An advantage of delegated legislation is that
C. reduces the power of the local authority A. ministers and lawmakers work together
B. it hasten the implementation of policy
D. makes parliament more popular with the people
C. much time is saved in the process
Answer
D. technical issues are handled by-experts
One of the merits of delegated legislation is that it lessens the Answer – C
workload of the parliament, meaning it reduces the work of An advantage of delegated legislation is that it saves parliament
the parliament because legislation is granted to some enough time, whose legislative machinery could breakdown if it were
authorities to make laws by the act of parliament. (A) to enact all laws.

180
2012/15 UTME
Delegated legislature is made by bodies other than the
A. president B. governor C. parliament D. judiciary
Answer – A
Delegated legislature is made by bodies other than the
president.

2013/16 UTME
The act of transferring autonomous powers to subordinate
agencies is
A. concentration B. deconcentration
C. delegation D. devolution
Answer – C
Delegation legislation is the act of transferring autonomous
powers to subordinate agencies in the state or organization.

2019/2020/54 (UNIZIK, AWKA)

A situation where power is transferred to lower units with
central control and supervision is
A. decentralization B. deconcentration
C. devolution D. Delegated legislation
Answer – D
Delegated legislation is the only situation where power is
transferred to lower units with central control and
supervision.

2022/10 Neco
Political participation can be limited by
A. age B. decree C. gender D. religion E. wealth
Answer – B
Decree used during military rule limits political
participation of the citizens.

REVISION EXERCISES
1. Delegated legislation is qualified by
A. superior knowledge of issues by the executive
B. fear that public debates in parliaments would endanger
national security
C. slow and unyielding process of decision making
D. constitutional superiority of the executive over the
legislature in branch of government
2. Delegated legislation is the power to make laws by
A. local councils when parliament is in recess
B. bodies other than parliament.
C. the international law commission
D. military rulers E. parliament
3. What is political participation?
4. State any six forms of political participation and
explain any three.
5. Explain the purpose of political participation.
6. Mention and explain any four factors affecting the
political participation.
7. Define centralization.
8. State four reasons why centralization is adopted in
unitary system.
9. With illustration explain decentralization.
10. State the two types of decentralization.
11. Explain the types of delegated legislature.
12. Explain why delegated legislation is important to
modern government.

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A person is a Nigerian citizen if
Chapter Eleven (a) He is born in Nigerian
(b) Either of his /her parents is a Nigerian, and
(c) Although born outside Nigeria, either of his/her parent
CITIZENSHIP
is a Nigerian.
A citizen is a person who is entitled to enjoy all the legal
rights and privileges granted by a state, the people
NB: In some states, such as Nigeria, citizenship by descent
comprising its constituency, and are obligated to obey its
and birth are treated as the same.
laws and to fulfill his or her duties as called upon.
2009/29 Exercise 11.2
A citizen is a bona–fide member of a state (country),
Citizenship can be acquired through
having constitutional rights and living or residing in the
A. renouncement B. repudiation
said country or outside it. He enjoys certain right and
C. birth D. reference
privileges and owes certain responsibilities and obligations
to the state.
2018/3a Exercise 11.3
Highlight any three methods of acquiring citizenship
Citizenship is the condition or status of a person
recognized under the custom or law as being a legal Citizenship by Naturalisation
member of a sovereign state or belonging to a nation. The Citizenship by naturalization is a process by which an
idea of citizenship has been defined as the capacity of eligible legal immigrant applies for citizenship and is
individuals to defend their rights in front of the accepted, if he or she satisfies the constitutional
governmental authority. requirements for naturalization. This type of citizenship is
not from birth.
2015/18
A citizen is an individual who Citizenship by naturalization is therefore granted subject to
A. has the legal and political rights in a country the fulfillment of certain conditions including the
B. has lived in a country for sometime following:
C. enjoys all economic rights (a) The person must have resided in the country where he
D. enjoys immunity in the country is seeking naturalization for a long period of time. In
Answer Nigeria, a person applying for naturalization must have
A citizen is an individual who has the legal and political resided in the country for atleast 15 years.
rights in a country, one entitled to the rights and privileges (b) The person must be of full age and capacity. That is,
of a freeman. (A) he must not be involved in any illicit activity or must
not have been convicted of any criminal offence
2019/2a Exercise 11.1 before.
Who is a citizen? (c) He should show a clear desire to be resident in the
country and the person has to fulfill the residential
Ways of acquiring citizenship requirements needed to become a citizen.
The following are ways of acquiring citizenship (d) He must be acceptable to the people and government
1. Citizenship by birth. of the part of the country where he wishes to reside
2. Citizenship by naturalization. permanently. For him to be acceptable to the people
3. Citizenship by marriage. and government of the area he wants to reside, he must
4. Dual citizenship. be law abiding, diligent and upright in character.
5. Citizenship by honorary. (e) The individual has been administered the oath of
allegiance prescribed in the constitution.
Citizenship by Birth
i) Place of birth: A person can acquire citizenship of a 2002/5 Nov
given place/state if he/she is born within the territory Citizenship can be acquired by
of that state even though the parents are citizens of A. nationalism B. naturalization C. indenisation
another country. For example, a child born to a D. collectivism
Nigerian Couple in the United States or Britain is Answer
automatically a citizen of that country. One can acquire citizenship by naturalization where the
ii) Descent: A child born to a Nigerian couple in the person lives in a country as a legal immigrant and applied
United Kingdom is British. But he/she is also a for citizenship. If the person meets all the constitutional
Nigerian citizen by descent because his parent are requirements for citizenship, it will be accepted. (B)
Nigerians. Here a child citizenship is determined by
2002/19 Nov
that of his parent or grandparent or through his lineage.
An alien can obtain citizenship of another country through
When the child is old enough, he has to choose
A. naturalization B. birth C. descent D. nationalization
between being a Nigerian or British.
Answer
An Alien is a person of another family, race or nation or a
foreign born resident who has not been naturalized. He/she
can obtain his/her citizenship of another country, if he/she
has gotten all the requirements. (A)
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1995/5 2015/19
An alien who has lived in Nigeria for twenty years may Which of the following is a condition of granting
acquire citizenship by citizenship to a foreigner?
A. nationalization B. naturalization C. registration A. swearing an oath of allegiance
D. marriage E. migration B. possession of a university degree
Answer C. a registered member of a political party
In Nigeria, naturalization of a citizen occurs when the D. possession of an international passport.
person has fulfilled the following: person of full age (17), Answer
has resided in Nigeria for at least 15 years, is of good Condition for granting citizenship to a foreigner is by
character, plans to remain in Nigeria, is familiar with any swearing an oath of allegiance. (A)
Nigerian language and customs, has a viable means of
support, etc. (B) Dual Citizenship
It is possible for a person to hold dual citizenship. That’s
2009/30 Exercise 11.4 citizenship of two countries, a child born to a Nigerian
Residing in an area for a specified period of years is one of parents living in United Kingdom, become a citizen of
the basic conditions to acquire citizenship through British. The child is also a citizen of Nigeria because of his
A. marriage B. honour C. naturalization D. birth parents’ nationality.

1994/19 Exercise 11.5 Honorary Citizenship

One can become a citizen of a country through all the Honorary citizenship is a process where an individual
following except could be honoured with the citizenship of another country.
A. the granting of political asylum B. birth This is made possible if the individual has distinguished
C. marriage D. naturalization himself/herself in a particular area. This is also known as
E. the conferment of honorary citizenship citizenship by conferment or concession.

1990/51 Exercise 11.6 2015/21 Exercise 11.9

The citizenship of a country may be acquired by an The conferment of citizenship on a distinguished
individual through personality of another country is called
A. decolonization B. naturalization C. nationalism A. citizenship by birth B. honorary citizenship
D. nomination E. neutralization C. adoption D. citizenship by registration

2015/20 Exercise 11.7

Citizenship can be acquired through all of the following Requirements for Citizenship
method except 1. Statutory age: This is one of the criteria of citizenship.
A. birth B. nationalization C. naturalization The person has to attain the required age stipulated by
D. marriage the laws of the country.
2. Good Character: The person must possess a good
1999/28 Exercise 11.8 character.
A foreigner can be a citizen of another state by 3. Residence: The person must have lived in a country
A. immigration B. naturalization C. nationalism for a specified number of years. In Nigeria, the person
D. indigenization must have lived for 15years.
4. Acceptability: The individual must be accepted by the
Citizenship by Marriage or Registration local community where he lives.
This type of citizenship can be obtained when a 5. Viable Contribution: The person should be capable
man/woman marries a person from another country. For of contributing viably to the society for the progress of
example, if a Ghanaian woman marries a Nigerian man, the country.
the Ghanaian woman would be given the citizenship of her 6. Willingness to live and stay: The willingness to live
husband’s country, Nigeria. In addition, there are some and stay in the country is additional requirement for
conditions that must be fulfilled citizenship.
(a) Must be of good character 7. Through Marriage: Through marriage citizenship
(b) Must show a clear intention to live in Nigeria can be granted.
(c) Must take an oath of allegiance to the Nigerian state
and renounce the former citizenship.
NB: Not all foreigners can become citizens by registration. 2018/3b
Only women who have been married to a citizen of Nigeria Outline two conditions an alien must satisfy before
are permitted. becoming a citizen of another country.
Answer
1. The alien must be of good character or of good
reputation.
2. The person must have married a citizen for not less
than a period of 5 years.
3. He or she must have lived in the country for a very long
period of time which may range from 15-20years.
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4. The individual must have renounced his/her former RIGHTS OF A CITIZEN
nationality. Citizenship confers certain rights on a person. Rights of
5. The applicant for the citizenship must take the oath of citizen are legal claims or entitlement, which every citizen
allegiance. enjoys in a country and which the state has a duty to protect
6. He/she must be acceptable to the locality, where he/she and guarantee. Such rights are provided in the constitution.
is residing. Rights enable citizens to enjoy a good life. The rights
7. The person must be capable of contributing to the which are legally entrenched in the constitution are known
development and economic of the country positively. as fundamental human rights of the citizens. Fundamental
human rights are inalienable freedoms and privileges that
individuals are entitled to in a state e.g. right to life, right
Deprivation of Citizenship to fair hearing, right to freedom of movement, etc.
Deprivation of citizenship can be referred to a situation
where a state actively takes nationality away from its A democratic society must ensure that citizens enjoy the
citizens. We use the terms deprivation/denationalization as following rights, among others:
synonyms for all provisions of involuntary loss of (i) Right to life.
citizenship/nationality. When an individual is no longer a (ii) Right to own property.
citizen of that nationality, it means the citizen was deprived (iii) Right to personal liberty.
of its citizenship. People who are citizens by birth or (iv) Right to dignity of human person.
descent cannot usually be deprived of it. But people who (v) Rights to fair hearing
become citizens by registration or by naturalization can (vi) Right to freedom of thought, conscience, and
lose it, if religion.
(a) A naturalized citizen is jailed for not less than 3 years (vii) Right to freedom from slavery and forced labour.
within a period of 7 years after his naturalization (viii) Right to freedom of expression.
(b) If he is disloyal to Nigeria or is guilty of treason. (ix) Right to freedom of assembly and association.
(x) Right to freedom of movement.
Ways of Depriving or Losing Citizenship (xi) Right to freedom from discrimination on ground
The following are ways of depriving or losing citizenship of
1. Through disloyalty.
2. Supporting another country. 2017/2a Exercise 11.13
3. Imprisonment. Define the rights of a citizen.
4. False declaration.
5. The naturalized citizen can equally lose his citizenship.
If found guilty of this offence. Classification of Rights
6. When a person has dual citizenship, if he has not (i) Natural Rights: Natural rights are derived from
renounced the citizenship of his original country. natural laws imposed by God. It is the right given to
7. When an individual verbally renounced her/his every citizen through the divine power of God.
citizenship. Examples of natural rights are right to life and right to
dignity of human person.
1988/16 Exercise 11.10
A Nigerian citizen can only be deprived of his citizenship (ii) Civil Rights: Civil rights are the rights of citizens
if he is under the law. The rights are entrenched in the
A. condemned to death B. convicted by a court of law constitution of a given state a citizen is entitled to seek
C. married to a foreigner D. holding a dual citizenship legal redress, if his/her rights are infringed upon by
another person or government. These rights includes:
1992/11 Exercise 11.11 1. Right to Life: Right to life is a basic civil right,
Citizenship maybe changed by without this right, there can be no safety either for
A. renunciation B. birth C. divorce the individual or for the society.
D. conviction E. employment 2. Right to Family Life: Right to family life is of
great significance for the continuation of human
1997/18 Exercise 11.12 race. Every state recognizes the sanctity of family
A Nigerian may lose citizenship if he life and the institution of marriage.
A. is convicted for a criminal offence 3. Right to education: Education for a human being
B. renounce it in exchange for another is an essential air, food and water. Unless the
C. loses his international passport people are educated, they cannot really participate
D. is deported from a foreign country in the working of society and government.
E. fails to pay his taxes 4. Right to Personal Freedom: Right of personal
freedom is absolutely essential for the mental and
physical growth of individual. But this does not
mean that the individual can do whatever he likes.
Rights to personal freedom can be enjoyed in
accordance with the laws made by state and also in
accordance with the interest of society.

184
5. Right to religious freedom: In a democratic and 8. Right to oppose the government policies, if the
secular state right to religious freedom is also policies are not in line with the fundamental rights
given to its citizens. enshrined in the constitution.
6. Right to Freedom of Thought and Expression: 9. Right to engage in peaceful protest or
Right to freedom of thought and expression is also demonstration.
very important for personality development. All
person want freedom to express and exchange with (v) Social Rights: Social rights are claims which enable
others view and ideas. citizens to enjoy social welfare services for a good life.
7. Right to freedom of movement: Every citizen The social rights are:
has the right to move freely throughout the 1. Right to health facilities.
country. Citizens are also given the right to go 2. Right to age insurance.
abroad. 3. Right to equal treatment in all aspects of human life.
8. Freedom of Press: Freedom of press is considered 4. Right to freedom from discrimination on grounds
the guardian of the rights of the citizens. of sex, race or religion. Right to private life.
Therefore, in democratic countries, citizens are 5. Right to freedom of expression.
given the right to get their views printed in 6. Right to belong to social clubs/unions.
newspaper. This right is essential for spreading
information and education. 2017/24 Exercise 11.15
9. Right to equality: in a modern democratic state The rights of citizens to benefit from public utility is
individual are granted the right to equality. classified as
10. Right to Justice: Right to save the weak and the A. social rights B. natural rights C. religious rights D.
poor from these rich oppressors. political rights
11. Freedom of association: In order to fulfill his
social, economic, political and cultural needs.
When the society or association is considered Duties and Obligations of a Citizen in a State
harmless to the society. The following are some of the duties and obligations of a
12. Right to contract: This enables the citizens to citizen in a state.
enter into free contracts with others. 1. Law Abiding: Every citizen must obey the laws of the
state irrespective of your hierarchy in the social strata
2011/51 Nov Exercise 11.14 of the state.
Which of the following is not a right of a citizen? Right to 2. Paying taxes: All citizens must pay taxes in one form
A. dignity of human being B. freedom of speech or another, to provide the state with revenue for social
C. be wealthy D. life E. vote services e.g. schools, roads, police, fire protection,
medicare and national defence.
(iii) Economic Rights: These rights allow citizens to 3. Voting in election: It is also a duty or responsibility of
engage in gainful economic activities. Citizens must citizens to participate in their government by
have equal access to the resources of the state. registering to vote in elections. By voting, citizens
Employment opportunities must be equally available have a voice in their government and help to ensure
to citizens without discrimination. The economic democratic representative system.
rights include: 4. Community involvement: Citizens also should
1. Right to work. contribute to the wellbeing of the community by
2. Rights to fixed hours of work. recognizing where help or change is needed and by
3. Right to rest and leisure after working for some involving through offering their knowledge and talents
hours and days. to local organisation, committees and community
4. Right to form unions/associations. projects.
5. Right to choose a trade or profession. 5. Rights of individuals: A good citizen should not
6. Right to own private property. interfere with the rights of another citizen.
7. Right to engage in economic activities/business. 6. National symbol: A good citizen should have respect
8. Right to gainful employment. for national symbols, e.g. flag and anthem.
9. Right to minimum wage. 7. National service: A citizen should obey the call to
serve his country through the National Youth Service
Corps.
(iv) Political Rights: Political rights are the rights of every 8. Loyalty: A good citizen must show loyalty to his
citizen to participate in the political process of the country and must not support another country against
state. The political rights are: his own country.
1. Right to vote, every adult citizen has the right to 9. Upbringing of children: A citizen should ensure the
vote at age 18. proper upbringing of his children. The children should
2. Right to get elected to any public office. be given good moral training and taught to live in unity
3. Right to freedom of expression. and harmony with others.
4. Right to hold public offices. 10. Honesty: A good citizen is obliged to exhibit high
5. Right to petition. degree of honesty when dealing with government of
6. Right to form political parties. his country and other citizens.
7. Right to criticize.
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11. Enlistment: A citizen should be ready to get enlisted Limitations to a Citizen’s Rights
into the armed forces when asked to do so, for the 1. Type of government: The type of government in
defence of the country. power may limit citizen’s right. For example, one party
12. Care of Public Property: A good citizen should system, military regime, etc.
always take good care of public property whether 2. Conviction: A citizen who is convicted and
placed in his custody or not whenever he comes in imprisoned may lose his voting rights and movements
contact with it. while in prison.
3. Slander or libel: A citizen has no right to slander or
Ways of safeguarding the rights of a citizen in a state. libel other citizens. This is a limitation to freedom of
1. Entrenchment of human rights in the constitution: expression.
The entrenchment of fundamental human rights of 4. Emergency period: Government may restrict
citizens in the constitution is a way of safeguarding citizen’s movement during emergency period. In most
their rights. cases a dawn to dusk curfew is usually imposed to
2. Existence of principle of the rule of law: The prevent crisis, this deprive individuals of their
government under the principle of law has an fundamental rights.
obligation to ensure the existence of civil liberties and 5. Trespass: A citizen has no right to trespass into
equality of all citizens. another person’s property. This is a limitation to
3. Independence of the judiciary: For citizens to enjoy freedom of movement.
their rights the judiciary should be free from the 6. Property: Citizens may be denied the right to own
interference and control of both the executive and the some property e.g. weapons of some category.
legislature. 7. Property for public use: Government may acquire
4. Freedom of the press: The press should be free to some individual’s property for public use e.g. land, but
serve as the watchdog for the rights of the citizens. with compensation.
5. Activities of the opposition: The opposition whether 8. State security: Citizens may not be allowed, to join
in government or outside, is a powerful instrument for secret societies or associations, if they threaten the
protecting the rights of the citizen. state security. It is a limitation to freedom of
6. Public Vigilance: Consciousness and vigilance of association.
citizens over their rights is a sure safeguard to 9. Citizens may be deprived of their lives: This could
freedom. It is being said ‘the price of liberty is the happen if they take another person’s life and are
perpetual vigilance of the people’. Citizens must be condemned by law.
conscious of their rights and prevent encroachment on 10. Remand homes: Delinquent children can be kept in
such rights either from powerful individuals or remand homes for character remolding, thereby
government officials. restricting their liberty.
7. Public Opinion: Government must respect the 11. Epidemic Outbreak: An outbreak of epidemic can
influence of the public’s view and ideas on national restrict the rights of citizens in order to prevent the
issues. Public opinion is a measure of acceptance or spread of the disease. For example, the outbreak of
rejection of certain policies of government. Ebola disease Covid-19, etc. led to the restriction of
8. International guarantee on human rights: Respect movement of all affected persons. People suffering
for international conventions on human rights by from mental illness or drug addiction can be kept in
every country is very compulsory. The United custody to save the lives of others.
Nations Charter recognizes the protection of
individual rights under the Universal Declaration of Differences between a Citizen and a Non-Citizen
Human Rights, 1948. 1. A citizen must be ready to defend his country when
9. Impartiality of the judiciary: Judges must be fair and called upon to do so, but a non-citizen cannot be called
impartial in protecting individual rights against upon.
invasion by private individual or government. 2. A citizen can serve his country in any capacity, a non-
10. Equal access to economic opportunities: Citizens citizen cannot.
should have equal access to economic resources of the 3. A citizen must show loyalty to the state, a non-citizen
state. There should be no discrimination on grounds may not.
of sex, race and religion. Employment opportunities 4. A citizen can take up any job of his choice, in areas of
should also be open to every qualified person. job selection, but a non-citizen cannot.
11. Provision of Basic Facilities: Provision of social and 5. The life of a citizen is fully under the protection of the
economic facilities, e.g. schools, hospitals, good state that of a non-citizen is not.
roads, water and market facilities, etc. 6. A non-citizen is not a legal member of a state, whereas
12. Provision of legal aid: Free legal aid for the less a citizen is a legal member of a state with full
privilege should be in place and not to be ignored. constitutional rights.
13. Enforcement of law and order: There should be 7. A non-citizen does not owe any duty or obligation to
proper enforcement of law and order by the security the state but a citizen owes duties and obligations to
agencies and community. Adherence to the doctrine the state.
of separation of powers with effective checks and 8. A non-citizen cannot vote or be voted for in any
balances. political election, a citizen can vote and be voted for.
9. The rights of a citizen are guaranteed while that of a
non-citizen is not.
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2019/4 NABTEB Exercise 11.16 The victims of trafficking are often:
a. Who is a citizen? i. Migrants
b. Describe five ways of becoming a citizen of a country. ii. Internally displaced persons – caused by insurgents
c. List five duties and obligations of a citizen. and other disasters
iii. Refugees and
TRAFFICKING IN PERSONS VICTIMS iv. Asylum seekers
Trafficking in persons is a trade of humans of forced
labour, sexual slavery or commercial sexual exploitation
by the traffickers, and or other associated persons. Identification of Trafficked Victims and Human
Trafficking in persons is a way to exploit women and Traffickers
children for cheap labour and prostitution. It is a financial Due diligence must be exercised in identifying Trafficking
issue arising from unemployment and poverty. This in Persons (TIP) victims and their traffickers. Government
practice brings enormous profits to the traffickers. It is and other authorities such as intergovernmental and non-
based on violence, coercion, deception and exploitative governmental organizations are to apply certain objective
practices. Victims who work for their owners are being standards and guidelines in identifying potential victims.
deprived of their fundamental human rights. In particular, the law enforcement agents like the police,
According to the Palermo protocol in 2000, the customs, immigration, state security service, etc. must
international community agreed upon definition of traffic employ procedures and standards in identifying victims,
in persons as the recruitment, transportation, transfer, among high-risk persons, especially young women and
laboring or receipt of persons by means of threat or use of girls travelling with non-family members. The application
force or other forms of coercion, or abduction, of fraud, of guidelines and procedures will ensure effective
deception, of the abuse of power or of a position of identification of the victims and traffickers. These
vulnerability or of the giving or receiving of payments or guidelines and procedures are:
benefits to achieve the consent of a person having control 1. Developing guidelines for relevant state authorities
over another person, for the purpose of exploitation. and officials such as police, border guards,
Exploitation shall include, as a minimum, the exploitation immigration officials and others involved in the
of the prostitution of others, or other forms of sexual detection, detention, reception and processing of
exploitation, forced labour or services, slavery or practices irregular migrants, to permit the rapid and accurate
similar to slavery, servitude or the removal of organs. identification of trafficked persons.
Trafficked victims are men, women and children who are 2. Providing appropriate training to relevant authorities
deceived, transported and delivered into the hands of those and officials in the identification of trafficked persons
who exploit them for profit. They are often subjected to and traffickers. The training must focus on the correct
physical violence, sexual abuse, psychological trauma and application of the guidelines and procedures for easy
severe deprivation. The victim of human trafficking is and accurate identification.
deprived of enjoying rights as a citizen of a state. Such a 3. Ensuring cooperation between relevant authorities,
person is subject to the whims and caprices of another officials and non-governmental organizations to
person or organization. A trafficked victim has no freedom facilitate the identification and provision of assistance
to enjoy his/her basic rights and is denied the rights to live to trafficked persons.
a decent life. The consent of a trafficked victim is not taken 4. Identifying appropriate points of intervention to ensure
into consideration in rendering services to his/her master. that migrants and potential migrants are warned about
possible dangers and consequences of trafficking as
well as receive information that enables them to seek
assistance if required.
5. Ensuring that trafficked persons are not prosecuted for
violation of immigration laws or for the activities they
are involved in as a direct consequence of their status
as trafficked persons.
6. Ensuring that trafficked persons are not held in
immigration detention centres or other forms of
custody.
7. Ensuring that procedures and processes are in place for
receipt and consideration of asylum claims for both
trafficked persons and smuggled asylum seekers.
8. Formulating indicators for identification of potential
Human Trafficking victims victims. There are indicators that help first responders
and practitioners to identify trafficked victims or
Categories of Trafficked Victims potential victims. The key indicators are:
There are diverse forms of trafficked victims. Women and i. Young person’s travelling in a group, usually led
girls are usually trafficked for domestic servitude and by someone older who might have some role in the
sexual exploitation, while boys are forced into street trafficking chain
vending, domestic service, mining, agriculture and ii. Inconsistent story as to the reason why each
begging. The most common types of trafficked persons are individual (in an intercepted group) is travelling.
sex trafficking, forced labour and debt bondage.
187
iii. Very similar stories given by different persons 5. Traffickers trick their victims to believing that they are
travelling in a group. boyfriends/girlfriends and shower them with gifts.
iv. Shabby dressing. This is to make the victims lose their guard and build
v. A bag packed with foodstuff and emergency water trust.
storage. 6. Traffickers are always lurking around in corners and
vi. Nervousness on the part of intercepted persons. are quick to come to your help. They offer their would-
vii. An unsure story of who to meet at destination. be victims help in desperate situations and would
viii. Possession of false travel papers. always follow up.
9. A direct report at a police station or other law 7. Traffickers are everywhere: in the mall, the school,
enforcement organization. movie theatre, amusement parks, church, online
10. A referral from any organization. (Facebook, Instagram, Twitter) and any other place
where there are young people.
Other Indicators
According to the United Nations Office on Drugs and The Right of Trafficked Victims
Crime (UNODC) and United Nations Global Initiative to Care of interest of trafficked victims is an important
Fight Human Trafficking (UN-GIFT) (Human Trafficking element of administration of justice. A victim is entitled to
Indicators), people who have been trafficked: certain rights as an ordinary person. Child victims are
i. May believe that they must work against their will; given special protection by taking into account the best
ii. Are unable to leave their work environment; interest of the child. Rights of victims are protected by
iii. Show signs that their movements are being controlled; international conventions and national legislations of
iv. May be subjected to violence or threats of violence countries. Victims are to receive assistance and protection
against themselves or against their family members for effective reintegration into the society. The rights of a
and loved ones; victim can be divided into four main categories, depending
v. May suffer injuries that appear to be the result of an on the stage of the victim’s post-trafficking rehabilitation:
assault. 1. Rights Upon Repatriation Stage: A victim is entitled
vi. May be distrustful of the authorities; to the following rights at the repatriation stage:
vii. May be threatened with being handed over to the i. Right to be repatriated without unjustified delay.
authorities; ii. Right to safety of life.
viii. May not be in possession of any identity document, iii. Right to be issued all documents needed for
passports or other travel documents as these are being repatriation free.
held by someone else; iv. Right to be informed by the Consular Office or
ix. Have false identity or travel documents; diplomatic mission concerning his/her rights.
x. May be unfamiliar with the local people/language; v. Right to receive protection and assistance of a
xi. May not know their work or home address; special diplomat appointed during the repatriation
xii. Allow others to speak for them when addressed procedure while still staying in the sending and
directly; transiting countries.
xiii. Act as if they were instructed by someone else; and 2. Rights upon crisis situation stage: As soon as the
xiv. Receive little or no payment for work done; or have no victim is repatriated, he/she is entitled to certain social
access to their earnings. services:
i. Right to be sheltered in the assistance and protection
Identification of Traffickers centres for victims of trafficking in persons. At this
Traffickers are master manipulators. They are experts in centre, the victim has the right to receive food,
persuading their victims to do things they would never conditions for personal hygiene, guard and protection
have thought of doing. They roam malls, aftercare centres, as well as assistance in contacting relatives.
bus stations and social media to lure their victims. These ii. Right to receive free medical assistance in medical
traffickers do the following, among others: institutions (hospitals/clinics; psychological
1. Traffickers tell their prospective victims that parents, assistance to overcome post-traumatic stress disorder,
teachers and other adults do not understand or and reintegration into the community.
appreciate them. This is to make the victim feel wanted iii. Right to receive information from competent public
and secure. They prey on young people’s hopes or authorities, institutions and organizations, non-
dreams to improve their lives. governmental and international organizations
2. Traffickers sometimes trick their victims to leave the involved in preventing and combating trafficking in
company of their friends so that they can have access persons and provision of assistance to trafficked
to manipulate the innocent victims. victims.
3. Traffickers also use women and children of the iv. Right to safely remain in the country pending the
victim’s age group to get them. They use women who completion of proceedings for compensation.
pretend to be friends with the victim’s mother or older 3. Rights upon the trial stage this involves:
siblings and children in the victim’s age bracket. This i. Right to free legal assistance in seeking redress in law
means that traffickers are not only suspicious old men. court. A victim has the right to be accompanied by a
4. You cannot tell a trafficker by his/her looks, age, trustful person or by an attorney from a law court
socio-economic level, daytime job or clothes. They when filing grievances, during interviewing on
can be anyone, ranging from a next door neighbor, a criminal investigation and during court sessions.
relative, friends, teachers, even parents.
188
ii. Right to file a complaint against the trafficker. A Trafficked persons may not always be treated with respect and
trafficked victim has the right to receive a accorded necessary rights as victims of crime. Some victims
certificate regarding criminal investigation may be treated as criminals or illegal migrants. The limitations
procedure after filing his complaint. The victim to their rights are:
also has the right to ask for copy of records of his 1. Challenges of law enforcement agencies: The law
case. enforcement agents, especially the police, encounter
iii. Right to be informed by the criminal investigation certain challenges in arresting and prosecuting traffickers.
institution/body about his rights and obligations. A Moreover, the unwillingness of the victims to cooperate
victim has her right to receive copies of all with the law enforcement officials is a serious challenge in
decisions taken regarding his/her case free of the war against trafficking in persons. We have inadequate
charge. legal framework and logistics for cooperation amongst
iv. Right to physical protection during criminal agencies of government.
proceedings by the public. 2. Intimidation and threats towards the victim or his
v. Right to ask for compensation on moral and family by the traffickers: Traffickers often harass and
material damages which occurred during the intimidate families of victims in Nigeria to pay the
trafficking and exploitation process. outstanding debt if trafficked women leave their
vi. Right to confidentiality of the information traffickers. Reprisals are not limited to trafficked
concerning his/her private life and identity. persons and their families, but include other witnesses.
vii. Right to change personal bio-data information if The decision to cooperate with the law enforcement
victim’s life and health are at risk. A victim can agencies and/or act as a witness may have severe
ask for change of his name, surname, date and consequence for the safety and privacy of both the
place of birth. victim and his children and other family member.
viii. Right to personal liberty, that is, a victim will not3. Inadequate legal representation in criminal
be subjected to criminal, administrative or civil proceeding: The right to a lawyer/legal advocate in
liability for illegal action such as use of false ID criminal proceedings is not secured in most cases. As
documents, illegal crossing and practice of in other common law countries, victims and witnesses
prostitution. do not have the right to be legally represented in
ix. Right to present his views and concerns at criminal proceedings in Nigeria. Most lawyers are not
appropriate stages of the criminal proceedings. ready to provide free legal services.
4. Rights upon the social reintegration stage: The 4. Lack of support for right to recovery: Government has
social rehabilitation of victim is to ensure a return to not sufficiently given assistance to trafficked persons
normal life. This involves provision of legal and who return home. Shelters are not even provided for
humanitarian aid, psychological, medial or the victims; there is no medical care, financial
professional rehabilitation, employment and provision assistance or counselling by the authorities. The
of living space. Committee for the Support of the Dignity of Women
5. Right to compensation and damages: Trafficked (COSUDOW) and International Organization for
persons have enforceable rights to effective and Migration (IOM) reintegration programme does
appropriate remedies. Remedies may be criminal, civil provide assistance, but can only afford to assist a small
or administrative in nature. A victim may obtain number of victims.
compensation for damages suffered. This includes 5. Ineffective legal redress and compensation: Before
both material and non-material damages. Trafficked the enactment of trafficking law in Nigeria, no
persons have a right to be paid for the work they have trafficked person has received legal redress or
performed for the traffickers. compensation in Nigeria.
6. Lack of cooperation from victims: Refusal of victims to
Relationship between Fundamental Human Rights and cooperate during the proceedings of identification and
Rights of Trafficked Victims prosecution of traffickers is a serious problem to law
Rights of trafficked persons are derived from the enforcement agencies.
fundamental human rights of citizens. Human rights
provide the basis to determine the violation of the rights of Safeguarding the Rights of Trafficked Person
victims by their traffickers. Legal redress could be sought 1. Legal Redress: trafficked victims could seek redress
by the victims for the violation of their rights by the through the civil suits against traffickers. Trafficked
traffickers and other associated persons. Compensation persons are provided with legal and other assistance in
and other forms of remedies may also be sought by the relation to any criminal, civil or other actions against
victims as a result of deprivation of their rights. The traffickers. The legal proceedings in which the
fundamental human rights set standards for the law trafficked persons are involved are not prejudicial to
enforcement agents to arrest and prosecute offenders. their right, dignity or physical or psychological well-
Human rights is the bedrock from which the right of being. Victims are provided with information in a
victims could be defended by relevant authorities and language that they understand in any criminal
officials providing assistance and supports. proceedings. A victim has a legal right to seek redress
in court for violation of his/her dignity. Laws have
been enacted to provide protection for the victims in
Nigeria. The National Assembly enacted the following
laws:
189
i. Trafficking in Person’s Law Enforcement and be noted that even criminals have rights too according
Administration: The 2003 Trafficking in Persons to the law based on justice. It is a crime to subject a
Law Enforcement and Administration Act, person to inhuman treatment, forced labour or service.
amended in 2005, increases penalties for It is the right of a trafficked person to exercise and
trafficking offenders and prohibits all forms of enjoy his/her human rights like the traffickers.
human trafficking. It prescribes stringent penalties Traffickers have no authority to subject other persons
of five years imprisonment and/or 670 dollars fine to exploitative services.
for labour trafficking; ten years imprisonment for
trafficking of children for forced begging or Roles of Law Enforcement Agencies on Fundamental
hawking; and ten years to life imprisonment for Human Rights and Rights of Trafficked Victims
sex trafficking. Law enforcement agents, particularly the police, play
ii. The Child Rights Act 2003: The Child Rights Act important roles in the fight against the scourge of
2003 criminalizes child trafficking in Nigeria. It is trafficking in persons. They carry out arrests, detection and
a federal law, but it has been adopted in many prosecution of traffickers. They also carry out search for
states. Sentences range from two months to ten potential victims to frustrate the activities of traffickers.
years imprisonment. The police assists the NAPTIP in carrying out its functions,
2. Support of International Partners: International particularly by providing security cover for the officials
partners provide specialized training to officials on engaged in combating trafficking in persons. Security
how to recognize, investigate and prosecute instance agents also carry out their responsibility of identifying
of trafficking, Police and Immigration officials, traffickers by using certain guidelines and procedures
including law enforcement personnel at border posts according to the Protocol of Trafficking in persons.
and airports, carry out arrest and prosecution of Regular training is therefore necessary to update the
traffickers. The National Agency for the Prohibition of knowledge of law enforcement agents to ensure that the
Trafficking in Persons (NAPTIP) has arrested and rights of trafficked victims are protected.
prosecuted many traffickers. NAPTIP had also
dismissed officials who were negligent in the NATIONAL AGENCY FOR THE PROHIBITION OF
performance of their duties. Legal proceedings in TRAFFICKING IN PERSONS (NAPTIP)
which trafficked persons are involved are not The National Agency for the Prohibition of Trafficking in
prejudicial to their rights, dignity, physical or Persons (NAPTIP) was created on 14 July, 2003. The legal
psychological well-being. The victim could claim basis for the formation of the organization in the
funds from the victims’ Trust Fund set up in 2009 Trafficking in Persons Enforcement and Administration
through the assets confiscated from traffickers. The Act 2003 was as a response to the scourge of trafficking in
Trust Fund Committee is chaired by the Minister of persons. It is an international obligation under the
Justice and meets four times a year. Trafficking in Persons Protocol to prevent, suppress
3. Access to Embassy or Consular: Relevant authorities trafficking in persons, involving women and children as
and officials must ensure that trafficked persons are well as punish traffickers. NAPTIP is a derivative of the
informed of their right of access to diplomatic and United Nations Transnational Organized Crime
consular representatives from their state of nationality. Convention (UMTOC). It was set up basically to fight the
Staff working in embassies and consulate are to render scourge of trafficking in persons and is currently the most
assistance to the victims as may be necessary. Such efficient organization in the fight against trafficking in
officials must be provided with appropriate training in persons in Nigeria.
responding to requests for information and assistance The functions of the Agency are:
from trafficked persons and asylum seekers. 1. To enforce and administer the provisions of
4. Protection of Trafficked Victims’ Identity: The Trafficking in Persons Law Enforcement and
privacy and identity of trafficked persons is protected Administration Act.
in Article 6 (i) UN Trafficking Protocol. This involves 2. To coordinate and enforce all other laws on trafficking
setting standards for the storage of personal data and in persons and related offences.
encouraging the media to protect the private life and 3. To adopt effective measures to prevent and eradicate
identity of victims. The identity of a trafficked victim trafficking in persons and other related offences.
is not publicly disclosed as a way of ensuring his/her 4. To create public awareness. NAPTIP helps to make
right to privacy and safety. The trafficked persons are people aware of the problem of slavery. The more
therefore effectively protected from harm, threats or people know about the evils of slavery, the better they
intimidation by traffickers and associated persons. are prepared to face potential traffickers and other
Trafficked persons should be given full warning in criminals
advance of the difficulties inherent in protecting 5. To conduct research about slavery in Nigeria. This is
identities. one of the enlightenment functions of NAPTIP. It is
5. Identification and Respect of the Rights of Others: necessary to look deeper into the reasons for
It is mandatory for a person to recognize and respect trafficking in persons. The statistical data gotten can
the rights of others in the process of enjoying and provide interesting details about potential traffickers.
claiming his/her own rights. The NAPTIP Act 6. To encourage people to fight slavery. It encourages
provides limits to the functions of the Agency without volunteers to provide support in the fight against
consulting the Act. The reason for this restriction is to kidnapping.
protect the constitutional rights of Nigerians. It should
190
7. To investigate all cases of trafficking in persons. (iv) Freedom of the press: The press should be free to
NAPTIP has the obligation to investigate all cases of serve as the watchdog for the rights of the
forced labour, child labour, removal of organs, illegal citizens.
smuggling of migrants, forced prostitution, (v) Activities of the opposition: The opposition
exploitative labour and other forms of exploitation, whether in government or outside, is a powerful
slavery and slavery-like activities, bonded labour, sale instrument for protecting the rights of the citizen.
and purchase of persons. The main idea is to prevent (vi) Consciousness and vigilance of citizens over their
people from all forms of slavery in Nigeria. rights.
8. To encourage and facilitate participation of persons (vii) Respect for international conventions on human
who voluntarily consent to assist in the investigation rights.
or proceedings relating to trafficking in persons. (viii) Provision of social and economic facilities, e.g.
9. To facilitate rapid exchange of scientific and technical schools, hospitals and employment opportunities.
information with relevant authorities. (ix) Proper enforcement of law and order by the
10. To collaborate with government bodies both within security agencies and community.
and outside Nigeria on similar functions in the fight (x) Adherence to the doctrine of separation of powers
against human trafficking. with effective checks and balances.
11. To establish and maintain a system of monitoring
trans-border activities.
12. To deal with matters connected with the extradition 2022/3 Neco
and deportation of persons involved in trafficking of In six ways, differentiate between a citizen and an alien
persons. Answer
13. To enhance effectiveness of its staff and other law The following are the differences between a citizen and an
enforcement agents. It therefore initiates, develops and alien (non – citizen).
improves special training programmes for personnel of Answer
the Agency and other relevant law enforcement 1. A citizen must be ready to defend his country when
agencies waging war against trafficking in persons. called upon to do so, but a non-citizen cannot be called
The Agency has the responsibility of rescuing people upon.
from slavery. It provides resources and an environment 2. A citizen can serve his country in any capacity, a non-
for training the NAPTIP specialists who risk their lives citizen cannot.
in the course of their duties. 3. A citizen must show loyalty to the state, a non-citizen
14. To rehabilitate trafficked persons. NAPTIP provides may not.
rehabilitation programmes which can help trafficked 4. A citizen can take up any job of his choice, in areas of
persons to live better life in future. job selection, but a non-citizen cannot.
15. To protect trafficked victims and witnesses. Anybody 5. The life of a citizen is fully under the protection of the
who has been involved in or witnessed trafficking state that of a non-citizen is not.
cases must be protected by NAPTIP 6. A non-citizen is not a legal member of a state, whereas
16. To carry out such other activities as necessary for the a citizen is a legal member of a state with full
efficient discharge of its functions. constitutional rights.

2007/3 1989/9
(a) Define fundamental human rights. Which of the following is not a civil obligation of a citizen?
(b) Highlight five means of safeguarding fundamental A. obedience to law B. payment of taxes
human rights in a state. C. voting during elections
Answer D. freedom of conscience and religion
(a) Fundamental human rights are inalienable freedoms E. respect for all the national flag and anthem
and privileges that individuals are entitled to in a state Answer – D
e.g. right to life, right to fair hearing, right to freedom The above answer is not a civil obligation of a citizen
of movement, etc.
(b) Ways of safeguarding the rights of a citizen in a 1993/2
state: The most important duty of every citizen is to
(i) The entrenchment of fundamental human rights A. discharge his civic responsibilities to the state
of citizens in the constitution is a way of B. obey traditional authorities
safeguarding their rights. C. recite the national anthem
(ii) Existence of principle of the rule of law: The D. participate in government programmes
government under the principle of law has an E. go to work
obligation to ensure the existence of civil liberties
and equality of all citizens. The most essential obligation of every citizen is to
(iii) Independence of the judiciary: For citizens to discharge his civic responsibilities to the state. The civil
enjoy their rights the judiciary should be free responsibilities are respecting and obeying Federal, State
from the interference and control of both the and local laws. Respect the rights, beliefs and opinions of
executive and the legislature. others. Pay income and other taxes honestly, and on time,
to federal, state, and local authorities. (A)

191
2000/Neco/5 2017/24 Neco
Which of the following is an obligation of citizens? The rights of citizens to benefit from public utility is
A. attending political rallies classified as
B. taking part in Independence Day celebrations A. social rights B. natural rights C. religious rights D.
C. contesting elections political rights
D. paying respect to the national flag Answer
Answer The rights of citizens to benefit from public utility are
Paying respect to the national flag is an obligation of a classified as social rights. Social rights include the rights
citizen. The national flag should never be dipped in front to an adequate standard of living, affordable housing, food,
of any individual. Citizens should stand in attention education, an equitable health system and social security.
respecting the flag. (D) (A)

2006/25 Neco 1998/17

Which of the following is not a duty of a citizen? It is the duty of every citizen to
A. obedience to the laws B. payment of taxes A. perform his civic responsibilities
C. service to the nation D. giving to the poor B. sing the national anthem twice daily
Answer C. interpret the laws of the land
Giving to the poor is not an obligation to any citizen. It’s D. keep public places clean
known as moral obligations to help others or the poor. (D) E. investigate crime
Answer
2007/35 Neco It is the duty of every citizen to perform his civic
Obedience to the laws of the state is part of one’s responsibilities. (A)
A. duties B. rights C. privileges D. requirements
Answer 1992/14 Nov
Obeying laws is the most important duty of a citizen. They Which of the following is not a civic obligation of a
are designed to help people get along with one another, Nigerian citizen?
prevent accidents, make sure resources are used fairly. If A. prosecution of criminals B. obedience to laws
the people do not obey the laws, our government cannot C. voting at elections
maintain order; protect our health, safety and properties. D. reporting criminals to the police
(A) E. respect for the national flag
Answer
2008/25 Neco Prosecution of criminals is not a civic obligation of a
The main obligation of a citizen is Nigeria citizen. (A)
A. to register for election B. allegiance to the state
C. to serve in the army D. the right to life 1992/6
Answer A good citizen must be
The main obligation of a citizen is allegiance to the state. A. an educated and honest tax payer
The definition of allegiance means giving a promise to be B. ready to assist law enforcement agents
loyal, or the action of actually being loyal and on C. wealthy and ready to save his country
someone’s side. Swearing that you will follow the laws of D. educated and obedient to the law
a country is an example of giving allegiance. (B) E. educated and ready to assist the poor
Answer
2012/27 Neco A good citizen must be ready to assist law enforcement
A citizen’s duties do not include agents. (B)
A. defending the nation B. obeying the laws
C. defending the nation D. giving alms to the poor 1994/14
Answer It is not the duty or obligation of a citizen to
Citizen’s duties do not include giving alms to the poor. A. pay his tax B. defend his country in times of war
Alms giving is an act of virtue not an obligation. (D) C. arrest and prosecute offenders D. vote at elections
E. stand up when the national anthem is being sung
2017/23 Neco Answer
One duty of a good citizen is It is not the duty or obligation of a citizen to arrest and
A. building schools and hospitals prosecute offenders. (C)
B. respect of the dignity and rights of others
C. loyalty to other nations 2001/12
D. defending a suspect A citizen expresses loyalty to his nation by
Answer A. participating in sports B. supporting political parties
One duty of a good citizen is respect of the dignity and C. singing the national anthem when required
rights of others. (B) D. lobbying for ministerial appointment
Answer
A citizen expresses loyalty to his nation by singing the
national anthem when required. (C)

192
2013/25 3. Independence of the judiciary: For citizens to
Which of the following functions is a duty of a good enjoy their rights the judiciary should be free
citizen? from the interference and control of both the
A. paying tax regularly B. must assist the poor executive and the legislature.
C. should challenge the law of the land 4. Freedom of the press: The press should be free
D. must join the law enforcement agents to serve as the watchdog for the rights of the
Answer citizens.
Paying tax regularly (A) 5. Activities of the opposition: The opposition
whether in government or outside, is a powerful
2013/27 instrument for protecting the rights of the citizen.
Which of the following is an obligation of a citizen? 6. Consciousness and vigilance of citizens over their
A. arresting offenders B. voting at elections rights.
C. prosecuting offenders D. adjudicating cases 7. Respect for international conventions on human
Answer rights.
Voting at elections is an obligation of a citizen, failure to 8. Provision of legal aid.
do so may lead to the election of the wrong people into 9. Provision of social and economic facilities, e.g.
public offices. (B) schools, hospitals and employment opportunities.
10. Proper enforcement of law and order by the
2019/2 security agencies and community.
The ultimate duty of a citizen is to demonstrate his/her 11. Adherence to the doctrine of separation of powers
A. allegiance to the sovereign B. loyalty to the state with effective checks and balances.
C. respect for the national flag
D. contribution to government expenditure 2022/8 Neco
Answer The right to ----- cannot be enjoyed by an alien in Nigeria
The ultimate duty of a citizen is to demonstrate his/her A. franchise B. gainful employment C. liberty and security
loyalty to the state. (B) D. property ownership E. religion
Answer – A
2019/2b The right to franchise cannot be enjoyed by an alien in
Outline four responsibilities of a citizen to the state Nigeria.
1. Obedience to the laws of the state.
2. Payment of taxes. 2014/2 UTME
3. Defense of the state against any external attacks and The citizenship of a country may be acquired by an
internal insurrection. individual through
4. Vote during election. A. decolonization B. nomination C. nationalization
5. Protection of state/public property. D. neutralization E. naturalization
6. Assist law enforcement agencies in exposing crimes Answer – E
and criminals. The citizenship of a country may be acquired by an
7. Respect for national symbols. individual through naturalization. Naturalization is the
8. To protect and safeguard the environment. legal act or process by which a non-citizen of a country
9. Loyalty patriotism to the state. may acquire citizenship or nationality of this country.
10. Keeping of state secret.
11. To serve as a witness and a juror when summoned. 1999/23 UTME
12. To respect the rights, freedom and legitimate interest Naturalization is a process of acquiring citizenship by
of others. A. persons of dual nationality
B. foreign visitors to a country
2004/4 C. resident foreigners of good character
(a) Define the rights of a citizen. D. persons born abroad
(b) Highlight five ways of safeguarding the rights of a Answer – C
citizen in a state. Naturalization is the process by which U.S citizenship is
Answer granted a lawful permanent resident after meeting the
(a) Rights of citizen are legal claims or entitlement, which requirements established by congress.
every citizen enjoys in a country and which the state
has a duty to protect and guarantee. 2000/3 UTME
(b) Ways of safeguarding the rights of a citizen in a state. Citizenship refers to the
1. The entrenchment of fundamental human A. indigenous member of a state
rights of citizens in the constitution: This is a B. social status of a person in a state
way of safeguarding their rights. C. highest position in a state
2. Existence of principle of the rule of law: The D. legal status of a member of a state
government under the principle of law has an Answer – D
obligation to ensure the existence of civil liberties Citizenship refers to the legal status of a member of a state.
and equality of all citizens. It is the legal right to belong to a particular country. In
international law it is membership to a sovereign state.

193
2005/15 UTME 1993/23
Citizenship acquired through marriage is referred to as Freedom of association is important because
A. naturalization B. registration A. it allows for the formation of interest groups and
C. honorary D. nationalization organisation
Answer – B B. it is the same thing as freedom of movement
Citizenship acquired through marriage is referred to a C. membership is compulsory
registration. A foreign woman who marries a citizen for a D. associations are free from the government intervention
period of at least seven years is entitled on application to E. association aid the government
be registered as a citizen. Answer
Freedom of association is important because it allows for
2008/18 (OAU, IFE) the formation of interest groups and organization. (B)
In many countries, citizenship can be acquired through the
following processes except 2006/36 UTME
A right enjoyed by citizens but denied non-citizens is the
A. nationalization B. naturalization C. registration D. birth
Answer – A right to
Citizenship in many countries can be acquired through A. equality before the law
naturalization, registration, birth, conferment, marriage. B. vote and be voted for
Nationalization is not a means of citizenship acquisition. C. life, liberty and security
D. freedom of worship
2016/1 UTME Answer – B
Citizenship is acquired by an alien through Voted and be voted for is a right enjoyed by the citizens
A. registration B. birth C. naturalization D. conferment but denied to the non-citizens in the state.
Answer – C 2016/23 Neco
Citizenship is acquired by an alien through naturalization. The privilege citizens enjoyed in a country irrespective of
An alien is a person in a country who is not a national of sex, tribe or creed is
that country. A. right B. constitution C. manifesto D. franchise
Answer
2018/2019/36 (NDU,BAYELSA) A privilege citizens enjoyed right in a country irrespective
The citizenship of a country may be acquired by an of sex, tribe or creed. (A)
individual through
A. decolonization B. naturalization C. nationalization 2005/26
D. initiation E. neutralization The rights of a citizen to vote and be voted for in an
Answer – B election is that
The citizenship of a country may be acquired by an A. indirect election B. nomination C. general election
individual through naturalization. D. franchise
Answer
2015/2016/54 (NDU, BAYELSA) Franchise is the right given to the citizen based on the
An alien could become a legal member of the state by constitution to vote and be voted for in an election. (D)
A. migration B. employment C. naturalization
D. socialization E. conversion 2005/11
Answer – C The lack of interest in politics by many citizens in a
An alien could become a legal member of the state by country is called
naturalization. A. civil agitation B. mass apathy C. mass protect
D. political unrest
2002/19 UTME Answer
Citizenship in a modern state expresses the status of a Mass apathy is a feeling of disinterest in the sense of
person who possess. politics or apathy towards elections. (B)
A. same religious rights B. social rights only
C. exclusive economic rights D. full political rights 2001/13
Answer – A A citizen can participate in the politics of his country by
Citizenship in a modern state expresses the status of a A. acquiring university education
person who possesses full political rights to vote and be B. attending international meetings
voted for. C. contesting for an elective post
D. being a good sportsman
2009/44 UTME Answer
Citizenship of a state descent requires that A citizen can participate in the politics of his country by
A. one’s born and breed in the state contesting for an elective post. (C)
B. one’s mother was born in the state
C. motivation D. independence

194
2008/9 (OAU, IFE) 1979/18 UTME
Under which of the following conditions can a Nigerian be The primary obligation of citizenship is
deprived of his or her citizenship? A. loyalty to one’s ethnic group
B. loyalty to the state and participation in the political
A. if married to a foreign national
process
B. if one holds a dual citizenship C. loyalty to one’s school and church
C. if convicted of armed robbery D. loyalty to one’s local government council
D. if one abuses the national flag E. voting during local government council election
Answer – B Answer – B
A Nigerian can be deprived of his citizenship if one holds The primary obligation of citizenship is loyalty to the state
ad dual citizens. and participation in the political process. The citizen must
abide by the constitution, respect its ideals and its
institutions, the National Flag, the National Anthem, the
2014/2015/12 (NDU, BAYELSA) National pledge, and legitimate authorities.
The right of being a citizen can be withdrawn by the state
if the person 1980/16 UTME
A. leaves the country B. opposes\ the governance It is the duty of every citizen
C. if convicted by a court D. if pronounced dead A. to go to school
E. plans a coup B. to participate in the operation feed the nation scheme
Answer – C C. to perform his civil responsibilities
A citizen by naturalization, registration and others can be D. not to jump queues
deprived of their citizenship status, if he/she is convicted E. to sing the national anthem everyday
by a court. Answer – C
It is the duty of every citizen to perform his civil
2014/2015/57 (NDU, BAYELSA) responsibilities. Civil and political rights are a class of
The process of depriving persons of the right of voting. rights that protect individuals’ freedom from infringement
A. entrancement B. disqualification C. dismissal by government, social organizations, and private
D. prohibition E. disenfranchisement individuals.
Answer – E
Disenfranchisement is the process of depriving persons of 2017/2018/78 (UNIZIK, AWKA)
the right of voting. All of the following are obligations of citizens except
A. giving money to beggars B. obedience to laws
1990/19 UTME C. voting D. payment of taxes
Freedom of speech in a democratic state is limited by E. loyalty to the nation
A. law of sedition B. law of trespass Answer – A
C. press censorship D. martial law Giving money to beggars is not an obligation of a citizen
Answer – A to his/her state, that’s a charity work for humanity.
Freedom of speech in a democratic state is limited by law
of sedition. The law of sedition stemmed from the British 1984/27 UTME
Colonial rule. It was a law made by the British government Which of the following is not a civil obligation of every
with an intendment of preventing the locals from Nigerian citizens?
complaining about the injustice perceived to have been A. freedom of conscience and religion
occasioned by the government. B. obedience to laws
C. payment of taxes
1978/19 UTME D. voting by adults
The citizen’s obligations are E. respect for the national flag and anthem
A. what the government orders Answer – A
B. duties the individual imposes to himself Freedom of conscience and religion is not a civil obligation
C. what the law requires of individual of a Nigerian citizen to its country.
D. what the military decrees
E. what political parties demand of their members 2011/18 UTME
Answer – C One essential duty of a citizen to his state is to
The citizen’s obligations are what the law requires of A. pay his tax B. encourage other citizens to be loyal
individual. The rights or obligations are the duties of the C. support the government in power D. recite the pledge
citizens towards the state. The obligations of the citizens’ Answer – A
are enshrine in the national constitution of the state. Payment of tax by a citizen of a state is one essential
obligation.
195
1989/11 UTME 2014/2015/29 (UI, IBADAN)
The obligation to pay taxes regularly is justified because The law of libel limits a citizen’s right to freedom of
A. citizens choose their own government A. movement B. association C. expression D. worship
B. citizens enjoy services provided by government Answer – C
C. government does not discriminate in its provision of The law of libel limits a citizen’s right to freedom of
services to different parts of the nation expression.
D. taxes are the only source of government revenue
Answer – B
The obligation to pay taxes regularly is justified because
citizens enjoy services provided by government. e.g. water,
roads, electricity etc.

1991/20 UTME
The primary duty of citizens to the state is
A. Loyalty to traditional rulers
B. obedience to ministers
C. obedience to politicians
D. allegiance to the government
Answer – D
The primary duty of citizens to the state is allegiance to the
government. Allegiance to the government means loyalty
or commitment to the country, it also means support for the
leadership of the country.

1997/15 UTME
When school pupils sing the national anthem and salute the
flag, they are
A. performing their obligations as citizens
B. exercising their rights as citizens
C. practicing to be leaders of tomorrow
D. carrying out their responsibilities as citizens
Answer – A
When school pupils sing the national anthem and salute the
flag, they are performing their obligations as citizens.

1997/16 UTME
A major duty of citizens is to
A. vote at elections B. associate freely
C. pay taxes D. vote at election
Answer – C
A major duty of citizens is to pay their taxes.

2007/26 UTME
One of the obligations of a citizen is
A. obedience to the laws of the land
B. active participation in partisan politics
C. sticking to his beliefs
D. loyalty to the ruling party
Answer – A
One of the obligations of a citizen is obedience to the laws
of the land (constitution).

2015/12 UTME
An example of civil rights of a citizen is the right to
A. be voted for B. property and justice
C. peaceful assembly D. vote
Answer – D
The civil right of a citizen are the following; the right to
vote and be voted for, freedom from discrimination, access
to public office in the political community, freedom of
movement and action, freedom of speech and expression,
freedom of conscience and thought, freedom of religion,
etc.
196
8. Rallies, Congresses, Conferences, Conventions:
Chapter Twelve These are all ways of advertising the political parties
among members or before the electorate.
POLITICAL PARTIES 9. Purposeful leadership: They have cohesive
A political party is an organized group of people, often leadership which enables them to achieve set
with common views, who come together to contest election objectives.
and hold power in government. The party agrees on some
proposed policies and programmes with a view to promote
the collective good or furthering their supporter’s interest.
A political party is a group of dedicated people who come
together to win elections, operate the government and
determine public policy. Political party is an organization
of people of like minds united by the common desire to
obtain the mandate of an electoral constituency to form and
operate a government.
The major aim of every political party as stated by Joseph
Schumpeter in his writing is to achieve and retain political
power over there counterpart. This is the main
distinguishing factor between political parties and other A political party campaign
groups in the political system.
2000/20 Exercise 12.1
In Nigeria’s First Republic (1963–1966), the Action Group The programme of a political party is known as its
(AG), National Council of Nigeria and Cameroons A. constitution B. document
(NCNC), Northern People’s Congress (NPC), Northern C. manifesto D. propaganda
Elements Progressive Union (NEPU), Northern
Progressive Front (NPF), Nigerian National Democratic 2016/27 Exercise 12.2
Party (NNDP) were among the existent political party. Which of the following is not a means through which
political parties reach the populace?
A. posters B. newspapers C. schools D. the internet
2008/26
A group that presents candidates for elections is a
A. political party B. pressure groups 2005/25 Nov Exercise 12.3
C. vigilante group D. cooperative society Political parties exist mainly to
A. form opposition B. criticize government
Answer
A political party is an organized group of people, often C. form of government
with common views, who come together to present D. undertake political education
candidates for elections with the motive of holding power
in government. (A) 1998/21 Exercise 12.4
The programmes of a political party are contained in its
Characteristics of Political Parties A. constitution B. charter C. booklet
1. Organisation: Political parties are well organized D. manifesto E. symbol
with people of like mind. They elect their leaders
properly as defined by the policy of the parties. Types of Political Parties
2. Manifesto: There is always a guideline that would 1. Elitist/Cadre Party: these are types of political
help in the coordination of activities, plans, parties that draw their members from the highest
programmes and policies of political parties, which is echelon of the social hierarchy in a country. It’s also
known as manifesto. called caucus parties.
3. Contesting elections: Contesting for an election and 2. Mass Parties: These are the political parties that draw
attaining power is the common goal of every political their members from all sections of the society and have
party. wide membership and any individual wishing to join
4. Nomination: The political party carries out the parties is allowed. It is also called branch parties.
nomination of candidates and their political offices. 3. Broker parties: It is a party of both the rich and the
5. Campaign: Political parties campaign which is the poor. They work towards bridging the gap between the
process of publicizing their manifestoes to the rich and the poor, and promoting equality and welfare
electorate and the aim of this, is to win the heart of the of the people.
masses. 4. Religious parties: Religious doctrines existing in a
6. Ideology: The political party has people of the same country determine the formation of these parties. In
ideology, because most political parties stand for the some countries, religious parties are very strong in the
view of the members. political process e.g. Iran. It can also be called
7. Primary Elections: The political parties conducts Missionary parties.
primary elections within the party to elect the popular
candidate that will represent them at federal, state and
even at the local government level.
197
5. Charismatic: This party involves individuals with 2019/8 Neco
unique and enviable qualities, talent, etc. forming a The mass type of party is
party. The electorate would be attracted to the party A. broad based B. capitalist C. feudalist D. conservative
because of the integrity and charisma of those Answer
individuals involved in the formation. The following The mass type of party is broad based because it is a type
are examples of charismatic individuals, Dr. Julius of party cut across tribes, interests, groups and individuals.
Nyerere, Alhaji Ahmadu Bello, the Sarduna of Sokoto, Membership of this party are mainly composed of different
Dr. Nnamdi Azikiwe and Chief Obafemi Awolowo. sections of the society. The programme or manifestoes of
It’s known also as personality party. such parties are directed towards the welfare of the people.
6. Ideological parties: These are political parties which (A)
are based on different political ideologies or beliefs
which form the bases of existence of these parties. 2017/26 Exercise 12.5
A political party whose membership comprises people of
The Organizational Structures of a Political Party high social status is called
1. Ward is smallest unit of the party structure: A. religious party B. broker party
Officials are chairman, secretary and treasurer. C. elite party D. mass party
2. Branches: There are local government branches
throughout the country if the party is a very strong 2017/26 Neco Exercise 12.6
party with mass followership. The political party whose membership comprises people of
3. Constituency Branches: It includes a Chairman, high social status is called
Organizing Secretary, Treasurer, etc. A. religious party B. broker party
4. Affiliation: There are other affiliated bodies. C. elite party D. mass party
5. Regional/State Branches: Coordinate the activities of
all constituency branches. 12.1. FUNCTIONS/IMPORTANCE OF POLITICAL
6. National Conference: This conference is responsible PARTIES
for National delegate’s conference. 1. Political parties unite the people on major issues
7. National Working Committee: This committee affecting the state.
makes decisions or deal with a particular subject. 2. A political party always serves as a link between the
8. National Secretariat: It is responsible for running the people and the government.
affairs of the party. 3. It enables the government to become accountable to
9. National Executive Committee: They are the electorate through constructive criticism of the
responsible for preparing or drawing up the policies government in power.
and programmes of the party and equally coordinates 4. It provides machinery for recruiting political leaders.
the activities at local level. 5. Political parties try to clarify issues and provide
10. Board of Trustees: This board controls the financial relevant information on candidate and current events
affairs of the party. thereby encouraging the electorate to be more
11. General Convention/Congress: A large formal interested in government activities.
meeting or series of meeting where representative 6. It tries to provide an organization for running the
from different groups make decisions. It is also the government.
gathering of members to elect candidates for different 7. It keeps the national political system alive.
elections e.g. presidential and Governorship. 8. It contest for election and provide periodic change of
government with ease.
1999/20 Neco 9. Political parties harmonise sectorial and diverse
In the organizational structure of a mass political party, the interests of citizens.
policy making body is the 10. Political education is endowed through political parties
A. secretary – general of the party in rallies, campaigns and even in their manifestoes.
B. national executive committee 11. It also serves social welfare services to the electorate.
C. national chairman 12. It provides opposition party to the ruling party.
D. parliamentary committee of the party 13. Political parties equally trained future political leaders.
Answer 14. It is the duty of political parties to make programmes
The organizational structure of a mass political party, the for election and it will be approved by independent
policy making body is the national executive committee. (B) electoral commission.

2022/13 Neco 1988/32 Exercise 12.7

The defection of a parliament member from his or her Which of the following is not a function of a party
political party to another is secretariat?
A. apathy B. carpet-crossing C. coalition A. electing the leader of the party
D. relocation E. transition B. organizing party conference
C. publishing the party’s manifesto
D. planning party strategy to win election
E. handling publicity for the party

198
2002/24 Nov Exercise 12.8 Factors which Determine the Electoral Sources of a
Which of the following is a function of a political party? Political Party
A. drafting a constitution for the country The basic goal of a party is to win election in order to control
B. determination of national objectives the political power of the state. Thus, the electoral success of a
C. conducting national elections party depends on the following factors.
D. delimiting constituencies 1. Effective and credible leadership: A strong leadership
with high degree of integrity is necessary for the success
1996/23 Nov Exercise 12.9 of a party at elections and in government. The leaders
The desire to acquire political power is a major reason for should have the capacity to mobilise the entire members of
the formation of the party and its available resources of good government,
A. labour unions B. political powers or a credible opposition to make the government
C. cooperative movements accountable to the people.
D. newspapers proprietor’s association 2. Good programme/manifesto: A manifesto which
E. pressure groups contains good programmes enhances the status of the
people. The manifesto must attract the sympathy that will
2000/23 Nov Exercise 12.10 make people vote for such a party.
Which of the following is a function of political parties? 3. Realistic past performance: A good past history of a
A. they bring about rancor and hatred political party may give them additional advantage.
B. they make laws for the state 4. Spread of membership: When a political party has
C. they appoint civil and public servants members cut across the whole nation, it gives them
D. they educate the people on political issues chance of winning elections.
5. Discipline and loyalty to the party: Discipline is key for
2018/10 NABTEB Exercise 12.11 the success of the party. Member must abide by the
The primary function of political parties is to directives and instructions of the party on national issues.
A. oppose the government B. capture political power A disciplined party is a sign of loyalty of members. It will
C. mobilise public opinion D. support the military ensure a smooth enactment of laws and execution of
policies of the party.
2001/5 Nov Exercise 12.12 6. Adequate funding: Money is the currency which
Highlight the main functions of political parties in a state. provides muscles for the running of the party. Party
requires money to carry out its goals and programmes. It
requires money to execute its campaign tours, create
Demerits of Political Parties awareness and pay staff salaries and allowances. Members
1. Waste of funds: Political party is a costly venture should pay their dues to make the party viable.
because government also gives fund to them to support 7. Popular support: A party requires the support of the
their activities, which ends as a wastage of public fund. majority of the party members and members of the society
2. Division of the Country: Political party divides the to win election and succeed in government.
country into different opposition camps and it affects 8. Strong organisation: A party with a strong organization
the unity of the country. will do well at elections. It must be well-organized at
3. Contesting candidates: The contesting candidate various levels to create room for mass participation of
nominated by the political party for election may not members.
have the electorate backing, yet they are imposed on 9. Free and fair party primaries: Every members must
them. have equal opportunity to stand for elections at the party
4. Appointment: Most political appointment are made level and national elections. There must be fairness and
based on party leaning. Ministers, judges, credibility in the conduct of elections within the party.
ambassadors, etc. are appointed according to their 10. Effective publicity: A party must engage in mass
loyalty to a particular party in power and not based on education of its members and activities. Propaganda is an
merit. effective weapon to seek support of the people for the
5. Issues of neglect: Political party in power can neglect party. The activities of parties should be made known to
any community that did not give their votes to the party members of the party and the public through the mass
in government. media, e.g. hand bills, rallies and reportage in newspapers.
6. Evil Practices: There are evil practices of different 11. Existence of patronage: Party members must be
dimensions in political parties. For example, tribalism, rewarded with appointment and award of contracts for
sectionalism, victimization, thuggery etc. their efforts.
7. Party disloyalty: Carpet crossing is a common feature 12. Independence of the electoral body: The electoral
of political parties. It makes nonsense of the earlier umpire must have a free hand to conduct elections.
avowed loyalty of the so called politicians by shifting Members of the electoral body should not engage in
allegiance. partisan politics to avoid manipulation of election results.
13. Quality of candidates at elections: A candidate with
sound moral character and high integrity stands a chance
of winning elections. A political party must therefore
present credible candidates for elections, if it hopes to
control the political power of a state.

199
Problems of Political Party 2019/1 UTME
1. Corruption and favouritism: Political Parties are The ultimate aim of political parties is to
irresponsible. Many of them were imposed on party A. formulate and implement policies
members or faithfuls. B. implement people-oriented programmes
2. Fractionalization: Within any political party has the C. acquire and exercise power
capacity of weakening its cohesion. D. increase the political awareness of the electorate
3. Anti-Party Activities: Some party members are Answer – D
disloyal and involved in anti-party activities. The ultimate aim of political parties is to increase the
4. Irresponsible acts: Most of the party leaders are political awareness of the electorate.
irresponsible. Many of them were imposed on party
members or faithfuls. 2013/9 (OAU, IFE)
5. Poor organization: The bane of most political parties On the basis of its structure, a political party can be classified
is poor party organization or management. as indirect if
6. Inadequate funding: Poor and inadequate funding A. it campaign for votes through agents
has overtime affected the smooth running of mostly the B. its membership is acquired through other groups
small parties and their successes at the polls. C. it controls government indirectly
7. Imposition: Imposition of ideas and candidates on D. it contests elections by proxy
political parties by influential members. Answer – B
On the basis of its structure, a political party can be classified
1996/4 Exercise 12.13 as indirect, if it contests elections by proxy. Proxy is authority
Outline the factors which determine the electoral process or power to act for another.
of a political party.
2008/20009/20 (NDU, BAYELSA)
1993/26 An ideology is essentially
The electoral success of political party depends on its A. a guide to political action B. a manual for revolution
ability to C. a cure on political actor D. a non-political concept
A. rig election successfully B. campaign till Election Day E. negative connotation
C. distribute sufficient funds to voters Answer – A
D. engage in mudslinging other political parties An ideology is essentially a guide to political action.
E. present a good and acceptable manifesto
Answer 1992/46
The electoral process of political party depends on ability Political parties are formed for all the following reasons
to present a good and acceptable manifesto. (E) except to
A. form a government B. educate the electorate
1981/40 UTME C. organize elections D. contest elections
The headquarters of registered political parties in Nigeria E. canvass for votes
must be located in Answer
A. the federal capital Organization of election is not the function of the political
B. the state where most of their supporters come from parties. The main aim of any political party is to form a
C. any state capital government, by educating the people about their civil rights,
the party manifestoes, contesting by campaigning and
D. the northern and southern parts of Nigeria
canvassing for votes from electorate. (C)
E. none of the above
Answer – A
1997/21
The headquarters of all registered political parties in Political parties mobilize the support of the electorate by A.
Nigeria must be located in the federal capital territory. promoting violence B. campaigning
1997/19 UTME C. rigging elections D. encouraging coup d’état
Political parties are formed essentially to E. mocking laws
A. capture state power B. replace bad governments Answer
Political parties mobilize supports through campaigning to
C. complete with the military for power
the electorate. Campaign means working in an organized and
D. satisfy the need of members
active way towards a particular goal, typically a political or
Answer – A social one. (B)
Political parties are formed essentially to capture state of
power. 2003/22
The manifesto of a political party is a document which
2015/2016/57 (NDU, BAYELSA)
outlines
The ultimate aim of a political party is to
A. a country’s political party development
A. influence government policies
B. a party’s programme C. the national ideology
B. gain control of government
D. the interest of party members
C. seek to discredit
Answer
D. provide for the welfare of its members
The manifesto of a political party is a document which is
E. make the government more effective
published by the party before general election, it contains the set
Answer – B
of policies and programmes that the party stands for and would
The main and ultimate aim of a political party is to gain
wish to implement if elected to govern. (B)
control of government.
200
2005/27 Nov 1994/5
The government formed by all political parties after an What is party manifesto and why is it necessary?
election is referred to as a Answer
A. socialist government B. national government A party manifesto is a publication issued by a political
C. unitary government D. capitalist governance party before a general election. It contains the set of
Answer policies that the party stands for and would wish to
A national government is the government that was formed by implement if elected to govern.
all political parties won after the election. The national
government has political authority that controls a nation. 1989/15 UTME
(B)
Which of the following is not usually associated with the
2019/20 NABTEB activities of political parties?
Political leaders are largely recruited in modern democracy A. providing political education
through B. selecting and supporting candidates for public office
A. electoral commission B. political parties C. forming the government
C. the judiciary D. parliament D. controlling the judiciary
Answer Answer – D
The recruitment of political office – holders has generally The political parties activities provides political education
been regarded as one of the fundamental functions performed to the electorate, selecting and supporting candidates for
by political parties. (B) public office and forming the government. Controlling the
2001/29 Nov judiciary is not usually associated with the activities of
Political parties are not the same as pressure group because political parties.
A. political parties only want to influence government policy
B. pressure groups only want to influence government policy 1992/17 UTME
C. political parties act as intermediaries between the people and The most important objective of political parties is to
the government A. elect their spokesman B. lobby the government
D. pressure groups select candidates for political officials C. form effective national organizations
Answer D. control the government
Intermediaries means stand between the political parties that Answer – D
governs or rule the people. Political parties, have the mandate The most important objective of political parties is to
to play an intermediary between the people and government. control the government. Every political candidate
The opinion of the majority must be considered before any (politicians) want to win (elected) into political offices to
policy is formulated. (C) rule or control the government.
1995/21 Nov
The aim of political party is to 2012/2 Neco
A. enroll the entire of its members with the electoral body In a democratic state, the party system that is usually
B. lobby pressure groups to go on strike operated is
C. win elections and control the government A. mass parthy B. multi-party C. one party D. elite party
D. build houses for the masses who support them Answer
E. fight opponents to submission at an election Multiparty system is suitable for democratic states, it gives
Answer the electorate the privilege to vote for the party of their
The main aim of a political party is to win elections and choice, since there are several parties. (B)
control the government. (C)
2008/27
1995/22 Nov Which of the following is a type of political party?
Which of the following does not apply to both political parties A. anomic party B. mass party
and pressure groups? They C. conglomerate party D. dynamic party
A. are organized B. have policies Answer
C. organize rallies D. have a large membership Mass party is the type of party that is cut across tribes,
E. contest elections
religious, interest and individuals. Anybody from any part
Answer
of the country is free to join without any form of
Political party contest election and desires to control the
government while pressure group influences government
discrimination. (B)
policies and pursue the interests of these members. (C)
1994/20 UTME
1996/20 One of the main function of a political party is
Which of the following best explains the term manifesto? The A. political evaluation B. interest aggregation
A. constitution of a political party C. political accountability D. interest aggregation
B. authority to form a political party Answer – B
C. proposed programme of a political party One of the major function of a political party is interest
D. symbol of the ruling political party aggregation. Interest aggregation is the activity in which
E. campaign strategies of a political party the political demands of groups and individuals are
Answer combined into policy programmes.
Manifesto can simply be defined as a proposed programme of
a political party. (C)
201
2009/2010/94 (NDU, BAYELSA) 2006/32
Political parties are formed for all the following reasons The functions of political parties include the following
except of except
A. form a government B. educate the electorate A. bring brokers of ideas
C. organized elections D. contest elections B. influencing policies of the government
D. canvass for votes C. educating the electorate by clarifying issues
Answer – C D. disseminating information to members
Political parties are formed to form a government, educate Answer
the electorates, contest elections and canvass for votes. Political parties cannot influence policies of the
Organization of elections is not a reason why political government. (B)
parties were formed.
1993/25 2008/8
Which of the following is not the function of political Which of the following is not a function of political
party? parties?
A. interest aggregation B. interest articulation A. presenting candidates for elections
C. political integration B. uniting diverse views of different interest groups
D. mobilizing people for development C. forming government after election
E. drafting a country’s constitution D. bringing the country’s economic and social conditions
Answer under central
Drafting a country’s constitution is not the function of any Answer
political party. (E) Bringing the country’s economic and social conditions
under central is not a function of any political party in the
1995/26 world. (D)
A political party is mainly interested in
A. contesting elections to gain power 2013/29
B. opposing the government in power Which of the following is not a function of a political
C. educating the public party?
D. formulating government policies A. educating the government B. interest articulation
E. soliciting for patronage C. aggregation of opinions
Answer D. selections of persons for government
The main interest of political party is contesting elections Answer
to gain power. (A) The main function of any political party is to contest for
election and control the government, educating the
1997/20 government is not a function of the political party. (A)
The ultimate aim of a political party is to
A. influence government polices 2016/26
B. gain control of government Political parties aim at all the following except
C. seek to discredit the government A. contesting elections B. forming a government
D. provide for the welfare of its selection members C. organizing general elections
E. make government more effective D. educating the electorate politically
Answer Answer
The ultimate aim and objective of any political party is to Political parties have a duty in organizing general
gain control of government. (B) elections, they only give out their candidates’ names and
political offices, dates of their primary elections and other
2004/30 schedules but they are not involved in organizing general
Political parties contest elections in order to elections. (C)
A. formulate policies B. influence public opinion
C. control political powers D. prevent coup d’état 2019/27
Answer The political party is significant because it
Political parties contest for elections in order to control A. stimulates political rancor
political power of the state. (C) B. encourages political malpractices
C. seeks political powers D. settles dispute
2005/24 Answer
All the following are essential functions of political parties The political party is significant because it seeks political
except to power of the state. (C)
A. aggregate interests of members of the public
B. serves as link between the government and the people
C. seek political power lawfully
D. seek political power for the military
Answer
Seeking political powers for the military government is not
the function of the political parties. (D)

202
2017/29 6. Training: Political parties equally train future political
Provision of political education through rallies and leaders.
newspapers is a function of 7. Sponsorship: They nominate and sponsor candidates
A. political parties B. pressure groups for elections.
C. educated elite D. the clergy 8. They organize rallies, campaigns, seminars, lectures,
Answer debates and symposia on government programmes and
It is a political party that makes provision for political activities.
education through rallies, campaigns, seminars, 9. Political education: It provides political education
conventions and newspapers. (A) through lectures, symposia, manifestoes and other
social programmes to educate the electorate about their
1978/25 UTME political rights.
The primary function of political party is to 10. Change of government: Political parties through the
A. oppose the government channel of contesting in elections helps in periodic
B. aggregate interest change of government within their tenures.
C. mobilize public opinion 11. Opposition: It is the duties of the political parties to
D. provide welfare their members provide opposition for the ruling party.
E. provide support for the military
Answer – C 2007/37
The primary function of political party is to mobilize An organized group that seeks the control of power in a
public opinions. state is
A. pressure group B. political party
2015/2016/58 (NDU, BAYELSA) C. social group D. co-operative society.
Political parties mobilize the support of the electorate by Answer
A. promoting violence B. campaigning Political party is an organized group that seeks the control
C. rigging election D. encourage coup d’état of powers in a state. (B)
E. making laws
Answer – B 2011/36
Political parties mobilize the support of the electorate by On which of the following platforms do political parties
campaigning, rallying and convention with their mainly present their manifestoes to the electorate?
manifestoes. A. campaign and rallies
B. the state controlled mass media
2019/1 UTME C. public lectures D. inter-party debates.
The ultimate aim of political parties is to Answer
A. formulate and implement policies The political parties mainly presented their manifestoes to
B. implement people-oriented programmes the electorate during campaign and rallies. (A)
C. acquire/exercise power
D. increase the political awareness of the electorate 2022/13 Neco
Answer – C The defection of a parliament member from his or her
The ultimate aim of political parties is to acquire/exercise political party to another is
power. A. apathy B. carpet-crossing C. coalition
D. relocation E. transition
2019/2020/10 (UNIZIK, AWKA) Answer
The function of interest aggregation is most likely to be Option B is the correct answer.
performed by
A. political organizations B. pressure group 2022/7 Neco
C. political parties D. all of the above a. What is political party?
Answer – C b. Discuss five functions of political parties,
The function of interest aggregation is most likely to be Answer
performed by political parties. (7a) A political party is an organized group of people,
often with common views, who come together to
2006/4A contest election and hold power in government.
Describe any three functions of a political party. (7b) The following are functions of political parties
1. Unity: political parties unite the people on major issues 1. Political parties unite the people on major issues
affecting the state. affecting the state.
2. It serves as a link: political parties serve as a link 2. A political party always serves as a link between the
between the people and government. people and the government.
3. Accountability: They enable the government to 3. It enables the government to become accountable to
become accountable to the electorate through the electorate through constructive criticism of the
constructive criticism of the government in power. government in power.
4. Machinery for recruitment: Political parties provide 4. It provides machinery for recruiting political leaders.
recruitment for political leaders. 5. It contest for election and provide periodic change of
5. Control of the government: Political parties exist to government with ease.
contest elections and control the government.
203
REVISION EXERCISES
1. Political parties are formed essentially to
A. capture state power B. replace bad government
C. compete with the military for power
D. satisfy the needs of members
2. Citizens legally qualified to vote for parliamentary
candidates form
A. a ward B. the electorate
C. members of the House of Assembly
D. political party
3. Define political parties.
4. State seven functions of political parties.
5. Explain types of political parties.
6. Mention any five organizational structure of a political
party.
7. State problems of political parties.
8. Discuss factors which determines the electoral success
of a political party.
9. a) What is Political party?
b) State five major functions of a political party.
10. Explain the following terms:
i. Manifesto.
ii. Anti-party activities.
iii. Rally.
iv. Campaign.

204
Chapter Thirteen Characteristics of a One Party System
1. There is only one legal and constitutionally recognised
party that can contest elections.
PARTY SYSTEMS
2. The legal and constitutionally recognized party is the
A party system is a concept of comparative political science
concerning the system of government by political parties in a
ruling party.
democratic country. The idea is that political parties have 3. No private control of the mass media, meaning no
basic similarities; they control the government, have a stable private individual is allowed to own and publish a
base of mass popular support, and create internal mechanisms newspaper, magazine etc.
for controlling, funding, information and nominations. 4. There is only one ideology of the country, and is for
the party in the government.
1994/21 5. Any attempt to form or join any other political party is
The party system operated by a country is determined by the regarded as an act of treason.
A. leaders of political parties B. elites of the country 6. Government policies are strictly enforced.
C. nature of competition and interaction within and between 7. One party state can develop into dictatorship.
political parties
D. electoral commission E. head of government in power 2008/30
Answer One party system is a feature of
The party system operated by a country is determined by A. democratic states B. military regime
the nature of competition and interaction within and C. republican states D. communist states
between the existing political parties. (C) Answer
One party system is a feature of communist states.
Types of Party Systems Communism is a system of social organisation in which all
1. One party or single party system. property owned by the community and each person
2. Two party system. contributes to their ability and needs. (D)
3. Multi-party system.
4. Zero party system 2017/7 Neco
A political system where there is only one legalized
ONE PARTY SYSTEM political party is called
One party system is also called single or dominant party. It A. de jure one party system B. de facto one party system
is a form of government where the country is ruled by a C. totalitarian single party system D. mass party system
single political party, meaning only one political party Answer
exists and the forming of other political parties is A political system in which, there is only one legalized
forbidden. One party system is a feature of communist and political party is called totalitarian single party system. Other
socialist countries. For example, North Korea, Cuba, modern examples of totalitarian state include the Soviet
China, etc. in Africa, Kenya, Malawi, Zambia etc. were Union under Joseph Stalin, Nazi Germany under Adolf
formerly one – party states. However, one party system can Hitler, the People’s Republic of China under Maozedong and
be categorized into two: North Korea under the Kim dynasty. (C)
(i) De – facto one party system: This party system
allows other minor political parties to compete for
power in the political system, but it enjoys 2015/24 Neco
unchallenged authority. For example, Senegal under Which of the following exists in a one party state?
Leopold Sedar Senghor with Union Progressiste A. only the worker’s party is allowed to exist
Senegalese as the dominant political party despite the B. only the student’s party is allowed to exist
presence of other weak parties. C. elections to the legislature are held at the party’s
(ii) De – jure one party system: This is a one party conference
system in which only one political party is legally and D. the ruling party is the only legal party
constitutionally allowed to operate. It functions as a Answer
permanent government without any constitutional The ruling party is the only legal party in one party system
means of removing it from power except through coup or state. (D)
or revolution. This system is commonly found in
socialist regimes where communist parties direct and
2005/26 Nov Exercise 13.1
control all institutions and the socio- economic life of
De facto one party system means
the society. Example are China, Russia, Cuba, Malawi,
A. a party with only elite as members
etc. B. many parties are legally allowed but a particular one is
always victorious in elections
Other types include: C. one party ruling with a strong opposition which can win
1. True single party: This effectively prevents the election
formation of any other active parties. D. a ruling party with a shadow cabinet
2. Hegemonic party: This enjoys unchallenged authority
and the law does not operate formally against any
opposition.
3. Pre-dominant party: This is a party which is elected
and continues to be elected.
205
1991/35 Exercise 13.2 8. Absence of Election violence and malpractices:
In a one party state, Election violence and malpractices is not a common
A. only one party is recognized officially and there is no legal occurrence in a one-party state. It is completely
opposition minimized because only one party is contesting.
B. only one political party wins election all the time 9. Absence of Sectionalism and Favouritism: In one-
C. two or more parties join together after a general election party state, no area or section of the country is marked
D. the government has power to disband other political parties out for victimization or to be favoured for not voting
E. only one party meets the required conditions for election or voting for the party in power since everybody in the
country belongs to the ruling party.
1999/23 Neco Exercise 13.3 10. Political stability: Absence of political opposition in
One party system of government may lead to one-party state makes for political stability which
A. stateless society B. autocracy leads to economic viability and stability.
C. liberal democracy D. oligarchy 11. Leads to Economic Development: Rapid economic
2014/19 Neco Exercise 13.4 development takes place in a political atmosphere
Which of the following West African countries practiced a devoid of political bickering which one-party system
one party system? grants.
A. Benin B. Nigeria C. Ghana D. Liberia 12. Strong leadership: Supporters of one-party political
system argue that it makes for a strong leadership as
1990/40 Nov Exercise 13.5 witnessed in Ghana under Nkrumah and his CPP and
In a one party state in Tanzania with Nyerere’s T.A.N.U
A. there is only one dominant party
B. the legislature is unicameral 2010/31
C. only the worker’s party is allowed to exist A major advantage of a one party system is that it
D. the ruling party is the only legal party A. prevents dictatorship B. promotes unity
E. elections to the legislature are held at the party’s C. allows opposition D. promotes freedom and liberty
conference Answer
The major advantage of a one party system is that it
2012/28 Neco Exercise 13.6 promotes unity among all politicians because the one party
One party system leads to accommodate them all. (B)
A. dictatorship B. democracy C. diarchy 1993/9
D. theocracy A major advantage of one party is that it
1998/20 Exercise 13.7 A. encourages national integration
A one party system exists where B. is too expensive to operate
A. only one party is established by law C. prevents the people from testing the accountability of
B. only one party can win elections government
C. one party is stronger than the others D. curtails personal liberty
D. one of the parties belongs to the masses E. perpetuates leadership in one person
E. one of the parties belongs to the government Answer
One party system encourages national integration among
Merits of One Party System the electorate. (A)
1. It makes use of the best: In terms of human resources
available in the country. The system creates the uses of the Demerits of One party system
most competent people to run the affairs of the state. 1. No opposition: Since only one legal party exists, the
2. It promotes unity: The system cuts across ethnic or religious system does not tolerate opposition.
factors and thereby promoting nationality unity. 2. Control of mass media: The government controls all
3. It prevents economic waste: One party system prevents the channels of communication in the country.
waste of resources. E.g. financial burdensome in conducting 3. It is Undemocratic: One of the fundamental
elections. objections to one-party system is that it militates
4. Makes for quick decision making: Absence of opposition against the principle and practice of democracy in a
from other political parties gives room for quick decisions to country.
be taken in a single-party state. 4. Only one ideology: There is only one ideology and it
5. Continuity: It makes for continuity in government and in the may not appeal to the generality of the people.
area of policy making. 5. Rule of Law: The principles of the rule of law and the
6. It makes for strong leadership: All the political powers are provisions of the constitution may not be respected.
concentrated in the hands of one or a few leaders. 6. Change of government not provided for in the
7. Removes unhealthy political rivalry: The type of politics of constitution: The constitution is silent on the need for
acrimony, vendetta and unhealthy rivalry that lead to periodic elections, resulting in a change of
kidnapping, detention and even assassination of political government. What happens is that the president or the
opponents experienced in multi-party and two-party states leaders tend to perpetuate themselves in power.
seems not to exist in a one-party state. 7. Leads to Dictatorship: Absence of opposition from
other political parties leads a one-party state to
dictatorship, fascism and totalitarianism.

206
8. It Abridges Human Rights: The citizens in a one- 7. Autocratic government: The system encourages
party state are denied the fundamental human rights of autocratic government with absolute power.
political associations; rather they are thrown into 8. Instability political system: One party system leads to
political bondage. instability government.
9. Encompasses oppression: One-party system thrives
well will oppression, suppression and every 1999/36 Neco Exercise 13.8
imaginable thing that is evil. Dissenting voices are A major weakness of one party system is that it
stifled, opposition is mangled, its members thrown into A. does not aggregate political opinion
jail or murdered or incarcerated or exiled, etc. B. negates the principles of one man vote
C. ensures freedom of political choice
10. Absence of Watchdogs To Government: Viable
D. encourages dictatorship
opposition parties that act as watchdogs of the people
to the government, that subject governmental policies,
TWO PARTY SYSTEM
programmes and actions to continuous criticisms
A two party system is a party system where two major
which seek to improve the performance of the political parties dominate the political landscape. At any point
government are absent in a one party system. As a in time, one of the two parties typically holds a majority in
result of this, government tends to become slack, the legislature and is usually referred to as the majority or
complacent and even corrupt. governing party while the other is the minority or opposition
11. Limits Political Education: The electorate receives party. Britain is another good example where they have
limited or no form of political education in a single labour and conservation party. Canada, Australia etc. also
party state. This is a deliberate act by the government practices this two party system.
who does not want the voice of the masses to be heard.
12. Leads to Coup: The answer to a ruling group in a one- 1997/19
party state perpetuating itself in office is military coup
Two party system implies that only two political parties
or revolution. A. exist in the country B. can contest elections
C. can form a coalition D. can register members
E. are capable of capturing powers
1991/3 Answer
Why will the one party system not be a good option for Two party system is a system where only two political parties
Nigeria? are recognized to contest for elected posts and capable of
Answer capturing powers. (E)
1. The system can produce a dictatorship leader.
2. Respect for human right is the dispute in a one party 2011/37 Exercise 13.9
In a two party system, only two political parties
state.
A. exist in the country B. dominate the political scene
3. One party system works against the principles of
C. register their members D. undertake political education
democracy.
4. There is inadequate political education in one party Features of Two Party System
system. 1. There exists only two dominant political parties which
5. Periodic election would not be observed in one party are legally and constitutionally recognised.
system. 2. Opposition party and divergent views are recognised and
6. Absence of the independence of the judiciary. allowed.
7. There is no freedom of expression and press. 3. There is opportunity for choice of candidate and parties.
8. No respect for the principles of the rule of law. 4. It accommodates democratic principles and allows
9. It leads to military intervention at the end because of operation of rule of law. It is democratic.
refusal to leave the political office. 5. There is periodic election in two party system which
allows for a change in government.
2000/5 Neco 6. Opposition party is legally recognized in two party
Describe any five problems associated with a single party system.
system of government. 7. Opposition party is seen as a corrective party in
Answer government; it watches over and criticizes some of the
1. Dictatorship: One party system leads to dictatorship government policies.
and it oppresses the people’s s rights. 8. Press freedom is guaranteed as there is no press
2. Political education: There is limit of political censorship.
education in one party system.
2001/24 Neco
3. Public opinion: The opinion of the electorate is
Under a two party system, the opposition party is as important
neglected in one party system.
as the ruling party because it
4. One party is undemocratic: The system of one party A. has equal number of supporters as the ruling party
is undemocratic because people are not given the B. is as strong as the ruling party
choice to choose their representative. C. may force the government to resign
5. No opposition: The system discourages open criticism D. is the alternative government
of government policies. Answer
6. Change of government: The change of government The opposition party is as important as the ruling party
would always attract problems in the political system. because it is the alternative government in two party system.
(D)
207
2011/37 Exercise 13.10 3. Marginalization of Minority Interests: It is argued
In a two party system, only two political parties and strongly too, that existence of a two-party system
A. exist in the country B. dominate the political scene in a multi-ethnic country like Nigeria will lead to a
C. register their members serious marginalization of minority interests and
D. undertake political education groups.
4. Leads to Unhealthy Rivalry: This unhealthy rivalry
result in oppression, suppression and detention without
2003/33 Exercise 13.11 trial of leaders of the opposition party.
Two party system of government enables the electorate to 5. Too Expensive: Unlike one-party system, two-party
A. participate in government system tends to be too expensive to maintain. Two
B. choose freely between alternatives parties are expensive to maintain, including their
C. mobilize favourable opinion for government paraphernalia.
D. sympathize with government 6. Waste of Resources: Most of the resources are wasted
in conducting elections and in the maintenance of two
political parties.
7. Electoral malpractices: This is possible because each
Merits of Two Party System party would want to be in power, also, subsequent
1. Provision of strong opposition: In this system, one elections may be manipulated by the ruling party,
party forms the government, the other, opposition. In through incumbency apparatus.
Britain, for example, Labour party is the ruling party 8. Leads to Political instability: All the political chaos
and conservative serves as the opposition party. like election rigging, unhealthy rivalry, detention of
2. Prevention of Dictatorship: Emergence of opposition leaders, etc., act as invitation to soldiers to
dictatorship that is possible in a one-party system is stage their coup d’état in the country.
prevented by having an alternative party as it happens 9. Leads to Uneven Development: This is as a result of
in a two-party system. the neglect of some areas that did not vote for the
3. Change of government: Change of government is ruling party.
possible, because the provision for periodic elections
is entrenched in the constitution 1992/18
4. Choice: Two-party system makes for choice between One major disadvantages of two party system is that it
political parties. The party with better programme is A. does not allow citizens to participate in politics
chosen by the electorate. B. divides the country into fractions
5. Guarantees political association: Two-party system C. creates two countries D. stifles public opinion
makes this possible because individuals are not thrown E. eliminates pressure group
into political bondage as it happens in one-party Answer – B
system where their human right of political association
is abridged. 1998/21
6. It makes for good governance: The duty of the The main disadvantage of a two party system is that
opposition party is to watch and criticize the A. choice of political association is limited
government over the policies. It makes the government B. choice of party candidates is without limit
cautious in its policy formulation and implementation. C. political education is for party members only
7. It ensures stability: Stability is ensured and the reason D. party leaders are allowed to contest elections
is that there is no room for a coalition government E. franchise is usually restricted to property owners
which may create a weak and unstable government. Answer
8. It is democratic: There is the opportunity for freedom Two party system limits the choice of one’s political
of choice and association. association. (A)
9. Easy identification: People can easily identify the
strength and weaknesses of the party in government. MULTI-PARTY SYSTEM
10. Widens Political Education: The electorate receives In political science, a multi-party system is a political
a wider political education in a two-party system thansystem in which multiple political parties across the state
they do in a one-party system. spectrum run for national elections, and all have the
11. Guarantees the Expression of Public Opinion: capacity to gain control of government offices, separately
Political parties act as avenue for expression of public
or in coalition. Apart from one party dominant and two-
opinions which is possible in a two-party system party systems, multi-party systems tend to be more
unlike what happens in a one-party system where even common in parliamentary systems than presidential
the news media are gagged. systems and far more common in countries that use
proportional representation compared to countries that use
Demerits of Two Party System first-past-the-post elections. Several parties compete for
1. Division of the country into two factions: Unlike power and all of them have reasonable chance of forming
one-party system, two-party system divides citizens of government.
a country into two antagonistic groups which does not
augur well for the progress of the country. First-past-the-post requires concentrated areas of support
2. Leads to disunity: The struggle for power within the for large representation in the legislature, whereas
system may not promote national unity. proportional representation better reflects the range of a
208
population views. Proportional systems may have multi- 2008/22
member districts with more than one representative elected When two or more parties join to form a government, we
from a given district to the same legislative body, and thus have a
a greater number of viable parties. A. mixed government B. united government
C. plural government D. coalition government
A multi-party system is a system where multiple political Answer
parties take part in national elections. Each party has its A coalition government is a form of government in which
own views. A lot of countries that uses this system have a political parties cooperate, reducing the dominance of any
coalition government, meaning many parties are in control, party within that “coalition”. The usual reason for this
and they all work together to make laws. Good examples arrangement is that no party in its own can achieve a
of countries that have this system include Nigeria, Brazil, majority in the election. (D)
Denmark, Finland, Germany, etc.
2005/25
2011/12 Nov A multi-party system often leads to
Nigeria is currently operating a ______ party system A. unitary government B. dictatorial government
A. four B. multi C. one D. two E. zero C. coalition government D. parliamentary government
Answer Answer
Nigeria is currently operating a multi-party system. In A multi-party system is a political system in which multiple
1999 out of the 92 political parties, 74 parties were political parties across the political spectrum run for national
deregistered, only 18 political parties were able to meet up election, and all have the capacity to gain control of
with all the new requirements. (B) government offices, separately or in coalition. (C)

2015/23 Neco 2007/3a Neco

Which of the following party system best represents all A government that is constituted by several parties after a
shades of opinion? general election is referred to as
A. multi-party B. two party C. one party D. elite party A. elite government B. fascist government
Answer C. illegitimate government D. national government
Multi-party represents all shades of opinions because every Answer
political party has its own ideologies, views and manifesto. A national government is a government with members
(A) from more than one political party. (D)

2015/26 Neco Exercise 13.12 2012/29 Neco

The practice of multi-party system in West Africa tends to In a democratic state, the party system that usually operates is
promote A. mass party B. multi-party C. one party D. elite party
A. sectionalism and factionalism B. national integration Answer
C. social discrimination D. economic integration Multi-party system is the party system of a democratic state. It
gives the people, the opportunity to elect the best candidates
Features of Multi-Party System from various political parties to represent them. (B)
1. There are existence of many political parties
2. Legal recognition of all political parties. 2014/18 Neco Exercise 13.13
Coalition government can be defined as parties coming
3. Easy choice of individual parties and programme.
together
4. It enhances political education.
A. to appoint a leader B. to form a government
5. It gives room for coalition government. C. with a common manifest D. to oppose the government
6. It creates room for wider participation in political parties.
7. There is absence of dictatorship in multi-party system. 1993/18 Exercise 13.14
8. It promotes periodic election. In a multi–party state, various interests and shades of opinion
9. Multi-party system protects fundamental human rights. A. are not represented
10. There is respect for the rule of law by political leaders B. have the opportunity to be represented
and citizens making up the system. C. are strongly represented
D. should not be represented E. are directly represented
2000/24 Nov
One of the characteristics of a multi-party system is that 2001/23 Neco Exercise 13.15
A. the parties are not allowed to form coalition government A multi-party system often leads to the formation of
B. there are more than two competing parties A. coalition government B. dual government
C. all parties are supported by international organizations C. dictatorial government D. monarchial government
D. the parties have identical manifestoes
Answer 2008/29 Exercise 13.16
One of the features of a multi-party system is that there are A state with more than one dominant political party of nearly
more than two competing parties. (B) equal strength is operating
A. a mass party B. a multi-party C. an elitist party D.
a charismatic party

209
Merits of Multi Party System 3. Victimization of political opponents: This is a
1. Wider Political participation and education: The common feature of multi-party system.
scope of political participation and education is 4. Difficult to hold a particular party responsible: It
enhanced and widened to the extent that people now does not allow the electorate to easily hold a particular
play major role on issues of national importance. party responsible for the success or failure of
2. It gives room for democracy: Multi-party system government policies.
gives room for the practice and principle of democracy 5. Ethnic and section ally based political parties: In
in a country. some countries, it produces ethnic and sectionally
3. Wider representation: Interests of diverse nature- based political parties which may not be in the national
religious, ethnic, different groups, are represented in interest.
the decision making process. 6. It makes the formation of a new government very
4. Permits a wide range of ideologies: Unlike one-party difficult: This is because political parties have no
system in which only one ideology is permitted, multi- common policy before assuming office. A lot of
party system allows for a wide range of ideologies. unhealthy compromises may have to be made.
5. Party organization: Multi-party system encourages 7. It is a very expensive party-system: Unlike one-party
better party organization through competition. system, multi-party system tends to be too expensive
6. Recognition of opposition parties: The other political to maintain.
parties, outside the ruling party, can criticize 8. Coalition government: Multi-party system often
government policies and actions. leads to the formation of coalition governments in
7. Change of government: It is easier to change any parliamentary system which are often weak and
government that alienates itself from the people in a unstable.
multi-party system than in a one-party system. 9. Leads to unhealthy rivalry: This unhealthy rivalry
8. Rule of Law: There is adherent to the rule of law and results in oppression, suppression and detention
the provisions of the constitution by political leaders without trial of leaders of the opposition parties.
and citizens of the country. 10. Political instability: The unhealthy rivalry, frequent
9. Provision of Wider Choice: The protagonists of a political re-alignment and coalition make government
multi-party system argue that it provides the electorate of a country to be weak and unstable.
wider range of choice of political parties. 11. Encourages Election Violence: Election violence is a
10. It permits Human Rights: Multi-party system allows common occurrence in a multi-party state.
the citizens of a country to exercise their fundamental 12. Encourages Corruption in the parliament: The
human rights of political association rather than being inability of the ruling party to win a clear-cut majority
thrown into political bondage in a one party system in the parliament in a multi-party system gives room to
and provides avenue for freedom of speech. bribery and corruption in order to pass a bill.
11. Prevents the Emergence of a Dictator: No single 13. Leads to National disintegration: It is argued that
party in a multi-party system is strong enough to parties that exist in a multi-party system act as
encourage the emergence of a dictator powerful instruments for disintegrating the people and
12. Encourage the formation of coalition governments: tend to emphasise the religious and ethnic differences
Coalition government tends to be better because it of the people
comprises of the programmes of many political parties. 14. Waste of Resources: The much needed human and
material resources which would have been directed
1995/27 towards the urgent task of national development are
The most important merit of a multi-party system is that it wasted in unprofitable political rivalry.
A. guarantees the viability of many parties
B. disallows smaller political parties from gaining political
powers 1990/5
C. reduces oppression within the various parties The major disadvantages of a multi-party system is
D. gives representation to the widest shades of opinion and A. violence and the assassination and kidnapping of political
interest opponent
E. groups organized around on interest for government B. proportional representation of all interest groups
action C. unviable splinter political parties
Answer D. weak coalition government D. constant carpet crossing
Gives representation to the widest shades of opinion and Answer
interests (D) Constant carpet crossing is the major disadvantage of a
multi-party system. (E)
Demerits of Multi Party System
1. Prone to election rigging: The existence of many 1998/3 Exercise 13.17
political parties in a multi-party system and the What are the merits and demerits of a multi-party system
competitions that go with it expose the country to all of government?
forms of election malpractices like rigging.
2. Too many political programmes: The people could
be confused as to which of the parties has the best to
offer them.

210
ZERO PARTY SYSTEM 5. It is seen as a magnetic pull that makes people to be
Zero party system has to do with a standard where political attracted to the party.
leaders are elected by the people (electorate) on individual 6. Party manifesto create a better insight into the
basis. There is no political party as candidates are mostly programme of the party.
independent and are elected according to their merits. 7. Party manifesto stands as an assessment sheet or score
sheet for the party evaluation.
Merits of Zero Party System
1. Proper management of time: Time is properly 1991/20 Exercise 13.18
managed in this type of system. Which of the following best explains the term manifesto? The
2. Electoral malpractices: Electoral malpractices are A. constitution of a political party
reduced to the barest minimum under this system. B. authority to form a political party
3. Easy to operate: The conduct of election in this system C. proposed programme of a political party
is very simple to operate. D. symbol of the ruling political party
4. Cost: The cost of conducting elections is reduced E. campaign strategies of a political party
compared to other systems e.g. multiparty systems.
5. Choice: The electorate will find it easy to declare for 1994/5 Exercise 13.19
candidates of their choice. What is party manifesto and why is it necessary?
6. Decision making: Decision making is quick and
purposeful.
7. Conservation of resources: Zero party state prevents 2003/22
waste of resources in the areas of human, materials and The manifesto of a political party is a document which
money. outlines
A. a country’s political party development
Demerits of Zero Party System B. a party’s programme C. the national ideology
1. Irresponsible political leaders: Those elected may not D. the interest of party members
be responsible political leaders. Answer
2. Conduct of election: The conduct of elections could The manifesto of a political party is a document which is
be poorly organized and confusing. published by the party before general election, it contains
3. Absence of party manifesto: This system could the set of policies and programme that the party stands for
produce leaders without direction because there may and would wish to implement if elected to govern. (B)
not be manifesto, which is very important for political
parties.
4. Instability: Political instability may result in the 1994/20
system. A manifesto refers to the
5. Citizenship education: There is the possibility of the A. national development plan of a country
absence of political and citizenship education for the B. budget speech of a regime by president
people. C. fundamental human rights provisions in a constitution
D. programme of a political party
PARTY MANIFESTO E. national objectives of a state
During the course of an election campaign, political parties Answer
generally produce manifestos to help voters decide who to A manifesto refers to the programme and plans of a
vote for. A manifesto is the general term used to describe political party. It is also referred to guidelines of political
the published declaration of the intentions, motives, or parties. (D)
views of an individual, group, political party or
government. In some countries, the document may be 2014/7 Neco
referred to as the party platform, or programme for Party manifesto is important in the following ways except
government. A. evaluate the party B. limit choice
C. attract people D. guide the party
A party manifesto may also be defined as the plans or Answer
programme of a political party which the party intends to Party manifesto evaluates the party, attract people into the
fulfill to the electorate, if it is elected into power. Party party and it is also used as a tool to guide the political
manifesto can also be referred to as the aims and objectives parties in carrying out their programmes. Party manifesto
of a political party. Party manifesto can also be defined as cannot limit the choice of the electorate. (B)
the guidelines activities of a political party.
2015/6 (OAU, IFE)
REASONS WHY PARTY MANIFESTO IS ESSENTIAL: Which of the following does not describe a party system?
1. Party manifesto demonstrate the ideology and A. one dominant party system B. two party system
direction of the political party. C. three party system D. multiparty system
2. It sheds lights on how a party plans is mapped out. Answer – C
3. Party manifesto helps in giving direction to a party’s Party systems maybe broken down into three broad
programme. categories: two-party, multiparty and single party. Three
4. It helps in educating the people on the aims, goals and party system cannot describe a party system.
objectives of the party.
211
1983/21 UTME 2007/38
A party system made up of more than two parties may still A one party system is common to
not qualify for the title of a multi-party system, when A. democratic government B. totalitarian government
A. the country in question has a unitary form of C. representative government D. monarchical government
government Answer
B. the country in question has a federal form of One party system is a common feature of totalitarian
government government. Totalitarianism is a system of government
C. the parties are not competitive that is centralized and dictatorial and requires complete
D. different parties are supported by district political subservience to the state. (B)
interests
E. the parties have identical structure 2011/20 UTME
Answer – C The type of party system in practice is defined by the
A party system made up of more than two parties may still A. manner in which the parties operate
not qualify for the title of a multi-party system, when the B. number of political parties in a country
parties are not competitive. C. relationship between the parties and the electorate
D. structure of the political parties
1998/17 UTME Answer – B
A party system can be defined by the The type of party system in practice is defined by the
A. structures of political parties number of political parties in a country.
B. manner the government and the parties operate
C. relationship between the parties and the voters 2006/38 UTME
D. number of political parties in a country In a dominant one-party, there is
Answer – D A. one party that controls other political parties
A party system can be defined by the number of political B. only one political party recognized by law
parties in a country. Party system defines the formation, C. one among many parties that always wins elections
structure and organization of political parties. It also D. one party which embraces all of the citizen
defines the number of political parties that operate in a Answer – B
political system. In a dominant one-party, there is only one political party
recognized by law. A one party system or a one party by
definition refers to a political framework where a one/single
political party forms and runs the government.
1996/22 Nov
The main objective to a single party system is that it
2011/2012/12 (NDU, BAYELSA)
encourages In a one party state
A. bureaucracy B. dictatorship C. aristocracy A. there are no free citizens
D. popular sovereignty E. representative government B. the communist party is the only legal party
Answer C. the ruling party is the only legal party
One party system can develop or encourage dictatorship of D. elections to be legislature are held at eth party’s
leaders because their powers are absolute. (B) conferences
Answer – C
1990/40 In one party state the ruling party is the only legal party that
In a one party state has power to rule the country, as stipulated in the constitution.
A. there is only one dominant party
B. the legislature is unicameral 2009/2010/29 (NDU, BAYELSA)
C. only the worker’s party is allowed to exist In a one-party state
D. the ruling party is the only legal party A. there is only one dominant party
E. elections to the legislature are held at the party’s B. the legislature is unicameral
conference C. on the workers party is allowed to exist
Answer D. the ruling party is the only legal party
In a one party state, the ruling party is the only legal party E. elections
recognized by the constitution. (D) Answer – A
In a one-party state, there is only one dominant party that has
the legal backing to continue to rule the country.
2004/31
One party system is favourable disposed to
2019/2020/42 (UNIZIK, AWKA)
A. natural cohesion B. sectarian demands A one-party system is common to
C. rule of law D. religious tolerance A. representative government B. monarchical government
Answer C. totalitarian government D. democratic government
One party system is favourable to national cohesion. Answer – C
Cohesion basically means glue. What holds a group of A one-party system is common to totalitarian government.
people together as a nationality? Culture is almost always Totalitarianism is a concept for a form of government or
the source of national cohesion. Infact most nations lack a political system that prohibits opposition parties, restricts
unified culture split into nations defined by the physical individual opposition to the state and its claims, and exercises
boundaries where various are dominant. Yugoslavia is an an extremely high degree of control over public and private
example of national cohesion. (A) life.
212
2010/11 (OAU, IFE) 2015/2016/56 (NDU, BAYELSA)
A state with a hegemonic party is one is which Two party system implies that only two political parties
A. there is one dominant party A. exist in the country B. can contest elections
B. there is no opposition party C. can form a coalition D. can register members
C. there is only one party E. are capable of capturing power
D. other parties are officially recognized Answer – B
Answer – A Two party system implies that only two political parties
A state with a hegemonic party is one in which there is one can contest elections.
dominant party. Hegemonic party systems are quasi-
authoritarian systems dominated by a single party. 1999/21 UTME
A dominant two-party system is operated in
1985/8 UTME A. the United Kingdom and the United States
A one party system of government B. India and Pakistan
A. is found only in Africa C. France and Germany
B. allows not official opposition D. South Africa and Senegal
C. does not provide for a legislature Answer – A
D. is practiced only where the citizens share identical A dominant two-party system is operated in the United
views about policy Kingdom and the United State.
E. does not accept the doctrine of separation of powers
Answer – B 2014/2015/49 (UI, IBADAN)
A one party system of government allows no official A two-party system of government is one in which
opposition. A. only one party perform multiparty function
B. the elite domination political parties
C. only few parties are allowed to be operated by law
2017/2018/45 (UNIZIK, AWKA) D. there are two major parties and other minor parties
A disadvantage of the one-party system is that it Answer – D
A. makes accountability difficult A two-party system of government is one in which are two
B. negates freedom of association major parties and other minor parties.
C. emphasizes political differences
D. delays decision making 2014/2015/13 (UI, IBADAN)
Answer – A In which of the following set of countries is a dominant
A disadvantages of the one party system is that it makes two-party system operated
accountability difficult. A. Nigeria and Ghana
B. the United States and the United Kingdom
2017/2018/2 (UI, IBADAN) B. France and Germany D. India and Chine
A disadvantage of the one party system is that Answer – B
A. it fosters unity B. it promotes stability The United States and the United Kingdom operates two-
C. it is usually unpredictable party system.
D. it limits the choice of the electorate
Answer – D
A disadvantage of one party system is that it limits the 2017/2018/7 (UI, IBADAN)
choice of the electorate. One party system is not Under whose regime was the two party system adopted in
democratic. Nigeria
A. Ibrahim Babangida B. Olusegun Obasanjo
2010/18 (UNIZIK, AWKA) C. Murtala Muhammed D. Umaru Yar’Adua
In theory, one major advantage of the one-party system is Answer – A
that it In 1989, Babangida started making plans for the transition
A. eliminates intra-party conflict to the Third Nigerian Republic. He legalized the formation
B. serves as an instrument of national integration of political parties, and formed the two-party system with
C. promotes greater mass participation in government the Social Democratic Party (SDP) and National
D. guarantees social justice Republican Convention (NRC) ahead of the 1992 general
Answer – A elections.

1982/45 UTME 2007/8 (UI, IBADAN)

Which of the following countries operates a single party Nigeria today is a _____ state.
system? A. one party B. two party C. multi-party D. three party
A. Ghana B. Nigeria C. Tanzania D. Uganda E. France Answer – C
Answer – C Nigeria today is a multi-party state. A multi-party system
NB: As at the year of the exam above, option C (Tanzania) is a system where multiple political parties take part in
was correct but in 1992, the nation Tanzania adopted a national elections. Each party has its own views. A lot of
multi-party system. countries that use this system have a coalition government,
meaning many parties are in control, and they all work
together to make laws.
213
2019/2020/46 (UNIZIK, AWKA) 2009/2010/77 (NDU, BAYELSA)
A state with more than one party of nearby equal strength is A political manifesto is a document which outlines
operating A. a country’s development B. a party’s programme
A. mass party system B. hegemonic party system C. the national policy D. an ethnic interest
C. one party system D. multi-party system Answer – B
E. elite party system A political manifesto is a document which outlines a party’s
Answer – D programme. A party manifesto is essentially a list of policies
A state with more than one party of nearly equal strength is that a political party says, it will enact if it is voted into office
operating multi-party system. Two-party and multiparty at a general election. It is a guidelines that guards the activities
systems represent means of organizing political conflict of political parties.
within pluralistic societies and are thus part of the apparatus
of democracy. REVISION EXERCISES
1. Political leaders are largely recruited in modern
2014/2015/17 (UI, IBADAN) democracy through
One of the objectives of a multi-party system is to A. electoral commission B. political parties
A. prevent rigging B. provide alternatives C. the judiciary D. parliament
C. avoid ethnicity D. eliminate corruption 2. Major weakness of a one party system is that it
Answer – B A. encourages the emergence of dictators
The main aim of a multi-party system is to provide B. ensures freedom of political choice
alternatives and rights for the electorates to elect the parties C. negates the principles of one man, one vote
of their choices into political offices. D. requires a bicameral legislature
3. One party system of government may lead to
1982/14 UTME A. stateless society B. autocracy
To say that a country has a multi-party system means that C. liberal democracy D. oligarchy
A. there are only two political parties in existence 4. One party state is a state where
B. only two parties can contest elections A. there are no general elections
C. the constitution recognizes more than one party B. the president cannot be opposed
D. more than one party should form the government at a time C. there is complete agreement on issues among party
E. manifestoes of all political parties are the same members
Answer – C D. the ruling party is the only legal one
A country has a multi-party system means that the 5. A one party system of government
constitution recognizes more than one or two parties in the A. is found only in Africa
country. B. allows no official opposition
C. does not provide for a legislator
2001/15 UTME D. does not accept the doctrine of separation of powers
One argument against is multi-party system is the 6. A one party election occurs when
A. inability to develop the nation A. all candidates run as independent
B. encouragement of diverse opinions and opposition B. there are no party symbols
C. ability to attract foreign investment C. only party candidates contest
D. banning of pressure groups D. voters have no parties
Answer – B 7. Under a two party system, the opposition party is as
One argument against multi-party system is the important as the ruling party because it
encouragement of diverse opinion and opposition. A. has equal number of supporters as the ruling party
B. is as strong as the ruling party
2002/5 UTME C. may force the government to resign
A common feature of a multi-party system is that government D. is the alternative government
is formed by 8. Explain party system.
A. the major political party 9. Differentiate between political parties and party system.
B. a coalition of political parties 10. Discuss one party system with details.
C. all the registered political parties 11. State the features of hegemonic party.
D. the party with the highest vote 12. Mention four countries that practices one party system.
Answer – B 13. What is two party system and state give merits?
A common characteristic of a multi-party system is that 14. Explain multi party system.
government is formed by a coalition of political parties. 15. State the features of multi-party system.
16. Discuss coalition government.
1995/18 UTME 17. Define zero party system.
A non-party election occurs when 18. What is party manifesto?
A. all candidates runs as independents 19. State the importance of party manifesto.
B. there are no party symbols 20. Briefly explain the under listed concepts in the study of
C. only party candidates contest political parties
D. voters have no parties a. Mass political party.
Answer – A b. Elite political party.
Nonpartisan democracy (also no-party democracy) is a c. Mega political party.
system of representative government or organization such d. Charismatic political party.
that universal and periodic elections take place without
reference to political parties.
214
Types of Pressure Groups
Chapter Fourteen 1. Economic pressure groups: These are groups of business
and trade union. This includes manufacturers
PRESSURE GROUPS associations like chamber of commerce, cocoa farmers
A pressure group is an organization that seeks to influence union, cotton producers union, etc. These groups of
individuals can mount pressure on the government, if any
elected officials to take action or make a change on a
of their members are affected through any government
specific issue, but not attempting to control government
policies e.g. taxes.
machinery directly by contesting elections. These groups 2. Educational pressure groups: This group has to do with
include trade unions, ethnic associations, churches etc. teachers, lecturers, non–academic staff and students of
institutions. The educational pressure groups are the
They are also known as lobbying groups, advocacy groups, ASUP, NASU, SUG, NUT, etc., this group can mount
special interest groups and protest groups. Political pressure on the government for betterment of their
pressure groups vary significantly by size, influence and incentives.
the methods they employ to exert influence. Additionally, 3. Professional pressure groups: They are organized
the interests advocated by political pressure groups are association of professional bodies that fight for their
wide–ranging and these groups are motivated to come members through Nigeria Medical Association (NMA),
together in support of a particular action through Nigerian Bar Association (NBA), Nigerian Union of
commonly held interests or beliefs. Journalist (NUJ), etc.
4. Nigerian labour Congress (NLC): This is the body that
1998/27 represents the official interest of the workers in a nation
A pressure group is a body of people organized for the and all the trade unions in Nigeria are under it. There are
purpose of state chapters of NLC in all the state in the federation.
A. defending the nation B. exercising political power 5. Promotional interest groups: This group is highly
C. exercising influence on government interested in the less privilege in the society, their
D. collecting money for charitable concerns objective is to improve the welfare of the masses. E.g.
E. opposing all political parties Nigerian Bar Association gives free legal services to the
less privileged in the society, most especially to girls’
Answer
child and women. National council for eradicating
A pressure group can be described as an organized group
illiteracy.
that does not put up candidates for election, but seeks to
6. Social pressure groups: They are groups that promote
influence government policy or legislation. They can also
the general welfare of their members e.g. Boys Scout,
be described as interest groups, lobby groups or protest
Girls Guide, Rotary club, Old Boy’s Association etc.
groups. (C)
7. Religious pressure group: These groups include
Christians, Muslims, traditionalists etc. These are
1995/28 pressure groups of people that belong to the same
A pressure group can be defined as a
religion and wish to influence government decisions in
A. large group interested in sharing governmental power
favour of their belief or members. Examples the
B. political party not interested in government
Christian Association of Nigeria and Supreme Council
C. small group interested in sharing governmental power
for Islamic Affairs.
D. sophisticated group interested in balkanization
8. Ethnic pressure group: These are groups of ethnicity
E. group organized around an interest for government
in the nation, they come together to mount pressures
action
on government, if any of their policies are not
Answer favourable to their tribe. For example, Igbo
A pressure group is a group of people who work together
Association of Nigeria, Yoruba Association, Arewa
to try to influence what other people or the government
Association, etc.
think about a particular subject in order to achieve the
9. Anomic pressure group: These are interest group that
things they want for the benefit of all. (E)
uses violence, demonstrations, arson, assassination,
strikes and the others in expressing their aims and
2006/38 Exercise 14.1 objectives. They are mob groups, not well organized but
Pressure groups are also known as
may be interested in some common goals. Street
A. social clubs B. cultural organisation
demonstrators and student riot groups are examples.
C. interest groups D. secular groups

2019/4a NABTEB Exercise 14.2

What is pressure group?

2018/45 NABTEB Exercise 14.3

The membership of pressure groups is limited because they
A. are mainly concerned with political interest
B. pursue specific and narrow objectives
C. promote other people’s interest D. are not friendly

Members of Boys Scout parading

215
Function/Importance of Pressure Groups 1997/25
1. Standard of living: Pressure groups help to increase Membership of pressure groups is usually limited because
the standard of living of their members through they
fighting for increase in their salaries and wages A. pursue specific and narrow objectives
structures. B. seek unlimited freedom for their members
2. Offer useful suggestions: They offer useful C. promote other people’s interests
suggestions and advise to governments at local, state D. are not patriotic E. have dictatorial leaders
and national levels. Answer
3. Promote economic stability: This is made possible Membership of a pressure group is usually limited because
through the chamber of commerce. they pursue specific and narrow objectives e.g. NUT for
4. Welfare services: Pressure groups help to promote the teachers in secondary schools and primary. ASUU –
welfare of members of the public by rendering free universities lecturers, etc. (A)
medical and legal services by NMA and NBA.
5. Acts as a link: Pressure groups act as useful bridge 2004/33
that link the people to the government. Promotional pressure group usually cater for the interest of
6. Act as a Check: Pressure group act as a check against A. all the workers B. the general public
dictatorship. C. nonmembers D. all professional bodies
7. Bribery and Corruption: They help to prevent Answer
bribery and corruption in the political system through Promotional pressure groups endeavour to promote a
their activities. particular cause, and for this reason are sometimes called
8. Act as watchdogs: Pressure groups act as the ‘cause’ groups. Promotional pressure groups are not self-
watchdogs that check the activities of the government interested in that the achievement of their objectives is not
especially to prevent maladministration. necessarily of direct professionalism or economic benefit
9. Provision of manpower bank: They provide to the members of the group. (D)
manpower bank from which government can draw
experts to serve is the government e.g. judges can only 2004/32
be appointed from within the Bar Association. Which of the following pressure groups does cotton
10. Promoting members’ interest: This is done through producers union represent?
the protection of such interests. A. labour B. economic C. social D. political
11. Policy formation: They play vital role in assisting the Answer
government in policy formulation and The cotton producers union represent economic pressure
implementation. group. Economic pressure groups focus on the economic
12. Useful information: Pressure groups play important role well-being of their members. They comprise mostly
of dissemination of information on government policies producers and manufacturers. Examples are the Nigerian
to both their members and members of the general public Association of Chambers of Commerce, Industry, Mines
at large thereby bridging the communication gap between and Agriculture (NACCIMA) and the Manufacturers
the government and the governed. Association of Nigeria (MAN). (B)
13. Serve as yardstick: Pressure group serve as yardstick for
measuring the popularity of government policies. 2008/34 Exercise 14.4
14. The underprivileged: They assist in championing the When a pressure group is made up of people of the same
cause of the underprivileged in the country. profession, it is called
15. Education: Pressure groups contribute a lot in educating A. a promotional group B. an interest group
their members and members of the public on their C. an occupational group D. a religious group
political rights.
16. Provide specialized information: Pressure groups 2019/21 Neco Exercise 14.5
provide specialized and expert information to the Labour groups mostly come under the umbrella of the
government. A. industrial workers’ union B. trade union congress
17. Provision of Educational Programmes: Seminars, C. anomic group D. civil defence
lectures, debates, etc.
18. Research: They conduct research found useful for the Factors that can aid effective operation of pressure groups
administration of the state on technical issues. 1. Size and nature of organization: A pressure group
size is obviously one factor affecting its ability to
1991/5 obtain what it wants.
When a pressure group is made up of people of the same 2. Degree of unity among the members: Cohesion is the
profession it is called most single element affecting success of a group. A
A. a promotional group B. occupational group large but internally divided or apathetic group is
C. an interest group D. a religious group defeated by a small but cohesive group.
E. an associational group 3. Leadership: Leadership too is one of the most
Answer important factors responsible for success or failure of
Professional or occupational pressure groups: are pressure an interest group. A group’s effectiveness depends to
groups embracing workers of the same occupation or a great extent upon the quality of leadership.
profession who try to protect their work or professional Leadership is a prime factor. A good leader has to
interest. (B) perform both internal and external functions for his
groups and to keep the group on trade.
216
4. The environment of the political system: The success 6. Working alliance with political party: Most pressure
of any interest/pressure group is powerfully affected groups lends their support to political parties who
by the political and governmental system in which it supports their quest and agenda, so when voted in
operates. power through formal elections their quest will be
5. Adequate funding: There should be enough money implemented.
with the leaders of the pressure group to sponsor other 7. Association with international nations: They join
programmes. international groups as a way of attracting
6. Attitude of the government: Attitude of the international sympathy. For example, the Nigerian
government of the day towards the activities of Labour Congress is a member of the organization of
pressure groups is very important. The more tolerant African Trade Union Unity.
the government is, the more effective the operations of 8. Demonstration/Protest: Demonstration/Protest could
the pressure group. be peaceful or violent. Pressure groups adopt these
7. Good organization/strategy: With good organization, methods to mobilise support from members of the
the operation of pressure group can be very effective. public.
9. Hijacking, Rioting and holding people hostage: At
Weakness or Factors working against the success of times, pressure groups use violent outburst, hijacking
pressure groups of government property or holding some government
1. Small size: The size is another weakness that is
officials hostage in order to achieve their aims.
working against the success of pressure groups. If the
10. Campaigns and Propaganda: Pressure groups mount
pressure group is small, there is problem for their
effective campaigns and propaganda in the radios,
advancement.
televisions, newspapers, etc. in order to win and
2. Lack of dedication among members: If members of
influence public opinions and achieve their aims.
group are not dedicated they may not achieve their
11. Consultations: Most of the policies made by
objections.
government are done based on consultations with
3. Lack of adequate funds: To have an effective and
some pressure groups.
achievable programme, they need enough funds.
12. Strikes and boycott actions: Pressure groups use
4. Poor leadership: Leaders without charisma and
these main weapons in achieving their aims and
integrity may not be able to move along with the
objectives. Strike is always the last option after all
members of the pressure group.
reconciliation and strategies have failed.
5. Attitude of government: A government that is not
tolerant cannot accommodate pressure groups
2017/30 Neco
demands. For example, military government.
Which of the following is not a method used by pressure
6. Poor organization: When a pressure group is not
groups to achieve their objectives?
properly organized, it will be difficult to achieve the
A. employing lobbyist B. embarking on demonstrations
set objectives.
C. embarking on strikes and boycotts
7. Inadequate political education: If the leaders and
D. contesting for political positions
members of a group are not properly educated about
Answer
their rights, they cannot be effective.
Contesting for political positions is not a method used by
pressure group to achieve their goals and objectives. (D)
Modes of Operation of Pressure Group
This is also known as techniques employed by pressure
2018/30 Neco
groups to achieve their objectives. They include the
Which of the following agencies helps the most in shaping
following:
public opinion?
1. Mass media: Pressure groups uses mass media like
A. pressure groups B. mass media
radio, television, newspaper, press conferences etc. to
C. colleges and universities D. peer groups
influence government policy.
Answer
2. Dialogue: The use of dialogue between
Pressure groups are an agency that helps the most in
representatives of government and pressure groups is
shaping public opinion by educating the people politically.
a viable channel in settling issues and achieving
(A)
results, if dialogue fails, then confrontation is
inevitable.
2001/5 Neco
3. The use of ultimatum: This comes up after different
Enumerate the methods used by pressure groups to achieve
avenue of dialogue has been exhausted without result.
their objectives.
It is a condition issued by pressure groups to either the
1. Pressure groups influence government policies
government or employer and failure may attract
through mass media e.g. radio, television, magazines,
unhealthy development.
newspapers, etc.
4. Lobbying: Pressure groups lobby members of the
2. Pressure groups may embark on strike or boycott from
legislature in order to pass laws that are favourable to
works by workers or students.
their members.
3. Lobbying is an attempt to influence officials of the
5. Pressure mounted on the executive: Mounting of
state towards achieving the pressure group aims.
pressure on the executive arm of government to take
4. Dialogue is a former discussion between
specific actions is another technique employed by
Representatives of government and pressure groups.
pressure groups to achieve their objectives.
217
5. Ultimatum comes up after different avenue for a Differences between Political Parties and Pressure
dialogue have been exhausted without result. Groups
6. The pressure group mounts pressure on the executive Political parties Pressure groups
to sign some bills into laws for their own advantage. 1. To contest election and To influence government
7. Demonstration could be peaceful or violent. Pressure control the policies and pursue the
group adopts these methods to mobilize support from government. interests of the members.
members of the public. 2. Political parties are Pressure groups are basically
organized for self-seeking, not for
2005/30 Nov Exercise 14.6 everybody and not everybody.
To achieve their objectives pressure groups self-seeking.
A. discuss with the pressmen B. contest elections 3. Candidates from Candidates contest elections
C. lobby the appropriate authority political parties are to for the leadership of their
D. seek help from foreign counterparts contest election with union and not for the people.
the aim of being in
1992/2 Exercise 14.7 government to rule the
Define pressure groups and explain their mode of operation. people.
4. Political parties Pressure groups do not
2002/18 Neco Exercise 14.8 accommodate different accommodate different
Pressure groups use all the following techniques to achieve interests in the society groups in the society.
their objectives except in terms of
A. lobbying B. demonstrating C. coup d’état membership.
D. strikes 5. Political parties pursue Pressure groups pursue
goals, interests that will interest and goal that will
improve the lifestyle of improve the lifestyle of
Dangers posed by the activities of pressure groups the people in the their members only.
1. Political instability: Activities of pressure groups society.
may bring about the downfall of a government thereby, 6. Political parties organize They have their specific
causing political instability. themselves into rallies, task to meet and most
2. Social disorder: The activities of pressure groups may debates, lectures, membership are
be accompanied by social disorder e.g. riot, violent seminars, etc., capable of qualification.
demonstrations, etc. projecting their
3. Lobbying: The use of lobbying by pressure groups in ideologies in order to
order to achieve their aims may encourage bribery and win more followership.
corruption in a country.
4. Strike action: Pressure group strikes, industrial 2001/29 Nov Exercise 14.9
actions and boycotts may seriously destabilize the Political parties are not the same as pressure groups
economy of a country. because
5. The majority may go unrepresented: Pressure A. political parties only want to influence government policy
groups may be taken to represent more general B. pressure groups only want to influence government policy
opinions or people which may not be so. Therefore, the C. political parties act as intermediate between the people
majority of the general public may go unrepresented and the government
where they have interest. D. pressure groups select candidates for political offices
6. Opinion Constraint: Members of the public are meant
to toe the myopic line of opinion of pressure groups
through their campaigns and propaganda. 1990/15 Nov Exercise 14.10
7. Misrepresentation: There could be misrepresentation Political parties differ from pressure groups because
of public opinions by a vocal few to the government. A. both cannot exist at the same time
8. Misinformation of the general public: Pressure B. both are seeking political offices
groups may disseminate wrong information through C. political parties have objectives while pressure groups
mass propaganda thereby misinforming the general do not have
public. D. political parties try to win political power while
9. They are self-centered: Pressure groups are self- pressure group seek to influence it
centered. They only seek the interests of their members E. they are both registered.
not minding the general interest of members of the
public. 2018/28 Neco Exercise 14.11
10. Supporting a political party: Pressure group support Which of these functions is performed by both political
(alliance) with political parties may lead to rigging of parties and pressure groups?
elections in favour of a party whose manifesto is in line A. interest aggregation and articulation
with their aims in order to make sure that the party is B. source of mediation in a state
brought to power. C. provision of specialized information
D. seeking to manage affairs of a state

218
1995/22 Nov 1978/7 UTME
Which of the following does not apply to both political Pressure groups are
parties and pressure groups? They A. organizations which want to overthrow the government
A. are organized B. have policies C. organize rallies B. organization which seek to influence the policies of
D. have a larger membership E. contest elections government
Answer C. association of people who share the same ideology
Contesting for elections does not apply to both political D. political parties E. religion orders
parties and pressure groups. Political parties contest for Answer – B
elections with the aim of winning elections and have A pressure groups may be defined as any group of people
political powers to rule while pressure group is just an bound together by some common interests or profession
organized group of people with similar views or opinion or who engage in some activities to influence government
minds, trying to influence government policies to their own politics to their own advantage. They sometimes direct
interests or the public. (E) their attention to private organization whose activities have
a far-reaching effect on the people.
1991/55
Which of the following actions is not common to both 1979/2 UTME
political parties and pressure groups in post–independence Which of the following are pressure groups?
Nigeria? A. the Nigerian Chamber of Commerce
A. constitutional provisions B. the Nigerian Union of Teachers
B. threat of participations by the government C. the National Union of Nigerian Students
C. arrest and detention of members D. all of the above
D. constitutional provisions E. A and C above
E. harassment by the military government Answer – D
Answer The following are pressure groups: The Nigerian Chamber
Constitutional provisions are not a common action to of Commerce, the Nigerian Union of Teachers and the
political parties and pressure groups in post–independence National Union of the Nigerian Students.
in Nigeria. (A)
1979/3 UTME
1993/21 Nov Pressure groups are really
A pressure group is different from a political party in the A. nuisances which most government would like to ignore
sense that the former B. people with sinister motive who pretend to serve the
A. is not ambitious to take over the powers of government public interest
B. has a wide range of politics and interests C. greedy citizens who pursue purely selfish interests
C. is distinctly organized with a defined leadership D. organized bodies that are vulnerable to giant companies
D. maintains an open door policy who use them to promote their interest
E. has to be dissolved at the end of every election Answer – D
Answer Pressure groups are really organized bodies that are
Political party has a wide range of politics and interests vulnerable to giant companies who used them to promote
while pressure group has a specific interest. (B) their interest in government and in the country.

1989/31 Nov 2011/2012/19 (NDU, BAYELSA)

While political parties aim at forming a government Which of the following is not a pressure group in Nigeria?
pressure groups aim at A. farmers B. the Nigerian Union of Teachers (NUT)
A. imposing military rule B. causing social unrest C. the Catholic Church
C. influencing government decisions D. Academic Staff Union of Universities (ASUU)
D. controlling a nation’s economy E. Nigerian Medial Association (NMA)
E. uniting all workers Answer
Answer The correct option is A.
Political parties aim at forming a government while pressure
groups aim at influencing government decisions. (C) 1991/24 UTME
Groups which seek to bring about changes in government
2013/35 Neco policies without actually controlling the personnel of
Which of the following statement distinguishes political government are known as
parties from pressure groups? A. trade unions B. pressure groups
A. political parties only lobby government to change C. secret societies D. elite groups
certain policies Answer – B
B. pressure groups select candidates for political offices A pressure group can be described as an organized group
C. political parties influence government policies that does not put up candidates for election, but seeks to
D. pressure groups influence government policies to members influence government policy or legislation. They can also
Answer be described as “interest groups”, “lobby groups” or
Pressure groups influence government policies to members “protest groups”.
(D)

219
2000/9 UTME 2015/17 UTME
Pressure groups harmonize different individual concerns The type of pressure group that champions the interest and
through interest the right of the under privileged is known as the
A. mobilization B. aggregation A. professional pressure groups
C. manipulation D. articulation B. promotional interest groups
Answer – B C. economic interest groups
Pressure groups harmonize different individual concerns D. educational pressure groups
through interest aggregation. Aggregation is a collection, or Answer – B
the gathering of things together. Public interest groups are also called promotional groups,
2015/2016/61 (NDU, BAYELSA) promotional interest group champions the interest and the
Lobbying mainly involves the application of pressure on right of the under privileged. Promotional pressure groups
A. people in commerce through mortuary gift are not self-interested in that the achievement of their
B. legislators through material gift objectives is not necessarily of direct professional or
C. people in government through persuasive argument economic benefit to the member of the group.
D. legislator by intimidation and blackmail
E. trade union through offer of gifts 2009/29 UTME
Answer – C Occupational pressure groups pursue their objectives
Lobbying mainly involves the application of pressure on mainly by
people in government through persuasive argument. A
A. issuing ultimatums and embarking on strikes
pressure group is an organized group of people who are trying
B. alienating the government
to persuade a government or other authority to do something.
C. embarking on guerilla warfare
2018/2019/85 (NDU, BAYELSA) D. contesting elections
Association whose main interest is to influence public Answer – A
policies without attempting to capture state power are Occupational pressure groups pursue their objectives
A. communal group B. trade union mainly by issuing ultimatums and embarking on strikes.
C. political parties D. pressure group
Answer – D
Pressure group is an association whose main interest is to 2003/12 UTME
influence public policies without attempting to capture or rule Associations whose main interest is to influence public
the state power. A pressure group maybe defined as any group policies without having to capture power are
of people bound together by some common interests or A. communal groups B. trade unions
profession who engage in some activities to influence C. political parties D. pressure groups
government policies to their own advantage. Answer – D
Pressure groups is an association whose main interest is to
2001/16 UTME
influence public policies without having to capture power.
Association interest groups are organized to
A. further the interest of members
B. specifically lobby the government
C. support the government 1978/39 UTME
D. achieve goals affecting other associations In a modern state, pressure groups find that the most
Answer – A effective way of achieving their purposes is by
Interest group that admits members and conducts it affairs A. causing trouble among the populace
according to the stated rules and regulations. B. influencing decisions of government
C. forming political parties
2017/2018/17 (UI, IBADAN) D. rigging elections to offices of the state
The pressure group that resorts to unconventional methods to E. A and C
achieve its objectives is called Answer
A. an institutional group B. a promotional group The correct option is B
C. an interest group D. an anomic group
Answer – D
Anomic pressure groups is generally spontaneous groups with 1980/2 UTME
a collective response to a particular frustration. An anomic Pressure groups’ politics are usually directed to
group consists of persons whose demands are not properly A. limited or sectorial goals
defined or articulated and arise as and when there is no B. national objectives
organization for the expression of their demands. C. the interest of the Nigerian Medical Association
D. the goals of the Nigerian Union of Teachers
2017/2018/50 (UNIZIK, AWKA)
E. none of the above
One of these is not a professional pressure group
A. Academic Staff Union of Universities
Answer – A
B. Nigerian Medical Association Pressure groups’ politics are usually direct to limited or
C. Nigerian Bar Association sectorial goals.
D. Nigerian Chamber of Commerce
Answer – D
Nigeria chamber of commerce is an economic pressure group
and not a professional pressure group.
220
1981/3 UTME 1998/4 Neco
The main role of pressure groups is to Distinguish between political parties and pressure groups
A. influence the legislature to make decision favourable to Political parties Pressure groups
them 1. To contest election and To influence government
B. inject emotion and selfish debates control the government. policies and pursue the
C. influence the public interests of the members.
D. use all means, including bribery, to achieve their 2. Political party is Pressure groups are
objectives organized for everybody basically specific for
and not self-seeking. different groups.
E. assist selected multinational corporations in fulfilling
3. Candidates from political Candidates of pressure
their objectives
parties contest for election groups contest for
Answer – A with the motive to win elections within the
The main function of the pressure group is the influence and rule over the whole group. The aim is for the
the legislature to make decision favourable to them. people. member to be president or
etc. members of the
2007/2008/87 (UNIZIK, AWKA) group.
The main role of pressure groups is to
4. Political parties Pressure groups cannot
A. oppose oppressive legislation accommodate different accommodate different
B. protect the interest of the courtier against foreign interests in the society in interests because pressure
powers terms of membership. groups are organized for a
C. resist temptation of gifts made by multi-national specific interest.
companies to influence their judgment 5. Political parties pursue Pressure groups pursue
D. promote the interests of political parties goals, objectives, aims interest and goal that will
E. influence legislation in order to benefit their members and interests that will improve the lifestyle of
Answer – E improve the lifestyle of their members only.
The main role of pressure groups is to influence legislation the people in the society.
in order to benefit with their members. 6. Political parties organizes They have their specific
themselves into rallies, task to meet and most
1982/15 UTME debates, lecturers, membership must be
Pressure groups are important because they seminar, etc. To ensure of qualified to carry out the
projecting their ideologies task.
A. enjoy publicity
in order to win more
B. manage political crises for their members followership.
C. sponsor candidates for election
D. represent groups who may otherwise be ignored 1992/18 UTME
E. are not interest in the welfare of the state The primary function of a pressure group is to
Answer – D A. win and control governmental power
Pressure groups are important because they represent B. elect their officials C. influence government policy
groups who may otherwise be ignored. D. organize workers to confront government
2017/2018/79 (UNIZIK, AWKA) Answer – C
The membership of pressure groups is limited because the The main function of a pressure group is to influence
A. pursue specific and narrow objectives government policies.
B. are mainly concerned with public interests
C. promote other people’s interests 1993/20 UTME
D. are not friendly E. are not patriotic Interest groups are important to democracies because they
Answer – A A. represent the masses B. do not allow misrule
The membership of pressure groups is limited because they C. represent groups who otherwise would be left out
pursue specific and narrow objectives. D. provide a forum for confronting the government
Answer – C
2012/21 UTME Interest groups are important to democracies because they
The main objective of pressure groups is to represent groups who otherwise would be left out.
A. win political power B. conduct free and fair elections
C. mobilize support on behalf of the government 1998/18 UTME
D. protect the interests of its members One major aim of a pressure group is to
Answer – D A. capture political power
The major function of the pressure groups is to protect the B. influence the policies of the government
interests of its members. C. install a government of its choice
1989/9 UTME D. implement policies that will benefit its members
While pressure groups aim at influencing government Answer – B
decisions, the primary aim of political parties is to The main function of the pressure group is to influence the
A. promote the welfare of their members policies of the government.
B. execute particular programmes
C. influence legislation in order to benefit their members
D. control political power
Answer – D
221
2017/23 UTME 2011/21 UTME
Activities of pressure groups that influence governmental Pressure groups harmonize different individuals concerns
decisions are hampered by through
A. it’s size B. its leadership C. its affiliation D. the A. interest mobilization B. interest aggregation
economy C. interest formation D. interest manipulation
Answer – D Answer
The activities of pressure groups that influence Pressure groups harmonize different individual concerns
governmental decisions are hampered by the economy. through interest mobilization. Interest mobilization is
defined as a process that engages and motivates a wide
2010/19 UTME range of partners and allies at national and local levels to
A tactic employed by pressure groups to achieve their raise awareness of and demand for a particular
objectives is development objective through face-to-face dialogue. (A)
A. memorandum B. electioneering campaign
C. propaganda D. lobbying 2011/2012/7 (NDU, BAYELSA)
Answer – D While political parties aim at forming a government
A tactic employed by pressure groups to achieve their aim pressure groups aim at
or functions is lobbying. A. causing social unrest
B. influencing governmental decisions
2013/20 UTME C. controlling nation’s economy
One of the function of pressure group is to D. getting workers to unite
A. nominate the president B. prepare the budget Answer
C. articulate the opinion of their members Political parties objectives is at forming a government
D. contest elections to serve the people while pressure groups aim at influencing governmental
Answer – C decisions. (B)
One main function of the pressure group is to articulate the
opinion of their members.
2014/11 (OAU, IFE) 1990/1 UTME
The major objective of pressure groups is to Which of the following is performed by both political
A. influence governmental policies in its favour parties and pressure groups?
B. support a good political party A. contesting elections B. interest articulation
C. decides who wins an election C. formal opposition to government
D. educate the people D. working for the interests of their members
Answer – A Answer
The major objective of pressure groups to influence Political parties and pressure groups performs the function
government policies in the favour. of interest articulation. (B)

1984/9 UTME 1994/19 UTME

The most basic property of pressure groups which The major distinguishing factor between a political party
differentiates them from political parties is that they and a pressure group is that while the former
A. are not interested in politics A. is effectively organized, the latter is not
B. do not have permanent organizations B. engages in propaganda, the latter does not
C. do not seek to influence public opinions C. seeks power, the later influences it
D. do not support candidates in election D. does not form a government, the latter does
E. do not nominate candidates as their own official Answer
representatives The main distinguishing factor between a political party is
Answer – E that political party seeks power to rule the government and
The main difference between pressure groups with a pressure group seeks influence. (C)
political parties, in domination of candidates as their own
official representatives in political parties. 2003/19 UTME
What distinguishes a political party from other social
2019/15 (NDU, BAYELSA) institutions is the desire to
A major issue that distinguishes pressure groups from A. influence the international community on local issues
political parties is B. promote the interest of party members
A. membership drive B. the voting pattern C. win elections and form a government
C. ideology D. the objective D. influence government policies in certain directions
Answer Answer
The major issue that distinguishes pressure groups from Political party was different from other social institutions,
political parties is the objective. (D) political party is the desire to win elections and form a
government. (C)

222
REVISION EXERCISES
1. The main role of pressure groups is to
A. oppose oppressive legislation
B. protect the interest of the country against foreign
power
C. resist temptation of gifts made by multi-national
companies to influence their judgment
D. promote the interest of the political parties
2. Which of the following is not a pressure group in
Nigeria?
A. Farmers
B. the Nigerian Union of Teachers (NUT)
C. The Catholic Church
D. Academic Staff Union of Universities (ASUU)
3. The primary function of a pressure group is to
A win and control government power
B. elect their officials
C. influence government policy
D. organize workers to confront government
4. Interest groups are important to democracies because
they
A. represent the masses B. do not allow misrule C.
represent groups who otherwise would be left out D.
provide a forum for confronting the government.
5. The major distinguishing factor between a political
party and a group is that while the former
A. is effectively organized, the latter is not
B. engages in propaganda, the latter does not
C. seeks power, the latter influences it
D. does not form a government, the latter does
6. A feature of pressure groups is that members
A. oppose the government
B. are in the same labour union
C. do not believe in dialogue
D. have similar interests
7. Define pressure group.
8. State the types of pressure groups.
9. Explain an interest group.
10. Mention and explain the characteristics of pressure
groups.
11. Discuss the factors that can aid effective operation of
pressure groups.
12. Explain the weaknesses working against the success of
pressure groups.
13. State the technique employed by pressure groups to
achieve their objectives.
14. In a tabular form state six differences between pressure
groups and political parties.
15. a. Explain five forms of pressure group.
b. Highlight five measures adopted by pressure
groups to achieve their aims.
16. a. What is pressure groups?
b. Suggest five modes of operation of pressure
groups.

223
2006/21 (OAU,IFE)
Chapter Fifteen The electorate is generally understood to refer to
A. elected members of the National Assembly
FRANCHISE B. elected members of the State Houses of Assembly
Franchise is a right granted by the constitution to an C. candidates who can contest elections
individual that qualifies them as citizen of a given country, D. those citizens qualified to vote at elections
to vote and be voted for, in any political election. Franchise Answer
is simply defined as the right to vote. Everybody can vote The electorate is generally understood to refer to those
in a system, those that are qualified to vote are referred to citizens qualified to vote at elections (D)
as the electorate, and those to be voted for are called
candidates. However, the right to vote and be voted for, 1981/10 UTME
differs from country to country. The franchise is
A. the receipt given to tax payers
Beginning with the country’s colonial period, elections in B. an order of the court
Nigeria began in 1923 by the direction of the British C. the paper which a voter casts at elections
colonial administrator, Hugh Clifford through a legislative D. the right to vote E. none of the above
act known as the Clifford Constitution. The franchise was Answer
restricted to men and women aged 21 or over who were The franchise is the right to vote, it also varies from one
British subjects or a native of Nigeria who had lived in country to another (D)
their municipal for 12 months prior to the elections, and
who earned at least £100 in the previous calendar year. 2019/22 NABTEB
Candidates were required to obtain the nomination of at Franchise was introduced in Nigeria in
least three registered voters and pay a £10 deposit. A. 1963 B. 1960 C. 1922 D. 1920
However, reflecting the variety of people, groups and Answer
distinctive cultures confined with the nation’s borders, the Franchise was first introduced into Nigeria in 1922 through
ethno linguistic groups and colonial authorities that Clifford Constitution of 1922. (C)
dominated the northern, eastern and western regions of
Nigeria (namely, the Hausa-Fulani, Igbo and Yoruba 1995/31 Nov
people respectively) often offered vast different The elective principle was first introduced in Nigeria
perceptions into franchise qualifications–notably including A. 1914 B. 1920 C. 1922 D. 1955 E. 1960
differences in gender, nationality, residency, age, tax, and Answer
income requirements in Nigeria early years. Though the Franchise was first introduced into Nigeria in 1922 through
qualifications that assured voting rights eventually became Clifford Constitution of 1922. (C)
standardized under the Federal Constitution of Nigeria of
1960, just as quickly as voting rights were clarified, they 2016/31 Neco
were wholly revoked at the onset of several military coups Suffrage is also known as
beginning in 1966 and lasting until 1999. A. franchise B. plebiscite C. public opinion
D. electoral college
Purpose of Franchise Answer
Franchise is an important factor in politics and government Suffrage is the right to vote in political elections. It is also
for the following purpose: known as franchise. (A)
1. To make it possible for citizens to actualize their
potentials by participating in politics as either the 1997/30 Exercise 15.1
electorate or the candidate. Which of the following was a requirement for suffrage
2. It states clearly the criteria for citizens of a country under the first election in Nigeria in 1923?
who are eligible as candidates or voters. A. minimum income of £100 per annum
3. To give opportunities and allow for a wider B. 12 months residence in Europe
participation of eligible citizens in the political C. 24 month residence in the capital city
process D. being male adult and legally married
4. It promotes unity and a sense of belonging among the E. states of a British citizen
citizens of a country
5. It make a political system legitimate. This is due to 2002/22 Nov Exercise 15.2
the opportunity given tie citizens to participate Franchise can also be referred to as
actively in politics. A. the French voting system B. voting by proxy
6. To give qualified citizens the opportunity to C. mandate to make laws D. voting right
determine those who will lead them.
7. To distinguish between qualified and unqualified 2017/27 Neco Exercise 15.3
citizens for voting or election. Franchise is the right to
A. express political views B. control the government
C. vote and be voted for D. ensure good governance

224
Types of Franchise 2014/20 Neco
There are two types of franchise In limited franchise, restriction on voting can be based on
1. Limited or restricted franchise. A. height B. property C. strength D. exposure
2. Unlimited or universal adult suffrage. Answer
In limited franchise restriction of civic right can be based on
Limited or Restricted Franchise the quality of property an individual has in the country. (B)
The right to vote or be voted for in this system is purely
restrictive on some basic principles. Only the qualified 1989/16
voters are allowed to vote and can also stand to be voted The process of depriving persons of the right of voting is
for in a political election. The criteria for voting and to be known as
voted for may depend on the following: A. enfranchisement B. disqualification
1. Sex: In some countries only adult male were allowed C. dismissal D. prohibition E. disenfranchisement
to vote or can contest for an elections. Answer
2. Race or Colour: Racism is a discrimination or Disenfranchisement is the revocation of suffrage (the right to
antagonism directed against someone of a different vote) of a person. It prevents a person from exercising the
race based on the belief that all members of each race right to vote. (E)
possess characteristics. In some countries race can also
determine the right to vote. In South Africa in same 2012/32 Neco
years back, only the whites have the civic rights of Restricted franchise violates the idea of
voting and can be voted for. A. political equality B. political culture
3. Residential qualification: The number of years than a C. public accountability D. political socialization
foreign individual lived in a particular country, will Answer
determine his right to vote through citizenship by Restricted franchise violates the idea of political equality,
naturalization. it based its principles in some areas: education, racism,
4. Education: Education is also concerned in some properties, poverty, religion etc. (A)
countries; the level of your education will determine your
political right to vote and can stand to be voted for. 1989/7
5. Religion: Religion is also a deciding factor in some Any type of restricted franchise is a violation of the
theocracy system. principle of
6. Property acquired: In some countries the property an A. constitutionalism B. sovereignty
individual has, will qualify him to vote or be voted for C. political equality D. popular election E. legality
in an election. Answer
7. Poverty: poverty can deny some qualified citizens the Any type of restriction in political right is a violation of the
right to vote or be voted for in some political system. principle of political equality and the rule of law. (C)
Merits of Limited or Restricted Franchise: 2017/40 Exercise 15.4
1. Contesting election demands resources for proper Disenfranchisement means
planning, organization and execution. A. right to vote and be voted for
2. The system make use of qualified candidates, the B. right to form government
system is better than universal adult suffrage C. to be disqualified from voting
3. Opportunity of voting is giving to matured and D. disallowing free and fair election
informed minds.
4. Limited franchise reduces the rate of election violence. 1995/24 Exercise 15.5
It does not allow people of unsound or unbalanced If a citizen is disqualified from voting, he is said to be
mind like lunatics, criminals, etc. who may vandalise A. condemned B. banned C. dismissed
the election to vote D. disenfranchised E. prohibited
Demerits of Limited Franchise
1. Limited political education excluded many quality citizens
from voting and being voted for in any election. Unlimited Franchise or Universal Adult Suffrage
2. Opportunity of voting is not given to adult but few This system is most popular, acceptable and well
individuals. acknowledged universally. This system gives the right to
3. In this system, there is no popular choice of electorates; vote to all adult citizens, regardless of wealth, income,
those elected are not popularly elected. The reason is gender, social status, race, ethnicity, or any other
because it is not a reflection of the people’s choice. restriction. There are various among countries in terms of
4. The system is undemocratic and unconstitutional, because specifics of the right to vote; the minimum age is usually
the political rights of the people are denied. between 18 and 25 years. This system is democratic and
5. Disenfranchisement is the problem of this system, since constitutionally based but there are some qualifications and
majorities are disenfranchised; their interests in politics conditions for candidate or electorate, these include:
and related issues of the state are killed. 1. Age is an essential qualification for voting. In Nigeria,
6. The system is unrepresentative, the representative in the for example only 18 years and above can vote. In
system are only representing the interests of the few and Britain, USA, also 18 years, Germany 20 years, India
not the majority. 21 years etc.

225
2. Only the legal citizens and those that are citizens 2000/5 Nov
through naturalization are qualified to vote and be Unlimited franchise implies
voted for in most democratic system. A. tax payer suffrage B. male adult suffrage
3. Registration of electorate is an access to voting, so they C. female suffrage D. universal adult suffrage
must be properly registered and issued with their Answer
voter’s card. Unlimited franchise implies universal adult suffrage. A
4. Any citizen declared as bankrupt cannot vote or be system where all adult (male and female) are given the
voted for. opportunity to exercise their civic right, if they registered
5. In some countries any foreigner that has resided in a properly for the election. (D)
place for some stipulated years can be given the
privilege to exercise his civic right by voting based on 2005/4a Nov
the constitution. Explain universal adult suffrage.
6. Non-citizens are known as aliens, they are not allowed Answer
to vote or to be voted for. Universal adult suffrage also known as unlimited franchise
7. A voter must be in good and stable state of mind, if it gives the right to vote to all adult citizens, regardless of
has been notice that the person is not of sound mind it wealth, income, gender, social status, race, ethnicity, or
can be deprived from his civic right. any other restriction. This system is democratic and
8. Citizens with criminal records may be disqualified constitutionally based but there are some qualifications and
from voting. conditions for candidate or electorate these include proper
9. Under age voting at general election is not allowed in electoral registration, constitutionally based age,
Nigeria. Those below 18 years cannot vote and be citizenship and residency, etc.
voted for in any election. 2012/31 Neco
Universal adult suffrage is associated with a
Merits of Universal Adult Suffrage A. democratic government B. military government
1. There is equality of vote in universal adult suffrage C. gerontocracy government D. fascist government
principle; every qualified adult has one vote. Answer
2. It gives full participation for all qualified citizens. Universal adult suffrage is a system associated, accepted,
3. Popularly elected representatives are elected as far as acknowledged and known universally, it is most suitable
the majority has exercised their franchise, while for democratic government, it makes the electorate equal
electing their representatives. and it gives them the opportunity to participate in their
4. This method does not allow discrimination based on political system. (A)
race, religion, sex, wealth, etc.
5. It allows full political participation of citizens. 2014/24 Neco
6. The system is democratic and constitutional. Universal adult suffrage is very popular today because it
7. This method is suitable for a stable legitimate A. allows the establishment of military regime
government. B. allows for equal political representation
C. encourages a multi-party system
Demerits of Universal Adult Suffrage D. ensures equal performance of all political parties
1. Majority of the electorates do not properly understands E. allows for greater political participation
the meaning of manifesto because of lack of political Answer
education. Universal adult suffrage is very popular in today’s
2. Illiteracy was a major problem during elections. democratic because it allows for greater political
Majority of the voters (male and female) are illiterates, participation of electorate to elect their representatives into
they vote blindly this leads to invalid votes that cannot political offices. (E)
be used.
3. This system can lead to victimization and intimidation 1999/18 Neco Exercise 15.6
Universal adult suffrage is an indispensable factor in the
of political opponents.
practice of
4. Electoral malpractices because of involvement of
A. constitutionalism B. socialism
many votes in this system, can lead to rigging,
C. democracy D. oligarchy
violence, cheating, malpractices etc.
5. There is no true representation in this system, most of 1995/25 Nov Exercise 15.7
the voters were influenced and so they voted wrongly. Universal adult suffrage means that only
A. men are allowed to vote
2018/21 NABTEB B. women are allowed to vote
When we talk about adult male suffrage we mean all C. tax payers are allowed to vote
A. adult can vote B. men who pay tax can vote D. adults are allowed to vote
C. adult males can vote D. men can vote E. income earners are allowed to vote
Answer
Universal adult suffrage gives the right to vote to all adult 1990/50 Nov Exercise 15.8
citizens without any discrimination of class, caste, religion In a democracy, franchise is given to all
or gender. (A) A. qualified adult citizens B. loyal party numerous
C. citizens except members of the armed forces
D. citizens E. resident adults
226
2005/4b Nov Exercise 15.9 2018/16 NABTEB
State five advantages of universal adult suffrage. Franchise is the right to
Answer A. seek redress in a court B. vote and be voted for
1. Equality of votes. C. impeach a president D. freedom of movement
2. It makes for full political participation. Answer
3. There is no discrimination is this system. Franchise is the right to vote and be voted for (B)
4. Popularly elected representatives.
5. It is democratic and constitutional. 1980/18 UTME
6. The system is legitimate. The term franchise refers to
A. French-speaking people B. property owners
Types of Suffrage C. the right to choose representatives
The word suffrage is of Latin origin suffragium meaning D. slavery E. colonialism
‘vote’, ‘political support’ and ‘the right to vote’. It is considered Answer
today as one of the most important political and social elements The term franchise refers to the right to choose
of modern societies. Suffrage means the right to vote, express representatives. (C)
an opinion, participate in decision making process and approve
or reject legislation. It is the right of the electorate to vote in an 1996/17
Franchise means the
election in order to elect their representative. This right is
A. ability to conduct elections
embedded in the constitution of a country.
B. body of principles governing the conduct of an election
1. Adult suffrage: It involves the voting of all adults (male C. right to participate in an election
and female) D. right granted to French citizens to vote
2. Male suffrage: In this system, only the male adults were E. administrative procedure for free and fair election
allowed to vote. Answer
3. Tax-payers suffrage: This system is meant for those who Franchise simply means the right to vote in public, political
have been paying their taxes constantly. One can only elections. (C)
vote, on the basis of tax payment.
4. Property suffrage: Those people with enormous assets 2005/26
and wealth are allowed to vote and be voted for The right of the citizens to vote and be voted for in an election
is called
Conditions necessary for eligibility as candidates for A. indirect election B. nomination
elections: C. general election D. franchise
1. Age: Age is required for election offices, in some countries Answer
25 year of age may be the minimum age for candidates The right of the citizens to vote and be voted for in an election
seeking election into house of representatives and 35 years is called franchise. (D)
of age for the presidency e.g. Nigeria.
2. Payment of tax: He must be ready to provide the evidence
of payment of tax at least for some years. 1999/34
3. No criminal record: He must not be found to have Franchise means the right of the citizens to
A. oppose the government B. express their views
involved in any criminal case or to have been imprisoned
C. join political parties D. vote at elections
for any criminal offence.
Answer
4. Bankruptcy: Any person with the case of bankruptcy Franchise means the right of the citizen to vote at elections.
cannot contest. (D)
5. Residential qualification: The individual must have lived
in the country or state for some years before he/she can 1998/24
contest for an election based on the constitution Universal adult suffrage means that only.
requirements. A. The wealthy class is allowed to contest elections
6. Citizenship: Citizenship is an essential criterion for B. The educated class is allowed to vote
elective post in many countries. Citizenship by birth is the C. eligible adults are allowed to vote and be voted for
main requirement for elective offices in most countries. D. women are allowed to vote and be voted for
7. Sanity: The candidate must be sound of mind before he E. members of the legislature are allowed to vote
can contest for any elective post. Answer
8. A political party member: Individual must be registered Universal adult suffrage means that only eligible adults are
under a political platform (party) before he can contest for allowed to vote and be voted for as entrenched in the
any elective post. constitution. (C)
9. Nomination papers: All necessary documents for each
party and candidates must be registered with the electoral 1998/40
body at the right time after the party primaries. Universal adult suffrage was adopted throughout Nigeria
10. Deposit for the election: The citizen is required to pay a under the constitution of
specified amount of deposit to the appropriate body before A. 1922 B. 1946 C. 1958 D. 1960 E. 1979
Answer
contesting.
The universal adult suffrage was adopted throughout Nigeria
under the constitution of the second Nigerian republic of
1979. (E)

227
2003/19 1995/11
Franchise owes its evolution to the Disfranchisement refers to the
A. development of representative government A. qualification of voters in an election
B. establishment of state enterprise B. disqualification of fraudulent presidential aspirant
C. development of the cabinet C. denial of the right to vote in an election
D. establishment of electoral commission D. right to vote in an election E. right to vote and be voted for
Answer Answer
Franchise owes its evolution to the development of representative Disenfranchisement is to deprivation of the right to vote. (C)
government. (A)
REVISION EXERCISES
1. Franchise means
2014/2015/27 (NDU,BAYELSA)
A. electoral election B. electoral college
The process of depriving persons of the rights of voting
C. right to vote and be voted for
A. enfranchisement B. disqualification
D. move and freedom of speech
C. dismissal D. prohibition
2. What are the two types of franchise
E. disenfranchisement
A. disenfranchisement and enfranchisement
Answer
B. qualification and requirements
Disenfranchisement is the process of depriving some persons the
C. limited and unlimited
right of voting (E)
D. universal adult suffrage and fundamental human right
3. Which type of franchise is popular in a democratic state?
2000/29 Neco
A. unconditional B. unlimited
The grant of the right to vote is called
C. limited D. restricted
A. enfranchisement B. disqualification
4. General election is most democracies are based on
C. prohibition D. participation
A. universal suffrage B. universal adult suffrage
Answer
C. multiple suffrage D. restricted adult suffrage
Enfranchisement is the giving of a right or privilege especially the
5. When we talk about adult male suffrage we mean
right to vote. (A)
A. all adults can vote B. all adult male can vote
C. all men who pay tax can vote
2008/31
D. all adult males who pay tax can vote
A person who exercises franchise performs
6. The term ‘franchise’ refers to
A. an executive function B. a legal function
A. French–speaking people B. property owners
C. a civic duty D. an administrative duty
C. the right to choose representatives to the legislature
Answer
D. the educated electorate
A person who exercises franchise performs a civic duty or right.
7. In a democracy, franchise is given to all
(C)
A. resident adults B. citizens
C. citizens except members of the armed forces
2013/30 Nov
D. qualified adult citizens
Franchise means the right of all qualified citizens to
8. Franchise means
A. manipulate election results B. conduct elections
A. resident aliens can vote B. French people can vote
C. enforce electoral laws D. vote and be voted for
C. right to vote D. exceptive order
Answer
9. Universal adult suffrage is usually restricted in most political
Franchise means the right of all qualified citizens to vote and be
systems to
voted for. (D)
A. criminals B. scholars C. literates D. citizens
10. Franchise ensures
2001/19
A. participation in public affairs
The right of eligible adult citizens to vote and be voted for is
B. a classless democratic system
known as
C. the emergence of ideal leadership
A. referendum B. electoral college C. franchise
D. equal representation
D. male suffrage
11. An electoral system which restricts voting rights to only male
Answer
adults is termed
Franchise qualified eligible adult citizens to vote and be voted for
A. popular franchise B. male suffrage
in any general election (C)
C. adult suffrage D. limited franchise
12. Enfranchisement describes the process of
1990/23 GCE
A. allowing eligible persons the right to vote
Franchise can be described as the
B. allowing special categories of persons to contest elections
A. qualification to vote
C. proportional representation
B. qualification to contest election
D. discriminatory majority
C. right to belong to political parties
13. Explain the four types of suffrage.
D. political rights to vote and be voted for
14. State seven conditions necessary for eligibility as candidates
E. right of all male adults to vote
for elections.
Answer
15. Discuss universal adult suffrage in details.
Franchise can be described as the political right given by the
16. Explain the age requirements necessary for electorate in
constitution for citizens to vote and be voted for. (D)
Nigeria.
17. Define alien based on Nigeria constitution.
18. State five advantages of unlimited franchise.
19. Explain franchise.
228
9. Political parties: It is the duty of politics parties to
Chapter Sixteen nominate candidate for elections. The House (political
parties) must agree with the nomination or primary
ELECTORAL SYSTEM election selection.
An electoral system or voting system is a set of rules that 10. Secret ballot: The secret ballot method of election is
determine how elections and referendums are conducted the best, it should be adopted.
and how their results are determined. It is the process or 11. Political Education: The people should be educated
method through which the people of a given country elect about political education, which will help them to
their representatives into different political offices or know their civic rights as citizens, election procedures
positions in government. An electoral system embodies and about the political system.
rules and regulations that deal on the qualification for 12. Materials for election: Materials for election i.e. ballot
franchise. It states the voting procedure and the protection boxes, ballot papers, ink pad, polling booths etc., are
of the freedom to choose. In other words, the system shows provided.
whether the election would be direct or indirect.
2018/5 NABTEB
In Nigeria, from 1979 to date, we have different electoral An electoral system is one which governs
commissions that have conducted elections in the country. A. appointment of cabinet minister
For example: Federal Electoral Commission (FEDECO) B. dissolution of parliament
conducted 1979–1983, Second Republic Electronic, C. how people vote D. appointment of judges
National Electoral Commission (NEC) conducted the 1993 Answer
aborted election of the Third Republic. Independent An electoral system may be defined as a process or method
National Electoral Commission (INEC) conducted the through which the people of a given country elect their
1999 Fourth Republic Elections. representatives into different political offices or positions
in government. (C)

2000/15 UTME
Which of the following electoral bodies in Nigeria
conducted elections from 1979 to 1983?
A. National Electoral Commission
B. Independent National Electoral Commission
C. National Electoral Commission of Nigeria
D. Federal Electoral Commission
Answer
Federal Electoral Commission (FEDECO) was established
to handle the electoral activities in the Second Republic of
Nigeria (C)

2013/18 (OAU, IFE)

Which of the following is a feature of Nigeria’s electoral
system?
A. direct election B. proportional representation
Characteristics of an Electoral System C. general election D. secret ballot
1. Independent body: An independent electoral body Answer
should be in place for the conduction of elections and Direct election is a feature of Nigeria’s electoral system
results. (A)
2. Periodic election: There should be constant and
periodic elections as stipulated in the constitution. 2012/18 UTME
3. Constituencies: It is essential for the delimitation of The commission charged with the conduct of Federal
the country into constituencies or smaller units. elections in Nigeria is
4. Universal adult suffrage: This type of franchise A. NEC B. FEDECO C. INEC D. NECON
qualified all adult citizens to exercise their political Answer
right, if they meet up with, the basic requirements. Independent National Electoral Commission is the
5. Display of voters’ list: There should be periodic commission in charge with the conduct of Federal
display of voter’s list and regular review of voters’ elections in Nigeria (C)
cards.
6. Independent judiciary: The judiciary should be
independent and free from interferences. 2013/1 (OAU,IFE) Exercise 16.1
7. Voting: Voting should be conducted without fear, What does INEC stands for?
intimidation, victimization or molestation of any A. Independent National Election Committee
electorate. B. Independent Newspapers Executive Committee
8. Counting of votes: The process of counting of votes, C. Independent National Export Council
should be made public and with immediate release of D. Independent National Electoral Commission
results after counting.
229
2008/24 (OAU,IFE) Exercise 16.2 5. With relatively small constituency sizes, the way
Which of the following is not a feature of Nigeria’s boundaries are drawn can have important effects on the
electoral system? election results.
A. direct election B. proportional representative 6. It restricts a constituency’s choice of candidates, the
C. general election D. secret ballot representation of minorities and women suffers, as the
‘safest’ looking candidate is the one most likely to be
1981/11 UTME Exercise 16.3 offered the chance to stand for election.
The Nigerian electoral system gives voting rights to
A. aliens 2012/34 Neco
B. Africans above the age of twenty one The “First past the post” system of voting is also called A.
C. children over twelve years old second ballot system B. proportional representation C.
D. Nigerian citizens who are 18 years old and above simple majority system D. alternative vote system
E. friends of Nigeria Answer
In a first-past-the-post electoral system members of the
2014/2015/51 (NDU, BAYELSA) Exercise 16.4 electorate cast their vote for the candidate of their choice
Citizens who are legally qualified to vote form and the candidate who receives the most vote wins, even if
A. political parties B. a trade union congress they did not receive a majority of the votes. First-past-the-
C. members of the House of Assembly post voting is a plurality voting method. (C)
D. the electorate E. award
2004/35
The plurality system of voting could be described as
Types of Electoral System A. complex majority B. two-third majority
1. Single-member constituency and single vote: This C. simple majority D. absolute majority
system simply means the simple majority system. A Answer
candidate that has the highest number of votes casted Plurality voting can also be described as simple majority. It is
stands elected and each voter is entitled to only one an electoral system in which each voter is allowed to vote for
vote. Britain, USA, Canada, and many other only one candidate, and the candidate who polls the most
commonwealth nation like Nigeria, adopts this system. among their counterparts (a plurality) is elected. (C)
This system is also referred to as “first past the post”.
1985/17 UTME
The Merits of First past the Post Voting System In a simple majority electoral system, the candidate that won
1. It is simple to understand. is the one who
2. It does not cost much to administer. A. obtains the greatest number of votes cast
3. It is fairly quick to count the votes and work out who B. has spent the most amount of money
has won. C. has travelled most widely in the country
4. In a political environment, first past the post enables D. is endorsed by the traditional rulers
voters to clearly express a view on which party they E. has most support among labour union leaders
think should form the next government. Answer
In a simple majority electoral system, the candidate that won
5. First past the post is ideally suitable for two-party system
is the one who obtains the greatest number of votes cast (A)
and generally produces single-party government.
6. This system is suitable to federal system. 2005/16 UTME
In a First-Past-The-Post electoral system. Candidate is
The Disadvantages and Shortcomings of First past the declared elected when he
Post Voting Systems A. obtains a two-thirds majority of the votes casts
1. Representatives can get elected with small amounts of B. records the highest number of the votes cast
public support, as the size of the winning margin is C. scores the aggregate of the opponents vote
irrelevant: what matters is only that they get more D. obtains one-third of the votes cast
votes than other candidates. Answer
2. It encourages tactical voting, as voters often vote not In a First-Past-The-Post electoral system, candidate is
for the candidate they most proffer, but against the declared elected when he records the highest number of the
candidate they most dislike. votes cast becomes the winner of the election (B)
3. This system is regarded as wasteful, as vote cast in a
constituency for losing candidates, or for the winning 1998/16 UTME
candidate above the level they need to win that seat, A candidate who wins an election by a simple majority have
count for nothing. been voted for by
4. FPTP can severely restrict voter’s choice. Parties are A. a majority of the electorate
not homogenous and do not speak with one unified B. most of the electorate
voice. Parties are more coalitions of many different C. a good number of the voters
viewpoints. If the preferred-party candidate in a D. a majority of the voters
Answer
constituency has views with which a voter does not
A candidate who wins an election by a simple majority, must
agree, he or she does not have a means of expressing
have been voted for by a majority of the voters. Meaning that
that at the ballot box. he/she has the highest number of voters (D)

230
1997/17 UTME Exercise 16.5 vote, then a rotation government usually has to be
The simple plurality electoral system is often criticized formed, where a government is formed from two or
because more different political parties, who together have over
A. the ruling party may lose the election 50% of the seats in parliament.
B. the winner may not poll an absolute majority Proportional representation is to allocate seats in
C. it works against all opposition parties proportion to the votes cast in multi-member
D. it is easy to rig constituencies. It is a method used to elect
representatives into the legislative. Examples of
countries that uses this system: Austria, Argentina,
1994/28 Exercise 16.6 Belgium, Brazil etc.
Another name for the first past the post system of voting is
the Types of Proportional Representation
A. second ballot system B. alternative voting method There are two types of proportional representation:
C. simple majority method a. The list system.
D. single transferable voting system b. Single transferable vote.
E. multi-member voting method
The List System
2010/36 Exercise 16.7 The list system is a method of voting for several electoral
The term winner-takes all can also be associated with candidates, usually members of the same political party,
A. second ballot system B. representative government with one mark of the ballot. It is used to elect the
C. first-past-the-post system parliaments of many Western European countries
D. proportional representation including Switzerland, Italy, the Benelux countries and
Germany. Electors vote for one of several lists of
2002/3 Neco Exercise 16.8 candidates, usually prepared by the political parties. Each
Highlight three merits and any three demerits of a simple party is granted seats in proportion to the number of
majority system of voting. popular votes it receives.

Single Transferable Vote

2. Single Member and Second Ballot: Single member The Single Transferable Vote (STV) is a proportional
and second ballot is an electoral system in which the voting system designed to achieve or closely approach
voters choose between the two candidates with the proportional representation through voters ranking
greatest number of votes in an earlier election that fails candidates in multi-seat organization or constituencies
to produce a majority for any one candidate. France is (voting districts). Under STV, each elector (voter) gets a
a good example of this system. single vote in an election electing multiple winners. Each
elector marks their ballot for the most preferred candidate
2017/2018/21 (UI,IBADAN) and also marks back-up preferences. The vote goes to the
An election conducted when no candidate has a majority voter’s first preference if possible, but if their first
votes is called preference is eliminated, instead of being thrown away, the
A. run-off B. re-run C. bye-election vote is transferred to a back-up preference; with the vote
D. second election being assigned to the voter’s second, third or lower choice
Answer or being apportioned fractionally to different candidates.
An election conducted when no candidate has a majority
votes is called second election (D) Merits of Proportional Representation
1. The proper consideration of each vote cast, making the
3. Single Member with Preferential Vote: Single notion ‘one man, one vote, one value’ a reality.
member with preferential vote is a system that allows 2. The system makes for a tree democracy. The people
the electorate to place their candidates in order of are involved in the decision-making process.
preference. While the votes to the weaker candidates 3. The choices of the voters are widened, especially in the
would be distributed to the stronger ones based on their multi-member constituency.
preference scale. 4. Proportional representation reflects the virus of all
4. Proportional Representation: Proportional areas, groups and persuasions.
representation is an avenue through which minority 5. The system ensures a truly representative government.
parties can have some representation in government. 6. Proportional representation also permits free
Under this system, seats are distributed according to expression of individual opinion.
the strength of the parties. If proportional 7. Proportional representation encourages turn-cut and
representation is used in an election, a political party reduce apathy.
that wins 10% of the vote will win 10% of the seats in 8. It rarely produces an absolute majority for one party.
parliament and a party that wins 20% of the votes will 9. Proportional representation delivers fairer treatment of
also win 20% of the seats. If a party wins over 50% of minority parties and independent candidates.
the vote, it wins over 50% of the seats and can form a
government; however, this does not happen very often
because most countries have a lot of differences in
their political parties. If no party wins over 50% of the
231
Demerits of Proportional Representation 2002/8 UTME
1. Proportional representation can potentially provide a Proportional representation is a system of allocating seats
route for extremists to force their way into the political in the legislature based on
mainstream. A. gender participation in politics
2. Proportional representation produces ‘weak’ coalition B. contribution to the national economy
government rather than ‘strong’ majority government. C. total voters in an election
3. It can also reduce accountability to voters, as an ousted D. an area’s involvement in politics
party of government can retain office by finding new Answer
coalition partners after election. Proportional representation is a system of allocating seats
4. A proportional representation list system weakens the
in the legislature based on total voters in an election (C)
link between the elected representative and his or her
constituency.
5. It reduces party discipline. 2002/13 UTME Exercise 16.9
A major consequence of proportional representation is that
2019/17 Neco A. discourages voting along ethnic lines
Which of the following electoral systems is ideal for a B. favours the development of a two-party system
heterogeneous society? C. encourages the proliferation of parties
A. simple majority B. preferential ballot D. reduces the chance of political instability
C. non-transferable vote D. proportional representation
Answer 2019/2020/19 (UI,IBADAN) Exercise 16.10
Proportional representation assures fair representative for The Nigerian president in the First Republic was elected
both majorities and minorities. The multi-member districts through
used in proportional representation elections allow political A. a popular election B. electoral college
minorities with as little as 10% or 20% of the vote to elect
C. proportional representation D. none of the above
their own officials so that they can have some voice and
power in their legislative institutions. (D)
2019/27 Neco 1998/25 Exercise 16.11
Which of the following electoral systems is ideal for a The system of election where by each political party is
heterogeneous society? given a percentage of seats that is equal to the percentage
A. simple majority B. preferential ballot of popular votes cast in its favour is known as
C. non-transferable vote D. proportional representation A. absolute plurality B. proportional representation C.
Answer simple majority D. simple plurality
Proportional representation assures fair representation for E. direct election
bath majorities and minorities. The multi-member distinctly
used in proportional representation elections allows political 1983/18 UTME Exercise 16.12
minorities with as little as 10% or 20% of the vote to elect Which of the statements is CORRECT about Proportional
their own officials, so they can have some voice and power in
Representation?
their legislative institution. (D)
A. it makes the assembly representative of all citizens
2011/38 B. it is simple to operate
Which of the following is not a form of proportional C. it preserves the two party system
representation? D. it gives the parties seat in proportion to their popular
A. alternative vote B. second ballot C. list system support
D. plurality system E. it legalizes dictatorship
Answer
Plurality voting system is not a form of proportional
representation. Plurality voting is an electoral system in 5. Plurality System: Plurality system of voting is an
which each voter is allowed to vote for only one candidate, electoral system in which the winner of an election is
and the candidate who polls the most among their the candidate that receives the highest number of
counterparts is elected. (D) votes. The candidate needs not to win an outright
majority to be elected. This system is sometimes
1987/10 UTME referred to as first-past-the-post or winner-take-all.
Under proportional representation, elections are won on the
This is the most common voting system used in United
basis of
States, Nigeria, etc.
A. simple majority of votes cast
B. absolute majority of votes cast
C. two-thirds majority of votes cast Merits of Plurality System
D. votes received relative to those of other parties 1. The procedure of voting in the system is simple.
Answer 2. The system produces a winner after the first ballot.
Under the proportional representation, elections are won on 3. The system is cheap to operate.
the basis of simple majority of votes cast. This system is used 4. It encourages political stability.
to secure representation in the legislature in such a way that 5. It encourages political parties and creates a
each group or political party gets seats in proportion to the platform for competition among them.
percentage of votes cast in favour of a group or political party, 6. The use of few parties.
the more the percentage of votes cast in favour of a group or
political party, the more the seats that will be allocated to it.
232
Demerits of Plurality System Merits of Alternative Vote System
1. Rigging of election is one of the festive of a 1. It retains the same constituencies, meaning no need to
plurality voting system. redraw boundaries and no overt erosion of the
2. Inefficient and unpopular policies. constituencies.
3. The system does not produce results because the 2. It penalizes extremist parties, who are unlikely to gain
majority rules. many second-preference votes.
4. The system can also enthrone unpopular 3. It encourages candidate to chase second and third
government. preferences, which lessens the need for negative
campaigning.
6. Second Ballot System: The second ballot system is 4. It reduces the need for tactical voting. Electors can
also known as the two-round system. It is a voting vote for their first choice candidate without fear of
method used to elect a single-winner, where the voter wasting their vote.
casts a single vote for their chosen candidate. Despite 5. It reduces the number of “safe seats” where the
its name, the two-round system may resolve an election result is a foregone conclusion.
election in a single round, if one candidate receives
enough of the vote through absolute majority (that is Demerits of Alternative Voting System
50 per cent plus one). If this was not obtained by any 1. Alternative voting is not proportional representation
of the candidates, a second ballot is required, and those and in certain electoral conditions, such as landslides,
having unacceptably low result would be eliminated. can produce a more disproportional result than first
The winning candidate is then required to obtain a past the post.
simple majority. 2. In close three-way race the “compromise” candidate
could be defeated in the first round even though they
2017/2018/21 (UI,IBADAN) may be more broadly acceptable to the electorate than
An election conducted when no candidate has a majority the top two candidates.
votes is called 3. A voting system that allows voters to rank candidates
A. run-off B. re-run C. bye-election is prone to so-called “donkey voting”, where voters
D. second election vote for candidates in the order they appear on the
Answer ballot.
An election conducted when no candidate has
a majority votes is called second election (D) 1999/35 Nov Exercise 16.14
The electoral system where voters indicate their support
1995/30 UTME for candidates in order of preference is called
Where no absolute majority is obtained in the first round A. alternative voting B. block voting
of elections, the most viable option is the C. electoral college D. second ballot.
A. simple majority B. proportional representation
C. second ballot D. bye-election
E. second ballot withdrawal 8. Absolute Majority System: Absolute majority
Answer system is a system of voting which a candidate must
Failure of any candidate to receive absolute majority at the first score more than half of the votes cast before he can be
ballot, a second election is held with the weaker candidates declared the winner. If a political party wins an
either choosing or being required to step-side. (C) absolute majority, they obtain more seats or votes than
the total number of seats or votes gained by their
1990/6 UTME Exercise 16.13 opponents in an election.
The second ballot is based on the principle that a successful
candidate must obtain
A. absolute majority B. simple majority Merits of Absolute Majority System
C. forty percent of the votes 1. A winner that emerges is clear to everyone.
D. fifty percent of the votes 2. It leaves nobody in doubt of who wins the election.
3. The winners enjoy support of the majority.
4. This system is fair to all political parties and candidates
7. The Alternative Vote System: The alternative vote that contested for the election.
system also called instant run off method of election is 5. The number of seats enjoyed by each political party in
a system in which voters rank candidates in order of the parliament is a reflection on the support it enjoys
preferences. If any single candidate receives a majority from the people.
of first-preference votes, that candidate is deemed 6. It promotes political stability as the political parties
elected. If no candidate clears this hurdle, the last- and candidates are convinced that the winner won the
place candidate is eliminated and that candidates election.
second preference are reapportioned to others and so 7. This promotes active political participation as both the
on until a candidate clears the threshold of 50 percent party and candidates work very hard to get the support
of the vote plus one. of the people.

233
Demerits of Absolutes Majority System to be less than the total vote recorded for the less
1. Elections may result in deadlocks. A clear-cut winner popular party. In that situation, the third seat is
may not emerge at the end of the election. This may conceded to the less popular party. This system tries to
result in another round of election or run-off election redress the demerits of the block vote system. Under
(second ballot). it, minorities are assured of greater and more effective
2. It is expensive. It costs time and funds especially when participation in the electoral system.
the voting is repeated.
3. It is complicated. It involves a lot of calculation and ELECTORAL CONSTITUENCY
protocol. An electoral constituency is simply defined as an electoral
4. Election results may be delayed if a winner does not district or an area from which one or more members or
emerge after the first round of voting. representatives are elected into political offices. The
5. It may result in political apathy as the voters whose division of a country into constituencies is known as
candidates were dropped after the first ballot may fail delimitation. A country is divided into constituencies in order
to participate in the second balloting (run-off election). to distribute parliamentary seats equitably which will
6. It weakens small political parties. guarantee equal representation in government. For
7. This system does not work well in illiterate poor delimination to be properly and equitably done, certain
countries where votes may not be rational. factors must be taken into consideration.
8. It encourages election malpractices, political tension
and violence as political parties try to win by all means. Factors that should be considered before delimitation of a
country into constituencies or factors that affect
2017/33 Neco Exercise 16.15 delimitation
The electoral system in which the winner should have more 1. Population: The number of people living in a particular
than all the votes of all the other contestants put together is area should be taken into consideration when delimiting
called a country into constituencies.
A. simple majority system B. referendum 2. Geographical size: An area no matter how densely
C. second ballot system D. absolute majority system. populated must attain certain geographical size before it
can be made a constituency.
9. The Repeated Ballot: The repeated ballot is an 3. Geographical contiguity: The component sections of an
electoral system in which voters vote continuously area to be made a constituency must be close to each
with intervals for discussion and negotiations until a other and not separated by hills, mountains and large
winner emerges. This system is used in nominating the rivers.
American Presidential candidates at the party’s 4. Historical experience: People with similar historical
convention/primary. The system is also applicable experience should be considered and grouped together
when a new pope is elected by the body of cardinals in under the same constituency for effective
catholic church communication.
5. Language: It will be appropriate if people who speak the
10. Block Voting System: The block voting system same language are grouped together in the same
sometimes means simple plurality election of slates in constituency for effective communication.
multimember districts. In such a system, each party 6. Customs, culture and tradition: Towns, villages or
puts forward a slate of candidates, a voter casts just one hamlets belonging to different cultural zones with
vote, and the party winning a plurality of votes sees its different customs are not supposed to be grouped on the
whole slate elected, winning all the seats allocated to same constituency.
the constituency. This system of course strengthens 7. Administrative convenience: There is need to consider
party organization and is easy to administer. However, administrative convenience when creating a
it tends to favour bigger political parties and to under- constituency, so that the head of the local government
emphasise the individual merits of the contending will not be too far from the people.
candidates. 8. Importance of an area: An area may not fulfill some or
all the conditions required for it to be given the status of
11. Limited Vote System: Limited voting (also known as a constituency, but, because of its important position may
the limited vote method) is a voting system in which be a federal capital territory, such an area may be made a
electors have fewer votes than there are positions constituency.
available. The positions are awarded to the candidates 9. Number of seats available: The number of seats
who receive the most votes absolutely. available will determine the number of representatives
from each constituency.
For instance, whereas under the block vote system a 10. Minority consideration: In a multi-ethnic nation like
voter is given three votes in an election in a three seat Nigeria, minorities would resent being grouped with
constituency, only two votes would be given under the majority ethnic groups; they should therefore be given
limited vote system. Under the limited vote system, their own constituencies irrespective of other
therefore, the voter has to pick two of the three consideration.
candidates put forward by his preferred party. By the 11. Religious affiliation: In a country where there is sharp
time all the votes are counted, it is possible, in a two – religious demarcation, consideration should be given to
party contest, for the total votes recorded for the least different religious groups when delimiting the country
popular candidate of the more popular political party into constituencies.
234
2018/26 NABTEB Demerits of Single-Member Constituency
An electoral district is also known as 1. It does not facilitate the operation of proportional
A. electioneering B. local government representation. Therefore it does not give every vote
C. polling booth D. constituency the same value i.e. there may be wide variations in
Answer the sizes of the voters.
An electoral district is also known as constituency. An 2. It increases the possibility of boundary manipulation
electoral constituency is a sub-unit, districts, wards in each (gerrymandering) to give a particular party more
political state. It can also be called territories subdivision for representation.
electing members to a legislative body to represent the 3. It gives less accurate reflection of popular vote.
people. (D) 4. The minorities or smaller parties may not be
represented in the legislature.
2010/33 Neco
The arrangement by which a country is divided into parts for
election purposes is called
(B) Multi-Member Constituency: This refers to the type of
A. enfranchisement B. gerrymandering constituency in which two or more members of the
C. delimitation D. democratization legislature are elected at every election and each voter is
Answer entitled to two or more votes depending on the number of
Delimitation literally means the act or process of fixing limits candidates to be elected from the constituency.
or boundaries of territorial constituencies in a country or a Candidates who scored the highest number of votes in
province having a legislative body. (C) relation to the number of candidates to be elected from
the constituency and number of candidates that contested
1999/22 Nov Exercise 16.16 the election are declared elected. This system generally
Delimitation of constituencies is an arrangement by which a agrees with provisions for minority representation and
state is divided into parts for encourages the multiplication of groups in a legislature,
A. revenue sharing B. electoral purpose making it difficult for any group to command a majority.
C. limitary service D. cultural festivities
Problems Affecting Delimitation Of Constituencies
2013/31 Neco Exercise 16.17 1. Inaccurate population Census: Many countries
The geographical units into which a country is divided for the especially in West Africa lack reliable demographic
purpose of election are called figures that will make equitable distribution of
A. states B. constituencies constituencies possible.
C. polling areas D. county councils 2. Ethnic Factor: Multi-ethnic groups create problem in
delimitation of constituencies because, each ethnic group
Types of Constituencies will like to have a constituency no matter how small in
There are two types of constituencies: terms of population and geographical size.
A. Single-member constituency or district system 3. Inadequate means of transport and communication:
B. Multi-member constituency Many areas of West Africa are inaccessible as a result of
lack of good roads and means of sending and receiving
(A) Single-Member Constituency or District System: This is messages.
the type of constituency in which only one member of the 4. Political gerrymandering: The political party in power
parliament is elected at every election and each voter is may manipulate the delimitation in order to give it undue
entitled to only one vote. Many candidates contest elections political advantages in subsequent elections.
in this type of constituency and the candidate with the 5. Religious differences: Where there are many religious
highest number of votes stands elected. Britain and many groups and differences, problem will arise if these
other commonwealth nations like Nigeria adopt single- different religious groups are to be lumped together in the
member constituency. same constituency.
6. Grouping together of different interest: Problem may
Merits of Single-Member Constituency also come up when trying to group the majority tribes
1. It makes it possible for the voters to know their with minority. The minority group may not cherish
representative very well. The relatively small size of the such ideas.
single-member constituency enables the voter’s simple
7. Different historical background: Problem arises when
and genuine way of knowing the candidates.
different areas with different historical background are to
2. It enables the representative to know those he
represents i.e. the representative establishes close be grouped together in the same constituency as a result
contact with his constituencies easily. of their smallness in size and population.
3. It makes for smaller constituencies where 8. Lack of trained manpower: Delimitation of
accountability and responsibility can be enforced. constituencies is not handled by experts as a result of the
4. It is also simple and economical, especially for the inadequacy of trained manpower in West Africa.
candidates. 9. Poor town planning: This creates problem in dividing a
5. The small size of single-member constituency makes it town into constituencies as buildings are not properly
easier to discover local talents who may aspire and arranged in roads or streets.
represent the constituency well, even though he is not 10. Spatial dispersion of people: Many people living in
wealthy. This encourages political participation. many rural areas of West Africa are scattered in bushes
6. It creates stable majority in the legislature than the without any sign of human settlement in those areas.
multi-member constituency.
235
2012/2013 /49 (UNIZIK,AWKA) ELECTORAL MALPRACTICES
A constituency is the same as Electoral malpractices sometimes referred to as election
A. a local government area fraud, election manipulation or vote rigging, are illegal
B. a region in federal system of government interference with the process of an election, either by
C. an electoral district increasing the vote share of the rival candidates or both.
D. any large town where people vote E. the ward
Answer Causes of Electoral Malpractices
A constituency is the same as an electoral district. A 1. Economic problems: Numerous economic issues and
constituency is a geographically defined area in which instability make people anxious about their future. Some of
voters elect a representative in a legislative body (C) them are eager to join the party and start a political career to
build their personal financial ‘nest’ and eat their part of the
2017/2018/74 (UNIZIK,AWKA) national cake. They are only thinking about personal wealth.
An electoral district for a local government election is a They have no desire to help the nation change for better and
A. ward B. polling booth C. constituency the economy to develop.
D. senatorial district 2. High poverty rate: In Nigeria, it is not a secret that millions
Answer of Nigerians are poor. Poverty, low salaries, unemployment,
Ward is an electoral district for a local government election such situation is used by politicians who make their promises
(A) and never keep their words. Poverty and corruption are real
“friends” and are extremely loved by politicians. People who
1997/18 UTME cannot afford food are willing to trade their vote for bread,
The process of dividing a country into electoral districts is fruit, and cereals or even money.
known as 3. Illiteracy: The inabilities of most Nigerians to read and write
A. demarcation B. delineation C. delimitation have denied them their political rights to make their choice
D. distribution when voting.
Answer 4. Ethnic influence: Ethnic influence is one of the major causes
The process of dividing a country into electoral districts is of electoral malpractices in Nigeria. People want to have their
known as delimitation. Delimitation is the process of fixing people in the corridor of power, so that they can be relevant
limits or boundaries of territorial constituencies in a country in the government.
or a province having a legislative body. (C) 5. Extravagant spending: Our politicians are the causes of
electoral malpractices, the way they lavish and spend
1985/14 unnecessarily public money makes every interested politician
The deliberate tampering with the delimitation of to want to have political appointment or elected into offices
constituencies in order to win more seals is called by force.
A. gerontocracy B. gerrymandering C. delimitation 6. Weak courts: Our courts are weak even with all the rumors
D. bureaucracy E. devolution going around the fraud during elections; the weak court
Answer system does not help much with punishments. No justice in
The deliberate tampering with the delimitation of our court of law. It makes the electoral fraudsters to get away
constituencies in order to win more seals is called with their lies and fraud. This problem triggers the temptation
gerrymandering. Gerrymandering is when a political group to stay unfair and bring no real democratic changes to the
tries to change a voting district to create a result that helps country.
them or hurts the group who is against them. It puts more 7. Temporary staff problem: It is cheaper to hire a temporary
voters of winners into the district they will win so the losers team to work during elections and on the other hand,
win in another district (B) temporary staff can be easily influenced by the fraudulent
elements because, most of them lack experience, if they are
2013/4 (OAU,IFE) Exercise 16.18 caught they will be disengaged immediately. Such people
Manipulation of electoral boundaries for electoral purposes is sometimes feel the need to quickly make some extra cash
known as during elections, since they’ll go back to their joblessness
A. delimitation B. gerrymandering C. devolution once the elections are over.
D. deconcentration 8. No discipline: There is little or no discipline in different
spheres. There are problems with infrastructure, logistics,
1994/26 Exercise 16.19 security staff, and low electoral interest among Nigerians.
The deliberate tampering with the boundary of 9. Frustrated politicians: Some politicians, who have lost at the
constituencies in order to win more seats is called polls many times, may engage in different unlawful means to
A. devolution B. gerontocracy C. delimitation win the election.
D. gerrymandering E. decentralizations 10. Hidden foreign influence: Some foreign countries are
secretly involved in sponsoring some candidates or political
parties in other countries. They strictly monitor every
1993/16 UTME Exercise 16.20 electoral activity in order to make sure that they favour their
Another term for an electoral district is a candidates or political parties. This may result because they
A. ward B. local government area want to protect the economic advantages they are enjoying in
C. politically demarcated area D. constituency the affected country.

236
Forms of Electoral Malpractices 4. Loss of lives and property: Lives and properties of
1. The use of fake ballot papers: Some politicians seeks some notable politicians and innocent citizens have
for power at all cost willing to go to any length to get been wasted due to imposition of wrong candidates on
the political power, they will print their fake ballot the people.
papers, at times they conspire with the electoral offices 5. Military interventions: Electoral malpractices can also
or thugs to achieve this. lead to military intervention.
2. Underage voting: The universal adult suffrage age in 6. International Sanctions: Nations may stand against
Nigeria is 18 years and above. In most cases, children any leader that uses electoral malpractices to get into
below this age, have been allowed to vote in elections. office. The international bodies can use sanction as a
They thereby violate the electoral laws. penalty for the leader to step-aside or face the
3. Bribery: This is the act of offering money or gifts in consequences.
order to gain votes of the people. This form of electoral
malpractices is common to almost all the politicians in NECO 2022/45
Nigeria. The Nigeria Federation consists of how many federal
4. Fake manifestoes: Manifestoes are plans or constituencies?
programmes of political party, defining what they A. 36 B. 109 C. 360 D. 469 E. 774
intend to do for the people, when they win the election. Answer
This helps them to make more votes during election. The Nigeria Federation consists of 360 federal
After they have won the political office, the constituencies. (C)
manifestoes will not be relevant again. Most of the
political party’s manifestoes are lies and deceit. 2017/2018/21 (UI, IBADAN)
5. They use thugs and intimidation: In Nigeria, most An election conducted when no candidate has a majority
influential politician uses thugs at their opponent’s votes is called
political parties. The thugs are also used for campaign A. run-off B. re-run C. bye-election
tours, they snatch ballot boxes and even cause D. second election
commotion at the polling centre. Answer
6. Rigging of election results: The electoral officer with An election conducted when no candidate has a majority
the cooperation of parties agents, security agents may votes is called second election (D)
decide to favour a particular candidate that might have
bribed them. This is mainly to temper with election 1978/10 UTME
results or falsify the figures. An electoral system is the system which governs
A. the appointment of the pope B. how people vote
C. the conduct of elections
D. the appointment of cabinet ministers
E. the appointment of Judges
Answer
An electoral system is the system which governs the
conduct of elections. The electoral system is a process and
procedure by which citizens of a democratic country select
through either direct voting or indirectly those who will
represent them in the parliament and other positions in the
government (C)

2015/23 (OAU,IFE)
The commission established to handle the electoral
Aftermath of thugs invading a polling centre in Nigeria activities in the Second Republic of Nigeria was
A. NEC B. FEDECO C. NECON D. INEC
Consequences of Electoral Malpractice Answer
1. Apathy: Electoral malpractices may cause citizen to
The commission established to handle the electoral activities in
lose interest in political activities. Many of those acts the Second Republic of Nigeria was FEDECO. (B)
of electoral malpractice have been ongoing and no
correction or punitive measures have been taken,
1993/15 UTME
resulting too many of the citizens deciding to keep Gerrymandering means
away from politics.
A. the second ballot system
2. Corruption of leadership: Most leaders are emerging B. single transferable system
through electoral malpractices, such leaders are C. the manipulation of constituency boundaries
corrupt. They are only interested in money and D. the tyranny of the majority
personal investment.
Answer
3. Autocratic leadership: Electoral malpractices may
Gerrymandering is a practice intended to establish an unfair
produce autocratic leadership. They are not guided by political advantage for a particular party or group by
the constitution or the public opinion, the leaders manipulating the boundaries of electoral district, which is
forces the people to do what they want not what the most commonly used in first-past-the post electoral systems.
condition said. (C)
237
2006/21 (OAU,IFE) 2012/19 UTME
The electorate is generally understood to refer to An electoral system in which parties are assigned seats in
A. elected members of the National Assembly the parliament commensurate to the number of votes
B. elected members of the State House of Assembly polled is
C. candidates who can contest elections A. absolute majority B. simple majority
D. those citizens qualified to vote at elections C. proportional representation D. indirect election
Answer Answer
The electorate is generally understood to refer to those Proportional representation is an electoral system in which
citizens qualified to vote at elections. Electorate are all the political parties are assigned seats in the parliament
people in a country or areas who are entitled to vote in an commensurate to the number of votes cast at the polling
election. The other name of electorate is voters. books (C)

2006/27 Neco 2010/9 UTME

A system in which a candidate with the highest number of Proportional representation favours a
votes is declared winner in an election is called A. multi-party system B. three – party system
A. first past the post B. block voting C. two party system D. one party system
C. second balloting D. proportional representation Answer
Answer Proportional representation favours a multi-party system,
First past the post is a voting system in which a person is because seats in the parliament are proportional to the
elected because they get more votes than anyone else in the numbers of vote cast into the various political parties (A)
area that they want to represent. (A)
1988/16 UTME
1989/14 UTME In simple plurality electoral system, the winner receives
An electoral system in which the candidate who receives A. more than half of the votes cast
the largest number of votes wins is B. overwhelming majority of all votes cast
A. the preferential ballot B. the second ballot C. more votes than those for all other candidates combined
C. proportional system D. plurality system D. the highest vote cast in favour of any candidate
Answer Answer
An electoral system in which the candidate who receives The simple plurality, simple majority or the First-Past-
the largest number of votes wins is plurality system or a The-Post electoral system, the winner receives the highest
simple majority system (D) vote cast in favour of any candidate. (D)

2009/10 (OAU,IFE)
1994/27 Gerrymandering refers to the
Which of the following statements is correct about A. conduct of elections into local government offices
proportional representation? It B. registration of political parties
A. makes the assembly representative of all citizens C. conduct of gubernatorial elections
B. is simple to operate D. definition of electoral constituencies
C. preserves the two-party system Answer
D. gives the parties seats in relation to their popular support Gerrymandering is the practice of drawing the boundaries of
E. legalizes dictatorship electoral districts in a way that gives one political party an
Answer unfair advantage over the other (D)
Proportional representation is a system of allocation of
seats in proportion to the number of votes it receives or the 2008/2009/19 (NDU,BAYELSA)
popular support the party got from the electorates in terms An electoral district is a
of voting. (D) A. polling booth B. constituency C. ward
D. local government area
2012/35 Neco E. subdivision of the state
Proportional representation is more appropriate in Answer
A. multi-party system B. plurality system An electoral district is a constituency. Constituency is basic
C. unitary system D. monarchical system electoral unit into which eligible electors are organized to
Answer elect representatives to a legislative or other public body (B)
Multi-party system is most appropriate voting system of
proportional representation; it shares the vote among the REVISION EXERCISES
parties, which makes each party to have one or two 1. Which of the following is the odd one out?
representatives at the legislature. (A) A. plurality system B. alternative vote system
C. political system D. second ballot system
E. proportional representatives system
2. When the electorate vote for representatives who in
turn vote on their behalf we say it is
A. an indirect election B. an unfair election
C. a rigged election D. a disputed election

238
3. Which of these statements is correct about
proportional representation?
A. it makes the assembly representative of all citizens
B. it is simple to operate
C. it preserves the party system
D. it gives the parties seats in proportion to their
popular support
4. In a simple majority electoral system, the candidate
that wins is the one who
A. obtains the greatest number of voters cast
B. has spent the most amount of money
C. has travelled most widely in the country
D. has most support among labour union leaders
5. Proportional representation is recommended because it
A. favours small parties B. is simple to operate
C. leads to liberal democracy
D preserves the party system
6. In simple plurality electorate system, the winner
receives
A. more than half of the votes cast
B. overwhelming majority of all votes cast
C. more votes than those for all other candidates
combined
D. the highest vote cast in favour of one candidate
7. Which of the following is the least democratic
selection process?
A. first past the past system
B. proportional representation
C. indirect election D. co-option.
8. The second ballot is based on the principle that a
successful candidate must obtain
A. absolute majority B. simple majority
C. forty percent of the votes
D. fifty percent of the votes
9. Proportional representation is often criticized because it
A. tends to preserve the multi-party system
B. is too simple to operate
C. ensures that each party has a minister
D. provides that each state is represented according to
its population
10. An electoral process in which candidates for elective
offices are selected by party members is known as
A. primary election B. electoral college
C. direct election D. preferential voting
11. What is electoral system?
12. State six features of electoral system.
13. List and explain types of electoral system.
14. Explain electoral constituency.
15. States five factors influencing the delimitation of
constituencies.
16. Mention the types of constituencies and explain multi-
members constituency.
17. Discuss any five problems affecting the delimitation of
constituency in a state.
18. What is gerrymandering?
19. Explain electoral malpractices.
20. State eight causes of electoral malpractices in Nigeria.

239
Demerits of Elections
1. Elections can divide the country into antagonistic
Chapter Seventeen
ORGANIZATION OF ELECTION
groups with different camp opposing one another.
2. Election causes disunity in the country because people
belong to different political parties which make them
see themselves as rivals in the country.
ELECTION
3. Election is very expensive, it encourages wastage of
Election is the formal process of selecting a person for
fund, materials, human resources and time.
public office or of accepting or rejecting a political
4. Rigging of election may enthrone people of dubious
proposition by voting. One of the reasons citizens vote is
intentions into the government.
to choose their rulers and also have the power to remove
5. The ruling party may decide not to assist a specific area
them. It is important to distinguish between the form and
because they do not vote for them which can lead to
substance of elections.
uneven development in the country.
6. Many technocrats and best minds are scared away
Although elections were used in ancient Athens, in Rome
because of thuggery, intimidations, victimization, etc.
and in the selection of Popes and Holy Roman emperors,
that characterize elections.
the origins of elections in the contemporary world lie in the
7. Elections may still marginalize some groups in the
gradual emergence of representative government in
society. This may cause disaffection in the political
Europe and North America beginning in the 17th century.
system.
Functions of Elections 2016/30 Neco
1. Election gives the voters a choice of who should Elections are conducted to
represent them. A. provide permanent employment for the people
2. To elect representatives who will act on behalf of their B. make the people choose their leaders
community and of individuals in relation to C. know the number of people in a country
government decisions and government departments. D. know the social amenities in the community
3. To produce a legislature that reflects the main trends Answer
of opinion among the electorate. An election is a formal group decision-making process by
4. To produce a strong and stable government. which a population chooses an individual to hold public
5. Election confers legitimacy on elected governments. office. (B)
6. Election fosters democracy, because it creates avenue
for people to participate in the decision-making of their 1991/22 UTME
country. Elections present the electorate the opportunity to
7. Election makes it easier for the people to change A. control government policies
government. B. control members of parliament
8. The people have the free choice and right to elect their C. assess the performance of the previous representative
leaders into different political offices. D. choose among candidates
9. Election provides the means of ensuring control and Answer
accountability of those who have been elected. Elections present the electorate the opportunity to choose
10. The election results can be used to measure the opinions among candidates. Election is a process in which people
of the people on issues of national importance. (electorate) vote to choose a person or group of people to
11. Election promotes competition among the political hold an official position. (D)
parties.
12. Election enhances equality of votes of citizens. It is a 2000/21 Nov
One of the functions of elections is to
case of one man to one vote.
A. encourage military rule
B. allow non-citizens to vote
C. allow the citizens to participate in politics
D. encourage citizens to bid for foreign exchange
Answer
Elections enables citizens to participate in politics, it also
helps the electorate to elect their political leaders. (C)

1992/7
Voting at elections is one of the ways to
A. maintain law and order B. help politicians
C. be a good politician
D. ensure a representative government
E. avoid gerrymandering
Answer
Election is an act of electing candidates to represent the
Ongoing Election Process people of a given country in the parliament, the executive
and possibly into other arms of government as stipulated
in the constitution of that particular country. (D)
240
1978/28 UTME 1996/22 Exercise 17.4
Which of the following is true as a major function of The purpose of an election is to
elections? A. allow people to participate in choosing their leaders
A. the elections serve the purpose of recruitment of leaders B. provide social amenities for the electorate
to office in a modern state C. declare election results
B. the election gives the people a chance to eliminate D. gives people political education
opponents who are in office E. allow the counting of votes in public
C. they are means of testing the popularity of politicians
D. politicians use elections as tools to deceive the populace
E. elections are means by which politicians keep Types of Elections
themselves in power There are six types of elections:
Answer 1. Direct election
The election serves the purpose of recruitment of leaders 2. Indirect election
to office in a modern state that is the main function of 3. Bye–election
elections (A) 4. Run–off election or second ballot
5. Primary election
2002/19 Neco 6. Referendum
Which of the following is not a purpose of election?
A. political recruitment B. rigging Direct Election
C. exercise of franchise D. legitimacy Direct election is a system of choosing political office
Answer holders in which the voters directly cast ballots for the
Election rigging is illegal interference with the process of an persons or political party that they desire to see elected.
election, either by increasing the vote share of the favored The method by which the winner or winners of a direct
candidate, depressing the vote share of the rival candidates, or election are chosen depends upon the electoral system
both. Rigging is not a purpose of election. (B) used. The most commonly used systems are the plurality
system and the two round system for single-winner
2015/28 Neco elections, such as presidential election and party-list
The following are the aims of election except that proportionate representation for the election of a
A. a group sticks on the power legislature.
B. there is accountability of the leaders
C. there is a smooth change of government An example of direct election is the election of the
D. the people determine who rules President of France which has been a popular vote since
Answer the amendment of the Constitution of the First Republic in
Election does not encourage a group of people to stick on 1962.
the power because election encourages periodic election
and change of government. (A) Merits of Direct Election
1. It allows the electorate themselves to choose their
1995/27 Nov Exercise 17.1 representatives.
Which of the following is not a purpose of elections? To 2. The voters know the candidates and issues directly
A. change government peacefully involved in an election and this raises their political
B. test the popularity of the government consciousness.
C. guarantee the political participation of the people 3. There is direct communication between the electors
D. check abuses in government and the prospective political leaders.
E. determine the population of a country. 4. The rights of the electors are restored in voting for the
right candidate of their choice.
5. It satisfies the Democratic principle by its openness
2019/21 NABTEB Exercise 17.2 and Awards mass participation in political decision
The following are reasons for holding elections in a state making of the country.
except 6. Direct election is simple and easy-to-understand by the
A. to form political parties electorate. It gives the electorate quality of votes; One
B. peaceful change of political leaders Man, One Votes.
C. legitimacy of political leaders
D. accountability of political leaders Demerits of Direct Election
1. If the electorate is left to itself, and direct election
purports to do, it may not be able to make the best
2003/20 Exercise 17.3 choice among candidates. This is largely the case with
One of the main functions of an election is ignorant or uninformed voters.
A. co-ordination of electoral activities 2. It is difficult to organize a direct election in a large
B. making of rules for governance inter-developed state.
C. legitimization of the government 3. Although a direct election is open, the real issues and
D. creating an avenue for politicians to make money interests at stake tended to be masqueraded. As such,
election is more or less a ritual as the preferred
candidates representing the interests of the party
241
oligarchy still have a very good chance of being 5. The electorate need to be enlighten how their choice of
elected. candidate without intimidation.
4. This mode of election is expensive to operate as the 6. It helps the illiterate to chase the candidate of their
government, Electoral Commission, political parties choice without mistakes.
and even candidates have to expend huge amounts of
money on elections. Demerits Of Public Voting
1. The voters may be compelled to vote for a particular
Types of Direct Voting candidate or party, because the voting is done in the
There are two types of direct voting. open.
1. Secret balloting. 2. The government may exert pressure upon the
2. Public voting. electorate to vote for government officials.
3. The landlords and employers can equally exert
Secret Balloting pressure on those who are more or less subject to their
This voting system is also known as “Australian ballot” or control.
“Massachusetts ballot”, is a voting system where voters 4. Voters are exposed to intimidation and harassment
cast their voter secretly or privately. The voter alone makes from political parties.
the decision in the voting exercise. In this type of election, 5. Open ballot is seen as a crude and uncivilized method
ballot papers inscribing the names of the parties and of voting. It is unacceptable in modern democracy.
symbols, ballot box, envelope, ink pad, etc. are some of the 6. It can lead to immediate violence, if any party is not
materials needed for secret balloting. This system is one satisfied with the result.
means of achieving the goal of political privacy. 7. Electoral officials could still manipulate the results of
the election.
Merits of Secret Balloting
1. It is democratic because it preserves the rights of the 2014/2015/14 (UI,IBADAN)
voters. One of the advantages of direct election is that
2. Secret ballot is more of universal type of voting. A. it is too expensive and difficult to conduct
3. It gives the voter the sense of direction and decision on B. illiterates vote intelligently for their leaders
who to vote as their representative. C. it makes representatives accountable to the electors
4. Secret ballot system is free from intimidation and D. it offers an opportunity to electorate to demand for
harassment from the opponent parties. money
5. It gives the voter privacy to make their choice. Answer
6. It makes the voter to have satisfaction with the One of the advantages of direct election is that it makes
confidence that he has exercised his franchise. representatives accountable to the electors. It gives
7. It gives the voter a sense of belonging to the political opportunity to individuals to have a direct say in the type
process. of political policies the government should pursue.

Demerits of Secret Balloting 2012/33 Neco

1. Secret balloting is difficult to comprehend because of A major advantage of the secret ballot system of voting is
the tedious process the voter has to go through before that
voting. A. it is faster than other systems
2. The illiterate ones can vote blindly. B. it ensures the anonymity of the voter
3. It is time consuming. C. it extends the franchise to all adults
4. The system is costly to operate. D. nobody can be prevented from voting
5. The system encourages thuggery and intimidation at Answer
the polling centres. It ensures the anonymity of the voter (B)

Public Voting 2014/2015/30 (UI, IBADAN) Exercise 17.5

Public voting is the type of voting that is done in the open The major advantage of secret balloting is that, it
or publicly. The voters will have to line up according to A. allows people to vote freely
their political parties and the counting of the voters is done B. ensures the anonymity of the voters
by the presiding officer before everybody present. The C. extends the franchise the all the adults
results are declared on the spot. The system is also known D. is faster than the other systems
as open balloting.

Merits of Public Voting Indirect Election

1. Simple to operate, the voting system is easy and fast to Indirect election has to with a system, whereby the
operate, the system is not expensive to operate. legislators or local government unit, will form the body
2. Voting is a political right of all adult citizens, so it known as “electoral college”. They will have to vote for
should be done in public. the candidate of their choice on behalf of the electorate
3. The voters are counted on the spot and the result is (citizens). USA elects their Presidential candidates through
declared before everybody. this medium. This same system was used in the first
4. It reduces electoral malpractices. republic to elect the first president of Nigeria–1963/66. Dr.
Nnamdi Azikiwe was the first president of Nigeria.
242
Merit of Indirect Election the constituent assembly in Nigeria in 1977 and 1988 were
1. The elected legislators form an electoral college to through the Electoral College system. The electorate voted
indirectly vote on behalf of the electorate. directly councilors in the different local government
2. Indirect election produces less violence than direct councils. These councilors in turn voted for representatives
election. in the constituent assembly. Another example was the
3. The electoral colleges are well informed in politics. ‘option A4’ system fashioned by President Babangida.
4. There is no opportunity of rigging in this type of Under this arrangement, the electorate voted directly for
election. delegates. The delegates in turn voted for presidential
5. Indirect election is not as costly as direct election. aspirants of the two political parties: National Republican
Convention (NRC), and the Social Democratic Party
Demerits of Indirect Election (SDP) at the different party convention. The United State
1. Indirect election is not democratic, the choices of of America elects their president through the Electoral
individuals are not considered. College.
2. The system does not offer wider political participation
in the state. Merits of Electoral College
3. The system promotes bribery and corruption with 1. Electoral malpractices are minimized because only
manipulation of delegates. few individuals vote.
4. The final result of the election may not reflect the will 2. Easy and proper identification of candidates to the
of the people. Electoral College.
5. The system denies the people the opportunity to 3. The system produces a winner easily.
partake in universal adult suffrage. 4. The system is not expensive to operate.
6. The people may be apathetic to vote in subsequent 5. There is not time wastage in this system.
elections. 6. The electoral colleges are well educated in terms of
7. It may breed discontent and political instability in the politics.
system.
Demerits of Electoral College
2018/34 Neco 1. The system might produce the wrong candidate.
Indirect election is best described as 2. Electoral College leads to bribery and corruption to
A. only women electing legislators influence the outcome of the leader.
B. the citizenry electing legislators, Electoral College 3. The people’s rights of choice are denied.
electing legislators 4. The legislature which formed the Electoral College
C. indirect election is a system best described as Electoral does not possess enviable qualities for electing
College electing representatives or president on behalf of candidates for the electorate.
the electorate
D. only adults electing legislators 2005/30
Answer An electoral college is a
Indirect election is a system best described as Electoral A. form of indirect election
College electing representatives or president on behalf of B. school for electoral officers
the electorate. (C) C. college which trains party leaders
D. policy to dissolve constituencies
2011/2012/8 (NDU,BAYELSA) Answer
When the electorate vote for representatives who in turn An electoral college is a form of indirect election. The
vote on their behalf, we say it is Electoral College is a group or body of elected
A. an indirect election B. an unfair election representatives who in turn come together to elect people
C. a rigged election D. disputed election into political offices. (A)
E. a biased election
Answer 2013/33 Neco
When the electorate vote for representatives who in turn An election which involves the use of an electoral college
vote on their behalf, we say it is an indirect election. is
A. run-off election B. a general election
C. an open balloting D. an indirect election
Electoral College Answer
An electoral college is a body of elected representatives An election which involves the use of an electoral college
who in turn come together to elect people into political is an indirect election. (D)
offices. It is an indirect system of election, where a body
of electors elect the representative of the people on their 1996/27 Nov Exercise
behalf. The electors themselves have been elected by the An Electoral College system of voting is a form of
generality of the people in the first place. A. direction election B. indirect election
Elections are held in several stages to elect representatives. C. secret election D. open election
The generality of the people are involved only in the first E. college election
stage, a stage which affords them the opportunity to vote Answer
people into the Electoral College which will eventually do An Electoral College system of voting is a form of indirect
the final voting on their behalf. For example, elections in election. (B)
243
Bye-Election 2018/33 Neco
A bye-election is held to fill a vacant electorate seat for An electoral system which allows party members to elect
example, if a member of parliament resigns or dies. A bye- candidates for elective office is called
election will take place in that constituency; the election is A. general election B. by election C. direct election
only open to voters who are registered in the general election. D. primary election
Answer
2015/30 Neco An electoral system which allows party members to elect
An election held to fill a vacant post in the legislature due to candidates for elective office is called primary election. (D)
the death or resignation of a member is called
A. run-off election B. Electoral College
D. bye-election D. primary election
Referendum
Answer
Bye-election is an election held in a single political
A referendum is a direct and universal vote in which an
constituency to fill a vacancy arising during a government’s entire electorate is invited to vote on a particular proposal
term of office. (D) and can have nationwide or local forms. This may result in
the adoption of a new policy or specific law. The electorate
1997/29 can also decide on the will by yes or no.
A bye-election is conducted when
A. the parliament is dissolved 2001/22 Nov
B. the Chief Justice resigns or dies A type of election in which voters are asked to decide a
C. a minister resigns basic political issue is known as
D. the military takes over government A. open ballot B. by-election C. second ballot
E. some vacant seat exist in parliament D. referendum
Answer Answer
A by-election is a special election, not held at the time of a Referendum is when people vote in order to make a
general election, to fill a vacancy in parliament. (E) decision about a particular subject, rather than voting for a
person. (D)
1990/21
An election which is conducted to fill a vacant seat in a 1995/29
legislature is called a An election in which people vote for issues of public policy
A. by-election B. general election than candidates is known as a
C. referendum D. plebiscite E. mini-election
A. mini-election B. general election C. by-election
Answer
D. party primary E. referendum
A by-election is an election that takes place to fill a vacant
elective post as a result of dis-qualification, resignation or Answer
death of the parliament in the office. (A) Referendum ensures that laws not in conformity with the
popular will are not passed. This is a useful check on the
1993/23 Nov Exercise 17.6 powers of the legislature. (E)
An election conducted to fill a vacant seat in a legislature is
known as 1996/28 Nov
A. an indirect election B. a by-election A type of election in which the voters are asked a yes or no
C. a general election D. a primary election question on a major issue is called
E. a referendum A. by election B. an indirect election
C. absolute majority D. a referendum
Run-Off Election or Second Ballot E. a general election.
When none of the candidate wins the election by absolute Answer
majority in a general election, another election would be Referendum is a process whereby people vote particularly
conducted. In this final election, only the candidates with the on a law in a given political system with answer yes or no.
highest votes are allowed to contest. (D)
Primary Election 2019/27 NABTEB
Primary education is an election conducted within a political When a constructional or political issue is referred to the
party to choose credible candidates that can adequately citizen to either vote “Yes or No”, such is regarded as
represent the interests of the party in any election.
A. by election B. referendum
C. primary election D. indirect election
2002/25 Nov
Election among candidates from the same party before the Answer
final election is called When yes or no vote of the people on particular law in a
A. primaries B. electoral college given political system is called referendum. (B)
C. second ballot D. plebiscite
Answer 2017/31 Neco Exercise 17.7
Primary election is a process where political parties elect their A “Yes or No” vote of the people on particular law in a
representatives to represent them in general elections. (A) given political system is called
A. referendum B. public opinion
C. gerrymandering D. suffrage

244
2005/28 Exercise 17.8 8. An aggrieved candidate should have access to a court
An election held to determine an important constitutional of law to challenge the election results.
issue is called a 9. There should be no voting by proxy that is voting on
A. direct election B. counter election behalf of another person.
C. general election D. referendum 10. There should be no double registration of electorates.
11. Electoral officials should be given enough and
PLEBISCITE adequate training on the principle of election.
Plebiscite is also a ‘yes or no’ vote of the people, especially 12. There should also be provision of election materials.
on issues of national importance referred to them. It can 13. There should also be revision of voters’ register before
also be on some relevant public or political question like any election.
the issues of minorities in a political set-up. 14. Election results should be announced immediately
after counting.
2010/35 Neco
A ‘Yes or No’ vote cast by electorate to decide an Factors Militating Against Free and Fair Election in
important issue in an area is known as Developing Countries
A. franchise B. plebiscite 1. Ethnicity or tribalism: Most developing countries,
C. Electoral College D. public opinion especially in Africa, are made up of many ethnic groups.
Answer Most of these ethnic groups are suspicious of, and hostile
When yes or no vote of the people to decide an important to one another. There is always rivalry among them as to
issue in an area is known as plebiscite. (B) which of them will control political power. There is the
popular belief that if a particular people are in control of
THE PROCESS OF RECALL political power, only the interests of that ethnic group will
The process of recall means calling back. Recall is the be adequately protected. With this belief, the different
process by which citizens can remove elected officials ethnic groups stop at nothing to get their representatives
elected.
from office before their term is completed.
2. Mass illiteracy: Majority of the electorate in Africa are
illiterate, and are easily deceived by selfish politicians
2010/34 Neco who take advantage of their weakness to appeal to their
The process by which voters may remove a public affair ethnic and religious sentiments in order to get elected.
before the end of his term of office is called 3. Poverty level: The degree of poverty in most African
A. gerrymandering B. recall C. by-election countries is very high. This level of poverty, to a large
D. referendum extent, affects the voting behaviour of the electorate.
Answer Most of them are saddled with many problems and
This process typically includes the circulation petitions by responsibilities. This condition no doubt makes them
recall organizers, the evaluation of signatures by election vulnerable to bribery by corrupt politicians. Having
officials, and a public vote of the petitions are deemed to accepted bribes, they are forced to vote for a candidate
have sufficient valid signatures. (B) that might not be their choice. For example, in Nigeria,
some politicians distribute foodstuffs and sometimes
money during campaign periods.
FREE AND FAIR ELECTION 4. Politics as means to get rich quick: In most developing
Free and fair election, is an election process conducted countries, politics is seen as a means of getting a lion
according to the principles and rules of democracy. This share of the national cake. Against this background,
simply means that the people of a given country must be people try to be elected at all costs by bribing the
free, without coercion, to elect their leaders under a electorate and trying to rig elections.
condition that is most favourable and conducive. Every 5. Inordinate ambition to stay in power: Many African
section of the country must be fully represented in the leaders believe that once they get political power, they
are to remain there until they die. For this reason, they do
legislature.
everything possible to hold on to power. Policemen and
other security agents are engaged to intimidate
Conditions Necessary for the Conduct of a Free and opponents, while public money is used to bribe voters and
Fair Election electoral officials.
1. The country must be divided into constituencies based 6. External or foreign influence: It is not uncommon to
on population with regards to the number of people find some foreign bodies trying to influence the electoral
needed to constitute the parliament. process in another country. They do this by using better
2. Only qualified citizens should be register and allowed resources and electoral officials. They tend to rig or
to vote. manipulate election results to favour a particular
3. Voting should be done in secret balloting. candidate, so that a puppet government can be put in
4. Voters should not be intimidated at the polls. place.
5. Independence of electoral commission. 7. Military in politics: In some countries in the developing
6. Votes must be counted under strict supervision to world, the presence of the military in politics has
avoid rigging of election. hampered the conduct of free and fair elections. Some
7. Candidates and political parties must be given military heads of state suddenly retire themselves from
adequate time for campaigning and presenting their the military in order to contest in presidential elections,
manifestoes to the electorate. while others manipulate elections to favour a particular
candidate.
245
1993/22 Nov 2005/29 Exercise 17.10
For an election to be free and fair, it is necessary that A free and fair election requires all the following except
A. vote cast should be counted in secret A. political parties B. a long campaign period
B. the country should be divided into multi-member C. gerrymandered constituencies
constituencies D. registration of all qualified voters
C. polling agents should be disallowed at polling stations
D. all voters should be allowed to vote by proxy
E. the result should be announced immediately after counting 1993/18 UTME Exercise 17.11
Answer Free and fair elections do not accommodate
For an election to be free and fair, it is necessary that the A. obedience to the rules of the game
result of elections should be announced immediately after B. equality of all votes
counting. (E) C. freedom of choice by voters
D. partial electoral administration
2002/21 Nov
In a free and fair election, a voter casts his ballot Stages of Elections
A. with fear of intimidation and molestation The various stages of elections are outlined below.
B. according to the dictates of his conscience Basically, elections are organized in three stages. These
C. according to the dictates of party agents are:
D. with the aim of getting monetary rewards 1. The stage of preparation (Pre-election)
Answer 2. The elections proper (election day), and
In a free and fair election, a voter casts his ballot according 3. The period immediately after the elections (Post-
to the dictates of his conscience. (B) election)

2013/32 Neco Pre-election stage

One way to ensure a free and fair election is to At this stage, several steps have to be taken. These include:
A. operate a one-party system (i) Designing a system to appoint registration and
B. allow parties to campaign on Election Day election officials and then train them.
C. guarantee the security of electoral officers and materials (ii) Delineating the boundaries of voting areas.
D. appoint a politician as the chairman of the electoral
(iii) Designing a voter’s registration system, establishing
commission
Answer voting sites and notifying the voters.
One way of ensuring a free and fair election is to guarantee (iv) Registration of voters on sight at the registration
the security of electoral officers and materials. (C) centres.
(v) Computing an aggregate voters’ list at the national
2014/25 Neco and local levels.
A factor that could make elections to be free and fair is the (vi) Publishing and distributing a preliminary list to
A. existence of independent electoral commission
allow voters and parties an opportunity to review
B. adoption of a flexible constitution
C. opportunity for people to vote twice and correct the list where mistakes may have
D. registration of eligible voters occurred.
Answer (vii) Processing of voters’ information into voter
The factor that could make elections to be free and fair is identification cards.
the existence of an independent electoral commission. (A) (viii) Finalizing the registration list and sending copies to
the states and voting sites.
2016/32 Neco
(ix) Distributing voters’ identification cards at the place
For an election to be fair and free, the electoral commission
must be of registration and ensuring that they are received by
A. ready to manipulate results the right owners.
B. ready to reject criticisms (x) Establishing and enforcing rules and campaigns,
C. headed by a minister in the executive accessing the media and financing.
D. independent of other institutions of government (xi) Ensuring the security of voters, the candidates and
Answer the polling stations.
For an election to be fair and free, the electoral commission
must be independent of other institutions of government. (xii) Developing rules for the proper observation of
(D) election by national and international observers.
(xiii) Production of election materials, printing and
2006/26 Neco Exercise 17.9 securing the ballot papers.
Free and fair election is necessary for democracy to thrive (xiv) Delivering of election materials at the designated
because it polling units at the right time.
A. makes an unpopular candidate emerge as a winner
B. helps the people to exercise their popular sovereignty
C. makes a popular party to lose in election
D. prevents smooth change of government
246
Election Day Features of an Electoral Commission
The Election Day is the appointed day for election where 1. Organizing and conducting elections.
the registered voters come out with their voter’s card to 2. The commission is responsible for the conduct of free
elect their representatives. It is, therefore, the and fair elections.
responsibility of the appointed polling officials to 3. The electoral commission announces the election
discharge the following responsibilities: results.
(i) Polling officials should set up their polling booth. 4. The commission is an independent and impartial
(ii) Polling officials should verify the electoral materials electoral body.
in the presence of party agents and election 5. The electoral commission is controlled and headed by
observers before voting starts. a chairman.
(iii) Polling officials should certify that voters are on the 6. The chairman of the commission has a fixed tenure of
resignation list and that they vote politely in office.
accordance with the procedures including dipping of 7. There are resident commissioners in each state of the
their finger in an indelible ink to prevent multiple federation.
voting. 8. The principles of the electoral commission are guided
(iv) The polling officials would then open the ballot by the constitution.
boxes in the presence of the voters, then close and 9. The commission should be honest and fair in its
seal them to commence voting. decision–making.
(v) The polling officials should monitor the voting
process and ensure problems are resolved quickly. Functions of Electoral Commission
(vi) After the election, tally sheets should be jointly 1. Registrations of political parties are conducted by the
signed by all party agents. electoral commission.
(vii) The election result should be delivered to the state 2. The electoral commission has the sole power to
electoral office for onward submission to the organize and conduct free and fair elections.
National Electoral Commission. 3. It is also the duties of the electoral commission to
register eligible voters.
4. The electoral commission also provides all the
necessary materials needed for any election e.g. ballot
papers, ballot boxes, polling booths, ink pads, etc.
5. It is also their function to divide the country into
constituencies.
6. They appoint and trains electoral officers.
7. The commission is responsible for counting votes and
releasing the results of each election.
8. The Electoral Commission gives financial grants to
parties.
9. The commission also educates the electorate about the
necessary issues involved in elections.
Citizens casting their votes on Election Day. 10. The Electoral Commission informs the electorate on
Post Election the type of voting to be conducted either secretly or
(i) The Independent National Electoral Commission openly
(INEC) announces the results as they arrive. 11. It is also the duty of the commission to screen
(ii) Certificates are issued to declared winners. candidates before the election.
(iii) Election petitions are looked into accordingly. 12. It is the responsibility of the commission to provide
(iv) Winners of elections are sworn into various offices. security at the polling stations.

ELECTORAL COMMISSION Problems of the Electoral Commission

The electoral commission is a body which oversees 1. The problem of independence: The electoral
elections and regulates political finance. Election commission, as the name implies, should be
commissions can be independent, mixed, judicial or independent of any political ties. This should reflect in
executive. The election commission has a duty to perform the composition of the prominent officers of the
election related activities in an orderly manner. For commission. None should be influenced by any
election related problems, election commission is political party or arm of government, except as the
responsible. The Electoral Commission is headed by a constitution directs.
chairman and other staff of the commission. In Nigeria, 2. Funding: Funding is a major problem of the
FEDECO was the commission responsible for 1979/83 commission. This is because the commission depends
second republic election, NEC was responsible for the solely on funds from the incumbent government which
conduct of the third republic election which was aborted may cause delay in executing projects related to the
while INEC conducted the 1998/99 general elections for commission. To solve this problem, a consolidated and
the fourth republic. separate pool of fund should be created for the
commission. This will enable it prepare ahead of
elections as well as perform its duties during and after
elections.
247
3. Inadequate training: Inadequate training, especially 14. The commission should be adequately funded to
for adhoc staff of the commission, often affects the enable it recruit high level administrative and technical
efficiency of the commission. manpower.
4. Partiality: In the process of conducting elections and 15. Ballot boxes and papers should be effectively secured.
carrying out electoral processes, some of the 16. The commission should be adequately backed up with
commission’s officials, especially the executive laws to enable it command respect and obedience from
members may be biased due to a number of reasons. political parties and candidates.
This could hamper the effectiveness of the
commission. 2022/4 Neco
5. Logistics: Problems in logistics such as getting Identify and explain six functions of an electoral
electoral materials to the different polling centres in commission in a democratic state.
the country as at the time they are needed is a Answer
bottleneck for the commission. This also militates Six functions of an electoral commission in a
against the effectiveness of the commission. democratic state are:
6. Professionalism: Often, professionalism and merit are 1. Registrations of political parties are conducted by the
relegated to the background in the choice or electoral commission.
appointment of executives in the commission. Thus, 2. The electoral commission has the sole power to
the problem of credibility and good result in terms of organize and conduct free and fair elections.
effectiveness before, during and after elections. 3. It is also the duties of the electoral commission to
7. Job hazards: There are a lot of hazards that register eligible voters.
accompany the job of staff of the commission due to 4. The electoral commission also provides all the
the sensitive nature of their jobs. If the outcome of an necessary materials needed for any election e.g. ballot
election does not favour a certain group/political party, papers, ballot boxes, polling booths, ink pads, etc.
they may vent their displeasure on innocent staff of the 5. It is also their function to divide the country into
commission. This problem could militate against the constituencies.
effectiveness of the commission. 6. The commission is responsible for counting votes and
releasing the results of each election.
Measures of Ensuring the Independence and
Impartiality of the Electoral Commission Electoral Officials
1. The electoral commission must be autonomous rather Electoral officials are temporary (ad-hoc) staff of the
than appendage of the executive arm of the electoral commission appointed for the purpose of an
government. election. The appointment ends with the conclusion of a
2. There should be no political interference in the affairs given election. These ad-hoc electoral officials are
of the commission. responsible for the conduct of elections on Election Day.
3. Officials of the commission should not be appointed They accredit registered voters, issue ballot papers and
by the executive arm of the government but by direct them to polling booths to cast their votes.
organizing elections.
4. Persons to be appointed as officials of the commission The following are electoral officials and the duties they
must be those with proven integrity and transparent perform:
honesty.
5. Dismissal of the officials of the commission should Electoral Officer (EO)
also not be done by the executive arm of government. They are appointed by administrative secretaries to oversee
6. Merits should be the yardstick to be used in appointing the conduct of elections in specific areas of the state. In this
officials of the commission so that experienced and regard, assistant electoral officers can also be appointed on
persons of proven ability and drive should be an adhoc basis, subject to the control of the electoral officer
appointed. whose area of operation usually covers an entire senatorial
7. Funding of the commission should be done from an district. Thus, such assistant electoral officers are
independent fund not from the executive. appointed to supervise and handle electoral materials on
8. Officials of the commission should be done from an Election Day in specific areas within designated senatorial
independent fund not from the executive. district.
9. Their salaries should not be paid from the consolidated
fund. Supervisor
10. Officials of the commission should be appointed for a The supervisor presides over a given number of presiding
fixed period. officers. For example, a supervisor may oversee the
11. Security of tenure of office should be granted to conduct of election in ten poling units on Election Day.
members of the commission. The supervisor performs the following duties:
12. Results declared by the commission should be made in (i) He/she ensures all presiding officers under his/her
a way that they can be challenged in the court by the supervision collect electoral materials.
citizen’s especially aggrieved ones. (ii) He/she ensures their transportation to their various
13. Voting must be done secretly while counting of votes polling units.
should be publicly done. (iii) He/she ensures adequate security of polling units
under his/her control.

248
(iv) He/she moves from one polling unit to another to (i) The ward returning officer is responsible for the
ensure that electoral material such as ballot papers declaration of the councilor elected. He returns the
are adequately supplied. councilor as the duly elected candidate among other
(v) He/she finds solution to any problem reported to contestants.
him/her by the presiding officer. (ii) The local government returning officer returns the
(vi) He/she accompanies results of polling units under local government chairman as the duly elected
his/her control to the returning officer at the candidate haven scored the highest votes in the
designated collation centre. election.
(iii) The state returning officer returns the governor
Presiding Officer elected.
The presiding officer is the head of a poling unit. He/she (iv) While the national returning officer returns the
presides over the conduct of an election. He/she signs and president elected.
collects electoral materials to be used at the designated
polling unit. As the officer in charge of a polling unit, Polling Agents
he/she performs the following duties: Polling agents are officials overseeing an election process
(i) He/she is responsible for the collection of election on behalf of a candidate. They are also called party agents
materials. and are appointed by political parties to represent their
(ii) He/she transports the election materials to the interest during polling, counting and collation of election
polling unit. results.
(iii) He/she orders voters to queue in an orderly manner.
(iv) He/she accredits voters by cross-checking the Before the election, each party sends the names of their
voters’ register to ensure the voters’ names appear poling agent to the electoral officer who later sends the
on it. names to presiding officers before polling begins.
(v) He/she stamps, signs and issues out ballot papers to
the electorate. The polling agents observe the voting of ballot, collation
(vi) He/she directs electorate to the polling booth. of votes and declaration of results on behalf of their parties.
(vii) He/she ensure that the security men do their jobs They also make sure that everything is carried out in
diligently as well as report any security incidence. accordance to the law.
(viii) He/she sorts out ballot papers at the end of an
election. 2022/18 Neco
(ix) He/she counts the ballot papers to determine the The electorate exercise their political sovereignty through
winner of that polling unit. A. carpet-crossing B. formation of pressure groups
(x) He/she submits the result of his polling unit to the C. participation in campaign rallies
returning office at the collation. D. supporting candidates for elections
E. voting the candidates of choice
Polling Clerk Answer
The polling clerk assists the presiding officer to carry out The electorate exercise their political sovereignty through
his/her responsibilities. However, he/she performs the voting the candidates of choice. (E)
following functions:
(i) He/she stands behind the last person on the queue at 1992/27
the official close of accreditation to ensure that To make election hitch free the electoral commission must
anyone who comes after that time is not allowed to be
vote. A. able to punish electoral offenders
(ii) He/she assists in sorting and counting votes. B. gives a spacious office accommodation
(iii) He/she helps with the return of election materials to C. ready to help the government
the supervisor. D. independent of the executive
E. headed by a judge or a professor
Collating Officer (CO) Answer
Collating officers are found at the ward, local government The commission of electoral must be independent of the
areas, state constituency, federal constituency, senatorial executive to have a hitch free election. (D)
districts, state and federal levels. They are responsible for
collating results with their various jurisdictions. 2016/6 UTME
The officer responsible for announcing the result of an
Returning Officer election is referred to as the
The returning officer is an adhoc staff of the electoral A. electoral officer B. presiding officer
commission. He is stationed at the designated collation C. returning officer D. ballot officer
centre to enter results of various polling units on his broad Answer
score sheet. There are four types of returning officers: ward The returning officer has the responsibility for announcing
returning officer, local government returning officer, state the result of an election (C)
returning officer and national returning officer.

249
2006/43 UTME 2014/2015/58 (NDU, BAYELSA)
A crucial requirement for the successful conduct of elections is Which of the following was not the responsibility of the
A. the existence of organized political parties Federal Electoral Commission in Nigeria?
B. an independent electoral commission A. supervision of polling
C. a highly mobilized electorate B. compilation of electoral register
D. the adequate funding of political parties C. delimitation of constituencies
Answer D. counting and publication of election results
An electoral commission needs independence to able to function and E. swearing in members of the House of Assembly
conduct successfully in an election (B)
Answer
Swearing in members of the House of Assembly was not
2007/15 UTME
the responsibility of Federal Electoral Commission in
The declaration of election results is the exclusive duty of
A. political party chairman B. electoral commissions Nigeria (E)
C. chief justices D. election petition tribunals
Answer 2009/2010/95 (NDU,BAYELSA)
The declaration of election results is the exclusive duty of the electoral Which of the following is not the responsibility of an
commissions (B) electoral commission?
A. a creation of constituencies B. registration of votes
1982/5 UTME C. nomination of candidates
The purpose of registration before elections is to D. registration of political parties
A. know the total population of a country E. provision of polling booths
B. know the names of all taxable adults Answer
C. know the number of people that support each political party Nomination of candidates is not the responsibility of an
D. guard against fraud at elections electoral commission (C)
Answer
The purpose of registration before elections is to safeguard against 2009/2010/79 (NDU,BAYELSA)
fraud at elections (D) The responsibilities of dividing a country into
constituencies and accepting the nomination of candidates
2005/31 UTME for elections are shouldered by the
The commission established to handle the electoral activities in the A. ombudsman B. president C. electoral commission
Second Republic in Nigeria was D. census board
A. INEC B. NECON C. FEDECO D. NEC
Answer
Answer
It is the responsibilities of the electoral commission to
FEDECO was the commission established to handle the electoral
activities in the Second Republic in Nigeria (C) divide the country into sub-units which is known as
constituencies, they also have the duty of accepting the
2005/32 UTME nominee candidates by the political parties for registration
The major function of the state Independent Electoral Commissions (C)
in Nigeria is the
A. conduct of gubernatorial elections 2001/31 UTME
B. delineation of electoral constituencies The Independent National Electoral Commission has the
C. registration of political parties power to prepare and maintain the register of
D. conduct of elections into local government offices A. political parties B. constituencies C. voters
Answer D. electoral commission
The main function of the state Independent Electoral Commissions in Answer
Nigeria is the registration of political parties (C) The Independent National Electoral Commission has the
power and duty to prepare and maintain the registration of
2005/31 UTME voters (C)
The commission established to handle the electoral activities in the
Second Republic in Nigeria was 2009/38 UTME
A. INEC B. NECON C. FEDECO D. NEC Which of the following is a duty of an electoral
Answer commission?
FEDECO was the commission established to handle the electoral A. registration of political parties
activities in the Second Republic in Nigeria (C)
B. creation of political parties
C. establishment of electoral tribunals
2005/32 UTME
The major function of the state Independent Electoral Commissions
D. inauguration of the parliament
in Nigeria is the Answer
A. conduct of gubernatorial elections Registration of political party is one of the main functions
B. delineation of electoral constituencies of an electoral commission (A)
C. registration of political parties
D. conduct of elections into local government offices
Answer
The main function of the state Independent Electoral Commissions in
Nigeria is the registration of political parties (C)

250
2012/5 (OAU, IFE) 2002/6 UTME
The commission established to handle the electoral activities A major way of maintaining confidence in the electoral
in the Second Republic of Nigeria was process is by ensuring that
A. national Electoral Commission A. unlimited franchise is observed
B. National Electoral Commission of Nigeria B. electoral officers are regularly trained
C. Federal Electoral Commission C. elections are conducted in a free and fair atmosphere
D. Independent National Electoral Commission D. elections are conducted as and when due
Answer Answer
Federal Electoral Commission established to handle the A major way of any electoral system to maintain
electoral activities in the Second Republic of Nigeria (C)
confidence of the electorate in an electoral process is by
ensuring that elections are conducted in a free and fair
2013/6 (OAU, IFE)
A major function of the state Independent Electoral
atmosphere (C)
Commission in Nigeria is the
A. conduct of gubernatorial elections
B. conduct of elections into local government offices 1991/56
C. registration of political parties The electoral officer charged with the responsibility of
D. delineation of electoral constituencies announcing election results is the
Answer A. resident electoral commissioner
The main function of the state Independent Electoral B. returning officer C. supervisory presiding officer
Commission in Nigeria is the conduct of gubernatorial D. presiding officer E. accounting officer
elections (A) Answer
The returning officer is responsible for handling the
2019/2020/43 (UNIZIK,AWKA) electoral process in the riding, and updating the national
Which of the following is a major feature of an electoral register of electors with current information about voters
commission? in the electoral district to which they are appointed. (B)
A. political neutrality B. control of government
C. privately funded D. support for the ruling party 1994/29
E. none of the above Which of the following is not the responsibility of an
Answer electoral commission?
Electoral commission main feature is political neutrality. A. creation of constituencies B. registration of voters
Political neutrality endorse, promote or oppose political
C. nomination of candidates
parties, candidates or platform (A)
D. registration of political parties
E. provision of polling booths
2014/27 Neco
The body responsible for conducting and supervising Answer
elections in West Africa countries is called The electoral commission cannot nominate candidates for
A. ombudsman B. electoral commission the political parties. (C)
C. election observers D. constitution assembly
Answer 1993/31
Electoral Commission is a body responsible for conducting Which of the following is a function of electoral
and supervising elections in West African countries. (B) commission?
A. arbitrating among political parties
1993/28 Nov B. arranging and conducting elections
Which of the following is responsible for the delimitation of C. organizing political parties
a country into constituencies? The D. supporting political parties
A. legislature E. taking part in an election
B. delimitation committee of the legislature Answer
C. committee of the whole house Arranging and conducting elections is a function of
D. electoral commission E. constituent assembly electoral commission. (D)
Answer
It is the responsibility of the electoral commission to delimit 1997/26
the country into constituencies, so that every constituencies For an electoral commission to conduct a free and fair
can elect their representatives. (B)
election, it must be
A. controlled by the government
2014/5 (OAU, IFE)
Which of the following is not a condition for free and fair
B. funded by only one of the political party
elections? C. an impartial and independent body
A. existence of an impartial electoral body D. supervised by a government agency
B. free press E. headed by a justice of the Supreme Court
C. partisan support for opposition parties by the electoral Answer
body An electoral commission must be independent body and
D. absence of intimidation of voters impartial to conduct a free and fair election. (C)
Answer
Partisan support for opposition parties by the electoral body
(C)
251
1999/31 constituency; the election is only open to voters who are
The major function of an electoral commission is to registered in the general election.
A. appoint members of the judiciary v. Electoral College: An electoral college is a body of
B. appoint the staff of the local government elected representatives who in turn come together to elect
C. announce the dissolution of the assembly people into political offices. It is an indirect system of
D. make arrangements for the conduct of elections election.
Answer
Major function of an electoral commission is to make
arrangements for the conduct of elections. (D) REVISION EXERCISES
1. An election held to solve important political questions
2001/27 Nov facing a country is called
An election conducted to fill a vacant position when a A. referendum B. by-election
member of parliament dies or resigns, is called C. general election D. primary election
A. an open ballot B. a by-election 2. The system of voting on behalf of another person is
C. a second ballot D. a referendum known as
Answer A. voting by lot B. casting votes
A by-election is held to fill a vacant electorate seat. For
C. voting by proxy D. preference voting
example, if a member of parliament resigns or dies. A by-
3. Which of the following is likely to bring about a free
election is only open to voters who are enrolled in the
electorate. (B)
and fair election?
A. tribalism B. press censorship
1980/44 UTME C. absence of political parties
Under the regulations for the conduct of the 1979 elections in D. bribery and corruption E. honesty and sincerity
Nigeria, a candidate could be declared ineligible if 4. An electoral system in which people elect their
A. he did not pay his tax as and when due representatives in stages is called
B. he did not pay his tax annually A. a referendum B. aspiral system
C. he did not pay his federal tax C. an election D. a plebiscite
D. none of the above E. an electoral college
Answer 5. Which of the following is not an electoral official?
The regulations for the conduct of the 1979 election in A. presiding officers B. party chairman
Nigeria, a candidate could be declared ineligible if he did not C. polling clerks D. polling agents
pay his tax as and when due (A) 6. The allocation of seats in parliament based on the
percentage of vote received by political parties in an
2003/11 UTME election is
Election as a political process is a significant because it A. absolute majority B. simple majority
A. is associated with campaigns for public office C. proportional representation D. by-election
B. facilitates the recall process 7. Which of the following is an example of a general
C. facilitates constitutional change of government election?
D. enables citizens to vote
A. by-election B. presidential election
Answer
C. local election D. student union election
Election as a political process is significant because it
facilitates constitutional change of government (C)
8. Which conditions are necessary for the conduct of a
free and fair election?
2019/5b NABTEB NOV 9. (a)What are the functions of the electoral commission
Give a brief account of each of the following: in the electoral process?
i. Gerrymandering: Gerrymandering is the practice of drawing (b) What problems are likely to hinder the success of
the boundaries of electoral districts in a way that gives one the commission in Nigeria?
political party an unfair advantage over the other. This is most 10. (a) What is plurality system of voting? Illustrate with
commonly used in first-past-the post electoral systems. an example.
ii. Constituency: A constituency is simply defined as an (b) State the disadvantages of the system.
electoral district or an area from which one or more 11. What conditions are necessary for the conduct of a free
members or representatives are elected into political and fair election?
offices. The division of a country into constituencies is 12. a) Identify six features of a good electoral system.
known as delimitation. A country is divided into b) Highlight four problems of electoral commission
constituencies in order to distribute parliamentary seats in Nigeria.
equitably which will guarantee equal representation in 13. a) Give five reasons why states conduct
government. elections.
iii. Free and fair election: Free and fair election, is an b) Explain briefly the conditions for free and fair
election process conducted according to the principles election.
and rules of democracy. This simply means that the 14. a) Mention five functions of an electoral commission.
people of a given country must be free, without coercion,
b) Explain five problems of an electoral commission.
to elect their leaders under a condition that is most
favourable and conducive.
iv. Bye-election: A bye-election is held to fill a vacant
electorate seat for example, if a member of parliament
resigns or dies. A bye-election will take place in that
252
1991/6
Chapter Eighteen Which of the following best describes public opinion? The
A. opinion of the elites
PUBLIC OPINION B. opinion of the ruling party
C. political views of important groups
D. important political views of a large segment of the
MEANING OF PUBLIC OPINION population
Public opinion may be defined as the collective beliefs, E. important political views of members of the opposition
judgments or views held by majority of the citizens of a party
country about public policy or action of the government. Answer
It is the measure of what the public thinks about a Public opinion is an aggregate of the individual views,
particular issue, party or individual political figure. attitudes and beliefs about a particular topic, expressed by
Historically, it has been pretty difficult to accurately a significant proportion of a community. (D)
measure what the public thinks about a particular issue.
However, most forms of democracy are based on the 2001/17 UTME
understanding that the government will function with the Public opinion is a view that is
interests of their people in mind. We can find an A. held by the majority B. active in the public realm
acknowledgment of the people’s role in many historical C. widely publicized D. no longer a secret
documents, including the Constitution of the United State, Answer
which begins with the phrase “We, the people”. It is the Public opinion is a view that is held by the majority. (A)
collective opinion of the people of a society or state on an
issue or problem. This concept came about through the 2000/12 UTME
process of urbanization and other political and social A characteristics of public opinion is that it is
forces. A. positive B. static C. dynamic D. negative
Answer
Characteristics of Public Opinion A characteristics of public opinion is that it is dynamic.
1. Public opinion is dynamic, it changes from time to Dynamic means constant changes (C)
time.
2. Public opinion should be rational and logical. Its 2015/4a Neco Exercise 18.1
validity should be demonstrable by logic or reason. Define public opinion.
3. Public opinion is governed by the idea of promotion of 1996/26 Nov Exercise 18.2
general welfare. Public opinion refers to the
4. Public opinion can concern any and every matter, be it A. views expressed to oppose government actions
political, social, economic or cultural. B. collective decisions of the citizens
5. Public opinion always upholds the moral values of C. view expressed by the majority
society. It should not go against morality. D. views of the government
6. Public opinion is not an imposed opinion. It should E. feelings of the educated citizens
represent the generally held consensus opinion.
7. The right to freedom of speech and expression is the 1989/24 UTME Exercise 18.3
most essential condition for the birth of public Public opinion refers to views and ideas expressed by
opinions. A. citizens regarding government policies or other issues
8. Public opinion plays a deterministic role in a B. government regarding the public interest
democracy. All policies of a democratic government C. elites about what the public wants
rest upon public opinion, the government can remain D. students about the public
in power and work successfully only when it is backed
by public opinion.
9. Public opinion is the real sanction behind all laws and Formation of Public Opinion
policies of a democratic state. Supremacy of public There is a lot of things that come into play when discussing
opinion reflects the sovereignty of people, which is the how people form opinions. Developing your opinions
very basis of a democracy. about issues affecting the world around you is a lifelong
process that social scientists call political socialization.
2015/32 Neco You will have different life factors than everyone else, but
Public opinion is defined as the for most people, factors like family beliefs, peer beliefs,
A. aggregate views of the people education, religious beliefs and media depictions have the
B. sentiments of opposition parties greatest impact on their political opinions. The necessary
C. consensus of the mass media conditions or agents for the formulation of public opinion
D. reaction of pressure groups are as follows:
Answer 1. Family: Right from childhood, individuals start to
Public opinion is an aggregate view of the people. acquire views and feelings about their parents and
Aggregate means to collect many units into one or a whole family in general whom they consistently have
form by combining several separate elements. (A) interaction with, this constitutes enduring aspects of
the attitudes of the children and this invariably fully or
partially influences their opinion.
253
2. Peer Group: The peer group is one of such vital agents emerge only through a healthy debate among the
that interfere in the process of development of opinions opponents.
by individuals. As the child continues his growth 10. Government: A responsible government is supposed
process, he interacts with a number of playmates who to reflect the decision of the people. They permits
are of the same age group. These playmates are groups to have adequate rights and enjoy freedom of
referred to as the peer group. They bring the varying speech and expression. Such a situation helps the
views and feelings of their own families’ into the formation of healthy public opinion.
school or play arena and during interaction, may 11. Election: Through election, political parties educate
influence the opinions and attitudes that the other the public (electorate about their civic rights).
children in the group may have acquired from home. 12. Through pressure groups and political parties:
3. Opinion leaders (elites): Educated and enlightened These two groups help in the formation of public
citizens alone can understand all issue and problems opinion.
properly. They cannot be taken in by the oily tongue 13. Bureau of Information: The bureau is established by
of some people. They can evaluate every situation and the government to inform the public on the activities
issue properly and formulate right opinions with of government. It helps the public to form opinions on
regards to the problems and issues faced by the society. policies made and implemented by the government.
4. Mass media: Free and honest press is also essential for 14. Symposia and lectures: Ideas on matters of public
the formulation of healthy public opinion. Only a press importance are expressed through holding of lectures
without any fear can publish every issue in the and symposia.
newspaper. When the press is under the central 15. Religious Institutions: Churches and Mosques also
government, it is not in a position to publish anything play critical roles in shaping public views through their
freely. Besides, press must be fair and honest. An preaching. In Nigeria, religious groups have helped to
honest press does not present anything in an modify and mirror public attitude towards national
exaggerated or distorted manner. It always helps the issues. Sometimes, also, religious centres have been
formation of clear and healthy public opinion. used by political parties for political propaganda, and
5. Political Parties: Sound party system plays a this has great effects on public opinion.
significant role in the formation of public opinion. 16. Educational Institutions: Since educational systems
They acquaint the people with all the important also plays a significant role in the formation of public
questions and problems facing the country. They opinion. It is always essential that it should be a sound
create public interest in all important matters of the day system of providing education and training to the
and thus shape the views of the people. They do this young persons.
by organizing various propaganda techniques such as 17. The citizens, apart from being educated, should also be
rallies, campaigns, manifestoes, speeches, distribution active in their approach. Only such citizens takes due
of pamphlets, etc. to influence the electorate and to interest in every happening and have an action-
help in the formation of opinion, Political parties play oriented outlook towards politics. They do not yield to
an important role in moulding, developing and pressure. They try to understand every problem and
strengthening public opinion. They are very forceful in form an impartial view.
mobilizing views on public policy. 18. Poverty is a curse: A poverty stricken person can
6. Pressure Groups: Pressure groups or interest groups neither thinks freely not can form his free opinion. He
helps to influence and mirror views. They aggregate always remains drawn to the basic needs of life.
the views of the people on certain national matters. 19. The moral character of the people also contributes to
They make use of various techniques to gain support the formulation of healthy public opinion.
for their organization and society at large: lobbying,
provision of campaign funds for a favoured candidate 1989/13 UTME
(who when he wins, will eventually reciprocate the A common means of influencing public opinion is
favour of the pressure group), publicity, or they may A. public policy-making B. legislation
even organise riots, strikes, public demonstrations or C. propaganda D. lobbying
violent protests if need be to advance their goals. Answer
7. Propaganda: Propaganda is a deliberate effort to A common platform of influencing public opinion is
manipulate public opinion. It is about a bias propaganda. Propaganda is the more or less systematic
presentation of information. A propagandist implants effort to manipulate other people’s beliefs, attitudes or
opinion through emotions and prejudice. He/she actions by means of symbols (C)
selects only those truths which support his/her cause.
8. Freedom of speech and expression: This is also a 2010/23 (NDU,BAYELSA)
necessary factor in the formulation of free and honest The earliest agent in the formation of public opinion is the
public opinion. The restriction on rights of expression A. family B. hospital C. political party
and views always hinders the birth of healthy public D. university
opinion. Answer
9. Healthy Public Tolerance, Co-operation and debate: The earliest agent in the formation of public opinion is the
Healthy public opinion can only be possible if the family (A)
people are tolerant to each other and have in them the
spirit of co-operation. A healthy public opinion can

254
2004/28 UTME 2012/22 UTME
A major influence on the formulation of public opinion is Which of the following is used in gauging public opinion?
A. the family B. the mass media C. public journals A. constitution B. educational institution
D. peer groups C. mass media D. electoral college
Answer Answer
A major influence on the formulation of public opinion is the Mass media is a platform used in gauging public opinion. It
mass media. Mass media means technology that is intended is a powerful force yet many people do not realize what effect
to reach a mass audience. It is the primary means of it has in shaping their opinion. Mass media is intended to be
communication used to reach the vast majority of the general informative. (C)
public. The most common platform for mass media are
newspapers, magazines, radio, television, and the internet. 2010/20 UTME
(B) Public opinion can be measured through
A. negotiation B. referendum C. strike action
2004/34 Neco Exercise 18.4 D. rumour
The nearest agent in the formation of public opinion is the Answer
A. family B. hospital C. political party Public opinion can be measured through referendum.
D. university Referendum or less commonly referenda is a direct and
universal vote in which an entire electorate is invited to vote
2003/26 Neco Exercise 18.5 on a particular proposal and can have nationwide or local
Which of the following agents of public opinion is most forms. This may result in the adoption of a new policy or
widespread? specific law.
A. mass media B. the schools
C. the interest groups D. political parties 2018/31 Neco
Public opinion can be measured through all of the following
2015/4b Neco Exercise 18.6 except the
Highlight three ways by which public opinion can be formed. A. imposition of laws made without any debates
B. conduct of opinion polls
C. general views expressed in the mass media
How Public Opinion is Determined and Measured D. holding of referendum in a state
1. Referendum or plebiscite: Referendum or plebiscite can Answer
be conducted by government to find out the opinion of Imposition of laws made without any debate is not a way of
the general public on an issue. measuring public opinion. (A)
2. Public Opinion Poll: This is done by obtaining responses
to issues from a selected sample of the population 1999/29 Nov Exercise 18.7
through structured questionnaires or interviews. Public opinion can be measured through a
Responses obtained are used as generalization for the A. referendum B. letter of petition
entire population. C. attitudes of the electorate D. gerrymandering
3. Election Ballot Box: At every election, choices are made
by the electorate between candidates, and the outcome of 2015/44 UTME Exercise 18.8
the poll serves as a measure of public opinion for the Election can be used to measure the effectiveness of
victorious candidates and parties. A. pressure group B. political propaganda
4. Through Mass Media: Public opinion is also measured C. political opinion D. public opinion
or determined through views people expressed freely in
the mass media. 2017/27 UTME Exercise 18.9
5. Open Correspondence: Public opinion can also be An effective means of measuring public opinion is
measured through open correspondence, the citizenry A. referendum B. radio interview
may write letters to government agencies expressing their C. letters to government D. telephone calls
opinions on a particular issue of national importance.
6. Quota Sampling: The sample is selected in proportion to Functions/Importance of Public Opinions
the population of the segments of the society. The sample 1. Public Opinion serves as the Foundation of
must be interviewed accordingly and should be a true Democracy: Sovereignty of the people, which is the very
representation of the entire population. basis of democracy, really means supremacy of the public
7. The feedback Programme: The opinion of the public can opinion. In every democracy, the government and its
be measured through feedback programme. This is an policies are continuously based on public opinion. The
avenue where radio and television stations air programme government remains in power so long as it is backed by
through which particular policies of government are public opinion.
discussed. During the feedback programme, political 2. Public opinion is a device of effective control over the
actors and some government officials are invited on air to government: Public opinion is the most effective
engage in live interviews and discussions with the instrument of control over the government. The
populace. This forum gives the people the opportunity to government is really responsible to public opinions.
air their views. 3. Public opinion determines election results: In every
8. Response to government policies: Government can also election, only the political party who wins that enjoys the
take notice of public response to its policies. It could be support of public opinion. The political party which gets
through mass protests and demonstration for or against the popular mandate to rule has to exercise power only in
its programmes. tune with public opinion. It has to go out of power when
public opinion turns against it.
255
4. Public opinion is a major source of law: The laws 5. Credibility of a government rests upon public
passed by the government are in-fact based upon opinion: A government backed by strong public
public demands i.e. demands backed by public opinion enjoys a high degree of credibility. It helps it
opinion. Hence, public opinion is a source of law. to work effectively and strongly.
5. Public opinion is the real sanction behind law: Not
only public opinion is a source of law but also it is an 1999/34 Neco
important sanction behind law. Only those laws get Public opinion enables the government to
successfully implemented and produce desired results, A. find out what the people think about its activities
which are backed by public opinion. B. organize political conferences and solidarity rallies
6. Public opinion is the guardian of rights and C. punish political opponents D. employ more workers
freedoms: Rights and Freedom of the people need Answer
protection. Public opinion acts as their guardian. Public opinion enables the government to find out what the
Public opinion is the greatest safeguard against any people think about its activities. (A)
violation of rights and freedoms of the people.
7. Public opinion is the basis of state policies: The 2003/15 UTME
government of the state formulates its policies on the Public opinion becomes politically relevant when it
basis of the public opinion. All public policies are A. criticizes people in power
based on public opinion. The government is supposed B. influences the decisions of government
to do everything which the public opinion demands. C. aggregates views and interests
8. Credibility of a government rests upon public D. is in support of government
opinion: A government backed by strong public Answer
opinion enjoys a high degree of credibility. It helps it Public opinion becomes politically relevant when it
to work effectively and strongly. influences the decisions of government. It helps directs the
9. Public opinion is the agent of social change: No law government to know what the public thinks about its
aimed at social change, no policy aimed at social policies and actions and at the same time helping the
reforms and no action aimed at development can be government to know the needs and aspirations of her
really successful unless it is backed by strong public citizens. (B)
opinion. Desired objectives of social change can be
secured only by securing a public opinion distinctly 2002/5 UTME
favourable to proposed reforms and changes. As such The main function of public opinion is to
in ever\y society, public opinion is at the back of everyA. change the policy of government
activity of the government. B. provide direction for public policy
C. support the policy of government
D. indoctrinate the people
2022/4 Answer
Identity five factors that make public opinion an important The main function of public opinion is to provide direction
aspect of the democratic process. for public policy (B)
Answer
1. Public Opinion serves as the Foundation of 2006/32 UTME
Democracy: Sovereignty of the people, which is the Public opinion helps a government to
very basis of democracy, really means supremacy of A. develop the country in line with the people’s aspirations
the public opinion. In every democracy, the B. monitor its socio-cultural policy
government and its policies are continuously based on C. monitor the economic situation in the country
public opinion. The government remains in power so D. identify those that are opposed to its political
long as it is backed by public opinion. Answer
2. Public opinion is a device of effective control over the Public opinion helps a government to develop the country
government: Public opinion is the most effective in line with the people’s aspirations (A)
instrument of control over the government. The
government is really responsible to public opinions as 2013/36 Neco
they gained power through the electorate. Public opinion enables a government
3. Public opinion is the guardian of rights and A. influence the public B. suppress its opponents
freedoms: Rights and Freedom of the people need C. cut down the cost of governing
protection as enshrined in the constitution of a D. know the feeling of the masses
democratic government. Public opinion acts as their Answer
guardian. An alerted public opinion is the greatest Public opinion enables a government to know the feelings
safeguard against any violation of rights and freedoms of the masses i.e. majority. (D)
of the people.
4. Public opinion is the basis of state policies: In a 1994/23 Exercise 18.10
democratic government, the government of the state Public opinion enables a government to
formulates its policies on the basis of the public A. control the public
opinion. All public policies are based on public B. find out what the public think about the activities
opinion. The government is supposed to do everything C. influence the public D. suppress its opponents
which the public opinion demands. E. cut down on the cost of governing
256
1993/24 Nov Exercise 18.11 3. Establishment of information bureau: Information
Public opinion is important because it bureau should be established to carry out public
A. dictates to the government what action it must take enlightenment on policies and actions of the
B. protects minority groups government thereby bringing rumours to an end.
C. helps the public to locate the hide-outs of the men of the 4. Guaranteeing freedom of speech and association: If
underworld members of the public are allowed to air their views on
D. conveys the feelings of the people to the government government policies and actions and are also allowed to
E. guarantee a free press associate with any group, healthy climate of public
opinion can be encouraged.
2011/3b Exercise 18.12 5. Responsible journalism: If journalists can avoid their
What are the functions of public opinion? so called yellow journalism and involve in investigation
journalism that will ensure accurate and honest
2009/4 (OAU,IFE) Exercise 18.13 reporting and editorial comments, healthy climate of
Public opinion is important because it public opinion can be encouraged.
A. tells government what action it must take 6. Encouragement of activities of pressure groups:
B. tells government what the people want Pressure groups through their activities if encouraged,
C. allows police to manage crisis will guarantee healthy climate of public opinion.
D. mothers the minorities in resource areas 7. The use of opinion polls: Healthy climate of public
E. guarantees people’s freedom and rights opinion can also be encouraged by allowing and
encouraging the use of opinion polls.
8. Public complaint bureau: Establishment of public
Demerits of Public Opinion complaint bureau that will listen and investigate
1. Can be dangerous in an election year: The election complains of members of the public will go a long way
years especially, opinion polls are conducted by pollsters in encouraging a healthy climate of public opinion in a
and findings published for consumption. The danger here country.
is that if the final results fail to agree with the results of 9. Formation of political parties: If political parties are
the polls, it may lead to confusion and probably allowed to be formed, they will encourage the moulding
accusations of electoral fraud. of a healthy climate of public opinion in a country.
2. Results not always accurate: Public opinion polls are not 10. Encouragement of democracy: A healthy climate of
exact. That is why after pollsters have conducted their public opinion can better be encouraged in an
polls, they leave a margin of error. This is a standard atmosphere of democracy than in a totalitarian and
practice all over the world, so the existence of a margin
authoritarian environment.
of error is ample proof that the results of the polls are no
exactitude.
3. Some respondent do not provide truthful answers: 2002/28 Nov Exercise 18.14
When people have motion cameras pointed at them, they One of the most effective ways to influence public opinion
become jittery and just say anything that comes into their is through
mind. The responses of such people can therefore not be A. the mass media B. one’s immediate social group
entirely accurate. C. rumour mongering D. opinion leader
4. Disincentive to voting: In Ghana, for example, Mr. Ben
Ephson, a renowned pollster has through his election 2017/32 Exercise 18.15
polls over the years, predicted very close to accurate, the An effective way of strengthening societal institutions
election results. The danger is that where such polls through the expression of
results are released, voter apathy can set in for voters A. personal opinion B. group opinion
whose parties are predicted to lose the coming election. C. elite opinion D. public opinion
5. Bandwagon effect: A bandwagon effect refers to the
concept where people think in a certain direction because 2015/4c Neco Exercise 18.16
most people are thinking in that direction. In election In what three ways can public opinion be encouraged in
years especially, some people look at how the majority of your country?
people are voting and decide to vote in the direction too.
Factors that makes the Conduct of Public Opinion
Factors that can Promote Public Opinion in a State unreliable in West Africa:
1. Raising level of literacy: Educating members of the 1. Lack of expertise official while conducting poll voting.
public in order to raise the level of literacy in a country is 2. Absence of reliable technology may produce
another way in which a healthy climate of public opinion inaccurate result.
can be encouraged. If the citizens can read and write, they
3. High level of illiteracy and ignorance among the
will be in better position to view and judge government
people can make the conduct of public opinion
policies and actions.
2. Press freedom: Freedom of the press if adopted will help
unreliable in West Africa.
to encourage a healthy climate of public opinion in a 4. Problems of analyzing statistical data can make the
country. If the press is free, the policies and actions of the public opinion unreliable.
government will be made known to members of the public 5. Many people cannot withstand media interview
in their true perspectives. because they are shy of facing the camera.
6. There is poor communication network in West Africa
which leads to unreliable public opinion.
257
7. There is possibility of manipulating the figures 2000/23 Nov
generated and gathered during the exercise, which also Which of the following factors limits the expression of
leads to unreliable public opinion. public opinion?
8. Traditional sentiments may be highly influenced by A. the type of government in a state
culture, religions, etc. which will make some people B. the establishment of private media organization
not to participate in the conduct of public opinion. C. the high literacy rate of the citizens
9. Selection of the sampling maybe misleading, if it D. religious belief of the citizenry
cannot produce the desired results. Answer
The type of government in a state determines how public
OPINION POLL opinion can be expressed or limited e.g. in a military state,
Opinion poll is a method of collecting information about public opinion is irrelevant, the military governed by
the views or beliefs of a given group. Information from an decree that is command or force. (A)
opinion poll can shed light on and potentially allow
inferences to be drawn about certain attributes of a larger 1998/28
population. Public opinion is defined as the
A. opinion of public leaders and public officials
Opinion polls typically involve a sample of respondents, B. expressed views of the active and conscious citizens
drawn to represent a larger relevant population, who are C. published views of the ruling party
asked a standardized series of questions in a fixed form. D. opinion of the entire citizenry
The results are analysed for the entire respondent sample, E. opinion of the uneducated public
as well as for specific subsamples that represent subgroups Answer
in the population. In some cases, the relevant population is Public opinion is defined as the expressed views of the
well known and easily operationalized, as in the case of active and conscious citizens, meaning the citizens must be
“adult age 18 and over residing in telephone households”. educated and enlightened to understand all issues and
But in some cases, the relevant population has to be problems properly. (B)
constructed during the course of the interview or research
survey, as is the case of “likely voters”. 1996/19
Public opinion can best be defined as
2018/4a Neco A. One man’s view on public issues
Define opinion poll.
B. sentiments expressed on public policies
Answer
C. the sum total of popular views on public affairs
Opinion polling is a method of analysis for drawing inferences
D. the views of the rich expressed on public affairs
about the attitudes or behaviours of a population by studying a
E. a body of convictions of the electorate only
random sample of persons from that population
Answer
2015/34 Nov Public opinion is a collection of activities and belief about
The method in which a group of people are interviewed on political issues and topic by the sum total of popular views
a specific political issue is called on public affairs. (C)
A. referendum B. individual speech
C. individual writing D. opinion sample 2013/21 UTME
Answer Public opinion refers
Opinion sample is a method in which a group of people are A. aggregate views of groups on particular government
interviewed on a specific political issue. (D) activities
B. views held by the president of a country
2018/4b Neco C. views of the Chief Justice of a country
State any four factors that make the conduct of opinion poll D. aggregate of attitude held by members of the national
unreliable in West Africa. assembly
Answer Answer
1. People get scared of being interviewed. Public opinion refers to the aggregate views of groups on
2. Poor communication network. particular government activities. (A)
3. Poor funding of poll.
4. Lack of objectivity among the pollsters. 1995/20 UTME
5. Poor knowledge of instrument designs and administration. Public opinion is the view expressed by a
6. Problems of analyzing statistical data/poor knowledge A. few members of the society
of statistical analysis. B. few articulate members in a society
7. Lack of expertise knowledge by official conducting the polls. C. majority of the members of a society
8. Reliable methods which may produce accurate results D. group of individuals in a society
are highly expensive and not available easily. Answer
9. High rate of illiteracy and ignorance among the people. Public opinion is a view that is held by the majority. As far
10. Principle of confidentiality in the civil and public as public opinion is concerned
service. the view must be held and expressed by the majority of the
11. Falsification of information/data by both sources and society. (C)
data collectors.
12. Nature of government e.g. military/civilian.
258
2020/25 UTME 2014/2015/20 (UI,IBADAN)
Which of these is not a dimension of public opinion? Public opinion helps a government to
A. substance B. intensity C. orientation A. monitor its socio-cultural policy
D. polling B. monitor the economic situation in the country
Answer C. punish opposition to its policies
Substance is not a dimension of public opinion (A) D. develop the country in line with the people’s aspirations.
Answer
1994/24 Public opinion helps a government to develop the country in
Public opinion is crystallized through all the following except line with the people’s aspirations (D)
A. opinion polls B. strikes C. referendum
2014/2015/24 (UNIZIK, AWKA)
D. military coups E. plebiscites
Which of the following is the commonest means of
Answer
expressing public opinion?
Military coups are not a platform of public opinion. A. handbill B. newspapers C. radio D. television
Military uses decree and it makes no room for public Answer
opinion which is democratic in nature. (D) Radio is the commonest means of expressing public opinion
(C)
1990/21 UTME
The most effective way of monitoring public opinion is 2002/29 Nov
A. by examining the questions asked by journalists Which of the following is a major means of expressing public
B. by the frequency of the press releases of pressure groups opinion?
C. by referendum D. through opinion poll A. church B. elections C. family D. school
Answer Answer
The essential way of monitoring public opinion is by the Election is the medium of expressing public opinion i.e.
frequency of the press releases of pressure groups (B) referendum (B)

1998/20 UTME 2000/23 Nov

One effective way by which government ascertain public Which of the following is a means of expressing public opinion?
support and reactions is through A. oppression B. legislation C. magazines
A. the press B. social mobilization C. opinion leader D. censorship
D. elections Answer
Answer Magazines can also be a means of expressing public opinion. (C)
One effective way by which government ascertain public
1992/19 UTME
support and reactions is through opinion leaders. Opinion
The biased presentation of information in order to influence
leadership is leadership by an active media user who public opinion is referred to as
interprets the meaning of media messages or content for A. mobilization B. propaganda C. indoctrination
lower-end media users. Typically, the opinion leader is D. distortion
held in high esteem by those who accept their opinions. Answer
The biased presentation of information in order to influence
1999/4 UTME public opinion is referred to as propaganda. Propaganda is an
The principle of collective responsibility implies that information, especially of a biased or misleading nature, used
A. individuals views cannot be expressed to promote a political cause or point of view. (B)
B. decisions taken are defended inspite of individual
opinions 2009/36 Neco
C. those who hold different views must acquiesce Measuring public opinion becomes highly expensive when
D. government cannot be personalized A. a referendum is held
Answer B. public opinion poll is conducted
The principle of collective responsibility implies that C. public debates are held
decisions taken are defended in spite of individual opinions D. mass media reports are evaluated
(B) Answer
Government may conduct a referendum or plebiscite to
2002/10 UTME determine what the people want on any particular issue. It
One major disadvantage of public opinion is that determines the acceptability or not of proposals put forward
by the government. This process of measuring public opinion
A. gossip and rumours thrive
is highly expensive. (A)
B. the critics of government policies are always harassed
C. leaders are unnecessarily criticized
1995/23 Nov
D. a vocal minority claims to represent the majority Which of the following agencies has the strongest influence
Answer in shaping public opinions?
One major disadvantage of public opinion is that a vocal A. mass media B. pressure groups
minority claims to represent the majority (D) C. political parties D. peer groups E. schools
Answer
Mass media is the platform that has the strongest influence of
shaping public opinion. (A)

259
REVISION EXERCISES
1. Public opinion can be expressed through
A. Press freedom B. general strike
C. socialization D. compromise
2. Which of the following hinders the expression of
public opinion
A. absence of universities B. un-informed citizenry
C. labour unions D. presence of pressure groups
E. well-equipped police force
3. Public opinion is very important because it
A. guarantees free press B. protects minorities
C. tells the government what action it must take
D. let’s the government know what the people want
E. allows the police to identify trouble makers
4. Public opinion is the view expressed by a
A. few members of the society
B. few articulate members in a society
C. majority of the members of a society
D. group of individuals in a society
5. Public opinion is a view that is
A. held by the majority B. active in the public realm
C. widely publicized D. no longer a secret
6. How does public opinion poll mean?
7. How does public opinion influence public policy?
8. State five characteristics of public opinion.
9. How do media influence public opinion?
10. List and explain five functions of public opinion.
11. What is public opinion?
12. What are the sources of public opinion?
13. Explain any six method of measuring public opinion.

260
Chapter Nineteen
MASS MEDIA
Mass media is the primary means of communication used
to reach the vast majority of the general public. The most
common platforms for mass media are newspapers,
magazines, radios, televisions, and the internet. The
general public typically relies on the mass media to provide
information regarding political issues, social issues,
entertainment, and news in pop culture.

The mass media has evolved significantly over time. The

newspaper was the original platform for mass media. For a
long period of time, the public relied on writers and
journalists for the local newspapers to provide them with People accessing the internet for information.
the latest news.
Roles of Mass Media in Government Activities
1. The mass media educates the populace on government
activities.
2. Mass media plays a very important role in organizing
public opinion.
3. It enlightens the people on the activities of some
organization.
4. It serves as a link between the government and the
people.
5. Mass media serves as agent of political socialization.
6. It a platform of accessing government policy
formulation, implementation and evaluation.
7. Mass media influences the way people look at
Newspaper Stand government policies.
8. It enables the people to hold their government
Centuries later, in the 1890s, came the invention of the accountable especially in the areas they have failed in
radio. The radio would soon supersede the newspaper as their manifestoes.
the most pertinent source of mass media. Families would 9. Mass media also report some organizational projects
gather around the radio and listen to their favourite radio in the communities that host them e.g. oil companies.
stations programmes to hear the news regarding politics, 10. The mass media plays a crucial role in security
social issues, and entertainment. challenges in the country.
2019/3 Neco
Highlight five roles played by the mass media in
strengthening modern democracy.
Answer
1. It serves as an instrument for public education and
enlightenment of the people.
2. Mass media is an agent of political socialization.
3. Mass media serves as an instrument for change in a
society that fights corruption.
4. It assists government in policy formulation,
implementation and evaluation.
5. It provides employment opportunities for the masses.
6. Mass media protects the minority interests.
7. It provides feedback to government policies.
Citizens listening to radio station for information 8. It makes government policies to be clearer to the
masses.
Later down the line came the invention of the television. 9. Mass media serves as a links between the government
The television would soon replace the radio for the most and the people.
effective platform to reach the general public. Today, the 10. It plays a crucial role in security challenges in the
internet is the most relevant form of mass media and has country.
become a major tool for news outlets. Since the evolution
of the internet, the general public is now able to access 2016/5 Neco Exercise 19.1
those same news outlets in an instant with just a click of a Identify any five roles performed by the mass media in
mouse, instead of having to wait for scheduled programs. nation building.

261
The Impact of Mass Media in Nigerian Politics 2019/36 Neco
1. Mass media makes the electorate to have free choice The electronic and print media make their views heard on
of choosing their political parties based on their national issues through
manifestoes displayed by the media. A. public notice B. advertisement
2. Through television advertisement, political parties are C. documentary D. editorial commentary
made popular. Answer
3. It awakens people’s feelings on politics. A documentary film is a non-functional, motion picture
4. It makes the people to be bold enough to hold the intended to document reality, primary for the purposes of
government accountable for their governance either in instruction education, or maintaining a historical record. (A)
negative or positive way.
5. The mass media stands as the mouth piece of the REVISION EXERCISES
people on issues affecting them socially, politically 1. Mass media is a watchdog in Nigeria politics through
and economically. A. public opinion B. audio
6. The mass media focuses and directs the individual’s C. political education D. government
attention towards a particular objective with a singular 2. The mass media development is now
goal of enhancing behaviour change. A. people’s mouth-piece B. views
7. Political education is a great impact of mass media in C. education D. behaviour
Nigeria. 3. Media means
8. Mass media recreates people’s interest on political A. communication outlet or tools used to store and
participation. deliver information
B. inventions the man ever made
2019/27 Neco C. channels of sliding and advertisement
The media plays a vital role in the political environment in D. documentary education and political empowerment
that, it 4. The following are roles of mass media except
A. articulates the views of individuals A. education B. enlightenment
B. incites people to be lawless C. accountability D. government as an institution
C. projects individuals above the state 5. Political education is part of the function of
D. articulates the views of the ruling party A. elites B. illiterate C. mass media
Answer D. ASUU
The media plays a vital role in the political environment in 6. What is mass media?
that, it articulates the views of individuals. (A) 7. Define media.
8. Explain the roles of mass media in government
19.4. TYPES OF MEDIA activities.
The following re types of media used in this age. 9. Discuss media as watchdog.
1. Print Media: This is the oldest media form such as 10. State six impact of mass media in Nigeria politics.
newspaper, magazines, journals, newsletters, books 11. Mention the types of media and explain any two in
and other printed materials. These publications are details.
collectively known as the print media. 12. State seven roles of mass media in Nigeria context.
2. Visual media: Visual media are relating to sight, or to
things that you can see. Examples of visual media
includes model, map, slides, pictures, diagrams etc.
3. Broadcast media: This form of media is usually seen
in news reports via television and radio.
4. Audios – Visuals: This type of media appeals to both
sound and sight. For example television can be
watched with sounds of different programs while
visualising events which are happening on earth. It is
a good source of enlightenment and political
education. Audios–Visuals resource include VCD,
DVD, computers, etc.
5. Audio: This type of media appeals to sound only. For
example with radio we can hear all kinds of news via
it, other audio resource include recorded tapes,
telephones, talking drums, audio compact disc, etc.
6. Internet media: Internet is one of the newest sources
of media. The majority of the users prefer the interest
to watch news quickly. It is more fast and capable
compared to any other source of media. The internet
changes the world and connects people globally. It also
gives you a chance to express your ideas all over the
globe.

262
inseparable from administration because it is a process and
Chapter Twenty an element of administration.

CIVIL SERVICE AND CIVIL SERVICE Causes of Bureaucracy

1. Services rendered in most modern and democratic
COMMISSION states are complex which involve formulation,
implementation of rules and regulations as well as
CIVIL SERVICE division of labour. All these are hierarchical (system
The civil service is a collective term for a sector of of persons or things arranged in graded order).
government composed mainly of career bureaucrats hired 2. Another cause is the issue of accountability. Public
on professional merit rather than appointed or elected, officers are very careful about this and avoid making
whose institutional tenure typically survives transitions of mistakes that will expose them to public criticism and
political leadership. condemnation. So, the outcome is that care is taken to
examine all issues before them critically, resulting to a
The civil service is the body of government officials who process which slows down action.
are employed in civil occupations that are neither political 3. There is a close relationship between size of an
nor judicial. It is the administrative branch of the organization and bureaucracy. In a big organization,
government of a country. It belongs to the executive arm the shift is towards a strict adherence to issues with far-
of government which is responsible for public reaching objectivity coming into play. In a small
administration of the government and the implementation organization, attention to issues is quickly expedited
of government policies. It comprises a body of government with promptness.
employees entrusted with the administration to carry out 4. Another point is the issue of specialization. This is
its policy. A government employee is called a civil servant. very important when implementing issues that are
complex. Specialization is restricting and it narrows
A civil servant or public servant or public servant is a the individual’s activities.
person in the public sector employed in a ministry, 5. Another point of reckoning is organization. This is
department or agency of government to carry out the policy because it provides the necessary structuring in
of the government of the day. The method of appointing hierarchical order of functions and personnel. It helps
government employees is on the basis of competitive every worker to know where he or she fits in and whom
examinations or selection through interviews rather than he or she is responsible to. With this arrangement
political patronage or personal favour. A public or civil rigidity and inflexibility set in, resulting to red-tapism
servant has no political allegiance and is not generally (bureaucracy).
affected by changes in government.
Argument in favour of bureaucracy
Civil service is a vital administrative branch of 1. It is seen as indispensable and ensures efficiency
government. It ensures continuity of the state and serves as especially in large organisation.
the backbone of every government. It carries out policies 2. It is a necessary instrument in areas of adequate
and programmes of government and sometimes initiates planning, control and even implementation.
those policies and programmes for the political heads. 3. It makes for strict adherence to rules and regulations
governing most institutions or organization.
Civil service is organized into various ministries, 4. It produces some level of competence on the part of a
departments, parastatals, corporation and agencies for worker.
effective performance of its duties. The political head of a
ministry is known as the minister or commissioner while Relationship between the Civil Service and Political
the administrative head of a ministry is the permanent Executives
secretary (Director–General). Civil service is otherwise Constitutionally, the civil servant is a servant who carries
known as bureaucracy and civil servants are also known as out the directives of his political master (the minister), it is
bureaucrats. Civil servants are found in various ministries the policy direction that guards the civil servants in the
such as education, information, industry, etc. and they discharge of their duties.
must demonstrate honesty, openness and a high level of The political executive is the political head, while the
integrity in carrying out their duties for the interest of the permanent secretary is the administrative head of the
public. ministry. It is mandatory for the permanent secretary to
conform to the directives of the political executive
BUREAUCRACY (minister/commissioner). There is need for a cordial and
It is the pattern of administration involving government harmonious relationship between the civil servants and
departments in which complicated official routine is their political executives in the interest of the people. The
observed in the conduct of public affairs and in the civil service also initiates policy alternatives from which
activities of public officials. It is laying much emphasis on the political executives make informed decisions.
issues that demands urgent attention.
In practice, however, the higher civil servants, who
Bureaucracy is associated with inefficiency, lack of constitute a minority of officials in the service, have
initiative, unnecessary rigidity in the approach to public considerable influence on, and play a significant part in
problems but to some extent these problems are deciding the policies of government. This is because of the
263
relationship between the ministers and senior civil 1990/34 UTME Exercise 20.2
servants. The views of the experienced civil servants are Which of the following is an autonomous governmental
bound to carry a lot of weight with the minister. He is agency?
usually not a civil servant himself and therefore needs the A. the civil service commission
advice of his expert officials. The minister is often B. the National Security Council
appointed to the office because he is an active and loyal C. the Manpower Advisory Committee
member of a political party or a member of the legislature, D. the National Emergency Relief Agency
not because he possesses specialized knowledge of the
affairs of a particular department of government. However, 2012/37 Neco Exercise 20.3
it is useful but not obligatory for the Minister of Health toThe civil service is an institution for
be a medical doctor by training. A. carrying out private organization goals
B. effecting civil society policies
A civil servant will probably have spent his whole working B. employing private workers
life in government service and thus have detailed C. formulating party programmes
knowledge of the particular department. A minister who D. approving national budget
may be new on the job will have to look to such
experienced officials for advice on the technical and Characteristics of the Civil Service
administrative details of his work. He has to rely on them The following are the characteristics of the civil service:
to supply him with facts and arguments which will 1. Permanency: The civil service is a permanent
probably influence his own views and, through him, those government established section and employees enjoy
of the cabinet. What is then important is harmony between security of tenures. The civil service remains intact while
the minister and the civil servant for the smooth running of government changes periodically.
the government. 2. Neutrality: Civil servants are required to be politically
neutral, so that they can serve faithfully, any government
2004/17 UTME in power, no matter the controlling party. The law
The civil service embraces all workers in requires them to resign their appointment when they are
A. all private corporations interested in partisan politics.
B. public and private companies 3. Impartiality: This implies that civil servants should
C. government ministries D. public corporations discharge their official duties fairly to all the people they
are serving, without religions, class, gender, ethnic or any
Answer
other sectional biases.
The civil service embraces all workers in government
4. Anonymity: Civil servant may neither disclose
ministries (C)
government official secretarial nor speak to the press on
government matters, except they are authorized by the
1993/3 UTME minister supervising the ministry. They cannot be held
The civil service belongs to the organ of government called responsible in relation to the discharge of their duties.
the They do not receive any praise or blame for any good or
A. legislature B. executive C. judiciary defective policy.
D. parastatals 5. Expertise: The civil service consists of highly qualified
Answer and professionally experienced experts in various fields.
The civil service belongs to the organ of government called The formulation and implementation of government
the executive (B) policies and programmes depend largely on these
specialists, while political office holders may not be
1995/30 UTME specialists in the areas they supervise.
Which of the following organs control the civil service? 6. Bureaucracy or Red-Tapism: The civil service is
A. parliament and the courts B. trade unions and the courts characterized by very strict adherence to established rules
C. the police and parliament D. tribunals and interest and regulations; this sometimes causes delays in the
groups implementation of government policies and programmes.
Answer 7. Merit system: Recruitment and promotion in the civil
The parliament and the courts are the organs that controls service is often based on merit. Only qualified and
the civil service (A) competent candidates are recruited by the civil service
commission, promotion is also carried out in accordance
with the established rules and regulations.
2015/35 Neco
The civil service is an administrative institution of
1996/35 Nov
A. the executive arm of government
Which of the following is not a characteristic of the civil
B. public corporation C. para-military organization
service?
D. a business enterprise A. professionalism B. neutrality C. impartiality
Answer D. anonymity E. partisanship
The civil service is an administrative institution of the Answer
executive arm of government because the ministers are the Partisan is a committed member of a political party. In multi-
head of each ministry. (A) party systems, the term is used for politicians who strongly
support their party’s policies and are reluctant to compromise
2012/5a Neco Exercise 20.1 with their political opponents, partisanship is not a characteristic
What is civil service? of the civil service but politicians. (E)
264
2000/20 Nov 2005/34 Neco
Which of the following is a characteristic of the civil service? All the following are features of the civil service except
A. loyalty B. partisanship C. ethnicity D. diplomacy A. anonymity
Answer B. political neutrality and impartiality
Loyalty is when one is faithful and devoted to something. C. security of tenure and permanence
Civil service characteristic is loyalty to the public policies to D. political maturity and participation
engrace the nation. (C) Answer
Political maturity and participation is not a feature of civil
2016/34 Neco service. (D)
The anonymity of a civil servant means that he
A. is above the law of the land
1992/5
B. should take part in partisan politics
C. receives neither praise nor blame publicity
Discuss the characteristics of the civil service.
D. should be prosecuted for professional misconduct Answer
Answer The following are the characteristics of the civil service:
A civil servant is not expected to reveal or speak to the press 1. Impartiality: Civil servants are expected to be fair and
unless authorized by the Minister or Director-General. The just to any government in power. They must show faith
civil servant will not receive praise or blame publicly for their in any government.
actions but the minister. (C) 2. Permanence: It is an institution that does not change
with the government. Workers equally enjoy a
1989/16 UTME permanent tenure of office.
The political neutrality of civil servants is guaranteed by not 3. Anonymity: A civil servant is not expected to reveal or
allowing them to speak to the press unless authorized by the minister or
A. vote director-general. Credit or failure of the government
B. be members of any interest groups on any issue is not blamed on the civil servants but the
C. have dealings with politicians minister.
D. engage in partisan politics 4. Neutrality: Workers in the service are not expected to
Answer engage themselves in partisan politics unless they
The political neutrality of civil servants in guaranteed by not resign their appointments.
allowing them to engage in partisan politics. Partisan 5. Expertise: Experts are produced in the field of
politician is someone who strongly supports a particular administration. This is because they put in long years
political party, often without thinking carefully about the
of service.
consequences (D)
6. Merit System: Employment into the civil service is
based on merit. This will enhance efficiency in their
2009/37 Neco
The non-involvement of civil servants in partisan politics is areas of performance.
related to 7. Bureaucracy: The civil service is characterized by very
A. anonymity B. neutrality C. permanence D. impartiality strict adherence to established rules and regulation; this
Answer sometimes causes delays in the implementation of
Neutrality of workers in the service means they are not government policies and programmes.
expected to engage themselves in partisan politics unless they
resign their appointment. (B) 2011/2012/17 (NDU,BAYELSA) Exercise 20.4
The principle of anonymity of civil servants means that
20015/36 Neco they
Which of the following is a feature of the civil service? A. have a career
A. disloyalty B. impartiality B. are not the servants of a particular government
C. political activism D. temporary tenure C. are trained for the duties they perform
Answer D. are not credited or blamed for anything they do
Civil servants are expected to be fair and just (impartiality) to E. are entitled to pension and gratuity when they retire
any government in power. They must show faith in any
government. (B) 2019/41 (NDU,BAYELSA) Exercise 20.5
An important principle of the civil service is
1997/33 A. authoritarianism B. anonymity
Neutrality of civil servant implies that they should
C. nepotism D. partisanship
A. belong to political parties of their choice
B. be recruited on the basis of merit
C. serve any government loyally 2017/2018/25 (UI,IBADAN) Exercise 20.6
D. be appointed on permanent basis Which of the following is not a feature of the civil service?
E. not liable to blame or praise for their actions A. permanence B. partisanship C. anonymity
Answer D. neutrality
Civil servants are required to be politically neutral, so that
they can serve loyally and faithfully in any government in 1993/48 Nov Exercise 20.7
power, no matter the controlling party. (C) Which of the following is not a basic characteristic of the
civil service?
A. expertise B. disloyalty C. permanence
D. anonymity E. impartiality
265
1996/5a Exercise 20.8 2018/35 Neco
Identify the characteristics of the civil service. The class that controls and supervises the activities of the
executive class in the civil service is
The Structure of the Civil Service A. clerical class B. manipulative class
Civil servants can be grouped into the following classes: C professional class D. administrative class
1. Administrative Class: This comprises of the most Answer
senior civil servants who organize and coordinate the The administrative class is the highest class and they are
activities of the ministries. They executive high-level mostly director-general, deputy-directors, principal
administrative work, advice ministers in formulation officers, etc. they organize and coordinate the activities of
and implementation of policies and serve as the ministers. (D)
communication link between the minister and other
civil servants e.g. director general etc. 1997/31
2. The executive class: This class implements the general Who among the following is a civil servant in Nigeria?
policies and programmes of the government on a daily A. the managing director of a bank
basis. They supervise and control the activities of their B. a director in the ministry of defence
subordinates and help to collect facts that aid in C. a major in the army D. a commissioner of police
making policy decisions. This class comprises of E. a pilot with the Nigerian airways
executive officers, senior executive officers and senior Answer
technical officers. They are holders of first degree, Police, armed forces, etc. are not part of the civil service
HND, etc. but public service. The civil service is different from the
3. The professional class: These classes of officers are public service in terms of condition of service. (B)
recruited as a result of their specialized training, skills,
scientific and technical knowledge. The professional 2012/5b Neco
class includes lawyers, medical doctors, engineers, Explain the structure of the civil service.
architects, accountants and teachers. They offer Answer
professional advice on the technical policies of the 1. Administrative Class: They advise the minister on
government. Recruitment into this class is based on policy matters and also serve as a link, between the
professional or university education. minister and the ministry.
4. The clerical class: This class of workers includes 2. Executive Class: They implement the general policies
typists, clerical officers, clerical assistants and and programmes of the government on a daily basis.
secretaries who help staff in the other classes to carry They supervise and control the activities of their
out their functions. Their job involves keeping records, subordinates and help to collect facts that aid in
movement of files, preparation of data and vouchers making policy decisions.
and payment of claims. They are holders of secondary 3. Professional Class: They offer professional advice on
school certificates and G.C.E, O’Level or equivalent the technical policies of the government and supervise
professional certificates e.g. in typing. sensitive projects undertaken by the government.
5. The Auxiliary class: The categories of workers in this 4. Clerical Class: They help staff in the other classes to
class include cleaners, drivers, painters, messengers, carry out their functions. Their job involves keeping
porters and gardeners. This work involves manual records, movement of files, preparation of data and
labour, while the qualification for entry is the first vouchers and payment of claims.
leaving school certificate. Sometimes this class is also 5. The Auxiliary Class: This class is also known as
called messengerial class. messengerial class; it comprises of carpenters, drivers,
cleaners, gardeners, messengers, etc.
2002/3 UTME
The structure of the civil service is based on 1993/46 Exercise 20.9
A. patronage system B. hierarchical organization Which of the following does not belong to the civil
C. lateral organization D. merit system service?
Answer A. the cabinet office
The structure of the civil service is based on hierarchical B. Nigerian civil aviation authority
organization. Hierarchy is a way to structure an C. the governor’s office
organization using different levels of authority and a D. the establishment department
vertical link, or chain of command, between superior and E. ministry of information
subordinate levels of the organization (B)
2017/34 Neco Exercise 20.10
2014/2015/28 (UI, IBADAN) Which of the following is a civil/public servant?
The highest cadre in the civil service is known as A. house majority leaders B. clerk of the house
A. executive cadre B. administrative cadre C. party whips D. minister of education
C. technical cadre D. clerical cadre
Answer
The civil service cadre responsible for the general
supervision and control of ministries is the administrative
class because that’s the highest class in civil service (B)

266
Functions of the Civil Service 2010/21 UTME
1. Formulation of policies: The senior administrative and Which of the following is the main function of the civil
technical civil servants help to formulate the policies and service?
programmes of the government. These are presented to A. implementing government policies
the ministers and commissioners for consideration and B. allocating resources to the federating units
final decisions. C. supporting the party in power
2. Drafting of bills: Experts in the civil service, especially D. mobilizing grassroots support for government
lawyers, assist the government in the drafting of bills Answer
which eventually become laws. The main function of the civil service is implementing
3. Advice to the ministers/commissioners: The top civil governmental policies (A)
servant acts as advisers to the ministers and
commissioners in charge of their ministries. Their
2011/8 UTME
relevant expertise and experience afford them the
opportunity to providing dependable guide and
Which of the following performs quasi legislative
information on complex government policies and function?
programmes. They also help the political appointees to A. the civil service B. the executive C. the judiciary
furnish the legislature with relevant information D. the traditional institutions
requested on their ministry. Answer
4. Implementation of government policies: The top civil The civil service performs quasi legislative functions. A
servants coordinate and supervise their subordinates to quasi-legislative capacity is that in which a public
ensure the smooth execution of the policies and programmes administrative agency or body acts when it makes rules and
of government. This ensures the provision of amenities to regulations. When an administrative agency exercises its
improve the health, education, social and general life of their rule-making authority, it is said to act in a quasi-legislative
people. manner (A)
5. Preparation of annual estimates and budgets: The civil
servants draft and prepare the annual budget and estimates of 2005/5b Neco
government ministries, departments and corporations. State five functions of a modern civil service.
6. Keeping government records and property: Civil Answer
servants gather and supply very useful information on 1. Civil service provides information for the formation of
which government policies and programmes are based. government policies.
They keep and preserve government property. 2. Civil service executes government policies and
7. Collection of revenue: The civil servants assists the programmes.
government to generate funds through the collection of
3. Bills from the executive are prepared by the civil
taxes paid by citizens and corporate organizations, fines
service.
from the courts and duties paid by exporters and
importers. This revenue enables the government to 4. Civil service makes rules and regulations for its
achieve its goals and objectives. internal working.
8. Law making: The civil service makes byelaws, 5. Civil service prepares and executes annual budgets.
regulations and orders under powers granted it by the 6. Civil service educates citizen on government policies,
parliament. plans, programmes and actions.
9. Quasi-judicial functions: The civil service performs 7. Civil service generates revenue for the government.
some quasi-judicial functions such as the arrest and 8. Civil service provides vital and useful information and
prosecution of smugglers (by custom officials). Public advice to political heads in running their various
health and rent control offices often inspect residential ministries.
and commercial houses to ascertain their level of 9. A civil service keeps documents, files, records all our
cleanliness and curb exorbitant rent demanded by properties of the government.
landlords. 10. Civil service handles correspondence, bulletins and
10. Public enlightenment: The civil service helps to explain forms relating to government.
government policies to the members of the public. They 11. Civil service provides officials to attend national and
carry out public enlightenment especially through the international conferences and seminars on behalf of
mass media to enable the people to appreciate government.
government policies and programmes, and problems
facing the government. 1993/47 Exercise 20.11
Which of the following is the duty of a civil servant?
1994/14 UTME A. loyalty to the government
Which of the following best describes the role of the civil B. public association with a political party
service? C. advising on policy formation
A. promoting the interest of civil servants D. supporting the party in power E. not being partisan
B. advising government and implementing its policies
C. keeping records for government
D. providing information on government and its agencies 2001/25 Nov Exercise 20.12
Answer All the following are functions of the civil service except
The role of the civil service is advising the government on A. making laws B. implementing policies
policies and implementations (B) C. preparing financial estimates D. implementing edicts

267
Measures that can be put in place to make Civil Servants 8. Lack of initiatives: Civil servants are criticized for
Non-Partisan their inability to exercise individual judgment and
1. Appointment of civil servants should be made strictly responsibility on the policies referred to their
through examinations and interviews. departments. They always depend on existing
2. The tenure of civil servant should be guaranteed. regulations and usually fail to adopt new means of
3. The public/civil service commission should follow addressing problems/issues.
strictly the conditions of promotion, discipline and 9. Irresponsibility attitude: Most civil servants are
transfers with biases. arrogant and sometimes impatient to the complaints
4. All civil servants should be conversant with the general and demands of other citizens. They usually act as if
orders of civil service rules and code of conducts which they are only responsible to their superiors and have
disallows partisan of a member. no duty to attend to the public.
5. Any civil servant that wants to engage in politics, must
10. Bribery and corruption: The quick, smooth operation
resign well in advance.
of the civil service is often handicapped by bribery and
6. There should be organized training and retraining of
civil/public servants, slating the roles of the civil service
corruption. Many civil servants demand monetary and
as a neutral and impartial body serving any political party other gratifications before carrying out their duties to
that comes into power. the citizens.
7. There should be improved conditions of service for the 11. Tribalism, favouritism and nepotism: Sometimes, the
civil service periodically. unqualified person is appointed or promoted to a
8. There should be severe sanction imposed on any civil position he cannot perform well, while the qualified
servant found guilty of partisanship and it will serve as person is passed over due to favouritism.
deterrent to others.
2013/38
Factors that can hinder the Effectiveness of the Civil Service in Which of the following is a problem of civil service?
Nigeria A. red-tapism
1. Negative or poor attitude to work: Civil servants are B. offering professional advice to political leaders
known to display poor attitude to work due to inadequate C. continuous keeping of records
salaries, poor working conditions and absence of job D. changing of government through election
security. Answer
2. Bureaucracy: Civil servants follow precedents and Red-tapism is when civil services lays too much emphasis on
adhere strictly to official rules when carrying out protocol, especially on issues that demand urgent attention.
decisions and policies of government. This is mainly to Red-tapism slows down decision making and policy
observe uniformity and impartiality; but it slows down implementations. (A)
the work of government.
3. Political instability: Continuous change of government 2001/24 Nov
brings along a change of political appointees like One factor which militates against the effective functioning
ministers, commissioners and career. Top civil servants of the civil service is
such as the head of service and sometimes the directors- A. delegated legislation B. political interference
general usually comes up with their own policies and C. judicial interference D. political stability
programmes disrupting those formerly being Answer
implemented in the civil service. Political interferences is one of the factor that militates against
4. Political interference: The intervention of the the effective functioning of the civil service. Ministers are
government in the day-to-day administration of the civil appointed to head the ministries without even an experience in
service does not give the civil servants the necessary the field, it retard some ministries. (B)
freedom to carry out government policies effectively.
This is especially because successive governments 2014/32 Neco
change head of departments as well as policies and Red-tapism in the civil service is a production of
programmes at will. A. democracy B. autocracy
5. Duplication of offices and position: The civil service C. bureaucracy D. theocracy
is often criticized for wasting financial and manpower Answer
resources, and retaining unproductive workers with the Bureaucracy is a system of government in which most of the
creation of ministries, departments and positions with important decisions are taken by state officials rather than by
similar functions. elected representatives – excessively complicated
6. Shortage of qualified personnel: The civil service in administrative procedure. (C)
Nigeria is suffering from inadequate qualified
personnel, due to the mass movements of competent 2004/38
Red-tapism refers to
and experienced professionals who move to the private
A. excessive use of formalities in administration
sector or go abroad where there is better remuneration.
B. cutting of the tape during official ceremonies
7. Ineffective organization: The civil service has been C. measurement with tape rule in government land survey
touted as being ineffectively organized, and D. use of red carpet for important dignitaries
improperly managed. For instance, records, Answer
documents, files and other sources of information are Red-tapism is the practice of requiring excessive paperwork and
not well arranged nor properly coordinated. This may tedious procedures before official action can be considered or
be due to frequent movement of workers or non- completed. Red-tape is excessive formality and routine required
delineation of responsibilities. before official action can be taken. (A)
268
1991/23 Exercise 20.13 works under the frame work of the law and as such an
Which of the following is not a problem of the civil service? offending officer can be handled by these bodies or be
A. red-tapism B. over-devotion to precedence dragged to court where he will be punished according
C. improper keeping of records to the law.
D. poor attitude to government work (v) Financial Control: Civil servants can only spend
E. advising political leaders. within the limits of the budget of the agency. Auditors
are to carefully ensure that the money appropriated for
an agency is judiciously expended by government
CONTINUITY OF THE CIVIL SERVICE officials. Public officials are sometimes required to
The civil service remains the stabilizing force and hub of face a panel of enquiry of account for the spending of
government activities that guarantees continuity in public money.
governance of the country, some professionals have said. (vi) Control by the press: The press is the instrument
They said despite challenges faced by the civil service, through which people are informed of the happenings
especially during the military era which eroded its core in the civil service and through which the people can
values, it has continued to make spirited effort to recover criticize the operations of the civil service.
its past glory. As a result of the above, civil servants are always
conscious of what they do in order to avoid the
How to ensure the political neutrality of the Civil criticism of the general public and that of the press.
Service The press therefore acts as control over the activities
1. Civil servants must abstain from partisan politics; they of the civil service.
should be loyal and neutral. (vii) Parliamentary control: The legislature has the
2. The civil service commission must be a neutral body. responsibility to supervise and control the civil service to
The commission should be free from the control of the ensure that they strictly adhere to the rules and regulations
executive and other politicians. of the civil service. To do this they monitor the
3. Recruitment should be based on merits not on political performance of the civil service in the implementation of
leverage. approved policies and use of funds.
4. A civil servant can only play partisan politics after The legislature also has the power to set up a committee to
resigning from the service. investigate and to expose corruption and
5. Civil servants must observe strict official secrecy and maladministration in ministries that are found wanting.
must be obedient to their official deity. It also has the power to cut down the budgetary
6. The minister in charge of the ministry should take allocation of any ministry that performs below
responsibility for the action of his subordinates in the expectation and can equally compel the executive to
service. discipline offending officers according to the rules and
7. The political executive should have limited control regulations of the service.
over the civil service workers. (viii) Public complaint commission control
8. The civil servant must carry out the decisions and (Ombudsman): The public complaint commission is
policy laid down by the political boss e.g. minister. set up to check the excess and arbitrariness of the
executive of the civil servant.
Control of the Civil Service An aggrieved civil servant can seek redress against any
(i) Internal control: The civil service is internally offending civil servant through the public complaint
controlled by the General orders – a body of civil commission.
service rules and regulations and financial institution
which govern the day to day activities of the civil
service. Another form of internal control is through the Institutional Frameworks to Curb Corruption in Civil
establishment of circulars that issues commands and Service
directives to civil servants in different ministries. Apart from the judiciary which is responsible for punishing
(ii) Hierarchical Control: The civil service is officers, government has established institutions to curb
hierarchically structured that each higher hierarchy corruption in civil service. Such institutions are:
controls others below it. For instance, a minister i. Economic and Financial Crimes Commission
exercises control over the director general while the (EFCC): The EFCC is charged with the responsibility
director general on the other hand can caution, issue a of fighting economic and financial crimes. The
query or discipline workers under him for minor commission has made tremendous efforts to curb or
offences and in serious cases, a disciplinary committee eliminate fraudulent practices in the civil service in
may be set up. Nigeria.
(iii) Civil Service Commission Control: This body is ii. Independent Corrupt Practices and Other Related
vested with the powers of appointment, promotion, Offences Commission (ICPC): The ICPC is vested
transfers, discipline and dismissal of civil servants. with the responsibility of investigating and prosecuting
The powers therefore vested on the commission serves corrupt officials. Public servants are therefore held
as a form of control. accountable for their stewardship and those found
(iv) Judicial control: The judicial control of the civil corrupt have been prosecuted and punished by the
service is through the institutions such as courts.
administrative courts, code of conduct bureau,
tribunals, ICPC, EFCC, PCC. Also the civil service
269
iii. Code of Conduct Bureau/Tribunal: The Code of Honesty
Conduct Bureau is set up to act as a check on the To show honesty, a civil servant must:
conduct of the public officers. The Bureau has the (a) set out the facts and relevant issues truthfully and
mandate to ensure a high standard of public morality correct any errors as soon as possible; and
among public officials in the conduct of government (b) use resources only for the authorized public purposes
business. Public officers must imbibe good ethics and for which they are provided
acceptable rules of behaviour such as honesty,
integrity, humility, openness, transparency, etc. It is A civil servant must not:
therefore expected that public officers will become (a) deceive or knowingly mislead ministers, parliament or
accountable and transparent in their work for public others; and
interest. The Bureau has made impressive impact in (b) be influenced by improper pressures from others on the
the ethical conduct of the public officers in Nigeria. prospect of personal gain.

Honesty and Integrity in Civil Service THE CIVIL SERVICE COMMISSION

The Civil Service is an integral and key part of the The civil service commission is a government agency that is
government of Nigeria. It supports the government of the constituted by legislature to regulate the employment and
day in developing and implementing its policies and in working conditions of civil servants, oversee hiring and
delivering public services. Civil servants are accountable promotions, and promotes the values of the public service. Its
to ministers who in turn are accountable to Parliament. role is roughly analogous to that of the human resources
department, in corporation civil service commissions are often
A civil servant as earlier mentioned is appointed on merit independent from elected politicians.
on the basis of fair and open competition and is expected
to carry out his/her role with dedication and commitment In Nigeria, the 1999 constitution of the Federal Republic
to civil service and its core values of integrity and honesty. of Nigeria established the commission at the federal and
state levels.
Integrity is putting the obligations of public service above
personal interests, while honesty is being truthful and Functions of the Civil Service Commission
open. These standards of behaviour are expected of civil 1. Recruitment: It recruits highly qualified personnel
servant at work and when dealing with colleagues. These into the civil service, based upon good educational
values also support good government and ensure the qualifications and performance in competitive, written
achievements of the highest possible standards in all that examinations and interviews.
the civil service does. This in turn helps the civil service to 2. Promotion: The civil service commission promotes
gain and retain the respect of ministers, parliament, the competent and productive civil servants from one grade
public and its customers. to another.
3. Transfer: The civil service commission can transfer
Integrity civil servants from one ministry to the other within the
This means civil servant must: civil service.
a) fulfils his/her duties and obligations responsibly; 4. Discipline: The commission ensures that there is
b) act in a way that is professional and that deserves and sound ethical conduct among civil servants. It enforces
retains the confidence of those with whom he/she has the discipline of officers. Any erring officer may be
dealings;
punished by the commission
c) carry out his/her fiduciary obligations responsibly (that
5. Dismissal: The commission is also empowered to
is, make sure public money and other resources are used
properly and efficiently); dismiss any civil servant who commits a dismissible
d) deal with the public and their affairs fairly, efficiently, offence.
promptly, effectively and sensitively, to the best of 6. Retirement: It is vested with the power of retiring civil
his/her ability; servants and advising in the payment of their pension
e) ensure that he/she has ministerial authorization for any entitlements and allowances.
contact with the media; 7. Advice: It offers advice to the government on the
f) keep accurate officials records and handle information as appointment of suitable individuals to fill same
openly as possible within the legal framework; and sensitive positions in public corporations and
g) comply with the law and uphold the admiration of justice. parastatals.
8. Conditions of service: The civil service commission
A civil servant must not: has succeeded in stating down terms and conditions of
a) misuse his/her official position, for example by using service, allowances and remunerations of the civil
information acquired in the course of his/her official service.
duties to further his/her private interests or those of 9. Efficiency and Integrity: The commission promotes
others; and maintains efficiency and integrity of the civil
b) accept gifts, or hospitality, or receive other benefits from service.
anyone who might reasonably be seen to compromise
his/her personal judgment or integrity; and
c) disclose official information without authority (this duty
continues to apply after he/she leaves the civil service.

270
1986/41 UTME 2017/34 UTME
The main objective of the public service review Which of the following is a function of the civil service
commission headed by Chief Justice Jerome Udoji was to commission?
make the Nigerian public service A. enforcement of law and order
A. less corrupt B. more attractive financially B. payment of civil servants salaries
C. more efficient and result-oriented C. discipline of erring civil servants
D. superior to the private sector D. protection of lives and properties
Answer Answer
More efficient and result-oriented is the main objective of Discipline of erring civil servants is a function of the civil
the Public Service Review Commission headed by Chief service commission (C)
Jerome Udoji (C)
1997/32
1991/38 UTME The main duty of the civil service commission under the
The Public Service Review Commission of 1991 made Nigerian Republican constitution was
proposals to ensure that the public service was A. the retirement and settlement of pension for federal civil
A. more effective than the private sector servants
B. more attractive than the private sector B. advising the government on the establishment of new
C. professionalized ministers
D. efficient and result-oriented C. the appointment and promotion of judges
Answer D. the recruitment, disciplines and promotion of civil servants
The Public Service Review Commission of 1991 made E. determining the policies of each government department
proposals to ensure that the public service was efficient and Answer
result-oriented (D) The main functions of the civil service commission under
the Nigerian Republican constitution was the recruitment,
1993/34 UTME discipline and promotion of civil servants. (D)
Public commission established under the 1979 constitution
were expected to be 2004/37 Neco
A. independent of the executive Civil servants are recruited, controlled, promoted and
B. part of the executive disciplined by the
C. advisory to the executive A. teaching service commission
D. advisory to the legislature B. public complaints commission
Answer C. public service commission D. code of conduct bureau
The public commission was established under the 1979 Answer
constitution to be an advisory to the executive (C) Public service commission principal objectives are
promoted and maintained the highest levels of integrity,
1979/19 UTME impartiality, recruits, control, discipline, accountability
The Public Service Commission (Nigeria) is responsible and leadership across the government sector. (C)
for the appointment of all
A. judges of the High Court 1996/32 Nov
B. officials of public corporations The appointment, promotion and discipline of civil
C. civil servants D. military personnel servants are usually the responsibility of the
E. university teachers A. judicial service commission B. administrative tribunal
Answer C. civil service union D. civil service commission
The Public Service Commission of Nigeria is responsible E. employers’ association
for the appointment of all civil servants (C) Answer
Civil service commissions are empowered with the following
2015/21 UTME mandate: appointment of recruitment, promotion and
Promotion and discipline of civil servants is the discipline. (D)
responsibility of the
A. Federal Character Commission 1998/30
B. Ministry of Labour C. Civil Service Commission The civil service commission is important because it
D. Public Complaints Commission ensures
Answer A. the independence of the civil service
The Civil Service Commission is an independent body B. the buoyancy of the civil service
with members holding office based on good behaviours set C. the harmonization of the civil service structure
up by government. The commission also handles D. federal character in the recruitment of junior staff
promotion, discipline and dismissal of civil servants (C) E. prompt payment of salaries of the civil servant
Answer
The civil service commission is important because it ensures
the independence of the civil service in the state. (A)

271
2014/2015/21 (NDU,BAYELSA) 2001/19 UTME
Under the Civil Service Reform of 1988, the Nigeria civil The idea of making the civil service permanent, neutral and
service became anonymous is to
A. nationalized B. professionalized A. enhance efficiency in administration
C. bureaucratized D. indigenized B. ensure loyalty and support
Answer C. prevent opposition to government
Nationalized (A) D. make civil servants a functional elite
Answer
2014/2015/12 (UI,IBADAN) The idea of making the civil service permanent, neutral and
Anonymity of the civil servant means that civil servants anonymous is to
enhance efficiency in administration of any government
must
without preference (A)
A. serve any government impartially
B. be politically neutral C. have job security 1998/34
D. avoid nepotism and favouritism Neutrality of the civil servant means that they
E. not receive the credit or blame for any good or bad A. are free to do whatever they like
policy B. should not take part in politics
Answer C. can be seen but must be heard
D. cannot be tried in court of misbehavior
Anonymity of the civil servants means that civil servants
E. are free to use government materials as they like
must not receive the credit or blame for any good or bad
Answer
policy. Anonymity describes situations where the acting
Neutrality of the civil servant means that they should be
person’s identity is unknown. The important idea of
natural and not take part in politics. (B)
anonymity is that a person cannot be identified,
unreachable or untraceable because policies were
2002/15 UTME
implemented not by an individual but the civil service. (E)
To qualify for absorption into the administration cadre of
the civil service in Nigeria, an applicant must be
1981/1 UTME A. knowledgeable in civil service rules
A permanent civil service B. a senior civil servant
A. makes continuity in government possible C. specifically trained in public administration
B. makes civil servants arrogant D. a holder of first university degree
C. is undemocratic Answer
D. undermines the authority of governments A holder of a first university degree or (HND), Higher
National Diploma are qualified for absorption into the
Answer
administrative cadre of the civil service in Nigeria (D)
A permanent civil service makes continuity in government
possible (A) 2015/50 UTME
An important ingredient of the civil service is
1985/23 UTME A. hierarchy B. imbalance C. nepotism
The political neutrality of civil servants implies that they D. partisanship
A. are not allowed to join any organization or group Answer
Hierarchy is an essential ingredient of the civil service (A)
B. have no dealings with politicians
C. are not allowed to be involved in partisan politics 1994/30
D. have permanent tenure Before the civil service reforms of 1988, the most
E. are not allowed to vote prestigious and highest paid grade in the Nigerian civil
Answer service was the
The political neutrality of civil servants implies that they A. clerical and manipulative class
B. administrative class C. executive class
are not allowed to be involved in partisan politics (C)
D. messengerial class E. sectorial class
Answer
2001/18 UTME Before the civil service reforms of 1988, the most
The political neutrality of civil servants implies that they prestigious and highest paid grade in the Nigerian civil
A. are not allowed to join any organization or group service was the executive class. (C)
B. have no dealings with politicians
C. are not allowed to be involved in partisan politics
D. are not allowed to vote
Answer
The political neutrality of civil servants implies that they
are not allowed to be involved seriously in political matters
or politics (C)

272
1996/5b 2006/6 UTME
Why is it important for the civil service to be politically The main reason for the poor performance of the public
neutral? complaints commission in Nigeria is that
Answer A. its activities are interfered with
1. Political neutrality promotes objectivity and solid B. it lacks adequate funds to play its roles
advice to the ruling party in government. C. people have not been lodging complaints
2. Effective job performance is usually the outcome in D. it lacks the powers to prosecute offenders
the civil service if political neutrality is maintained. Answer
3. If there is political neutrality in the civil service, political The main reason for the poor performance of the public
interference is reduced especially in appointments, complaints commission in Nigeria is that it lacks the power
promotions, dismissals, retirements, etc. to prosecute offenders (D)
4. One of the features of the civil service is permanence
and this can only be made possible if political 2000/28 Neco
neutrality of the workers is respected. Red-tapism in the civil service refers to
5. Corruption, tribalism, nepotism, etc., are reduced to A. the use of red tapes on legal documents
the barest minimum. B. slowness of action
C. the cooperation between civil servants and politicians
1994/13 UTME
D. politicization of the civil service
Accountability in public office means that officers shall
Answer
A. keep proper account of state finances
Red tape is an idiom referring to regulation or conformity
B. render good account of their activities
to formal rules or standards which are claimed to be
C. not accept bribes and gratification
excessive, rigid or redundant, or to bureaucracy claimed to
D. declare their assets periodically
hinder or prevent action or decision-making. (A)
Answer
Accountability in public office means that officers shall
2019/26 Neco
render good account of their activities (B)
Which state institution serves as a link between the
2007/10 UTME government and the people?
Ethics and accountability in government can be guaranteed A. office of the president B. the civil service
through C. the judiciary D. the church
A. legislative cooperation Answer
B. executive and judicial immunity The civil service serves as a link between the government
C. due process and transparency and the people. (B)
D. administrative reforms
Answer 2006/41 UTME
Ethics and accountability in government can be guaranteed As a component of the state, the civil service is important
through due process and transparency. Due process is the because it ensures
legal requirement that the state must respect all legal rights A. gender equality B. effective cost-benefit analysis
that are owed to a person. Due process balances the power C. continuity in governance D. equality among
of law of the land and protects the individual person from professions
it (C) Answer
The civil service is also a component of the state because
2011/33 UTME it ensures continuity in governance (C)
The rules and regulations of the civil service are called
A. service order B. administrative order 2014/2015/1 (UI, IBADAN)
C. general order D. bureaucratic order A key characteristics of the civil service is
Answer A. transparency B. patriotism C. merit system
General order is the rule and regulations of the civil service D. quota system
(C) Answer
A key feature of the civil service is the merit system. Merit
2003/24 UTME system in which a post or promotion is awarded on the
The smooth operation of the civil service in Nigeria is basis of competence rather than other criteria such as
mostly hampered by political affiliation or length of service (C)
A. inadequate training of personnel
B. corruption and inefficiency REVISION EXERCISES
C. debt burden and redundancy 1. The anonymity in the civil service means that a civil
D. poor infrastructure servant
Answer A. is above the law of the land
The smooth operation of the civil service in Nigeria is B. receive neither praise nor blame
mostly hampered by corruption and inefficiency. C. should take part in partisan politics
Corruption is dishonest or fraudulent conduct by those in D. should not be disciplined for any misconduct
power, typically involving bribery or is the process by
which a word or expression is changed from its original
state to one regarded as erroneous or debased (B)
273
2. Neutrality in the civil services means that
A. the government can seek or replace top civil servants
B. officials can only be removed from office due to ill-
health
C. civil servants should be loyal to the government and
non-partisan
D. officials need to defend the budget in parliament
3. The anonymity of civil servants means that they should
not be
A. prosecuted for any professional misconduct
B. disciplined because of their expertise
C. above the law of the land
D. praised or blamed publicly
4. Anonymity of civil servants means that they
A. should be seen and heard
B. should engage in partisan politics
C. should work hard for their superiors
D. do not take praises or blame for their performance
5. The agency responsible for investigating allegation of
maladministration and punishing offending career
officers in the executive is the
A. federal character commission
B. ethnics commission C. judicial commission
D. public/civil service commission
6. The principle of anonymity of civil servants means that
they are
A. career officers
B. not the servants of a particular government
C. trained for the duties they perform
B. not credited or blamed for anything they do
E. entitled to pension and gravity when they retire
7. The political neutrality of civil servants implies that they
A. are not allowed to vote B. have permanent tenure
C. are not allowed to join any organization or group
D. have no dealings with politician
E. are not allowed to be involved in partisan politics
8. The regionalization of the civil service in Nigeria
could be traced to the
A. Nigerian council of 1914
B. Clifford constitution of 1922
C. Richard constitution of 1946
D. general conference of 1930
E. Lyttleton constitution of 1954
9. Red tapism can be explained as
A. the decentralized way of taking decisions
B. A flexible way by which government decisions are
taken
C. the rigid dependence on routine by civil servants
D. management by objective
10. The other name of red tapism is
A. democracy B. bureaucracy
C. confederation D. autocracy
11. Define civil service.
12. Discuss the characteristics of the civil service.
13. List six functions of the civil service.
14. Identify the various classes in the civil service.
15. Explain the functions of each class.
16. Discuss how to prevent corruption in civil service.
17. What is anonymity?
18. Explain how civil servants are recruited, promoted and
disciplined.
19. Explain red tapism.
20. Describe civil service commission.
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Chapter Twenty One
THE POLICE FORCE

Nigerian Police Officers

Functions of the Police Force

1. The police force identifies criminal offenders and
criminal activity as and when appropriate, apprehend
the offenders and participate in later court proceedings.
2. Police force is to protect life and property of the
citizens of a country.
POLICE FORCE 3. The police force maintains law and order in a country.
Police force is the civil force of a state, responsible for the 4. The police force stop crimes through preventive patrol
prevention and detection of crime and the maintenance of and other measures.
public order and peace. 5. The police force aid individuals who are in danger or
physical harm.
The First Republic Constitution of 1963 recognized and 6. The prosecution of minor offences is a function and
established a Federal Police Service Commission. The power vested on the police force.
Federal Police service commission is the body responsible 7. The police help control and regulate movements of
for recruitment, promotion, discipline and dismissal of motor vehicles and in the process traffic congestion
members of the force. It is worthy of note that the Nigeria and accidents, etc., are avoided.
Police Force is under the federal Government of Nigeria. 8. Police assist to resolve conflicts.
It is headed by the Inspector General assisted by Deputy- 9. Police detects and investigate issues that are
Inspectors General and other officers. At the state level, the potentially serious and breach to law enforcement.
head of the Nigeria Police Force is the Commissioner of 10. The police force helps create and maintain a feeling of
Police and other officers. The first indigenous Inspector security in the community.
General of Police in Nigeria was Chief Louis Edet from 11. Police helps in quelling disturbances and riots.
1964-1966.

The Structure of the Police Force 1991/39 Exercise 21.1

1. The Inspector General of Police: The Inspector Which of the following is not a function of the police?
General of Police is the overall head of the Police A. enacting laws B. controlling traffic
Force. This post can be occupied by graduate cadet C. protecting public places D. arresting criminals
officers or by order rank officers with constant E. prosecuting criminals in the law court.
promotion, can get to the top. There is also Deputy
Inspector General of Police. 2005/20 Nov Exercise 21.2
2. Commissioner of Police: The Commissioner of Police is One of the functions of the police is to
in charge of the police affairs in the state. Most of them A. maintain law and order B. fight external aggressors
at this rank joined the Police Force as graduate’s cadet C. assist the political touts D. adjudicate cases
officers. They report to the Inspector General of Police.
3. There are officers of different grades or ranks: Deputy Problems/Failures of the Police Force:
Commissioner of Police, Chief Commissioner of Police, 1. The police is not properly equipped with modern
Chief Superintendent of Police, etc. They are all gadgets in crime detection.
graduates from Universities or Polytechnic (HND), they 2. Poor funding is a major problem faced by the police
get to this ranks through promotion and training. force
4. The Inspector of Police and other subordinates 3. Bribery and corruption is a cankerworm which has
ranks: The Inspector of police are staff sergeant, eaten deep into the police force.
sergeant, corporals, etc. Some inspector of police are 4. The problem of aiding and abetting of crime by some
graduate while others holders of advanced level members of the police also militate against the force.
certificate. Corporals are school certificate holders. 5. Structural challenges: The way the police are
5. Constables: They are mostly school certificate organized is the reason community policing is
holders. This is the lowest rank in the force. ineffective.

275
6. Political problem: This is a very big challenge of the 2003/31 Neco
Nigeria police as politicians interferes with their An institution which seeks to redress people’s grievances
duties. against abuse of administrative power is the
7. The conditions of service and remunerations in terms A. ombudsman B. judiciary
of salary, fringe benefits, etc., are poor. C. directorate of public prosecution
8. The facilities which is meant to enhance efficient and D. judicial service commission
adequate training are not available. Answer
9. The number of police personnel available is still very An ombudsman is an official, usually appointed by the
low compared to the population of the country. government, who investigate complaints (usually lodged
10. The police is also faced with problems of nepotism and by private citizens) against businesses, financial
tribalism institutions, or government conflicts or conflicts or
concerns raised either by mediation or by making
OMBUDSMAN recommendations. (A)
The ombudsman is a government institution established and
charged with representing the interests of the citizen by 1991/9
investigating and addressing complaints of maladministration The public complaints commission helps to promote all the
or a violation of rights by over- zealous public authorities or following except
officials. The ombudsman which is also known as the A. democracy B. rule of law C. military distinction
Public Complaints Commission was first introduced in D. justice E. fundamental human rights.
Sweden in 1809 and has been established in many other Answer
countries. For instance, in Nigeria It was established in Ombudsman serves as democracy, the rule of law, justice
October, 1975. and fundamental human rights are not denied. Military is
an exception of public complaint commission. (C)
Functions of Ombudsman
1. The body is to ensure the protection of the rights and
Limitations to the Powers of Ombudsman
liberties of the members of the public.
1. Ombudsman can only investigate and make
2. To ensure that public officers and public authorities
subsequent recommendation to the appropriate
discharges their duties in compliance with the laws of the
land.
authority. It has no power to enforce decisions
3. Investigation of cases of maladministration. 2. It can only be involved in matters affecting officer of
4. Listening and looking into grievances of aggrieved lower grades but not ministers, governors of states,
citizens. director-generals, members of the judiciary, president
5. Helping citizens whose rights are infringed. etc.
6. The ombudsman is empowered by laws to investigate any 3. The commission has no power to challenge or change
acts of corruption, nepotism, bias, etc. decisions of the courts when administered.
7. Cases of loss of documents and papers are also 4. The need to preserve and safeguard state security and
investigated by the ombudsman. vital national interest act as limitations on Ombudsman
8. The ombudsman investigates cases of incompetence. 5. Lack of confidentiality on Ombudsman constitutes a
False document and inconsistency in the application of limitation on its jurisdiction competence.
public officials.
9. He also investigates any undesirable conditions and 2009/1 UTME
practices in public places like prisons, hospitals, etc.
The Inspector General of Police is appointed by the
10. The ombudsman is empowered by law to suggest some executive on the advice of the
changes in the law of the country. A. Nigerian Police council
2004/27 Neco B. Police Service Commission
Public complaints commission in West African countries C. House of Representatives
can be called D. Senate of the Federal Republic
A. civil service commission B. ombudsman Answer
C. local authority commission The Inspector General of Police is appointed by the
D. ministry of establishment executive on the advice of the Police Service Commission
Answer that handles their administrative files (B)
An ombudsman is a legal representative, often appointed
by a government or organization to investigate complaints 2012/31 UTME
made by individuals in the interest of the citizens or In Nigeria, the agency mainly responsible for the
employees. The ombudsman is also known as public maintenance of internal peace and security is the
complaints commission. (B) A. Army B. Navy C. Civil Defence Corps
D. Police
26/29 NABTEB Answer
Which of the following is also known as ombudsman? Police force is an agency in Nigeria mainly responsible for
A. the civil service B. public complaint commission the maintenance of internal peace and security in the
C. electoral commission D. the ministry country (D)
Answer
Ombudsman is also known as public complaint
commission (B)
276
2019/2020/48 (UNIZIK,AWKA) 1980/50 UTME
The first indigenous Inspector General in Nigeria was Which of the following bodies in Nigeria performs the
A. Sunday Adewusi B. Louis Edet function of an ombudsman?
C. Adetokunbo Ademola D. Solomon Arase A. the Public Service Commission
Answer B. The National Economic Planning Commission
Chief Louis Orok Edet was the Inspector General of the C. The National Security Organisation
Nigerian Police Force from 1964-1966. He was the first D. The National Complaints Commission
indigenous Nigerian to occupy the position (B) E. The Civil Service Commission
Answer
1998/11 UTME
The Public Service Commission is a body in Nigeria that
The empowerment of the police Service commission to make
performs the functions of an ombudsman (A)
rules for the appointment, promotion and dismissal of its
personnel is an example of
A. a decree B. a penal law 2017/19 UTME
C. a delegated legislation The ombudsman aims at
D. an executive officer A. offering qualitative educational services
Answer B. rendering alternative dispute resolution services
The empowerment of the police service commission to make C. providing qualitative job opportunities
rules for the appointment, promotion and dismissal of its D. entertaining complaints on abuse of public office
personnel is an example of a delegated legislation (C) Answer
The ombudsman aims at entertaining complaints on abuse
1986/36 UTME of public office (D)
Which of the following is not a function of the police force in
Nigeria? 2017/22 UTME
A. traffic control B. arrest of criminals A major objective of public complaints commission is
C. making of laws D. prosecution of criminals A. creating fair opportunities for all government
Answer employee
Making of laws is not a function of the police force in Nigeria B. training and promoting public servants
(C) C. addressing grievances of individuals and groups
D. creating an efficient work environment
1989/44 UTME Answer
Ombudsman as an institution in Nigeria is known as the
The main aim of establishing public complaints
A. public complaints commission
commission (ombudsman) is to create an efficient work
B. code of conduct bureau
C. public service commission environment (D)
D. political bureau
Answer REVISION EXERCISES
Ombudsman as an institution in Nigeria established to 1. Ombudsman means
investigate and deal with cases of maladministration, injustice A. civil service B. public complaints
and unfair treatment by public officers is also known as the C. private owners D. the ruling system
public complaint commission (A) 2. A system whore public complaint of their grievance is
called
1988/26 UTME A. judiciary B. legislative
The Public Complaint Commission is empowered to C. ombudsman D. executive
investigate complaints and 3. A system that invest age maladministration of public
A. prosecute false complaints officers is
B. report findings to appropriate authorities for action A. court B. police C. army D. ombudsman
C. reprimand authorities against who complaints are made 4. Ombudsman can only investigates
D. refer complaints to traditional rulers A. ministers B. director general
Answer C. subordinate rank D. inspector general
The public complaint commission is empowered to 5. Problem of the police force are the following except
investigate complaints and report findings to appropriate A. good funding B. bribery
authorities for actions (B) C. corruption D. inadequate personnel
6. The following are the functions of the police force
2000/34 UTME
except
The Nigerian Complaints Commission as the Ombudsman
suffers most from A. identify criminals
A. poor knowledge of the working of the public service B. to aid individuals in danger
B. manipulation by political office holders C. the torture the innocent
C. too many complaints handle effectively D. to maintain law and order
D. lack of power to enforce its decision 7. The inspector general is the
Answer A. overall head of the police force nationwide
The main problem of the ombudsman is lack of executive B. overall head of the police force in a state
power to enforce decisions and implementation of policies C. overall head of the police force in a local
introduced by the body (D) government
D. overall head in a district police post
277
8. Constable are the
A. highest rank B. subordinate rank
C. lowest rank D. medium rank
9. The civil force that maintains law and order in our state
is called
A. army B. air force
B. police force D. naval force
10. The system that is responsible for recruitment
promotion, punishment and dismissal of the police
force is
A. police post B. police station
C. police headquarters
D. police service commission
11. Define a police force.
12. Explain the structure of Nigeria police force.
13. State any five functions of Nigeria police.
14. Mention and explain any two limitations of police
force.
15. Explain ombudsman.
16. Discuss any three function of ombudsman.
17. State four limitations of ombudsman.
18. Discuss the duties of police service commission.

278
2019/25 Neco
Chapter Twenty Two Public corporations are referred to as statutory bodies
because they are established by
PUBLIC CORPORATION A. a legislative instrument B. Acts of parliament
A public corporation is a legal public institution created by C. an executive instrument D. bye-laws
the special act of parliament which defines the power, duties, Answer
privileges and patterns of management, and backed with the Acts of parliament (B)
power of the government to provide essential social and
economic services like electricity, postal services, pipe borne 1996/29
water, etc. to the people. It is charged with responsibility to Which of the following is true of a public corporation? It is
provide the aforementioned services to improve the living A. set up to make profit for the government
standards of the masses. The basic purpose of public B. to provide essential services for the people at a low cost
corporation is to provide essential services which would be C. owned by the government of a state
affordable by the majority of the people. It is not usually D. established by a bye-law
profit-oriented in its operation. This is why a public E. owned by the minister of commerce
corporation is known as quasi-government commercial Answer
enterprise. Most public corporation are managed and Public corporations are government owed establishments
supervised by board of directors, appointed by the and enterprises established through the acts of parliament
government for a specific period of time. At the head of this or statutes, decrees or edict to provide essential social and
board is a chairman. welfare services to the people at a low cost. For example;
Since a public corporation is created by a statute, it is also Nigerian Railway Corporation (NRC), State Water
known as statutory corporation. The following are examples
Corporation etc. (B)
of public corporation: Federal Radio Corporation of Nigeria
(FRCN), Nigeria National Petroleum Corporation (NNPC),
Nigeria Ports Authority (NPA), Power Holding Company of 1990/44 Nov
Nigeria (PHCN), Federal Airport Authority of Nigeria Which of the following is not a public corporation?
(FAAN), National Communication Commission (NCC), A. Nigeria Ports Authority
Nigeria Custom Service (NCS), News Agency of Nigeria B. National Electric Power Authority
(NAN), Nigeria Railway Corporation (NRC), National C. Nigeria National Shipping Line
Agency for Food and Drug Administration and Control D. Nigeria Steel Development Authority
(NAFDAC), Nigerian Maritime Administration and Safety E. Nigeria Teachers Institute
Agency (NIMASA), Code of Coduct Bureau (CCB), etc. Answer
Nigeria Teachers Institute is not a public corporation agency.
Features of Public Corporation The following are some examples of public corporations;
1. Establishment: Public corporation is established by Power Holding Company of Nigeria (PHCN), Nigeria Port
decree or by act of parliament. Authority, Nigerian Railway Corporation (NRC), Nigerian
2. Monopolistic in nature: Some public corporations are National Petroleum Corporation (NNPC), Federal Radio
conferred with monopoly powers by an act of parliament Corporation of Nigeria (FRCN), Nigerian Television
or decree. Authority, etc. (E)
3. Not profit oriented: Public corporations are not set up to
make profit but to provide essential goods and services to
the people. 1993/37 UTME
4. Accountability: The management of public corporation In Nigeria, public corporations are also known as
(board of directors) is accountable to the government that A. multinational corporations B. private enterprises
set up the corporation. C. parastatals D. cooperative societies
5. High capital requirement: A public corporation requires
Answer
large capital to set up which cannot be provided by
In Nigeria, public corporations are also known as
private individuals.
6. Government and tax payers bear the risks: The risk of parastatals. Parastatals in Nigeria context is a company,
the business is borne by the government and tax payers agency or intergovernmental organization that possesses
because they are responsible for providing the capital for political clout and is separate from the government, but
financing the project. whose activities serves the state, either directly or
7. Legal entity: It is a legal entity as it can sue and be sued indirectly (C)
in its own right.
8. Employees are public servants: The workers in the 2000/8 UTME
public corporation are public servants and are treated as The day-to-day operation of public corporations is the
such. direct responsibility of the
9. Objective: The primary objective of public corporation is A. management B. union workers
to ensure the provision of essential services to the C. supervising ministry D. board of directors
member of the public. Answer
10. Independent decisions: Public corporation can take The daily activities of public corporations is controlled and
some independent decisions without the government. supervised by the Board of Directors, whom were
11. Board of Directors: Public cooperation are controlled appointed by the government for a specific period of time
and directed by the Board of Directors. The appointments (D)
of the Board of Directors are political.
279
2017/35 Neco 6. To promote economic development: Government
Which of the following statements about public invests in enterprises like banks, insurance, etc., in
corporation is not true? order to have firm control over the economy and to
A. it is managed by a board of directions regulate it.
B. it is established by an act of parliament 7. To ensure even distribution of income: Government
C. a huge capital is needed for its establishment engages in some enterprises in order to ensure fair and
D. it is financed mainly by private individuals even distribution of income.
Answer 8. To prevent foreign dominance of the economy:
A public corporation is a large scale business organization Government ventures into business in order to prevent
set up, owned and financed by the government of a country or reduce foreign control of the economy by foreign
with the aim of providing services to the member of the investors.
public. It is not financed by private individuals. (D) 9. High capital requirement: Public corporation requires
a lot of money to start which cannot be provided by
2016/16 UTME private sectors or individual.
The administrative head of a public corporation is the 10. Revenue generation: Government may also establish
A. General Manager B. Permanent Secretary public corporation for the purpose of generating revenue.
C. Chairman D. Chief Executive 11. Propaganda: Public corporation may be established
Answer – A for the purpose of propaganda. Examples are television
The administrative head of a public corporation is the authority and radio cooperation.
General Manager, while that of the civil service is known 12. Raising the people’s standard of living: Public
as Director – General or Permanent Secretary. corporation increases the productivity and constant
supply of these essential services that can improve the
2013/39 Neco Exercise 22.1 living standard of the people.
Public Corporations are set up by 13. Quick actions: Public corporation acts of
A. the Board of Directors B. the Minister establishment empowers government to carry out
C. workers in the corporation D. an act of parliament some duties/responsibilities that requires quick
attention, which ministries cannot quickly or
1984/15 UTME Exercise 22.2 effectively carry out because of bureaucracy.
Which of the following is not a public corporation in
Nigeria?
A. Joint Admissions and Matriculation Board Functions of Public Corporation
B. Nigerian National Oil Corporation 1. To help avoid the exploitation of consumers.
C. Nigerian Steel Development Authority 2. To provide essential services like water supply,
D. Nigerian National Shipping Line transportation, electricity supply at affordable rates.
E. Nigerian Railway Corporation 3. To carry out certain strategic projects e.g. minting and
arm production, thereby ensuring the security of the
2010/5a Neco Exercise 22.3 nation.
Define Public corporation. 4. It create platforms for revenue generating.
5. To allow quick decisions in the provisions in the
provision of public services.
Reasons for the Establishment of Public Corporation 6. To break the monopoly of private enterprises and
Public corporation is established for the following reasons: prevent excessive profiteering
1. Employment opportunities: This is one of the major 7. To stimulate national and economic development
reasons for the establishment of public corporation. 8. To provide employment opportunities
The provision of business by the government create 9. To avoid wastage in the provision of services
avenue for the unemployed to get a job to do. 10. To provide revenue for the government
2. For strategic and security reasons: The government 11. To ensure equitable and proper distribution of wealth
establish public corporation for the purpose of controlling and services in a country
some certain key industries like the airports, seaports, the 12. To protect the public and national interest against
oil industry for strategic reasons. unhealthy competition among private companies.
3. For efficient management and proper control: The
government establish public corporation for the purpose
of controlling some certain key industries like the 2019/2020/21 (UI,IBADAN)
airports, seaports, the oil industry for strategic reasons. Public corporations are established mainly to
4. To provide infrastructural facilities: The government A. offer free services B. make profit for government
also establishes certain enterprises to provide C. provide jobs for the employed
infrastructural facilities like roads, railways, etc. D. provide services at subsidized rates
5. To prevent monopolistic: The government established Answer
public corporation also to prevent private sectors from Public corporations are established mainly to provide
exploiting the general public. services at subsidized prices (D)

280
2017/2018/93 (DELSU,ABRAKA) 3. Autonomy and Flexibility only in theory (Political
Public corporations are established to interference): Autonomy and flexibility advantages of
A. reduce government spending a public corporation exist only in theory. In practice,
B. boost government revenue there is a lot of interference in the working of a public
C. improve provision of social appointments corporation by ministers, government officers and
D. create vacancies for political appointments other politicians.
Answer 4. Rigid constitution: The constitution of a public
Public corporations are established to boost government corporation is very rigid. It cannot be changed, without
revenue (B) amending the statute of its formation. Hence, a public
corporation could not be flexible in its operations.
2014/2015/19 (UI,IBADAN) 5. Low managerial efficiency: Quite often, civil servants
Public corporations are established principally to
who do not possesses managerial knowledge and
A. compete with private firms
skills, are appointed by the government on the Board
B. raise revenue for the government
of Directors of a public corporation. As such
C. provide essential services for the public
managerial efficiency of public corporations is not as
D. promote public accountability
much as found in private business enterprises.
Answer 6. Lack of qualified personnel: Most corporations do
Public corporations are established principally to provide
not have skillful personnel. This is because recruitment
essential services for the public (C)
is not usually based on merit and competence.
2002/29 Neco 7. Financial problem: Financial crises effect the
Public corporations are established mainly to execution of the activities of public corporations. They
A. cater for the welfare of its officials often find it difficult to secure sufficient funds to
B. provide essential services and amenities embark on capital projects. They do not have adequate
C. co-ordinate activities of the ministries collateral security to obtain loans from financial
D. advise the government on Commerce institutions. This problem often stems from
Answer mismanagement of funds. Funds are mismanaged in
Public corporations are established mainly to provide different ways e.g. buying old equipment at the price
essential services and amenities to the public at minimal of new ones, granting and paying for contracts that will
costs. (B) end up not being executed, completely diverting funds
for personal use, etc.
2001/28 Nov Exercises 22.4 8. Overstaffing: This is a serious problem in all public
One of the reasons for setting up public corporations is to corporations in Nigeria. Overstaffing has a
A. make profits for the directors demoralizing effect on the underemployed person and
B. provide essential services at low cost breeds indolence which lowers the general tone of
C. raise money to pay government workers efficiency as well as imposes on the organization a
D. provide money for general elections crippling wage bill whose size is totally out of
1994/31 Exercise 22.5 proportion with productivity.
The major reason why government sets up public 9. Low quality output: The output of public
corporation is to corporations, whether product or service, is not of high
A. make profit quality. This is due to lack of investment in
B. provide employment for defeated politicians technology, low employee morale, inferior quality of
C. provide utility services to the public at minimal costs raw materials, poor work culture and lack of quality
D. reflect the federal character in siting industries and services offered by the private sector.
E. help businessmen 10. Poor work ethics: Due to job security and a strong
labour union with political affiliations, employees
2010/5b Neco Exercise 22.6 sometimes do not see the need to be dedicated to their
Give five reasons for setting up a public corporation in work and contribute to the growth of the organization.
your country. Low productivity, poor quality of work, absenteeism,
etc. are common in public corporations.
11. Poor production: Due to reliance on outdated
Problems of Public Corporation technology, lack of upgradation and inefficiencies, low
1. Lack of accountability: There is lack of level employee motivation and poor work culture, the
accountability in its operation. A lot of activities may productivity of many public corporations is quite
not be open to members of the public. The board of low/poor
directors and management may be selfish in the 12. Clash of divergent interests: In the Board of
running of the corporation. The board may make Directors of public corporations, conflicts may arise
decisions for personal interest. among representatives of different groups. Such
2. Inefficiency and corruption: There is often a high clashes tell upon the efficient functioning of the
degree of inefficacy in most corporations in Nigeria. corporations and may hamper its growth.
There is also widespread corruption in the corporation.
This resulted in poor service delivery. It has been
difficult for most of the corporations to make profit
that would allow them to continue in business.
281
13. Lack of keen competition: Most public corporations 6. Retaining talent: The pay, working environment,
are set up as monopolies and are made to operate as opportunity for professional advancement and fast
such. The Nigerian Airways, Power Distributing track career growth are missing in public enterprises.
Company of Nigeria and the Nigerian National Thus, many talented employees quit and seek
Shipping Line are monopolies in their own right. They opportunities in the private sector. Therefore, public
do not face a keen competition from other agencies. enterprises should institute measures such as pay for
This lack of keen competition leads to gross performance and promotions based on performance
inefficiency, poor service and lack of concern for the and on seniority. Also, employee stock options and
interest of the consumers. They are not likely to change salary levels should match those offered by the private
for the better since they know that the consumer has no sector.
choice. 7. Sound business principles: The enterprise should be
14. Poor job description: Poor job description between run on sound business principles. There should be
the corporation and supervising ministry at times leads focus on improving efficiency in all functional areas.
to the neglect of certain areas of operation. At times, Policies, systems and procedures should be modified
personality clashes arise between the officials of the with the aim of making the enterprise flexible, efficient
ministry and that of the corporation. The tendency of and profitable.
many officials of the ministry to treat it as an extension 8. Redeployment of excess staff: Excess staffing is one
of their ministry rather than a commercial enterprise of the major problems faced by public enterprises and
makes this bad matter worse. The result is that the has resulted in high establishment and employee
corporations are slow and their efficiency affected costs. Therefore, the excess staff should be identified
adversely. and redeployed to areas where there are shortages of
15. Federal character concept: The concept of federal staff. Instead of going for fresh recruitment, vacancies
character was aimed at ensuring representation of all can be filled up with excess staff from other
sections of the country in public institutions. But in enterprises. This would improve efficiency and also
practice, it has come to be implemented such that reduce costs.
representation has taken the front seat while 9. Freedom from political interference: Many public
competence is secondary. enterprises are considered to be controlled by
politicians. They are to run to suit the needs and
Solutions to problems of Public Corporation requirements of the ruling party. Corruption,
1. Objective: Every enterprise should have a specific favouritism and nepotism are rampant in many of these
objective or objectives. The objective(s) should be enterprises and the interests of the enterprises are
expressed in clear terms and communicated to all the sacrificed. It should be ensured that the affairs of
employees of the enterprise. Objectives should be set, public corporations are free from continuous
taking into account the prevailing environment and interference of politicians, bureaucrats, etc.
modified according to the changes in the environment. 10. Proper project appraisal: It is common to observe
2. Autonomy: Public enterprises should have that many projects are announced without any sort of
considerable autonomy in their functioning. Authority appraisal of the need and viability of such projects.
should be delegated and those involved should have Thus, many of such projects are left incomplete with
the freedom to take decisions. Autonomy would ensure huge amount of funds invested in them going to waste.
that decisions are taken at the right time and growth Therefore, it should be ensured that before any project
opportunities utilized in the best possible manner. is taken up for implementation, there is a thorough
3. Proper planning: Time and cost overruns are a appraisal or the viability of the project from the
common problem affecting public sector projects. technical, economic, social and commercial point of
Therefore, once a project is considered for view. Only those projects found to be feasible should
implementation, there should be proper planning right be considered for implementation.
from the commencement of the project till its 11. Cost control and cost reduction: Over-staffing, poor
completion. Contingency plans should also be capacity utilization and low productivity of employees
prepared so that the enterprise is ready to face any all contribute to cost inefficiencies. Employees should
situation. Such detailed planning would ensure that be trained on measures of cost control and cost
projects are completed within the time frame stipulated reduction. Wage hikes and bonus of employees should
for it in a cost-effective manner. be linked to the extent of cost reduced.
4. Improvement in capacity utilization: Idle capacity 12. Pay for performance: The pay for employees in
constitutes wastage of national resources. Low public has very little relationship with performance.
capacity leads to low productivity, and revenues Due to the little or no difference between a top
earned are also low. Therefore, measures should be performer and non-performer in terms of pay and
imitated to improve capacity utilization. perks, there is very little motivation among employees
5. Professional cadre of managers: A new cadre of to improve and excel. To motivate employees and
managers who are professionally qualified should be create the urge to excel, public corporations should
appointed. To attract talented professionals, the pay link a substantial portion of pay with performance of
should be very attractive and work functions should be both the organization as well as the employee.
devoid of external interference.

282
Organizational Structure of Public Corporations 1980/45 UTME
1. Political Head: The minister is the overall political The major problem that confronts public corporations in
head of the corporation and he gives policy guidelines Nigeria include
to the board of directors. He also has the power to
A. management problems, corruption and ethnic loyalty
appoint and even dismiss some senior staff members
in any corporation under his control. Also, he appoints B. excessive government directives and lack of funds
auditors to audit the accounts of the public C. red tape and manpower shortage
corporations under his control. D. lack of public patronage and excessive competition
2. The Chairman: At the apex of the administration is from the private sector
the chairman who is a government appointee. E. A, B and C
3. The Board of Directors/Governing Board: The board Answer
is made up of appointed directors who initiate and
The major problems that confront public corporation in
formulate policies for the corporation.
4. The Managing Director/General Manager: The Nigeria include management problems, corruption and
Managing Director assist the board in the day-to-day ethnic loyalty, excessive government directives and lack of
administration of the corporation and at the same time, funds, red tape and manpower shortage (E)
sees to the execution of policies.
5. Key Senior Officials: The management is made up of 2003/27 Neco
key senior officials. They assist the Managing A statutory corporation is under the supervision of
Director/General Manager in the overall
A. the chief justice B. commissioner of police
administration of the corporation. As heads of different
units, they also supervise other categories of staff. C. a minister D. a local government chairman
6. General Staff: The subordinate and others, helps in Answer
running of the administration in the organization. Public corporation is also known as statutory corporation
or public enterprises brought into existence by a special act
1999/26 Nov of the parliament. The act defines its powers and functions,
The highest authority in a public corporation is vested in the
rules and regulations governing its employees and its
A. executive directors
B. committee of elders and politicians relationship with government department. (C)
C. minister of the controlling ministry
D. secretary to the corporation 2012/39 Neco
Answer Which of the following manages a public corporation?
The minister is the overall political head of the corporation A. chambers of commerce B. board of directors
and gives policy guidelines to the Board of the corporation C. an accountant-general D. an auditor-general
(C)
Answer
2001/27 Nov The board of directors manages the public corporation by
The general supervision of public corporation is carried out recruiting, supervises, evaluates, establish policies based
by the on the government policies, it provides direction for the
A. board of directors B. board of trustees organization, monitor and manages financial resources,
C. managing director D. secretary to the board spread the word about the organization through their
Answer integrities etc. (B)
The general supervision of public corporation is carried out
by the board of directors that initiate and formulate policies
for the corporation. (A) 2006/35 Neco
Public corporations are financed
2009/11 UTME A. by tax payers B. with private funds
Which of the following mostly militates against the C. with entrepreneurial funds D. by political parties
efficiency and productivity of public corporations in Answer
Nigeria? The public corporation is managed and controlled by the
A. incessant interference by government
board of directors appointed by the government.
B. the management teams are always appointed at will
C. Board’s are often non-professionals Government and tax payers bear the risk. The risk of the
D. members of the management teams are always at business is borne by the government and the tax payers
loggerheads because they are responsible for providing the capital for
Answer financing the projects. (A)
Incessant interference by government militates against the
efficiency and productivity of public corporations in 1995/4 Exercise 22.7
Nigeria (A)
State the functions and problems of public corporation.

283
Difference between Public Corporation and Civil Service 1996/36 Nov
S/N Public Corporation Civil Service One of the major differences between government
1. It has Board of The civil services is departments and public corporations is that corporation are
Directors managing managed by a minister A. private organizations B. indigenous organizations
the administrative advised by the director C. financed by governments
activities of the general or permanent D. autonomous and have boards of directors
cooperation. secretary. E. not controlled by government
2. The structure of a Hierarchical structure of the Answer
public corporation civil service include Public corporations are autonomous and have boards of
include the board of ministries, departments and directors whose manage the affairs of the corporation
directors and agencies with specific while the ministry is managed by a minister who receives
management with mandates and functions. It is advice from the permanent secretary. (D)
various professional also classified into
department with Administrative/Professional,
2000/4 Neco Exercise 22.8
specific Executive and clerical
In what five ways is the civil service different from the
functions/operations classes for specific job
public corporation?
schedule according to ranks.
3. It is operated like Ministries are created and
commercial organized to provide Control of Public Corporations
ventures, making services, it attract little or no 1. Parliamentary control or acts of parliament: Public
profits for the payment. corporations are established by acts of parliament and
government. therefore the corporations so established cannot stop
4. The chairman of the The political head of a outside the parent act that establishes them. In other
board of directors is ministry is the minister. words they cannot do things that the law prohibits
the political head of them from doing. That serves as a limiting factor for
a public corporation. the corporations.
5. The administrative The administrative head of a 2. Control by the Executive: Every public corporation is
head of a public ministry is the permanent placed under a particular ministry and the minister
corporation is the secretary. responsible for that ministry takes supervisory
general manager. responsibility for that corporation. The Boards of
6. Workers is public Workers in the civil service Directors are appointed by the Executive and they can
corporations are are called civil servants. also dissolve it. The minister has the power to appoint,
called public promote, transfer and dismiss. This serves as a check
servants. on the public corporations.
7. Board of Directors Workers are employed by 3. Financial control: The Board of the Corporation, the
employ workers into the civil service commission government can call for the auditing of the accounts of
the corporation. through open competition the corporation. They can also establish a commission
and interview. of inquiry to investigate any suspected malfeasance in
8. Public corporations The civil service is involved the operations of the public corporation.
are involved in in policy making and 4. Judicial control: Public corporations can be controlled
providing essential implementation. They also through the powers of the judiciary. An action of any
services for the give advice to the
public corporation which violates the rights of an
people. government.
individual can be declared null and void by the courts,
9. It have flexible and Government ministry and
if it is brought before their attention.
quick decision departments are
making machinery. characterized by 5. Control by the public: The public can also serve as a
bureaucracy. form of control over the activities of a public
10. A public corporation A ministry is a non-profit corporation for example, the public can boycott their
though profit making organization. products if it falls below the standard expected. On the
making is not the other hand, if they engage in activities inimical to the
main motive for its benefits of the people, a back lash from the public can
establishment, is compel them to fall in line.
expected to make 6. Quality control: There are statutory organizations set
profit not to run at up to ensure that goods meet a certain national
loss. minimum standard. The Food and Drugs Board is one.
11. Workers enjoy Workers here do not enjoy Public Cooperation can be whipped to conform to
better conditions of much from these facilities. standards if they are not doing so.
service.

NB: The above differences also serve as the major

difference between Civil Service and Public
Service.

284
2014/34 Neco 2001/28 Neco
The central government can reduce annual subventions to A minister controls public corporations by
public corporations through A. auditing the accounts of the corporations himself
A. parliamentary control B. ministerial control B. giving general policy directives
C. judicial control D. public control C. criticizing the corporations through the mass media
Answer Answer
The ministers whose ministry controls a public corporation can The minister is the overall political head of the corporation
appoint and dissolve board of directors of such corporation, it and gives policy directives and guidelines to the Board of
approves loans and expenditure of the cooperation, the minister Corporation. (B)
has the right to reduce annual subventions of the public
corporations through ministerial control. (B) 2005/33 Nov
Which of the following is a control of a public corporation?
2011/39 Neco A. public opinion not expressed in the mass media
The efficiency of public corporations can be enhanced B. approval of loans and major capital outlay
through C. policy manipulation by the councilors
A. increased production of goods D. differential treatment of public corporation employees
B. appointment of staff based on patronage Answer
C. frequent redeployment of staff The minister control the public corporation, the minister
D. less government interference. approve loans and major capital outlay. (B)
Answer
For public corporation to be efficient, there must be 1995/5 Nov
enhanced of services through the increase of production of How can government exercise control over public
goods. (A) corporations?
Answer
2016/37 Neco 1. Public corporations are those corporations which are
A minister controls public corporation by run by the government. They are simply government
A. providing the corporation’s finances owned corporations.
B. auditing the accounts of the corporation 2. The public corporations are solely controlled by the
C. auditing the accounts of the corporation personally D. government.
criticizing the corporation through the mass media 3. As public authorities they are subject to the normal
E. ensuring the effective administration of the corporation controls of constitution and administrative laws to
Answer supervise by the minister.
A minister controls public corporation by ensuring the 4. The minister is answerable to parliament and by courts
effective administration of the corporation through the through the control which they exercise over
advice of the permanent secretary. (E) administrative authorities.
5. The annual reports of those corporations are submitted
2019/38 Neco to the government and the parliament.
Public corporations can operate in a more efficient manner 6. The financial report and condition of the corporation
if they are should also be laid before the government and
A. free from political interference parliament.
B. controlled by the judicial service commission 7. The framework of the economic planning should be
C. under the head of the civil service done by the government.
D. controlled by the military 8. The policies, investment decisions and programmes
Answer for growth and expansion of public corporations have
Public corporations can operate in a more efficient manner to be coordinated with national priorities and the
if they are free from political interferences which leads mobilization and allocation of resources.
mismanagement of funds, etc. (A)

1997/35 1988/25 UTME

Government controls the public corporations in Nigeria is Which of the following groups are all public corporations?
mainly to A. UAC, NNPC, NPA, NEPA
A. ensure public accountability B. NITEL, NAA, NUC, NTC
B. allow freedom of action on the part of the corporations C. NEPA, NNPC, NITEL, NAA
C. guarantee profit maximization of the corporations D. UAC, NTC, NPA, NAA
D. protect the appointment of foreigners in the corporations Answer
E. encourage ethnic domination in the corporations The group C option of the answers are all public
Answer corporations. Nigerian Electricity Power Authority
Government controls the public corporation in Nigeria (NEPA), Nigerian National Petroleum Corporation
mainly to ensure public accountability and close (NNPC), Nigerian Telecommunication (NITEL) and
monitoring of their activities. (A) Nigerian Airways Authority (NAA) (C)

285
1995/37 UTME 2020/31 UTME
Examples of public corporations in Nigeria are One feature of the public corporations that was weakened
A. UAC and CFAO B. NEPA and UAC by privatization is
C. CFAO and NCC C. NEPA and NRC A. government control B. social control
Answer C. national integration D. social harmony
NEPA and NRC are good examples of public corporations in Answer
Nigeria. Nigerian Electricity Power Authority (NEPA) and Privatization of public corporation weakens government
Nigerian Railway Corporation (D) control. (A)
2013/38 UTME
2012/38 UTME
A public corporation is managed by
Workers in the public corporations are known as
A. a minister B. a general manager
C. the board of governors A. civil servants B. private employees
D. the board of directors C. public servants D. professional employees
Answer Answer
The public corporation is managed by the board of directors (D) Workers in the public corporations are known as public
servants (C)
2017/16 UTME
Public corporations are mainly funded through 2015/14 UTME
A. foreign aid B. shareholders food Public corporations are controlled by the legislature
C. internally generated funds through
D. government subvention A. daily monitoring of their activities
Answer B. discipline of staff
Public corporation are mainly funded through government C. approval of their annual budgets
subventions. Subvention refers to a grant of money in aid or D. recruitment of staff
support, mostly by the government. Subsidy is a transfer of money
Answer
from the government to an entity (D)
Public corporations are established and controlled by the
2014/2015/65 (UI,IBADAN)
Act of parliament through the approval of their annual
Which of the following is not an example of a public corporation budgets (C)
in Nigeria?
A. Nigerian Railway Corporation 2014/2015/72 (NDU,BAYELSA)
B. Federal Radio Corporation of Nigeria Public corporations are controlled by all the following
C. Federal Mortgage Bank of Nigeria except
D. National Deposit Insurance Corporation A. legislators B. judges
Answer C. tax payers D. convicts
Federal Mortgage Bank of Nigeria is not an example of a public E. ministers
corporation in Nigeria (C) Answer
Public corporations are controlled by legislators, judges,
2017/17 UTME tax-payers and ministers. Convicts cannot control public
Which of the following is the oldest public corporation in Nigeria? corporations (D)
A. Power Distribution Company of Nigeria
B. Nigeria Mining Corporation 2018/2019/21 (UI,IBADAN)
C. Nigerian Railway Corporation The political head of a public corporation is the
D. Nigerian Postal Services A. Director General
Answer B. Minister
Nigerian Railway Corporation is the oldest public corporation in C. Permanent Secretary
Nigeria (C)
D. Chairman, Board of Directors
2019/3 (NDU,BAYELSA) Answer
Statutory organizations usually established by Acts of Parliament The political head of public corporations is the Chairman
are called of the board of directors (D)
A. public corporations B. cooperative societies
C. joint stock companies D. public enterprises 2009/2010/49 (UNIZIK,AWKA)
Answer Public corporations are set up to
Statutory organizations usually established by Acts of Parliament A. make profits B. compete with the private sector
are called Public Corporations (A) C. cater for those businesses that cannot be left entirely to
private enterprises
2011/39 UTME
D. get board appointments for politicians
An example of public corporation in Nigeria is
A. National Population Commission
E. enhance the prestige
B. First Bank of Nigeria Answer
C. National Universities Commission Public corporations are set up to cater for those businesses
D. Nigerian Television Authority that cannot be left entirely to private enterprise (C)
Answer
Nigerian Television Authority (NTA) is an example of public
corporation in Nigeria (D)
286
1978/37 UTME 1998/31 Nov
By establishing public corporations, governments are Public corporations could be more efficient if they
trying to A. were free from political interference
A. eliminating private enterprise B. worked closely with the army forces
B. compete with private enterprises C. were under of the civil service commission
C. render crucial service to the public in area which the D. were controlled by the public service commission
civil service cannot effectively handle E. took the advice of traditional rulers
D. make quick profit at the expense of people Answer
E. B and C Public corporations could be more efficient if they were
Answer free from political interference. (A)
Public corporations were established by government to
render crucial services to the public in areas which the civil 2001/26 Neco
service cannot effectively handle (C) A major function of political corporation is to
A. construct roads and bridges
2016/43 UTME B. compete with private companies
A problem of public corporations in Nigeria is C. provide certain essential services of all
A. wastage of resources B. choice of leadership D. collect revenue for government
C. public control D. emphasis on subsidies Answer
Answer The main function of the public corporation is to provide
Wastage of resources is the main problem of public certain essential services for all. (C)
corporation in Nigeria (A)
1994/35 UTME
2015/59 Nov One of the based differences between ministries and public
Highlight four purposes of establishing public corporation corporations is that while ministries are
in West Africa. A. run on rules, public corporations are not
Answer B. wholly owned by the government, public corporations
1. Public corporation helps the government of West Africa are owned by both government and individuals
countries to generate income. C. not established with specific statutes, public
2. It gives the citizens of West Africa country the corporations are
opportunities for employment. D. not important in developmental process, public
3. It helps to avoid foreign control of economy of West corporations are
Africa. Answer
4. To help undertake some strategic projects for security Ministries and public corporation major differences is that
reasons e.g. minting and arms production. ministries are not established with specific statutes while
5. Public corporation raises the living standard of the public. public corporation is established with a Parliament Act that
6. Public corporation helps to prevent exploitation of the
guides their activities (C)
masses by private individuals who are stopped from
getting involved in most essential services for the public.
7. Public corporations are set up in West Africa to provide 1998/38 UTME
such services which cannot be provided by individuals Public corporations mainly differ from the ministries in
owing to huge capital outlay. that they
A. are not bureaucratic
2006/34 Neco B. provide social services to the public
One of the objectives of public corporations is to C. require highly professional staff
A. enhance public awareness D. are organized as business enterprises
B. narrow the gap between the rich and the poor Answer
C. encourage individual participation Public corporations mainly differ from the ministries in
D. maximize profit that they require highly professional staff (C)
Answer
The main aim of public corporation is to narrow the gap 2014/2015/3 (UI,IBADAN)
between the poor and the rich by minimizing the prices of A major distinction between public corporation and private
essential services. (B) companies is that
A. public corporations provide important services
2014/33 Neco B. public corporations are large organizations
An advantage of public corporation sin West Africa is C. public corporations are financed and controlled by
A. creation of exposure B. political interference government
C. provision of employment D. public corporations are not involved in production of
D. provision of all the services needed. tangible goods
Answer Answer
The most important role of public corporation in West The main distinction between public corporations and
Africa is to make provisions for employment and other private companies is public corporations are financed and
opportunities. (C) controlled by government while private is controlled and
financed by individuals (C)

287
1999/5a Nov 15. Give six examples of public corporation in Nigeria.
What are Public corporations? 16. Discuss the difference between public corporation and
Answer civil service.
A public corporation is a legal public institution created by 17. State two differences between public servants and civil
the special act of parliament which defines the power, servants.
duties, privileges and patterns of management, and backed 18. Explain the controlling system of public corporation.
with the power of the government to provide essential 19. Mention five problems of public corporation.
social and economic services like electricity, postal 20. State nine reasons for setting up public corporation.
services, pipe borne water, etc. to the people.

REVISION EXERCISES
1. Public corporations are established to
A. make maximum profits B. help businessmen
C. provide employment for defeated politicians
D. provide utility services to the public at minimal cost
2. One of the major reasons for setting up public
corporations is to
A. maximize profit
B. compete with private companies
C. provide essential service D. encourage patronage
3. A public corporation objective is to
A. make profit B. exploit consumers
C. to render essential service to the public
D. to get more customers
4. The public corporation is managed and controlled by the
A. individual B. the workers C. the tax payers
D. government
5. The following are examples of public corporation
except
A. Power Holding Company of Nigeria
B. Guarantee Trust Bank
C. Nigeria Ports Authority
D. Nigeria Ports Authority
E. Nigeria Railway Corporation
6. All the following are advantages of public corporation
except
A. there is continuity B. danger of monopoly
C. availability of large capital
D. creation of higher standard.
7. The employees in public corporation are regarded as
A. public servants B. private servants
C. company workers D. none of the above
8. State government enterprises are established by
A. decree B. act of parliament C. edicts D. law
9. The public cooperation can get finance through the
following means except
A. loans and overdraft B. personal saving
C. internally generated revenue
D. grant from international financial institutions
10. One of the problems associated with public
corporation is
A. location of the business
B. problems of who to employ
C. embezzlement of funds D. all of the above
11. The type of public enterprise that performs
commercial function is
A. local enterprises
B. state government owned enterprises
C. quasi government development
D. federal government ownership
12. Explain the meaning of political corporation.
13. Identify the purpose for setting up public corporation.
14. State seven functions performed by public corporation.
288
2019/41 Neco
Chapter Twenty Three The removal of government direct control and monopoly
in manufacturing and service sectors is called
PRIVATIZATION, COMMERCIALIZATION A. privatization B. specialization
AND DEREGULATION OF PUBLIC C. commercialization D. decentralization
CORPORATIONS Answer
Privatization is the removal of government direct control
PRIVATIZATION and monopoly in manufacturing and services sectors in a
Privatization is the transfer of ownership, property or business state. (A)
from the government to the private sector. The government
ceases to be the owner of the entity or business. The process 1995/36 UTME
in which a publicly-traded company is taken over by a few Privatization of public corporations in Nigeria implies
people is also called privatization. A. government investment from the companies
B. the public takeover of companies
Reasons for Privatization C. the autonomy of government companies
1. Privatization introduces efficient management because D. the commercialization of public corporations
individuals and other bodies are efficient in the Answer
management of enterprises than the government. Privatization of public corporations in Nigeria implies the
2. Privatization is created for individual participation in commercialization of public corporations (D)
economic system.
3. It creates more revenue for the government. 2006/15 UTME Exercise 23.1
4. The system accommodates competition in the market A major merit of privatization is that it increases
sector and unproductive industries or enterprises may A. industrial harmony B. activities on the stock exchange
not survive the day. C. public fiscal resources D. labour turnover
5. It makes industries and companies independent from
government interference.
6. It gives the customers the choice of buying goods. COMMERCIALIZATION
Commercialization is defined as the reorganization of
Merits of Privatization enterprises, wholly and partially owned by the
1. Private companies always have a better incentive than government, in which such commercialized enterprises
public companies. shall operate as profit –making commercial ventures
2. Private company will not let political factors affect without subvention from the government. The
their performance. commercialized public enterprise is encouraged to operate
3. Privatization will also increase competition in the to make profit and sustain their operations in every form of
market. commercialization be it partial or full commercialization,
4. Customers have enough choice to make in the process the enterprise involve will enjoy freedom of operation as a
of buying goods and services. profit-making venture.
5. Privatization promotes efficiency in the management
of most enterprises or industries. Reasons for Commercialization
6. It creates increase for the revenue of the government. 1. Commercialization makes for efficient management of
most industries.
Demerits of Privatization 2. It creates an opportunity for collective or individual
1. Privatization inflates the prices of goods and services participation in the country’s economic activities.
in the economy. 3. Commercialization creates more revenues generated
2. Privatization may bring about reduction in the work for the government.
force or labour force of most companies, thereby 4. Commercialization creates the opening for the
increasing the already saturated labour market. economy to experience the extinction or exist of
3. Privatization promotes social inequality. The enterprises that are unproductive.
public/government enterprise are sold only to the rich 5. Efficient and effective management of industries,
who can afford to buy them. This, therefore, makes the enterprises, etc. could result in making them more
rich richer and the poor poorer. profit oriented.
4. Privatization neglects the consumer welfare.
5. Privatization usually produces conflict between Merits of Commercialization
employer and the workers leading to frequent strike 1. The policy enables the customers to have a wide range of
and demonstration. choice when there are abundant products.
6. Privatization reduces the revenue of the government 2. It equally helps to boost the generation of revenue for the
7. A private company makes excess profit from public government.
service. 3. Commercialization promotes efficiency in production.
4. It removes bureaucratic bottlenecks and political
8. The masses will experience low or poor standard of
interference through clear role definitions between the
living.
board of directors and the management.
5. The target set in commercialization is always the
tendency towards profit-making.
289
6. It promotes innovation and new ideas. Because the public Merits of Deregulation
enterprise is commercialised, the management will be 1. It improves the resources allocation, the market becomes
able to think and come up with new and creative ideas on more contestable so new firms are more likely to enter
profit making. the market.
7. Commercialisation helps reduce government 2. Deregulation can be used alongside with privatization of
expenditure. When a public enterprise is commercialized, a public monopoly to prevent the privatized firm from
the expectation is that it should operate as a purely becoming a private monopoly.
commercial enterprise without receiving subvention from 3. It improves efficiency by reducing red tape and
the government. bureaucracy in government.
8. It ensures a stable economic growth and development. 4. New ideas will be injected into the economy as a result
of competitions.
Demerits of Commercialization 5. There will be wider choice for consumer.
1. Under commercialization, consumer’s welfare is not
catered for. Demerits of Deregulation
2. Many workers are usually laid off when industries are 1. Difficult to deregulate some natural monopolies.
commercialized. 2. Deregulation can’t fix other market failures.
3. Commercialization leads to poor standard of living of the 3. There is less safety and protection for consumers.
people due to shift in interest from pure service delivery 4. Deregulation may results to poor quality products
to profit maximization. because laws governing quality standards have been
4. Due to the profit maximization motive, removed.
commercialization is usually associated with high cost of 5. Deregulation may equally result to retrenchment of the
production. workforce.
5. Income is unevenly distributed as a result of the policy of 6. Deregulation may lead to poor living standard because
commercialization. people are now paying more for goods and services.
6. Commercialization in most cases leads to a drastic fall in 2008/47 UTME Exercise 23.2
people’s standard of living. A primary objective of the privatization policy in Nigeria is
7. There will be increase in the prices of goods and services. A. probity B. responsiveness C. transparency
D. accountability
DEREGULATION Answer
Deregulation involves the removal or reduction of Due process of accountability is the primary aim of the
government legislation, laws and power in a specific industry. privatization policy introduced in Nigeria (D)
Deregulation often refers to removing barriers to competition.
2012/39 UTME Exercise 23.3
Deregulation is a by-product of the commercialisation The central objective of privatization in Nigeria is to
programme. It has been an important economic issue in A. reduce the retrenchment of workers
Nigeria. It allows for free enterprise of the major sectors of B. encourage prompt payment of salaries
the national economy by avoiding strict bureaucratic rules C. improve standard of living
and procedure. It involves the liberation of the ownership and D. improve the efficiency of enterprises
control of public enterprises for effective and efficient 1994/36 UTME
operations for maximization of profit. The operators are Privatization and commercialization of public enterprises in
expected to know the rules and regulations. The basic Nigeria will lead to further entrenchment of
responsibility of government is mainly to provide the A. socialism B. capitalism C. welfarism D. fascism
enabling environment for the stakeholders to run these Answer
enterprises as well as act only when specific complaints Privatization and commercialization of public enterprises in
against businesss are brought before it. Nigeria will lead to further entrenchment of capitalism.
Capitalism is an economic and political system in which a
Reasons for Deregulation country’s trade and industry are controlled by private owners
1. To bring more competiton into the market for for profit, rather than the state (B)
economic efficiency and welfare.
2011/38 UTME
2. To curb corruption in public enterprise; In Nigeria, privatization and commercialization policies were
3. To promote efficiency and effectiveness through better introduced to
corporate governance A. divest government major control of commercial ventures
4. To generate employment through private sector-driven B. allow government control of the private sector
expansion; C. handover the control of commercial ventures to citizens
5. To reduce public debt and control public spending in D. increase the asset base of government
businesses which are better manged by private Answer
investors; Privatization and commercialization policies were introduced to
6. To develop the capital market as a source of funding divest government major control of commercial ventures in Nigeria.
critical sectors of the economy. Divestment is the process of selling subsidiary assets, investments, or
7. To increase the stakes of individuals through share divisions of a company in order to maximize the value of the parent
ownership in business; and company. It can be a form of retrenchment strategy used by
8. To open up the economy to foreign competition so that businesses when they downsize the scope of their business activities.
domestic firms are able to compete freely without the Divestment usually involves eliminating a portion of a business.
heavy hand of the state. Firms may elect to sell, close or spin-off a strategic business unit,
major operating division, or product line. (A)
290
2009/5 UTME 2007/44
Privatization and commercialization programmes in The privatization of public corporations in Nigeria is
Nigeria have undertaken by the
A. increased public utilities A. Bureau of public enterprises
B. de-emphasized government ownership B. Nigerian Stock Exchange
C. reduced government revenue C. Federal Civil Service Commission
D. encouraged corruption D. Federal Executive Council
Answer Answer
Privatization and commercialization programmes in The privatization of public corporations in Nigeria is
Nigeria have de-emphasized government ownership (B) undertaken by the Bureau of public enterprises (A)

2004/48 UTME 2014/2015/5 (UI,IBADAN)

The difference between commercialized and privatized A process that seeks to transfer ownership and control of
companies is that in the former public corporations to private individuals or organization
A. public ownership is dominant is called
B. government subsidizes costs A. indigenization B. commercialization
C. profit motive is recessive C. privatization D. acquisition
D. private ownership is dominant Answer
Answer Privatization is the process that seeks to transfer ownership
The main difference between commercialized and and control of public corporations to private individuals or
privatized companies is that in the former public organizations (C)
ownership is dominant than the private (A)

2011/7 (OAU, IFE)

A major feature of the policy of deregulation in Nigeria is
the
A. enthronement of market forces mechanism
B. increasing dominance of the economy by the state
C. proliferations of public corporations
D. phenomenal increase in direct foreign investment
Answer
The key feature of the policy of deregulation in Nigeria is
the enthronement of market forces mechanism. The stated
rationale for deregulation is often that fewer and simpler
regulations will lead to a raised level of competitiveness,
therefore, higher productivity, more efficiency and lower
prices overall. (A)

2017/2018/85 (DELSU, ABRAKA)

Deregulation as an economic policy boarders on
A. the removal of subsidies on public utilities
B. the removal of restrictions and extension of competition
C. privatization D. commercialization
Answer
Deregulation as an economic policy boarders on the
removal of restrictions and extension of competition (B)

1998/39 UTME
The privatization of public corporations is aimed at
A. making their goods and services available
B. making them reliable
C. making them more efficient
D. allowing the public to control them
Answer
The privatization of public corporation is aimed at making
them more efficient (C)

291
1998/29
Chapter Twenty Four The regulations made by a local government are called
A. Acts B. orders-in-council C. edicts
LOCAL GOVERNMENT D. decrees E. bye-laws
Local government is a form of public administration which Answer
exists at the lowest tier of administration within a given A bye-law is a rule or law established by an organization
state to deal with specific matters as it affects them, that is, or community to regulate itself, as allowed or provided for
the local people. This is a subdivision of a regional or some higher authority. The higher authority, generally a
national government. Local government are created legislature or some other government body, establishes the
through a document called ‘instrument’. They are created degree of control that the bye-laws may exercise. (E)
like corporate bodies because they had legal existence. 2019/28 NABTEB Exercise 24.1
They could sue and be sued. Local government was Under which constitution did local government become the
established through an act under the 1963 Republican third-tier of government in Nigeria?
constitution. A. 1999 B. 1979 C. 1963 D. 1954

Local governments are vested with substantial powers to Reasons for the Creation of Local Government
take control over local affairs. The creation of local 1. To bring government closer to the people: For a large
government is made inevitable in the modern nations by country like Nigeria, the local government is needed so
their large sizes with their complexities which make it that those at the grassroots will be part of the government,
to enable them keep track on the activities of the central
difficult for them to be governed efficiently from the centre
or state government.
alone. These complex nations like Nigeria with many
2. Diverse Interests: The interests of the local people
ethnic groups with divergent and diverse culture, language, differ, and to cater for these interests, was the creation of
customs, religion, interest and aspirations need a high local government.
degree of Decentralisation of power. One way of 3. Job creation: Employment and job opportunities are
decentralising powers in such nations is by creating local provided at the local level. When a local government is
government. The local government is set up by a central created a large pool of skilled and unskilled labour are
authority or state government as a means of ensuring gainfully employed in the area.
effective administration at the grassroots, another name for 4. Local Participation: They encourage and provide
it is ‘government at the grassroots level’. It is also known opportunities for the local people to participate in the
as the local authority which provides political politics of their country.
administration and certain essential services at the local 5. Development Purposes: Creation of local governments
level, e.g. markets, feeder-roads and motor parks. provides the avenue for even development of all parts of
the country.
In Nigeria and other federal states, local government are 6. Decentralization of Power: Local government help to
also referred to as the third tier or level of government. decentralize power at both the state and federal levels in
Nigeria. They reduce the work load of the higher levels
Powers of the Local Government of government.
The following are powers of local government: 7. To maintain law and order: Local governments help in
1. Making of bye-laws: The legislative arm of local the maintenance of law and order in the rural areas.
government is involved in making of bye-laws. The 8. To provide essential services: They provide
infrastructural facilities needed by the people. These
essence and effect of these laws are only are only felt
include pipe borne water, roads, health facilities etc.
with the local government concern.
9. To preserve culture: The creation of local government
2. Power to punish offenders: The local government is make it possible for the local people to protect and
empowered by the constitution to punish those who preserve their culture and traditions.
violate the laws made. They are tried in customary 10. To maintain law and order: Local government help in
courts within the set up. the maintenance of law and order in the rural areas.
3. Imposition of levy: They can impose levy on the 11. To train and develop future political leaders: Through
people for some specific purposes. the creation of local government, prospective leaders
who will later take up political post at the state and
1996/28 central are trained
Local Government is described as grass rooted government
because 2013/42 Neco
Local authorities are established to
A. it is the nearest government to the people
A. bring government nearer to the people
B. its headquarters is located in the villages
B. give more powers to the traditional
C. all the leaders are from the villages
C. make people less loyal to the central government
D. it is the first tier of government
D. make central government interfere in local affairs
E. all the local people participate in it
Answer
Answer
Local authorities brings government nearer to the people,
Local government can be described as grassroots
this is done, so that, those at the grassroots will be part of
government because it is the third-tier of government that
the government. This system is good for a large country
is the nearest to the people. (A)
like Nigeria. (A)

292
2001/28 Exercise 24.2 13. Development of Agriculture: Local government
Local government in Nigeria is created in order to provides agricultural extension services to local
A. create more civil service jobs farmers. They also maintain small-scale agricultural
B. encourage competition and rivalry among groups holdings, to serve as reference centres to the peasant
C. bring the government nearer to the people farmers who are used to the traditional method of
D. prevent the creation of more states farming.
14. Provision of Basic Amenities: Local governments
Functions of Local Government maintains and provide social amenities such as town halls,
1. Maintaining of law and Order: Local government pipe-borne water, rural electrification, television viewing
maintains law and order through the bye-laws which centres etc.
they enact to ensure orderly conduct, avoid breaches of 15. Provision of Transport Services: Most local government
the peace and safeguard lives and property within their provide transport services as a means of generating more
jurisdiction. These bye-laws are operational within revenue for the local government.
their jurisdiction. These bye-laws are operational
within a local government area, and are entrenched by Types of Local Government
security agencies. As a result of values, attitudes, orientations, history and
2. Construction and Maintenance of Motor experience, countries adopt different types of local
Parks/Markets: Local governments provide and governments. According to Harold F. Alderfer in his book,
maintain motor parks and markets for inhabitants of “Local Government in Developing Countries”, there are
their localities. four types or systems of local governments in the world.
3. Collection of Taxes and Rates: Local governments These are the French, Anglo-Saxon the Communists and
collect rates, fees, and rents for the development of Traditional types.
their areas. These include tenement rates, fees on 1. French System:
market stalls and motor parks, bicycle and motor-cycle The French system is the commonest type of local
licensing, radio and television fees. government. Under this system, the local council is an
4. Construction and Maintenance of Roads: Local extension of the central government to help the latter
government construct and maintain feeder roads, achieve national objectives. Local governments are not
drainages, culverts, urban streets, etc. (the extent of created for the purpose of achieving local objectives.
their involvement in road construction is determined As such, the French system is more of deconcentration
by the central government). than devolution. The local government does not have
5. Provision of Recreational Facilities: Local local autonomy and may be tagged a form of local
governments provide recreational facilities such as administration. There are three different levels in the
swimming pools, amusement parks, football pitches, French system. They are the commune, arrondisement
open spaces and other recreational grounds where the and department in ascending order of importance.
people can relax or engage in sporting activities. a. Commune: At the bottom of the French local
6. Health Facilities: The local government provides and government system is the commune. It is a small area,
maintains health facilities such as health centres, which may be a village or a town. The commune has a
maternity homes, dispensaries, as well as refuse dumps council comprising 10 to 36 members and it is headed by
for waste disposal. They also provide health education, a mayor. Both the mayor and the council are under the
public health inspection services etc. control and supervision of the Prefect. The perfect is
7. Public Conveniences: The local government also usually a top civil servant who is appointed by the central
provide and maintain public conveniences like government to represent the interest of the French
cemeteries, toilets, abattoirs, refuse disposal place, etc. government in the department.
8. Registrations: It is the duty of the local government to b. Arrondisement: The arrondisement is the intermediate
register births, deaths and marriages and issue level between the commune and the department. It is
appropriate certificates for these. divided into several cantons and each canton has a
9. Provisions of Schools and Libraries: The local number of communes or towns. The canton elects a
government provides and maintains schools, libraries member to represent it on the council. The arrondisement
and adult education facilities. They fund primary is headed by a Sub-Perfect.
schools by paying teachers’ salaries and maintain c. Department: The department is the highest local
school building. government unit in France. France has about 90
10. Public Education and Awareness Programmes: The departments and each consists of a number of
local governments educate the citizens on the policies arrondisement. The Prefect is the executive head of a
and programmes of the local, state and federal department and he is appointed by the President of the
governments and relay to the state and federal country.
government the needs of their people. As an agent of the central government, the Prefect is
11. Provision of Customary Courts: The local responsible for the implementation of all national laws
governments provide customary courts to handle and policies in the department. The prefect may veto any
disputes in their areas. decision of the councils of the department or
12. Naming of Streets: It maintains and name streets, and arrondisement or commune. He may even suspend the
number houses on the streets within their areas of council or remove the mayor.
jurisdiction.

293
2. The British or Anglo-Saxon Type The local government is, created mainly to perform
The Local Government Acts of 1883 and 1894 created minor functions and to maintain local institutions and
a pattern of locally elected representatives in the six customs. It is also meant to execute policies and
types of local authorities in Britain. These are the programmes in line with the wishes and welfare of the
Parish Council, Rural District Council, Urban District local people. This type of local government is highly
Council, Borough Council, County Council and decentralized in terms of power distribution with the
County Borough Council. These councils are semi- higher tiers of government.
autonomous and multi-purpose in nature. The councils
carry out functions like the provision and maintenance 2016/32 UTME
of personal social services, libraries, house building, One of the main duties of the Local Government Service
health facilities, museums and art galleries. Commission is to
Each council has a number of councilors and it is A. handle requests for the creation of more local
presided over by a chairman. Each councilor is a government
member of at least one of the committees of the B. supervise and manage the personnel of local
council. The Eastern states of Nigeria adopted the government
British model before 1976. C. conduct election into local council
D. create an enabling working environments for council
3. The Soviet or Communist Type workers
The soviet type is based on the concept of democratic Answer
centralism. Democratic centralism is a process by Supervise and manage the personnel of local government
which the state controls all the factors of production is one of the main functions of the local government
(land, labour, capital and entrepreneur). In other commission (B)
words, the state controls both human and material
resources through a centralized planning of the benefit 2002/5 Nov
of all. Under the system, the interests of the local State six functions of local government in your country.
people are integrated to those of the state. Answer
For easy administration, each city or town has its own 1. Local government makes provision of health centres.
municipal Council or Soviet. Each Soviet has as many 2. It makes provision of water.
as a thousand councilors, while the day-to-day 3. Local government names the streets in their
administration is entrusted to a small executive jurisdiction.
committee of about twelve persons. Each council has 4. Maintenances of some institutions.
a President who has executive powers and must be a 5. The local government maintains roads.
member of the Communist Party of the former Soviet 6. It makes provision for collection of rates, radios and
Union. This type of local government is adopted in television licenses.
Russia and slightly modified in China. 7. Local governments are involved in the registration of
births, deaths and marriages in their areas of authority.
4. The Traditional Type (Nigerian Type) 8. Local government establishes and maintains the
The fourth category of local government identified by cemeteries and homes of destitute.
Professor Alderfer is the traditional non-western 9. It involves in the formulation of economic planning
system. This is the type found in developing countries and development schemes for the local government
like Nigeria. It is created around traditional chieftaincy areas.
institutions, extended family ties, village and 10. Local government manages the primary education.
community councils. It recognizes the traditional 11. It maintains law and order.
rulers and encourages them. 12. Local government makes provision of transport
services.
The Nigerian System also typically represents a hybrid 13. It makes provision of recreational centres.
of the British and the French System. At the onset of
colonialism, for example, the British operated a local 1995/53 Exercise 24.3
government system, which resembled the French Local government are essential because they
system. Under the native authority system, the local A. encourage division in the country
councils were placed in the hands of traditional rulers B. check abuse of office by government functionaries
who were supervised by the British colonial officials, C. implements government policies at all levels
namely, the Resident and District Officers just as the D. makes laws for the nation
Prefects controlled the councils in France. Although, E. train local people in the art of governance
the local government system has undergone a great
deal of changes since then, the local councils in 2005/35 Nov Exercise 24.4
Nigeria are still tightly controlled by the central (or One of the functions of local government is to
state) government in spite of the constitutional A. make bye laws B. settle intra-party disputes
provision of elected representation and popular C. delimit constituencies D. formulate foreign policies
participation.

294
1998/28 Exercise 24.5 11. Defaulters of bye-laws: These are fines to be paid by
Functions of local government in Nigeria include the offenders of rules and regulations and this forms
A. collection of custom duties part of the local government revenue.
B. training and recruitment of civil servants 12. Donations and gifts: From the non-governmental
C. regulation of the practice of medical profession organizations (NGO’s), form part of the revenue for
D. supervision of all educational institutions the local government.
E. preservation of the traditional institutions of the people 13. Royalties: Royalties from companies e.g. in Ghana,
Sierra-Leone and the Gambia
1996/33 Nov Exercise 24.6 14. License Fees: License fees such as bicycle, dogs,
Which of the following is a function of local government? radio, television, canoe, etc., constitute substantial
A. acting as an electoral commission sources of revenue to local government authorities.
B. providing training ground for natural political leaders
C. acting as agents of political parties How Local Government Revenue can be Improved
D. exercising control over public corporations 1. The allocation from the federation account should be
increased to give the local government more money.
Sources of Revenue for Local Government 2. The accounts of these councils should be audited
1. Grants: Grants are money made available to local regularly in order to block all possible avenues of
governments to help them carry out their programmes. embezzlement and misappropriation of the funds of the
These could be block or general grants, matching grants local governments.
or special grants. A block grant is based on populations; 3. Dedicated officials with proven integrity should be
the matching grant is to aid local governments on large assigned for the collection of local government taxes and
projects or provision of infrastructure, while special rates.
4. Local governments should be more business-like and
grants are made to assist local governments in providing
undertake more commercial ventures such as transport
some services of national importance, e.g. education and
services and agriculture to make profit.
health. Grants are used for a specific purpose. 5. State governments should give more grants to the local
2. Statutory Allocation from the federation account: governments.
Statutory allocations in Nigerian constitution stipulate 6. Local governments should establish many revenue-
that the revenue of the federal shall be shared between yielding ventures such as building council flats, motor
the three tiers of government, i.e., the federal, state and parks, abattoirs, recreation parks, etc. that will boost their
local governments. revenue.
3. Tenement Rates: Property or tenement rate is imposed 7. Adequate autonomy should be granted to local
on the owners of private and commercial houses. It is governments so as to give them a free hand to venture
based on the value of the building and property. into more revenue-yielding businesses.
4. Court Fees: Court fines are imposed on individuals 8. They should train their staff adequately to be in a position
that violate local government bye laws, sanitary to start revenue-yielding ventures and manage them
regulations and ban on street trading and hawking. efficiently.
5. Taxes: Local government authorities raise a lot of 9. Donations and gifts from launchings can also improve the
revenue by collecting income tax from non-salary revenue of the local governments.
earners, residing within their area of jurisdiction. 10. The federal and state governments should concede more
Salary earners do not pay to local government but revenue generating areas to the local governments.
rather they pay directly to the state government. 11. Local governments should overhaul and modernize their
6. Investments: Local government derives revenue by methods of assessment and collection of taxes.
investing their money in profit yielding economic
1999/24 Nov
ventures such as buying of shares, entering into
The financial assistance given to local governments for a
partnership with viable commercial organizations, and
specific service is referred to as
financing economic projects that could provide good A. grants B. commercial undertaking
revenue in return. C. taxes D. internal revenue
7. Commercial Ventures: Local government also makes Answer
money from income from commercial ventures to Grants are non-repayable funds or products disbursed or
maintain transport services, farms, holiday resorts, given by one party (grant markers), often a government
consultancy services, guest houses, etc. department, corporation, foundation or trust to a recipient,
8. Loans: Local government also obtain bank loans and often (but not always) a non-profit entity, educational
overdrafts from willing banks just as other tiers of institution, business or an individual. (A)
government do. These loans assists the council to carry
out some specific projects. 1998/31
9. Special levies: Special levies are referred to levies Local governments can raise funds through
imposed on the residents of local governments as a A. Excise duties B. import duties
means of generating internal revenue. C. property rates D. income taxes
10. Local rates: Rates refer to the levies collected by local E. company taxes
government authorities from the services the council Answer
provides. The rates are collected on markets stalls, Local governments can raise funds through property rates
motor parks, supermarkets and shops. which is also known as tenement rate, imposed on the owners
of private and commercial houses. (C)
295
1995/33 Nov Exercise 24.7 Differences between Central or State Government and
Local governments raised funds through Local Government
A. import duties B. education fax C. custom duties 1. One of the differences between central or state
D. rates E. profit tax government and a local government is that while the
central or state government is created by the
1991/36 Exercise 24.8 constitution, a local government is created by an act of
All of the following are sources of revenue to local the parliament.
government except 2. The central or state government that derives its power
A. rate B. motor park and market fees from the constitution can delegate some of its powers
C. duties on exportation of local products to local governments but a local government cannot
D. court fines and fees E. grants delegate its powers to a central government or state
government.
Relationship between Federal, State and Local 3. The head of a central or state government is known as
Government the President or Governor that of a local government
1. Allocation from the federation account: The local is called the Chairman.
governments receive their money from the federation 4. The heads of a central or state government departments
account involving the central and state government as or ministries are known as Ministers or
well. Commissioners while that of local governments are
2. Establishment of local government: The local called supervisory Councilors.
governments are created with specific powers which can 5. The central or state government has a large and wide
be withdrawn by the central government, if not areas of jurisdiction far more than the areas of
performed within the confines of the law of the land. jurisdiction of a local government which is small and
3. Provision of Grants: The local government also receives limited.
grants from both the central and state governments. They
6. While laws made by the central or state government
can suspend the grants, if the local government
are called acts of parliament, laws made by a local
mismanaged the previous grants.
4. Approval of bye laws: The local government had power
government are known as bye-laws
to enact bye laws but can be rejected by the parliament. 7. While the budget of a central or state government is
The judiciary can declare such laws unconstitutional. approved by the legislature that of a local government
5. Dissolution of local government: The state government is approved by the central or state government.
has the power to dissolve any local government. If the 8. Top level personnel of the central or state government
need arises, in the place of the dissolved local is recruited by the civil service/public service
government a caretaker committee or a sole administrator commission, while the recruitment of top level
is appointed to carry out its function. personnel of a local government is done by local
6. Approval of loans: Approval of loans for local government service commission.
government, in any financial institutions, may have to
come from the state government. Control of Local Government
7. Auditing of Accounts: The state or central government 1. Dissolution of local government: The state
may send auditors to audit the finances of the local government has the power to dissolve any local
government, to enhance sound financial management. government. When dissolution occurs, the chairman
8. Amendment of laws: The National Assembly, through and councilor should then vacate their offices.
the central government, may at any time decide to amend 2. Specific Functions: The State House of Assembly can
the laws establishing local governments. ask a local government to perform certain specific
functions.
1990/37 3. Approval of loans: The state government must
Which of the following functions is performed by both the approve any loan that the local government is taking.
local government authority and the police? 4. Amendment of laws: The National Assembly through
A. provision of social services the Central government can decide to amend the laws
B. maintenance of law and order made by the local government at any time.
C. legislative functions D. building of law courts 5. Activities Monitoring: The state government monitors
E. collection of taxes and rates the activities of the local government.
Answer 6. Audit Control: Auditors should be appointed by either
Maintenance of law and order are performed by both the the state or central government to audit the finances of
local government authority and the police (state) (B) the local government.
7. Financial Control: The central government can
2005/34 Nov withhold the grants of local government, if there is
State and local government are created to previous mismanagement or unaccountable finances
A. meet the aspirations of the opinion leaders of grants in the local government.
B. bring government to the grassroots 8. Judicial Control: By way of judicial control, the
C. bring unequal development courts can declare any bye-law made null and void or
D. make them self-sufficient unconstitutional, if such laws, are not in line with the
Answer provisions of the country’s constitution.
State and local governments are created to bring
government to the grassroots. (B)
296
9. Public Control: Members of the public whom the local 2012/40 Neco Exercise 24.9
governments are meant to serve, use constructive Local government are essential because they
criticisms to control the activities of the council. A. encourage division in a country
10. Press Control: The press through their investigation B. implement government policies at national levels
journalism can use criticism to check the activities of C. make laws for a nation
erring councils. D. train local people in the art of governing

Importance of Local Government In A State 1999/23 Nov Exercise 24.10

1. Political education: Local Government helps in The primary purpose of creating local government is to
educating the people at the grassroots about the local A. bring political administration nearer to the people
politics and actions of the federal and state B. collect taxes and rates
government. C. provide military training for citizens
2. Job opportunities: Local Government makes bye-laws D. create a conducive political atmosphere
for order and good governance of their areas.
3. Quick decision: Local government facilitates quick 2022/5
decision making in matters within their jurisdiction. Highlight five ways of effectively controlling the local
4. Law and order: The local government helps in the government to live up to its mandate.
maintenance of law and order in their jurisdiction. Answer
5. Development: Local government brings rapid 1. Dissolution of local government: The state
development to the local areas. government has the power to dissolve any local
6. Governance: Local government governs their government council which is under performing.
jurisdiction with their customs and traditions. When dissolution occurs, the chairman and councilor
7. Leadership training: Local government encourages should then vacate their offices.
leadership training at the grassroots level. 2. Audit Control: Auditors are usually appointed by
8. Provision of social service: Local government makes either the state or central government to audit the
provision of social services to the people of the finances of the local government, this therefore curtails
grassroots mismanagement.
9. Serve as a link: The local government serves as a link 3. Judicial Control: This is so based because the courts
between the people of the grassroots/state and federal can declare any bye-law made null and void or
governments. unconstitutional, if such laws, are not in line with the
10. Government at the grassroots: It is the local provisions of the country’s constitution.
government duty that makes the people of the 4. Public Control: Members of the public whom the local
grassroots to be very close to the government. governments are meant to serve, use constructive
11. Preserving the traditional of institutions: The local criticisms to control the activities of the council.
government helps in preserving the traditional 5. Press Control: The press through their investigation
institutions of the people in the local areas. journalism can use criticism to check the activities of
12. Human and material resources: Local government erring councils.
mobilizes both human and material resources for
community development 1990/5 Nov Exercise 24.11
Discuss the importance of local government system to
2017/36 Neco Nigeria.
Local governments are vital in modern politics as they
A. encourage dictatorship
B. train the local people in the art of governance Problems of Local Government
C. make laws for the whole country 1. Shortage of Trained Personnel: There is shortage of
D. execute government policies at all levels trained and experienced personnel that affect the
Answer efficiency of local governments.
Local government are vital in modern politics as they train 2. Financial Problem: Acute shortage of fund is one of
the local people in the art of governance through leadership the major problems facing local government as they do
training programmes at the grassroots. (B) not have enough fund with which to operate.
3. Political Interference: There are political interference
for both the military and civilian government who have
2004/39 Neco at different times interfered with the activities of the
One of the reasons for the establishment of local local government.
government authorities is to 4. Bribery and Corruption: Bribery and corruption is the
A. gives more powers to the tradition rulers order of the day in local government operations, most
B. bring government nearer to the people officials collect bribery before performing their duties.
C. wins support of local chiefs 5. Embezzlement: The financial problems of local
D. prevention of political interference by aliens government are exacerbated by high rate of
Answer embezzlement and misappropriation of funds. The
One of the reasons for the establishment of local government corrupt officials of these councils divert money meant
authorities through the Acts of parliament is to bring the for some projects to their personal purse.
government nearer or closer to the people. (B)
297
6. Lack of Infrastructures: Local governments lack the 2017/6 UTME
necessary infrastructures that facilitates their functions Shortage of trained personnel is a major problem of the
like housing of their workers, electricity, good roads, A. federal government B. state governments
pipe borne water etc. C. regional government D. local governments
7. Granting of undue favour: Some local government Answer
officials use their positions to give undue favour to Acute shortage of trained and experienced personnel
their funds, for example in the award of contracts. affects the efficiency of local governments this is a main
8. Political Victimization: Most local government are problem because all the qualified personnel preferred to
victimized politically, and frustrated, especially, if work or practice in the urban than rural areas (D)
they are not in the good books of the ruling political
party. 2013/41 Neco Exercise 24.12
9. Tribalism, nepotism and favouritism: Tribalism, All the following are problems facing local government in
nepotism and favouritism is the order of the day in West Africa except
terms of appointment, transfer, discipline and A. shortage of trained personnel
promotion of staff. B. obtaining loans from banks
10. Low Incentive: There are low incentives in the local C. nepotism D. corruption
government which leads to poor attitudes of local
government workers.
11. Lack of political Education: The electorate lack UI 2014/2015 (63) Exercise 24.13
political education that would have raised their Which of the following is not a major problem of local
consciousness and awareness to enable them mount government in Nigeria?
pressure on the council officials so that they can A. insufficient funding and limited internally generated
perform their constitutional functions. revenue
B. interference and control by higher levels of government
1990/36 Nov C. lack of competent and qualified staff
The major problem of the local government authority is D. lack of sufficient number of local government
A. inadequate fund B. party politics Answer
C. low quality of councilors D. low quality of employees Lack of sufficient number of local governments is not a
E. lack of incentives to attract competent hands major problem of local governments in Nigeria. (D)
Answer
Most local government do not have enough funds with
which to operate. They have enormous responsibilities Suggestions and Solutions to the Problems of Local
before them but they lack fund. (A) Government
1. There is need for improvement on method of revenue
generation.
1995/52 2. Most of the workers should be given the opportunity for
One of the problems facing local government in Nigeria is in-service-training in local government administration.
the 3. There should be enough funds for the local
A. withdrawal of grants by the central government government administrative management.
B. interference from the central government 4. There should be allocation of fund monthly from the
C. inclusion of traditional rulers in the local government federal government account to the local government to
council boost their financial base.
D. lack of personnel E. lack of good programmes 5. Tribalism, nepotism and favouritism should be
Answer discouraged in the local government administration.
One of the problems facing local governments in Nigeria 6. Recruitment of workers at the local government should
is the lack of good programmes that will educate the people be based on merits.
of the grassroots about political education. (E) 7. Grants from the federal government to local
government should be encouraged regularly.
1996/37 Nov 8. Local government should have access to loan.
One of the financial problems of local authorities in 9. The activities of local government should not be
Nigeria stems from the politically motivated.
A. refusal of the councilors to pay taxes 10. Local government should have more avenue or
B. inadequate revenue from custom duties platforms for revenue generation through more
C. excessive financial demands by the central government commercial ventures in order to improve on their
D. lack of accountability of council officials financial base.
E. frequent ministerial interference
Answer Structure of Local Government
Lack of accountability of council officials is one of the In 1976, the then military president, General Olusegun
major financial problems of local government authorities Obasanjo, recommended that the structure of local
in Nigeria. (D) governments in Nigeria should be a single-tier multi-
purpose structure. This single-tier structure of local
government meant that no local government would need to
interdepend on another local government in order to
298
perform the duties assigned to it. It entails the combination In 1976, the existing 19 states had 301 local
of two or more local governments sharing responsibilities governments and they are as follows:
for the provision of wide range of services to the people. States Number of Local
On the other hand, its multipurpose structure allows local Government Councils
governments to get closer to the people and make them 1. Anambra 23
have a sense of belongings as well as give them the 2. Bauchi 16
opportunity to develop at their own pace. 3. Bendel 19
4. Benue 13
Local governments have the following structure: 5. Borno 19
6. Cross River 17
A. Policy-making Body
7. Gongola 17
(i) The Chairman (who is the Chief Executive of the
8. Imo 21
local government). 9. Kaduna 14
(ii) The Vice Chairman. 10. Kano 20
(iii) The Supervisory Councilors (appointed by the 11. Kwara 12
Chairman). 12. Lagos 8
(iv) Councilors (elected from different wards). 13. Niger 9
14. Ogun 10
B. The Executive Body 15. Ondo 17
(i) The Secretary (the Chief Executive). 16. Oyo 24
(ii) Heads of Departments. 17. Plateau 14
(iii) Subordinate Staff. 18. Rivers 19
19. Sokoto 19
C. The Departments in the Local Government Council Total 301
(i) General and Administration Department
(headed by the Deputy Secretary).
(ii) Treasury Department (headed by the Treasurer). The Development of Nigerian Local Government
(iii) Works Department (headed by the Civil Structure from 1976 to 2016
Engineer/Technical Officer). 1976 1981 1984 1988 1992 1997
to to to to to to date
(iv) Health Department (headed by the Principal
1981 1983 1987 1991 1996
Health Superintendent). Number of 301 684 301 499 589 774
(v) The Maternity Division of the Medical Local
Department (headed by the Senior Midwifery Governments
Sister). (including
(vi) The Dispensary Division of the Medical six Area
Department (headed by the Higher Pharmacy Councils in
Officer). Abuja
(vii) The Agriculture Division (headed by the Farm
Manager.
State No. of State No. of
LGAs LGAs
D. Traditional Council
Abia 17 Kano 44
This consists of the traditional rulers, the chairman of
Adamawa 21 Katsina 34
the local government authority, one or two traditional Akwa Ibom 31 Kebbi 21
representatives of each local government authority Anambra 21 Kogi 21
council and any other person who may be needed. Bauchi 20 Kwara 16
Bayelsa 8 Lagos 20
Considering the customs and Traditions of every Benue 23 Nasarawa 13
society and the fact that before 1976, traditional chiefs Borno 27 Niger 25
and rulers were in charge at the grassroots, General Cross River 18 Ogun 20
Obasanjo provided for five different types of Delta 25 Ondo 18
structures, each reflecting the nature of relationship Ebonyi 13 Osun 30
between traditional rulers and the local government Edo 18 Oyo 33
chairman. He also introduced into every local Ekiti 16 Plateau 17
government, supervisory councilors to form the local Enugu 17 Rivers 23
government council cabinet. Gombe 11 Sokoto 23
Imo 27 Taraba 16
Jigawa 27 Yobe 17
Kaduna 23 Zamfara 14
FCT, Abuja 6

In Nigeria today, there are a total of 36 states and the

Federal Capital Territory, Abuja, 774 local governments
councils (inclusive of the 6 Area Councils in Abuja), 8,648
Wards and 388 federal constituencies.
299
Functions of a Local Government Councilor A few statutory measures were included in the reform
1. One of the functions of a local government councilor package to strengthen the system and make it an
is that he acts as the elected representative of a given independent third tier government.
section and a group of people.
2. As the representative of the people, a councilor acts as Main Features of 1976 Local Government Reforms
the link between the people he is representing and the 1. The 1976 reform established a uniform system of local
government. government as regards their functions, structure, and
3. A local government council takes part in the financing nationwide.
implementation of government policies. 2. The local government was made the third tier of
4. The councilor involves in the enactment of bye-laws. government of the federation.
5. The councilor ensures that the people he is 3. The 1976 reforms created large sized local government
representing obey the local government to perform its areas nationwide.
functions by serving as a member of the council’s 4. The federal government was to fund the local
committee. government with a statutory percentage share of the
6. A councilor helps a local government to perform its federation account and state revenue went to the local
functions by serving as a member of the council’s government. Also, special grants were made available
committee. to the local government service board and commission.
7. He involves in the mobilization of the people he is 5. The office of chairman and supervisory councilors
representing for community development. were made full-time.
8. The councilor takes active part in the generation of 6. The 1976 local government reform prevented
local government revenue. traditional rulers from practicing politics by setting up
9. The councilor takes part in the preparation of local a separate council of chiefs with essential advisory
government budget. role.
7. The reform harmonized the condition of service of
Essential Qualifications for Election as a Councilor local government personnel with the personnel of the
For a person to qualify and contest an election to be elected state and federal government.
as a councilor, the person must fulfill the following 8. The 1976 reform granted full democratization of all
conditions: local governments in Nigeria.
1. Age: Attainment of specified age is a criterion for 9. The chairman and councilor were made to be elected
qualification for election as a councilor.
and also paid fixed monetary allowances.
2. Residence: The intending councilor must have lived in
the area he seeks to represent for a period of atleast 12
1994/33
calendar months prior to the election.
The 1976 local government reforms in Nigeria gave birth to a
3. Citizenship: Only citizens are allowed to contest election
A. five-tier local government system
for councillorship.
B. four-tier local government system
4. Evidence of payment of tax: Provision of tax clearance
C. three-tier local government system
receipts is another criterion for election as a councilor.
D. two-tier local government system
5. Sanity: Only sane qualified citizens of a country are
E. one-tier local government system
allowed to contest elections as councilors.
Answer
6. Solvency: Only those who have not been declared
The 1976 local government reforms made the local
bankrupt have the rights to contest election as councilors.
government as the third tiers of government of the federation.
7. Lack of criminal records: Those who have not been
(E)
found guilty of any criminal offence or not sentenced to
any form of imprisonment can contest elections as
1989/47 Nov
councilors.
Local government reforms were carried out by the federal
8. Registration: For one to contest election as a councilor,
military government in
the person must register during registration exercise.
A. 1966 B. 1967 C. 1970 D. 1976 E. 1979
9. Not banned: Those banned from political activities like
Answer
former corrupt politicians in Nigeria are not qualified to
The local government reform of 1976 was a nationwide
contest elections as councilors.
undertaking by the military government as part of its intention
1976 Local Government Reforms to return power to civilians. (D)
The Local Government Reform of 1976 was a nationwide
undertaking by the military government as part of its 1992/48
intention to return power to civilians, sort of a precursor to The 1976 local government reform was innovative because it
active comprehensive political action, it was also designed A. provide for indirect election
to spread government programmes to the grassroots and to B. gave traditional rulers political power
institutionalize the local government system in Nigeria. C. gave wide powers to councilors
The reform resulted in the creation of 301 local D. empowered chairman to appoint their secretaries
E. harmonized local government structure in Nigeria
governments across the country of varying populations
Answer
between 150,000–800,000.
The 1976 local government reforms made the local
government as the third tier of government of the federation.
(E)

300
1998/32 1978 Local Government Reforms
The 1976 local government reforms in Nigeria ensured that The 1978 local government reforms committee most
local governments remarkable legacy of the reform was there should be
A. are of the same size uniformity of structures and functions in all the local
B. operate the same annual budgets governments in Nigeria.
C. are now independent of the federal government
D. have the same functions and compositions 2001/39 UTME
E. are placed under the control of a minister The most remarkable legacy of the 1978 Local Government
Answer Reform in Nigeria was the introduction of
The 1976 local government reforms in Nigeria ensured that A. the office of sole administrators
local governments have the same functions and compositions. B. caretaker management committees
(D) C. uniformity in structure and functions
D. the third tier of government
1998/41 UTME
Answer – C
The change in the role of traditional rulers in local
The most remarkable legacy of the 1978 Local Government
government administration in Nigeria can be attributed to
Reform in Nigeria was the introduction of uniformity in
the
structure and functions.
A. 1976 local government reforms
B. involvement of the military in politics
1979 Local Government Reform
C. lack of support for the traditional rulers by the citizens
The local government reform of 1979 also recognizes the
D. 1988 Civil Service Reforms
local government as the third tier of government in Nigeria.
Answer – A
It also indicated that the source of revenue before the post
The change in the role of traditional rulers in local
1979 local government reform, the finances comes from the
government administration in Nigeria can be attributed to the
federal account.
1976 local government reforms.
1998/33 2013/39 UTME
For the purpose of local government election, local A major source of revenue in the post-1979 local government
government areas are generally divided into in Nigeria is
A. constituencies B. zones C. regions A. internally generated revenue
D. wards E. states B. the federation account
Answer C. grants and loans
For the purposes of local government election, local D. the joint state local government account
government areas are generally subdivided into wards, the Answer – B
wards are headed by elected councilors and the local The major source of revenue in the post – 1979 local
governments are headed by elected chairmen or chairpersons. government reform in Nigeria is the federation account.
(D)
2019/42 (NDU, BAYELSA)
2018/33 Which of these constitution recognized local government as
The 1976 local government reforms provided for a the third tier of government
A. 6 years term of office B. 5 years term of office A. the 1946 Constitution B. the 1960 Constitution
C. 4 years term of office D. 3 years term of office C. the 1963 Constitution D. the 1979 Constitution
Answer Answer – D
The 1976 local government reforms provide for a 3 years term of The 1979 Constitution also recognizes the local government
office for the chairmen or persons and councilors. (D) as the third tier of government even the 1976 local
government reform recognize it.
2007/34 UTME Exercise 24.14
Following the 1976 Local Government Reforms in Nigeria, 1988 Local Government Reform
the local governments were empowered to The 1988 Local Government Reform states the abolition of
A. promulgate edicts B. promulgate and enforce bye-laws state ministries of local government. The reform also
C. appointment and dismiss directors personnel established uniformity in all types and functions of local
D. appoint and dismiss personnel government.
1991/36 UTME Exercise 24.15 2008/2009/8 (NDU, BAYELSA)
Traditional rulers were restricted to ceremonial rules by the The new local government reforms in Nigeria
local government reforms of A. seek to establish uniformity in type, purpose and functions
A. 1966 b. 1976 C. 1984 D. 1987 of local authorities
B. make traditional rulers more powerful than ever before
2018/14 NABTEB Exercise 24.16 C. are a waste of time and the federal government’s money
The 1976 local government reforms in Nigeria seek to D. promote unity but allow for some diversity in the structure
A. establish uniformity in local governments of local government
B. make traditional rulers more powerful E. would definitely establish clean and efficient governments
C. establish clean and effective governments at local level at the local level.
D. promote ethnicity at the local government level Answer – A
Answer The new local government reforms of 1988 in Nigeria seek to
The 1976 local government reforms in Nigeria seek to establish uniformity in type, purpose and functions of local
establish uniformity in local government. (A) authorities.
301
The Role or Functions of the Traditional Rulers in 2015/1 UTME
Government The tenure of an elected chairman of local government is
The traditional rulers perform several functions in determined by the
government; some of which are mentioned below: A. federal executive council
1. The traditional rulers were empowered to make laws in B. National Union of Local Government Employees
their communities. C. National Assembly
2. They are representatives of the people at the grassroots, D. State House of Assembly
and also serves as intermediary between the people and Answer
the government. The tenure of an elected chairman of local government is
3. They were empowered to maintain law and order and determined by the state House of Assembly. The tenure of a
ensure that peace reigns in their respective communities. local government chairperson is for three (3) years.
4. The traditional rulers act as custodians of the tradition Generally, a person or elected chairman or lady can serve the
and culture of their people. local government for only one tenure (D)
5. They encourage economic growth in their domain.
6. They are symbols of unity. They unify different segments 2009/7 (OAU, IFE)
of the society. Which of these 1979 constitution recognized local
7. Traditional rulers still lead their people to provide government as the third tier of government?
essential amenities through communal labour, such as A. the 1946 constitution B. the 1960 constitution
road constructions and repairs, building of town halls and C. the 1963 constitution D. the 1979 constitution
bridges, etc. Answer
8. They help the government in political education and The 1979 constitution recognized the local government as the
socialization of the people. third tier of government in Nigeria (B)
9. Traditional rulers still lead their people to provide
essential amenities through communal labour. 2017/2018/84 (UNIZIK, AWKA)
The transfer of authority to local government council is
Why Traditional Rulers should not Engage or Should be known as
Insulated from Partisan Politics A. demarcation B. devolution C. fusion
Traditional rulers should be insulated from engaging in D. delegation
partisan politics as a result of the following reasons: Answer
1. One of the reasons why traditional rulers should not Devolution is the transfer of authority to local government
involve in partisan politics is because of the crucial role council from the central government (B)
they play in the society. Their involvement in partisan
politics will make them to be partial. Traditional rulers as 1991/37 UTME
the fathers of the nation will be polarized into Which of the following is not associated with local
antagonistic groups if they engage in partisan politics. government elections?
2. Insulation of traditional rulers from partisan politics will A. constituency B. ballot box C. electoral officer
help to preserve our tradition and culture. Our tradition D. ward
and culture should not be jettisoned in the name of Answer
partisan politics. Constituency is not associated with local government
3. Exposure of traditional rulers to partisan politics will elections. A constituent is a voting member of a community
inject acquisitive propensities associated with politics of or organization and has the power to appoint or elect. A
the developing nations in them. constituency is mostly used in a federal subdivision of units,
4. Exposure of traditional rulers to partisan politics will while the local government uses wards or electoral divisions
make them abandon their traditional role and duties to the (A)
people in place of politics. 1993/38 UTME
5. Engagement of traditional rulers in partisan politics will The local government is an example of
result in neglect of rural areas. This is as a result of the A. concentration of power B. separation of power
fact that they will abandon the rural areas to urban areas C. devolution of power D. delegation of power
that are the centres of political activities. Answer
6. Law and order in the rural areas will be in serious The local government is an example of devolution of power.
jeopardy if traditional rulers engage in partisan politics. Devolution is the statutory delegation of powers from the
The rural areas will be normless societies because of the central government of a sovereign state to govern at a
custodians of the norms of the society have engaged in subnational level, such as a regional or local level. It is a form
the political rat race. of administrative decentralized (C)
1992/40 UTME 1978/27 UTME
Local governments in Nigeria are created in order to All members of the newly constituted local government
A. create more civil service jobs councils in Nigeria were
B. encourages competition and rivalry among groups A. directly elected B. indirectly elected
C. bring the government nearer to the people C. appointed by the state governors
D. prevent the creation of more states D. appointed by the Head of State
E. levy import duties E. none of the above
Answer Answer
Local government in Nigeria is the third tier of government All members of the newly constituted local government
that was created in order to bring the government nearer to councils in Nigeria were directly elected by the electorates
the people. (A)
302
1978/32 UTME 1995/39 UTME
In a federal system (such as Nigeria) the local governments
Local Governments have been stripped of one of their
are directly responsible important functions through the establishment of the
A. to the Federal or Central Government A. National Primary Education Commission
B. to the State Government B. National Health Care Commission
C. to the Federal and State Government C. National Board of Local Governments
D. to no other level of government D. National Orientation Agency
E. to any level of government which can provide money Answer
for its programmes Local governments have been stripped of one of their
Answer important functions through the establishment of the
In a federal system (Nigeria) the Local Government are National Primary Education Commission. In 1988,
directly responsible to the State Government (B) National Primary Education Commission (NPEC) was
established with Decree 31 of Federal Republic of Nigeria
2006/7 (OAU, IFE) 1988 and there was emergence of the national education
Into how many Local Governments Areas is Nigeria fund to allocate fund to State Primary Education Boards of
delineated? all the states of the federation (A)
A. 654 B. 650 C. 820 D. 774
Answer 1982/30 UTME
Nigeria has 774 Local Government Areas (LGAs) each Bye-laws are usually made and enforced by
being administered by a Local Government Council. Kano A. state governments B. trade unions C. local authorities
State has the highest Local Government Areas in Nigeria D. the Chief Inspector of Police E. senate
with forty-four (44) LGA’s (D) Answer
Bye-laws are usually made and enforced by local
2015/2 UTME authorities (C)
The 1976 Reforms made the Local Government the 2017/2018/81 (UNIZIK, AWKA)
A. second-tier of government The body whose responsibility is to recruit the senior staff
B. first tier of government local government councils in Nigeria is the
C. fourth tier of government A. Public Service Commission
D. third tier of government B. State Ministry of Local Government
Answer C. Emirate or Council of Chiefs
The 1976 Reforms made the local government the third tier D. President E. Local Government Council
of government (D) Answer
Public service commission is the body whose
responsibility is to recruit the senior staff of the local
2013/4 UTME government councils in Nigeria (A)
Laws made by local governments are called
A. Acts of Parliament B. Local Government Acts 1999/39 UTME
C. Bye-laws D. Local Government Decrees Rates are generally collected in Nigeria by
Answer A. the State Ministry of Finance
Bye-laws are the laws made by local government. A bye- B. the Department of Inland Revenue
law is a rule or law established by an organization or C. the Emirate or Traditional Council
community to regulate itself, as allowed or provided for by D. the Local Government Council
some higher authorities. The higher authorities, generally E. Presidential officers
a legislature or some other government body, establishes Answer
the degree of control that the bye-laws may exercise. (C) Rates are generally collected in Nigeria by the local
government council. Local government rates council have
2009/2010/50 (NDU, BAYELSA) the power to levy rates and charges under the Local
Local Government laws are called Government Act 1989 in order to fund and deliver essential
A. bye-laws B. orders C. decrees D. acts community infrastructure and services. The rates councils
Answer collect are a form of property tax. The value of each
Local government laws are called bye-laws. Bye-law is a property is used as the basis for calculating what each
law made by a local authority and that applies only to that property owner will pay (D)
area. (A)
1987/26 UTME
2018/2019/99 (UNIZIK, AWKA) Which of the following is a function of the local
A bye-law is made by government in Nigeria?
A. parliament B. congress C. an electoral college A. collection of radio and television license fees
D. the local government B. collection of company tax
Answer C. appointment of customary court judges
The local government makes a bye-law in the arena (D) D. appointment of traditional rulers
Answer
Collection of radio and television licenses fees are
functions of the local government in Nigeria (A)
303
1987/42 UTME 2009/38 Neco
Bye-laws are A court can declare any action of a local government that
A. enactments by the legislature is outside its area of jurisdiction as
B. regulations enacted by the local governments A. ultra vires B. bill of rights
C. fundamental judicial statements C. certiorari D. habeas corpus
D. private bills Answer
Answer Ultra vires (A)
Bye-laws are regulations, enacted by the local
2001/36 UTME
governments (B)
The main source of financing local government in Nigeria
is
1999/40 UTME
A. internal revenue generation
One of the main reasons for the creation of more local
B. statutory revenue allocation
governments in Nigeria is to
C. special state grants D. grants in aid
A. make them more responsive to people’s need
Answer
B. weaken the powers of traditional authorities
Statutory revenue allocation is the main source of
C. make them more receptive to traditional rulers
financing local government in Nigeria (B)
D. establish them as the third tier in the federal structure
Answer 2018/2019/97 (UNIZIK, AWKA)
The main aim for the creation of more local governments Local governments in Nigeria receive the bulk of their
in Nigeria is to make them more responsive and close to financial resources from
the people’s need (A) A. the federal government B. the state government
C. local government investment
2010/38 UTME D. rates and taxes
The General purpose committee of the local government Answer
functions as a The bulk financial resources of the Local Government in
A. committee for awarding contracts Nigeria is from the federal government. (A)
B. cabinet of the local governments
C. body responsible for supervising self-help projects 2018/2019/22 (UI, IBADAN)
D. committee of the local government on public relations The equivalent of a commissioner at the local government
Answer level is the
The committee of the local government functions as a A. executive chairman B. secretary C. councilor
cabinet of the local government (B) D. supervisory councilor
Answer
2018/2019/88 (UNIZIK,AWKA) Supervisory councilor is equivalent to a commissioner at
For purpose of local government elections, local the local government level (D)
government areas are divided into
2005/36 UTME
A. constituencies B. wards C. zones D. regions
In the present local government structure traditional rulers
Answer
play
Local government areas are generally divided into wards (B)
A. a judicial role B. an advisory role
C. a legislative role D. an executive role
2000/31 UTME
Answer
In Nigeria, the local government service commission is set
In the present local government administration structure
up by the
makes the traditional rulers play an advisory role (B)
A. local government council B. federal government
C. state government D. local government chairman 1995/38 UTME
Answer Presidentialism in local government administration is
The Local Government Service Commission is set up by understood to mean
the state government (C) A. the abolition of the role of traditional rulers as chairman
B. local government chief executives to be known as
1996/27 presidents
Local authorities impose rates because C. chairman of local governments to serve as accounting
A. the government wants the rich to become richer D. the phasing out of the post of councilors
B. the people are expected to finance political parties Answer
C. of the needs to provide fund for public corporations Presidentialism in local government administration is
D. of the need to provide essential amenities for the understood to mean chairman or persons of the local
citizens government to serve as accounting officers (C)
E. it an obligation of citizen to pay such rates
Answer 1978/22 UTME
Local authorities imposes rates because of the needs to To raise funds, local government can levy
provide essential amenities for the citizens (D) A. import duties B. income taxes C. excise taxes
D. rates E. profits
Answer
To raise funds, local government can levy rates (D)
304
1998/40 UTME 2012/2013/46 (UNIZIK, AWKA)
One major democratic innovation in local government The 1976 Local Government Reforms provide for a ___
administration introduced by the Babangida regime was term of office
the A. 4 years B. 5 years C. 2 years D. permanent E. 3 years
A. appointment of portfolio councilors Answer – E
B. appointment of retired military officers as sole The local government reform of 1976 provide for a 3 years
administrators term of office of the local government chairman and ladies.
C. selection of heads of personnel management
departments from the councilors 1981/49 UTME
D. separation of powers between the executive and The local government reforms of 1976 in Nigeria were
legislative arms of the councils designed to
Answer A. decentralize authority B. increase political socialization
The main democratic innovation in local government C. enlist grassroots support D. achieve even development
administration was introduced during General Ibrahim E. all of the above
Babangida regime was the separation of powers between Answer – E
the executive and legislative arms of the councils (D) The 1976 local government reforms in Nigeria were
designed to decentralize authority, increase political
2003/31 UTME socialization, enlist grassroots support and achieve even
Financial allocation to local governments by the federal or development.
the state government to supplement the cost of a project is
called 2019/38 (NDU, BAYELSA)
A. revenue allocation B. reimbursement Local Government Reforms were carried out by the federal
C. statutory allocation D. matching grant military government in
Answer A. 1970 B. 1976 C. 1979 D. 1967 E. 1966
Statutory allocation is financial allocation to local Answer – B
governments by the federal or the state government to 1976 Local government reforms were carried out by the
supplement the cost of a project (C) Federal Military Government in Nigeria.

2005/35 UTME 1987/41 UTME

In local government administration, Chief and council The 1976 Local Government Reforms declared that
implies that traditional rulers should
A. all members of the local council are appointed and A. perform executive functions
controlled by the Chief B. preside over local government council
B. the chief is a member of the local council but he does C. perform advisory roles D. enact laws
not exercise veto power Answer – C
C. the council operates independently of the chiefs The 1976 local government reforms declared that
authority traditional rulers should perform advisory roles.
D. members of the local council appoints the chief to office
Answer 1988/32 UTME
In local government administration, Chief and council According to the 1976 Local Government Reforms the
implies that the Chief is a member of the local council butChief executive of a local government council is the
he does not exercise veto power (B) A. supervisory councilor
B. chairman of the local government council
2009/13 UTME C. governor of the state
Prior to 1976, the local government system practiced in D. secretary of the local government council
Northern Nigeria was Answer – B
A. Chief-and-Council B. Chief-in-Council The 1976 Local Government Reforms, stated that the Chief
C. Professorial D. Council Executive of a local government council is the Chairman
Answer – B of the local government council.
Prior to 1976, the local government system practiced in
Northern Nigeria was Chief-in-Council. 1989/41 UTME
The main source of local government finance since the
1993/39 UTME 1976 Reform has been
The body responsible for exercising the functions of local A. local rates B. levies
governments in the 1976 reforms was the C. revenue from court fines and licenses
A. local government commission D. the Federal Government
B. local government council Answer – D
C. local government committee The local government main source of finance with the
D. committee of chairmen and supervisory councilors 1976 reforms has been the federal government.
Answer – A
Local government commission was the body empowered
by the 1976 reform to exercise the functions of the local
government.
305
1992/39 UTME 2022/15 Neco
The most important aspect of the 1976 Local Government Under which of the following Heads of State was the local
Reforms was the government reform carried out in Nigeria?
A. introduction of a uniform system of local government A. Aguiyi Ironsi B. Ibrahim Babangida C. Olusegun
B. introduction of party politics at the local levels Obasanjo D. Sani Abacha E. Yakubu Gowon
C. subordination of local government to the federal and Answer
state governments Basically, the 1976 local government reform was
D. recognition of local government as autonomous and introduced during the military government of General
sovereign government Olusegun Obasanjo. It is this reform that gave Nigeria its
Answer – A present structure and functions as a distinct tier of
The main essential aspect of 1976 Local Government government within the Nigeria federal structure. (C)
reforms was the introduction of a uniform system of local
government within the country. 2022/6 Neco
a. Define local government authority.
1994/37 UTME b. Identify and explain five features of 1976 local
The 1976 Local Government Reforms has government reform in Nigeria
A. reduced political corruption at the local level Answer
B. resulted in accelerated development in the rural areas 6a) Local government authority implies a form of public
C. created more autonomy for local administration administration which exists at the lowest tier of
D. reduced the political roles of traditional rulers administration within a given state vested with the power
Answer – D to enforce laws, regulations or ordinances so as to deal with
The 1976 local government reforms has reduced the specific matters as it affects the local people.
political roles of traditional rulers.
6b) Five features of 1976 local government reform in
2003/36 UTME Nigeria include:
The 1976 Reforms have been most beneficial to the 1. The 1976 reform established a uniform system of local
A. Nigerian Police B. Federal Government government as regards their functions, structure, and
C. Local government D. civil service financing nationwide.
Answer – C 2. The local government was made the third tier of
The 1976 Reforms have been most beneficial to the local government of the federation.
government. 3. The federal government was to fund the local
government with a statutory percentage share of the
2004/47 UTME federation account and state revenue went to the local
The 1976 Local Government Reforms in Nigeria government. Also, special grants were made available
transformed the relationship between states and local to the local government service board and commission.
government into one of 4. The 1976 local government reform prevented
A. equality B. master and servant traditional rulers from practicing politics by setting up
C. subordination D. partnership and cooperation a separate council of chiefs with essential advisory
Answer – D role.
The 1976 reforms in Nigeria strengthens the relationship 5. The reform harmonized the condition of service of
between states and local government in partnership and local government personnel with the personnel of the
cooperation. state and federal government.

2017/2018/77 (UNIZIK, AWKA)

The local government reforms of 1976 in Nigeria were REVISION EXERCISES
designed to 1. When a local government is divided into electoral
A. decentralize authority B. increase political socialization districts, such units are called
C. enlist grassroots support D. payment of taxes A. constituencies B. countries
E. A, B and C C. wards D. circles
Answer – E 2. The transfer of authority to local government councils
is known as
2014/2015/51 (UI,IBADAN) A. centralization B. fusion
The local government reforms recognized local C. devolution D. delegation
government as the third tier of government in 3. In order to raise funds, local government council make
A. 1963 B. 1976 C. 1988 D. 1989 the citizens pay
Answer – B A. import duties B. income taxes
The 1976 Local Government Reforms recognized local C. excise duties D. rates E. profit tax
government as the third tier of government in 1976. 4. For their revenue, local authorities depend mainly on
A. loans from banks
B. grants from the central government
C. taxes imposed on prominent local people
D. grants from the state government and individuals
E. contributions from numbers of parliament
306
5. At the local government level, the electoral district is
referred to as
A. constituency B. council C. district
D. ward E. zone
6. The total number of local government areas in Nigeria
in 1989 was
A. 300 B. 303 C. 400 D. 403 E. 449
7. Local government is the __
A. second tier of government
B. first tier of government
C. fourth tier of government
D. third tier of government
Answer – D
8. Who is the local government administer?
A. chairman B. president C. governor
D. senator
9. How many local government areas do we have in
Nigeria?
A. 801 B. 764 C. 774 D. 852 E. 762
10. Identify six ways by which the central government can
improve upon local government system in West Africa.
11. How can the revenue of local authorities in your
country be improved?
12. In what ways could the revenue base on local
governments be enhanced?
13. What is local government?
14. Explain seven functions of local government.
15. State five powers of the local government.
16. List four relationships between state/federal and local
governments.
17. Discuss five problems of local government.
18. State four features of 1976 local government reform in
Nigeria.
19. Explain three role or functions of the traditional rulers
in government.
20. Explain any 3 types of local government system you
know.
21. State five problems of local government in Nigeria.

307
Furthermore, the Sokoto and Gwandu caliphates were sub
Chapter Twenty Five divided into emirates for easy administration. Each emirate
was headed by an Emir who was appointed from two or three
PRE-COLONIAL POLITICAL SYSTEM ruling families with the approval of the Emir of Sokoto or
Gwandu, depending on the emirate the selection was made.
IN NIGERIA These lesser Emirs were responsible to the Emirs of Sokoto
The pre-colonial Nigeria symbolizes the methods or ways and Gwandu respectively. However, in each emirate, the Emir
by which Nigerians govern themselves before the advent was assisted by some officials who were assigned to certain
of colonialism. There was established system of duties. These officials included:
government referred to as traditional political system in 1. The ‘Waziri’ who was the administrative officer or prime
several parts of Nigeria and other parts of West Africa minister.
before the advent of the European Colonial rulers on the 2. The ‘Galadima’ who was in charge of the capitals.
coast of West Africa. These orderly and advanced Systems 3. The ‘Madawaki’ who was the commander of the army.
4. The ‘Dogari’ who was the head of the police.
of government had all the principal organs of government
5. The ‘Maaji’, the treasurer.
with the principles of checks and balances applied in some
6. The ‘Sarkin Ruwa’ the river fishing official
of them. The true historical account is that the European
7. The ‘Sarkin Fada’ who was responsible for the
interfered with the traditional mapped out political system administration of the palace; and
in Africa because of their greed and selfishness. It therefore 8. The ‘Sarkin Pawa’, the head of all butchers.
implies traditional systems preceded the era of
colonialism. The Hausa pre-colonial political system was a highly
centralized one with the Emir possessing almost all the
powers. This was one of the main reasons why the indirect
HAUSA/FULANI POLITICAL SYSTEM Rule System was very successful in the Northern part of
The Fulanis took over the political leadership of the Habe Nigeria (Hausa/Fulani Empire).
(Hausa) states in the early 19th Century. The Jihad that
preceded this occupation was seen as a religious one as 2000/46
well as political. In the pre-colonial Hausa/Fulani system, the appointment of an
Usman Dan Fodio led the Fulani Jihad war (1804 – 1810) Emir in the caliphate was approved by the
and took over the political leadership of the Hausa A. Sardauna of Sokoto and Alkali
Kingdoms and then he established the Fulani Emirates. B. Galadima and the Waziri
Each Emirate was headed by an Emir. Sokoto and Gwandu C. Shehu of Borno and the Galadima
were made the two headquarters for all the Emirates. For D. Sultan of Sokoto and Emir of Gwandu
administrative convenience, Usman Dan Fodio divided the Answer
Fulani Empire into two-the Eastern and Western Sections. The appointment and approval of an Emir in the caliphate was the
Uthman Dan Fodio became the head (Sarkin Muslim) of duty of Sultan of Sokoto and Emir of Gwandu. (D)
the whole Hausa land. The Eastern section: Kano, Kastina,
2002/33 Nov
Zaira, Bauchi, Gombe, Yola with Sokoto as the capital was
The title Sarki Muslimi implies leader of the
under the administrative authority Mohammed Bello son
A. faithfuls B. Kanuri C. rebels D. kafiri
of Uthman Dan Fodio. The Western Section: Ilorin, Answer
Kantogora and Argungu with Gwandu as the capital was The title Sarki Muslimi implies leader of the faithfuls. Sarki
under the administrative authority of Abdullah, Dan Muslimi means the leader of the Muslim. (A)
Fodio’s brother.
2019/30 NABTEB
The two prominent emirs in the Hausa, Fulani pre-colonial
government were that of
A. Kano and Kebbi B. Adamawa and Taraba
C. Sokoto and Gwandu D. Borno and Kano
Answer
The two prominent emirs in the Hausa/Fulani pre-colonial
government were that of the Sokoto and Gwandu. Other
Emirs owed allegiance to the two prominent Emirs, while the
two prominent Emirs owed allegiance to the Usman Dan
Fodio. (C)

2017/29 UTME
In the pre-colonial Emirate system, the emir of Gwandu
controlled the
A. central section B. Southern Section
C. Eastern Section D. Western Section
Answer – D
The pre-colonial Emirate system, the Emir of Gwandu
Usman Dan Fodio controlled the Western section. The brother of Usman Dan
Fodio was the administrative head of Gwandu which includes
Ilorin, Kantogora, Argungu.
308
2009/2010/41 (UNIZIK,AWKA) The emirate was divided into two:
When was the emirates system of government introduced i. The Eastern Empire: Which consisted of
in Nigeria? Kano, Kastina, Bauchi, Yola, Zaria and
A. nineteenth century B. twentieth century Gombe and was controlled from Sokoto by
C. eighteenth century D. seventeenth century Usman Dan Fodio’s son.
E. sixteenth century ii. The Western Empire: This consisted of
Answer – A Ilorin, Argungu and Kotangora and was
The emirates system of government was introduced in controlled from Gwandu by Usman Dan
Nigeria in the early 19th century by Usman Dan Fodio. Fodio’s brother.
2. The Supreme Headquarters: Sokoto and Gwandu
1986/27 UTME were the seats of the Emirs. The Emir of Gwandu
Which of the following ethnic groups had centralized controlled the Western Empire while the Emir of
administration in pre-colonial Nigeria? Sokoto controlled the Eastern Empire. They appointed
A. Ibibio B. Ijaw C. Tiv D. Hausa Emirs in each of the emirates under their jurisdiction.
Answer – D 3. Village Heads: They were appointed by the Hakimi to
Usman Dan Fodio led the Fulani Jihad and took over the help in the collection of taxes, e.g. cattle tax (Jangali)
political leadership of the Hausa and established the and for maintenance of law and order in the village.
Sokoto caliphate with outstanding centralized political 4. District Administration: Each emirate was divided
system of government. into districts for administrative convenience. An
official known as Hakimi was usually appointed by the
1989/25 Exercise 25.1 Emir to administer the district.
The ratification of the appointment and dismissal of an 5. Legislative Function: Islamic laws were the supreme
Emir in the pre-colonial Fulani Empire was done by the laws of the emirates. The Emir had the capacity of
A. Empire of Lafiagi and the Etsu of Pategi making laws on matters which were not covered by
B. Emirs of Kano and Katsina Islamic laws.
C. Emirs of Gwandu and Sokoto 6. Executive Function: The Emir was authoritarian and
D. Emir of Ilorin E. Emir of Shonga had absolute powers, even though he had a body of
advisors, yet he can ignore or accept their advice.
2001/20 UTME Exercise 25.2 7. Judicial Function: The judicial administration was
The Western Zone of the Sokoto caliphate was based on Sharia laws, judges. At times, minor cases
administrated from may be passed to the village heads to be settled by
A. Kebbi B. Ilorin C. Bida D. Gwandu them. Criminal and land cases were usually referred to
the Emirs because Sharia laws dealt mainly with civil
1995/23 UTME Exercise 25.3 cases.
The geographical entity in which the traditional ruler was 8. Centralized Administration: The emirate system was
both the religious and political head was the a highly centralized one with the Emir holding almost
A. Tiv Society B. Efik Kingdom all the powers. He was an authoritarian ruler.
C. Jukun Kingdom D. Sokoto Caliphate
Forms of Taxation at the Emirates
POLITICAL ADMINISTRATION To generate funds for the treasury the following taxes were
1. The Emirate: The Hausa/Fulani caliphate was divided collected:
into emirates and each was headed by an Emir. He had a) KHARAJ: It is the land tax based on annual yield or
the responsibility of making laws, enforcing them and production
maintaining peace and order in the Emirate. He was b) JANGALI: It is the tax based on livestock or animal
expected to administer the emirates in accordance with tax. That is, tax paid on goats, sheep, cattle, donkeys,
provision of the Islamic and Sharia laws. Infact, he was etc.
believed to have divine right to rule. c) LIZYA: This is a tax levied on the subjects like slaves,
However, each Emir was assisted in the administration aliens or strangers.
of the emirates by a number of advisers as earlier d) ZAKAT: It is a tax on movable properties to provide
mentioned. These were: alms for the poor, the needy, widows, etc.
(a) The Waziri: He was the head of all officials. He is
also known as the Prime Minister. Functions of the Emir in the Hausa/Fulani Traditional
(b) The Galadima – He was in charge of the capital. Political System
(c) The Madaki (Madawaki) – He was the commander 1. The Emirs manage disputes among their subjects.
of the army. 2. He enlightens his subjects on the importance of
(d) Dogari – He was the head of the police. carrying out their civil responsibilities.
(e) Maaji – He was in charge of treasury. 3. Maintains law and order within this domain.
(f) Sarkin Ruwa – The river fishing official. 4. He ensures his subjects’ adherence to their northern
(g) Sarkin Fada – The head of the palace workers. cultural heritage.
(h) Sarkin – Pawa – The head of all butchers. 5. He was charged with the responsibility of supervising
(i) The Yari: The chief prison’s officer chieftaincy matters.
(j) Alkali: Judges who presided over the Aikali 6. He enlightens and encourages his subjects on the
courts. importance of paying taxes.
309
7. He presides over the council of elders meetings in his 1993/28
domain. In the Hausa/Fulani traditional political system Jangali was
8. He advises local government council boss on community A. one of the sources of revenues to cattle owners
development. B. a property tax paid to a land owner
9. He performed ceremonial functions e.g. Dubar. C. paid by exporters of cattle
10. The Emir honoured brave warriors and conferred D. imposed on the people by the colonial masters
traditional title on worthy citizens. E. a type of flat rate tax
11. He allocated farmlands to his people. Answer
12. He made laws over the area under his jurisdiction. The Jangali tax is also known as cattle tax, originally
13. He enforced the Sharia (Islamic law) throughout the
Jangali was the title and levied only paid on cattle and not
emirate.
on flocks; it varies in amount, and in some cases was
14. He organized his people for defense of the emirate
against external attacks. changed to a levy per herd of cattle. (C)
15. The Emir organizes his people for communal work e.g.
roads and Emir’s palace. 2000/38 Nov
16. The Emir is the spiritual head of the Emirate. Who among the following was in charge of the army in the
17. The Emir was the supreme ruler of his subjects. pre-colonial Hausa-Fulani Emirate?
18. The Emir gave appointment to his officials e.g. A. Maaji B. Dogari C. Magaji D. Madawaki
Madawaki/Waziri, Galadim and Hakimi to assist him in Answer
administrative work of the emirate. Madawaki was the commander of the army in the pre-
colonial Hausa/Fulani emirate. (D)
1999/33 UTME
The duty of an Alkali under Hausa-Fulani political system is 1998/53
to One of the major functions of the Emir in the Hausa/Fulani
A. adjudicate under Islamic laws traditional political system was to
B. make Islamic laws C. execute Islamic laws A. organize the people for communal worship only
D. make treaties under Islamic laws B. interpret all laws
Answer – A C. influence elections in his emirate
The duty of an Alkali under Hausa-Fulani Political system is D. levy, collect and spend taxes
to adjudicate under Islamic laws. Adjudication is the legal E. lead the army to wars
process by which an arbiter or judge reviews evidence and
Answer
argumentation, including legal reasoning set forth by
The main functions of the emir in the Hausa/Fulani
opposing parties or litigants to come to a decision which
traditional political system was to interpret all laws in his
determines rights and obligations between the parties
involved. jurisdiction. (B)

1998/40 1991/44
In the Hausa – Fulani political system, the Emir had wide One which of the following was the Hausa/Fulani Political
powers because he system based before the introduction of indirect rule?
A. was elected by the people A. communism B. fascism C. totalitarianism
B. had a divine right to rule C. was too generous D. feudalism E. anarchism
D. was very rich E. was a brave fighter Answer
Answer The Hausa/Fulani political system was feudalism, because
The Emir of the Hausa/Fulani believes that he had a divine the king owned all the land of his domain. He can lease it
right to rule. (B) out to some noble men for protection of his jurisdiction and
supplies of farm produces. (D)
1994/34
The Waziri in the traditional Hausa/Fulani kingdom 2012/24 UTME Exercise 25.4
performed the function of the In the Hausa pre-colonial political system, a district was
A. Monarch B. Executive President headed by
C. Ceremonial Monarch D. Prime Minister A. Hakimi B. a Dagaci C. an Alkali D. a Waziri
E. Governor-General
Answer 2006/1 UTME Exercise 25.5
Waziri was a very senior adviser and administrator. He was
Galadima in the emirate system refers to
the Prime Minister. (D)
A. a village head B. the officer-in-charge of the army
1996/30
C. the administrator of the capital city
In the Hausa pre-colonial political system, sovereignty was D. a judge
located in the .
A. Quadri B. Emir C. Waziri 2002/35 Nov Exercise 25.6
D. Madawaki E. Galadima In the Hausa/Fulani traditional political administration, the
Answer Madawaki was the
In the Hausa/Fulani pre-colonial political system, sovereignty A. Chief judge B. Chief tax collector
was located to the Emir, because the Emir had the C. head of fishermen D. commander of the army
responsibility of making laws, enforcing them and
maintaining peace and order in his emirate. (B)
310
1998/36 Exercise 25.7 2009/7 UTME
The emirate system in the Hausa/Fulani traditional In the Igbo political system, the most senior member of the
administration was council of elders is the
A. hierarchical B. unilateral C. democratic A. Okpara B. Obi C. Eze D. Ofo
D. expensive E. secular Answer – A
In the Igbo political system, the most senior Ofo Council
2004/7 Exercise 25.8 member of elders is the Okpara and the administrative
Outline six functions of the Emir in the Hausa/Fulani leader of the community.
traditional system.
1994/35
IGBO POLITICAL SYSTEM Which of the following characteristics was absent in the
The Igbo people are an ethnic group native to the present-day pre-colonial administration of the Igbos?
south-central and south-eastern Nigeria. A. hierarchical and centralized administration
Geographically, the Igbo homeland is divided into two B. religious and spiritual symbols
unequal sections by the Niger River- Eastern (which is the C. consultations D. checks and balances
larger of the two) and Western section. The Igbo people are E. mixture of spiritual and temporal roles
one of the largest ethnic groups in Africa. Answer
There was the absence of centralization of power and
The Igbo language is divided into numerous regional dialects, authority in the Igbo political system during the pre-
and somewhat mutually intelligible with the larger ‘Igboid’ colonial administration. (A)
cluster. The Igbo homeland straddles the lower Niger River,
East and South of the Edoid and Idomoid groups, and West
2007/36 UTME
of the Ibibioid (Cross River) cluster.
The pre-colonial Igbo political system was largely
The Igbo political system may be seen as a fragmented A. republican B. dictatorial
political system. Many constitutions were in place and C. monarchical D. authoritarian
political authority was shared among them. For example, the Answer – A
Ofo title holders (council of elders), Ozor title holders, age The pre-colonial Igbo political system was largely
grades, etc. were all involved in the power sharing exercise. republican. Republic is a form of government in which
No wonder then, that the term “Acephalous” was ascribed to power is held by the people and their elected
or describe the organization of the Igbo Political system. The representatives.
system of government here was not only segmentary and
decentralized but was also republican in nature 1979/30 UTME
In the pre-colonial Igbo political system, which of the
There was the absence of centralization of power and following was the most democratic organ of government?
authority in the Igbo political system as it was more of the A. the Umuada B. Eze C. Isu D. Oha-na-eze E. Out-Ebiri
people’s direct participation in their government (direct Answer – D
democracy). In the pre-colonial Igbo political system, the most
democratic organ of government was Oha-na-eze. The
The essential institutions and offices in the traditional Igbo village Assembly made up of all grown-up male members
government were: of the village (Oha-na-eze).
i) Obi/Eze: The king
ii) Ozo: Title holder like senior chiefs
2015/3 UTME Exercise 25.9
iii) Ojo: The staff of authority held by the family head
Decisions making in the traditional Igbo political system
iv) Oha-Na-Eze: Assembly of all male adults
v) Umunna: A group of related families (lower) political was conferred on the basis of
unit. A. privilege B. age C. gender D. status
vi) Obodo: Largest political unit – village/town.
vii) Okpara: Ceremonial head of a town – usually the oldest 2014/2015/40 (UI,IBADAN) Exercise 25.10
male. An important agency for social control in the Igbo
viii) Umu – Ada : Daughter of the village traditional society was the
ix) Olu-Omu: Married women of the village. A. age grade B. ozo-title holders
C. council of chiefs
1996/38 Nov D. assembly of lineage heads
In which of the following ethnic groups was the traditional
political system acephalous?
A. the Yoruba B. the Efik C. the Fulani The structural organization of Igbo Political System
D. Hausa E. Igbo 1. Village administration: The Igbo political system was
Answer based on the village as a political unit. A village is seen
Acephalous is a society which lacks political leaders or as inhabited by a group of related families. Each family
hierarchies. Such groups are also known as non-stratified head has the title of Ofo and all the heads of families
societies. There was no political leader or head in the Igbo (Ofo title holders) make up the council of elders. The
land during the pre-colonial system. (E) council of elders presided over important issues on the
village’s welfare, safety, development, etc. Among the
council of elders, one was recognized as the most
311
senior to others, he was the “Okpara”. He could call
for and adjourn a meeting, and could also give 2014/37 Neco
judgments as well. The council of elders were believed The laws of the pre-colonial African political systems were
to be earthly representatives of the Igbo ancestors. A. written B. codified C. unwritten D. rigid
2. The age-grade: It consisted of youngsters that belong Answer
to the same age group. The senior age-group The laws of the pre-colonial African political systems were
maintained peace and order in the village and also unwritten and flexible. The laws were customary and
provide security towards external attacks, while the traditions. (C)
junior age-group concentrated on the sanitation of the
community and other necessary duties. The age-grade
were also involved in the administration of the village, 1989/27
and as well acted as a check to the council of elders Which of the following title among the Igbos in the pre-
and other administrative bodies. colonial era required substantial wealth before one could
3. The executive: The affairs of the village are acquire it?
coordinated and discussed from time to time by the A. Ofo B. Okpara C. Ozo D. Eze E. Obi
heads of families (Ofo title holders) council of elders. Answer
Every adult of the village can contribute. Ozo title was only given to wealthy and influential men of
4. The legislature: The villagers made laws and even the the village, Ozo title is very expensive. The title makes the
age-grades can enact a law, which the elders would holder to be recognized in the society. (C)
accept.
5. The judiciary: The family heads settled disputes 1990/52 Nov
between their family members. Serious cases were The deity (such as chi or the oracles) in the traditional Igbo
referred to council of elders and Okpara presided over political system mainly perform
the cases with penalties based on their customs and A. legislative and executive functions
traditions. B. judiciary and legislative functions
6. The Ozo title holders: This expensive title was C. spiritual and executive functions
conferred on wealthy and influential men in the D. judiciary and political functions
community who after getting the title become E. executive and judiciary functions
recognized and could then preside over meetings with Answer
the village elders. The chi or the oracles in the traditional Igbo political system
7. Provision of shrines: The priests were not left out in mainly performed spiritual and executive functions. (C)
the administration of the village. Great importance
were attached to them for they were believed to be the 2019/31 NABTEB
mouthpieces of the gods. Even the council of elders Which of the following does not describe the Igbo pre-
consulted the priests in matters that were beyond their colonial government?
powers i.e. matters that needed spiritual intervention. A. a republic B. a confederation
8. Leadership: Succession to leadership positions was C. egalitarian D. autocratic
not hereditary in Igbo political system. Answer
9. Type of political system: The Igbo pre-colonial Autocratic does not describe the Igbo pre-colonial
political system can be simply said to be similar to the government. Autocracy is a system of government by one
modern Republican system of government in which person with absolute power. Each family in Igbo land
the people are governed by their consent. during the pre-colonial political system were represented
by Ofo (the family head), all the Ofo’s formed the council
2000/43 of elders. (D)
In pre-colonial Igbo land administration meeting were
presided over by the 1998/37 Exercise 25.11
A. Mazi B. Ogbuefi C. Ozo title holder D. Okpara In the Igbo traditional system the Okpara was
Answer A. administrative head of his kindred
The most eldest and recognized elder in the council of B. priest C. king
elders was called Okpara. He could call for meeting and D. commander-in-chief of the army
adjourn. He also gives judgment as well. He presided over E. head of his age-grade
the meetings of the council of elders. (D)
2015/38 Neco Exercise 25.12
2000/45 In the pre-colonial African Political system, the functions
Which of the following groups had the best Egalitarian of the kingmakers were performed by
traditional political system? A. age grades B. women
A. Hausa/Fulani B. Yoruba C. Igbo D. Edo C. council of elders D. special people
Answer
The best Egalitarian traditional political system is the 1998/41 Exercise 25.13
Igbo’s. Egalitarian is a trend in political philosophy. An The pre-colonial government of the Igbo was
Egalitarian favours equality of some sort: People should A. dictatorial B. dominated by the wealthy few
get the same, or be treated the same, or be treated as equals, C. not centralized D. made up of traditional rulers
in some respect. (C) E. monarchical
312
Features of the Igbo Traditional Societies 5. Supreme God: The Ibos believed in the supreme God
1. Decentralized administration e.g. acephalous society. called Chukwu or Chineke who made everything in the
2. The compound/family was the unit of administration world and that it was equally responsibe for the
through the head of family Ofo (member of the council happening of every event in their societies.
of elders). 6. The Same Cultural Patterns: The various Ibo
3. Absence of formal political institution. societies apart from having age-grades, had one form
4. Fusion of religious, judicial and political functions in of title holding or the other like new yam festival, birth,
administration. marriage and burial ceremonies; secret societies like
5. Age-grades were important factors in the Okonkwo, Mmamwu, Ekpe, Agbaniko, etc.
administration. 7. Marriage: Polygamous form of marriage that was
6. Council of elders: The family heads played important common in the pre-colonial era widened the scope of
roles in the administration of the village. unity and cooperation among various communities that
7. Title holders (ozo title) played significant roles in the inter-married.
traditional political system. The title was made for the 8. Trade: The various communities in Iboland, had
wealthy and influential men. rotary form of markets and people moved from one
8. Decisions in the pre-colonial political system of the community to another to trade and this acted as a
Igbo’s were reached by consensus, dialogue and unifying factor.
acceptance.
9. Succession to leadership is by achievement no Comparison of Hausa/Fulani Pre-Colonial Political
System with Igbo Traditional Political System
hereditary.
1. The Hausa/Fulani political emirate was monarchical,
10. Deities and oracles provided bond of unity among the
headed by a king, while the Igbo traditional political
people. system was republican, headed by no king or queen.
11. The village chamber is the market square. 2. In the emirate, political power was exercised by the Emir
12. The women (Umuada) composed of the first daughters and his council of advisers, while the Igbo political
of each family, constituted a socio political group. system, power was exercised by the council of elders by
13. Banishment from the village and escort of such people consensus.
into the evil forest was the maximum judicial 3. The Hausa/Fulani political emirate was centralized while
punishment. the Igbo political party was decentralized.
14. New yam festival was religiously marked, honoured 4. In the Hausa/Fulani political emirate, legislative
and celebrated annually. functions was performed by the Emir and his council,
15. There was the principle of checks and balance in Igbo while in Igbo political system, law making function was
pre-colonial political system. performed by the council of elders and the general
assembly.
5. In the Hausa/Fulani traditional political system, judicial
Factors that United the Various Igbo Communities in matters rested with the Emir and his council (alkali
the Pre Colonial Period courts). The emir’s court was the highest in the land,
1. Simple Form of Government: The simple form of while in Igbo political system, the council of elders, and
decentralized system of government of the Ibos, made title holders –Nze-na-ozo, administered justice.
it possible for families and clans believed in common 6. Theocratic system or Islamic laws and customary laws
descendance from the same ancestors to have equal were used in the Hausa/Fulani political system while
Igbo traditional political system used customary laws
opportunity in airing the various views of members of
only.
their families and these united them.
7. The Emir served as both political and religious head in
2. Age Grades: These age grades carry out a lot of the Hausa/Fulani political system, while the Chief Priest
uniting work, maintained peace and order, acted as handled religious matters in Igbo political system.
army that warded off external attack, saw to the 8. In Hausa/Fulani political system, there was taxation,
sanitation of the communities, etc. while in Igbo political system, there was no taxation.
3. Common language: Though there are variations in 9. The institution of age grade system was recognized by the
Igbo language, but all the communities that made up Igbo traditional political system while the Hausa/Fulani
Iboland understood themselves and that helped to traditional political system did not.
bring them together as one entity.
4. The Oracles: The oracles in Igbo land contributed in 2011/6 Nov Exercise 25.14
uniting the various Ibo communities. The Ibos had Highlight any six features of the Igbo traditional societies.
strong belief in the powers of these oracles, and as a
result, everybody abhorred harming his neighbor in
order not to be punished by these oracles. These THE POLITICAL SYSTEM OF OYO EMPIRE
oracles included; Ubinkpabi at Arochukwu, Igweka- Oyo Empire was a large West African empire founded in
ala at Umunoha in Owerri, the Amadioha of Ozuzu, approximately 1300 C. E. The empire was the earliest and
the Agbala of Awka, Ogbaegbu of Umuanya and the largest of the four great kingdoms of West Africa. The
Apuagbara of Umuaka all in Alayi in Bende L.G.A., Oyo Empire was a powerful Yoruba empire made up of
etc. The various Ibo communities run to these oracles parts of present – day Eastern Benin Republic (formerly
in times of needs. Dahomey), and Western Nigeria (including Southwest
zone and the Western half of North–Central zone).

313
In Yoruba language, the world “Oba” means king or ruler. It 6. The Ogboni Society: This society possesses judicial
was also common for the rulers of the various Yoruba powers and was also involved in policy making. They
domains to have their own special titles. In Oyo Empire, the maintain and preserve the cultural values of the Yorubas,
Oba was referred to as the Alaafin (Alaafin means the owner the Ogboni society was a secret society that influenced
of the place). Alaafin Hamidi Adeyemi III was the Alaafin of events in the society. The head of the Ogboni cult was
Oyo from 1970 – 2022. known as Oluwo.

1998/39 1978/13 UTME

An Oba in the traditional Yoruba political system was Before colonial rule, Yoruba traditional rulers were
A. the executive head of his people appointed by
B. ceremonial monarch only A. the people acting through their representatives
C. war general only D. the spokesman of his people B. Ogboni C. Ifa (oracle) priests
E. a title member in the community D. Oduduwa E. kingmakers
Answer Answer – E
In Yoruba language, the word “Oba’ means king or ruler. The
The appointment of the Yoruba (oba) traditional rulers
Oba in the traditional Yoruba political system was the
before the colonial rule were by the kingmakers known as
executive head of his people. (A)
Oyomesi headed by Bashorun.
2011/24 UTME
The Yoruba traditional governmental system was 1995/22 UTME
A. egalitarian B. republican C. democratic D. monarchical In which of the following Nigerian pre-colonial political
Answer – D units was the principle of separation of powers
The Yoruba traditional governmental system was institutionalized?
monarchical system in nature. A. Oyo Empire B. Benin Empire
C. Hausa States D. Bornu Empire
Answer – A
Political Organizational Structure of the Yoruba’s The Oyo Empire in Nigeria pre-colonial political units held
During the Pre-Colonial System the principle of separation of powers institutionalized.
1. Political Head: The Alaafin was seen as the political There are six different groups that controls the
head of the Empire. The Alaafin of Oyo Empire was administration of Oyo Empire, each group had its defined
chosen by the Oyomesi (Seven hereditary kingmakers of functions by the traditional political system.
the empire). The head of the Oyomesi council was known
as Bashorun, the Bashorun was seen as the Prime 1997/22 UTME
Minister which consulted the gods for the approval of the The crucial check on an autocratic Oba in the pre-colonial
Alaafin’s appointment. The Alaafin of Oyo have been Yoruba political system was
appointed by the gods. The Bashorun was also regarded A. presenting to him a suicide symbol
as Ekeji Orisa meaning “companion of the gods”. The B. avoiding the palace
Bashorun had final say on the nomination of the new C. sending him on exile
Alaafin. D. refusing to carry out his orders
2. The Aremo: Aremo was the eldest son of the Alaafin, he Answer – A
can only assist his father in administrative work but The crucial check on an autocratic Oba in the precolonial
cannot succeed him. Yoruba political system was presenting to him a suicide
3. The Oyomesi: These are the seven hereditary kingmakers symbol which is three eggs in a calabash. The suicide symbol
in the empire with Bashorun as the head followed by presented by the Bashorun of the Oyomesi to the Alaafin.
Agbaakin, Samu, Alapini, Laguna, Akiniku and Ashipa.
They all represent the voices of the people and their main 1988/26
function was to protect the interests of the empire. The In the Oyo traditional political system, the Alaafin of Oyo was
Alaafin was required to take counsel with them, elected or chosen by a group known as the
whenever any important matter affecting the empire A. Baales B. Obas C. Ogboni
occurs. The Oyomesi council can only appear three times D. Bashorun E. Oyomesi
a year in public/traditional festivals. The Oyomesi gives Answer
approval of Alaafin and can also remove Alaafin, the The Oyomesi council chooses the Alaafin by consulting the gods
Bashorun would just presents the Alaafin with an empty for the approval of the Alaafin’s appointment. (E)
calabash or parrot’s egg as a sign that the king must
commit suicide. 1989/29 Nov
4. Provincial governors: The governor from the province The head of the Oyomesi in the old Oyo Empire was
were as Baale or Oba, which carries out province A. Aremo B. Aare-ona-Kakanfo C. Oluwo
administration. All the Baale’s or Oba pay homage to D. Bashorun E. Oba
Alaafin. Answer
5. The Army: The army of old Oyo Empire was headed by The head of the Oyomesi Council was known as Bashorun.
Army General called Aare-Ona-Kakanfo. The army The Bashorun was seen as the prime minister which consults
group defend the territorial integrity. The Aare-Ona- the gods for the approval of the Alaafin’s appointment. The
Kakanfo must be citizen of Oyo-empire and humble. Bashorun was also regarded as the Ekeji Orisa meaning the
When the Are-Ona-Kakanfo suffered defeats, the Are- companion of the gods. (D)
Ona-Kakanfo must commit suicide.

314
1993/27 4. Checks on the powers of the Oba: The Oyomesi
The Oyomesi checked the Alaafin in the Yoruba traditional served as a check on the powers of the Alaafin or king.
political system by Led by the Bashorun, the Oyomesi could dethrone the
A. starving the Alaafin of funds Alaafin if the people lost confidence in his
B. stoning the Alaafin to death administration.
C. commanding the Bashorun to take over power 5. Ensured policies were implemented: The Oyomesi
D. impeaching the Alaafin and asking him to commit suicide was tasked with making sure that the policy decisions
E. advising the Ogboni on the Alaafin’s short coming taken by the state were implemented throughout the
Answer empire. This was to ensure that there was full
The Oyomesi checked the Alaafin in the Yoruba traditional compliance.
political system by impeaching the Alaafin and asking him to
6. Religious functions: It was the duty of the herd of the
commit suicide. The Oyomesi can remove or ask the Alaafin Council of Oyomesi, the Bashorun, to consult the Ifa
to commit suicide. The Bashorun would just presents the oracle for the approval of the gods. Though the
Alaafin with an empty calabash or parrot’s egg as a sign that
appointment of a new king was the duty of the
the king must commit suicide. This is the only way to remove
Oyomesi, the new Alaafin was seen as an appointment
the Alaafin from his seat, if the people of the empire were not
by the gods.
willing to work with him again. (D) 7. Advised Alaafin on good governance: It was the duty
of the Oyomesi to advise the Alaafin on matters of
1993/29 Nov good governance.
The Yoruba traditional political system was said to be 8. Judicial Functions: They equally performed judicial
democratic because the functions in the empire.
A. Oba was popularly elected 9. Communal development: They assisted in the
B. Oba was the choice of the chiefs organization of communal development.
C. Oba had no judicial functions 10. Budget: The traditional rulers were also involved in
D. Oba could be impeached raising and spending of money in their locality.
E. Oyomesi had executive powers
Answer 2018/25 NABTEB
The Yoruba traditional political system was said to be In the Oyo traditional political system, the Alaafin was
democratic because the Oba could be impeached by the chosen by a group called
Oyomesi. (D) A. Oyomesi B. Bales C. Ogboni D. Obas
Answer
2010/22 UTME Exercise 25.15 The Oyomesi council in the Oyo traditional political
Who was the political head of the leader Oyo Empire?
system chose the Alaafin. (A)
A. Bashorun B. Oyomesi C. Aremo D. Alaafin

2001/41 Neco Exercise 25.16 2009/6

Among the Yoruba, the presentation of parrot egg to the Highlight six functions of the Oyomesi in the pre-colonial
Oba indicated period in Yoruba land.
A. outright rejection by his subjects Answer
B. acceptance of royal order 1. Took part in the selection of a new Alaafin.
C. obeisance and homage to the king 2. Initiated laws.
D. prayer for long life for the king 3. Acted as checks on the powers of Oba e.g. removal of
Alaafin.
2000/37 Exercise 25.17 4. Ensured implementation of policies.
In the Yoruba pre-colonial political system, an Oba was 5. Performed religious functions.
installed by the 6. They took part in the selection of a new Alaafin.
A. council of elders B. kingmakers 7. They assisted in the organization of youths for
C. secret cults D. age-grade communal development.
8. They advised the Alaafin on good governance.
Functions of the Oyomesi in the Pre-Colonial Oyo 9. They helped in the maintenance of law and order.
Empire
1. Select a new Alaafin: One of the functions of the Features of the Yoruba Pre-Colonial Political System
Oyomesi was to take part in the selection and 1. Centralization of the Yoruba pre-colonial political
replacement of the Alaafin when he died or abdicates system in public administration and governance.
his throne. 2. There was single head in the Yoruba pre-colonial
2. Installation of a new Alaafin: The Oyomesi also take political system.
part in the installation of a new king after a candidate 3. There were several political or public institutions
was found. The installation of kings was one of the charged with specific public duties e.g. Oyomesi
high points in the administration of the empire and the (kingmakers), secret cult (Ogboni).
Oyomesi made sure they partook in all its activities. 4. A king (Oba) ascension to kingship in pre-colonial
3. Initiate laws: The Oyomesi had the power to initiate Yoruba political system was based on hereditary
laws for consideration and subsequent adoption if rights.
deemed necessary for the efficient administration of 5. There was fusion of powers and functions, the king
the empire. exercise legislative, executive and judicial powers.
315
6. The crowns (Ade) and the staff (Opa Oye) were 6. The Oba and his senior chiefs met regularly to discuss
symbols of kingship authority (both crown and staff issues that would promote peace, success and good
were fully and strictly protected as non should neither governance.
be lost stolen nor destroyed). 7. There was the existence of kingmakers e.g. Oyomesi.
7. Occultic calabash (Igba-iwa) which was used as an 8. Rulership was hereditary, no fixed tenure of office.
instrument of checking and controlling the possible
excesses, despotic or dictatorial rule of the king (Oba). Functions of Ogboni Society in the Yoruba Pre-
8. The king (Oba) stayed in office for life or till death. Colonial System
9. The Oyomesi and Ogboni exercised the power of 1. Judicial powers: It possessed judicial powers to
impeachment of the Oba and it was by death. decide on any case in the empire.
10. Ifa, the oracle, played a very crucial and important role 2. Policy-making: The Ogboni were also involved in
in deciding policies and their directions, choice of policy-making.
individuals to occupy public or political offices and in 3. Performance of rituals: It was the duty of the Ogboni
deciding complicated judicial cases. group to appease the gods of the lands.
11. Any Oba found guilty of gross misconduct by 4. Intermediary: The Ogboni societies acted as the
Oyomesi in conjunction with Ogboni would be intermediary between the people and their ancestors.
compelled to commit suicide. 5. Cultural values: The secret cult was also involved in
12. The Oba enjoyed immunity, he was always right the maintenance and preservation of the cultural values
(Kabiyesi). Anything he desired would be granted and of the people.
not denied him. His word was law. His death could not 6. Relevant information: They pass relevant information
be pronounced ordinarily. in form of educating their members as well as members
13. Oaths, vow (Ibura, Imunle) etc., were administered on of the society.
public office holders to ensure adherence to public 7. Power of approval: They have the power to approve
policies, rules and regulations and to equally instill in some decisions of the paramount ruler and serves as
the officers the idea of justice and fair play. advisers.
14. If an Oba, Balogun, Kankanfo, was defeated in any 8. Power of Check: The Ogboni secret cult can check the
war, he had the option of committing suicide or going absolute power of the king (Oba).
to exile, never to return to the empire. 9. Maintenance of law and order: Secret societies were
involved in the maintenance of law and order in the
1991/21 society.
In the pre-colonial political system of the Yoruba, the 10. There was sense of brotherly love/protection.
traditional ruler had 11. The Ogboni society members were also involved in the
A. legislative and executive powers administration of the empire.
B. legislative and judiciary powers 12. The empty calabash: The council of elders (Oyomesi)
C. executive power only and the Ogboni secret cult members, through the
D. legislative, executive and judicial powers law making Bashorun and the Ogboni group can present an empty
powers only calabash to the king, symbolizing rejection by the
Answer people. The Alaafin had no option than to commit
The Yoruba’s traditional rulers had fusion of powers suicide, this can only take place if the Alaafin was
exercised by the king, the legislative, executive and found to be acting unconstitutionally.
judiciary although subject to the oversight of the Oyomesi 13. Kingship: The succession to the throne of Alaafin was
and Ogboni society. (D) not from father to son but the Oyomesi was free to
choose a new ruler from the royal families.
2002/32 Nov 14. The third organ: The Ogboni society was the third
In the pre-colonial centralized political system in West organ of government of old Oyo Empire.
Africa, the selection of rulers were based on
A. merit B. hereditary C. wealth D. occupation 2016/28 Neco
Answer The Ogboni cult in the pre-colonial Yoruba political
In the Yoruba pre-colonial political administration, the system played the role of the
selection of king was based on hereditary. (B) A. judiciary B. executive C police D. legislative
Answer
Features of the Traditional Yoruba Political System The Ogboni was the third organ of government of old Oyo
1. The system was based on constitutional monarchy, it Empire. It was a secret society, made up of prominent
was not absolute. diviners and headed by the Oluwo. One of their
2. The council of senior chiefs was involved in the constitutional functions was to check the excesses of the
administration. Oyomesi, such as the rejection of an Alaafin. It was also
3. There was an informed system of taxation e.g. tributes its duty to mediate between the Alaafin and the Oyomesi.
were paid in form of labour, yam, kolanut and animals
by subordinate towns to their paramount ruler.
4. There was a system of checks and balance within the
political system.
5. The Oba was the paramount ruler.

316
Elements of checks and balances in Pre-Colonial 2006/37 Neco
Yoruba political system: Some pre-colonial West African governments were
1. The oracle, Ifa, the oracle, played vital roles in democratic because of the existence of
deciding policies and the directions of the community. A. powerful traditional rulers B. age grades
2. Impeachment or dethronement of the king can only be C. religious institution D. checks and balances
through the collaboration of the Oyomesi and the Ogboni Answer
cult. The impeachment of the Oba was by death. Some pre-colonial West African governments were
3. Administration of governance in the political system democratic because of checks and balances e.g. in the
was based on the principle of checks and balances Yoruba and Igbo pre-colonial political system. (D)
especially between the King (Oba) and Oyomesi/
Ogboni. 2011/41 Neco
4. There was an occultic calabash in the Yoruba pre- The common feature in a pre-colonial centralized state was
colonial called (Igba-iwa) which was used as an A. loyalty to one political superior
instrument of checking and controlling the dictatorial B. absence of single superior political authority
rule of the Oba. C. the existence of autocratic rule
5. Taboo, historical antecedents, deities, tales, proverbs, D. existence of separation of powers
etc., were used to guide, direct public policies, Answer
administration and even the conduct of public offices. The common feature in a pre-colonial centralized state was
6. Any Oba found guilty of absolute power and loyalty to one political superior through hierarchical
misconducts by Oyomesi in conjunction with Ogboni structure of political/public administration. (A)
could be compelled to commit suicide.
7. The chiefs can boycott or refused to attend any meeting 2011/40 Neco Exercise 25.18
or consultations at the Oba’s palace, as a sign of checks A chief could be deposed in the pre-colonial era, if he
and balances. A. violated the written constitution
8. Swearing/oath or vows (Ibura) were administered on B. persistently neglected the advice of his elders
public office holders to ensure compliance or C. refused to collect taxes for the British Governor
adherence to public policies, rules and regulations. D. married too many wives
9. There was hierarchical structure of political/public
administration, there were several political institutions 2017/37 Neco Exercise 25.19
charged with the specific public responsibilities e.g. In the pre-colonial era, the breaking of an oath by a chief
the Royalty (Afin), the kingmakers (Oyomesi) and the could
cult (Ogboni). A. lead to a war with his neighbours
10. Revolt, rebellion, demonstrations, etc., are some of the B. lead to ritual cleansing
elements of checks and balances in pre-colonial C. makes his state come under a curse
Yoruba System. D. lead to his dethronement

2000/44
Checks and balances was a feature of pre-colonial political DECENTRALIZED ADMINISTRATION
administration of the The Oyo Empire had decentralized political structure of
A. Hausa B. Yoruba C. Igbo D. Fulani power which made the Alaafin not to be absolute but
Answer constitutional, this was a limitation to his power. There was
The administration of governance in the political system was division of labour in Oyo Empire between the king,
based on the principle of checks and balances especially Oyomesi and the Ogboni cult, which activated checks and
between the king (Oba), Oyomesi and Ogboni. (B) balances for effective responsibilities.

1998/42 Functions of the Traditional Ruler in the Pre-Colonial

In the traditional Yoruba system of government, policies West Africa
were made by the 1. They were involved in maintenance of laws and orders
A. Oba and other persons of influence in their own domain.
B. Oba and age-grades 2. They made laws, rules and regulations.
C. Oba as the natural rulers 3. They appointed subordinate chiefs to enhance the
D. Oba and untitled men of influence work of the administration.
E. Oba-in-Council 4. They were involved in raising and spending of money.
Answer 5. They served as political symbol of unity and power.
In the pre-colonial Yoruba political system, policies were 6. The traditional rulers were also involved in the
made by the Oba-in-Council meaning the King (Oba), allocation and sharing of communal wealth and
Oyomesi and the Ogboni’s. These three bodies were resources, including war booties.
known as Oba-in-Council. (E) 7. They protect their domain from external aggression
and internal riots, demonstration or rallies.
8. They declare war and peace in their domain.
9. They served as final court of appeal.
10. They planned for the progress and development of
various communities.
317
11. The traditional rulers awarded traditional titles to Functions and Powers of the Council of Elders
deserving citizens. 1. The council of elders saw to the installation and
12. They served as a link between the people and their deposition of the paramount chief.
ancestors. 2. They council acted as adviser to the paramount chief.
13. The traditional rulers preserved the native laws and 3. The council ensured the maintenance of law and order.
customs. 4. It gave recognition to age grades and assigned duties
14. They mobilized and organized their subjects towards to them.
community development. 5. The council acted as the law making body.
15. Traditional rulers in the pre-colonial West Africa 6. It checked the activities of the paramount chief.
performed religious functions and spiritual tasks. 7. It performed religious functions.
16. They also collected tributes and taxes from their 8. It also performed judicial function of hearing appeals
subject. from lower groups, etc.
17. They allocated community resources e.g. land. 9. It approved when the community will go to war.
18. They maintained external links with other 10. The court deliberated on all matters relating to the
communities. This leads to economic investment, general administration of the community.
cultural and social relationship.
Functions and Powers of Secret Societies
Methods Used by the Pre-Colonial Chiefs of a Country to 1. Secret societies played useful role of enforcing law and
Control their Subjects order.
1. They made laws, rules and regulations to control their 2. The performed rituals intended to ward off evil spirits,
subjects. appeased the gods to atone for the sins of members of
2. They settled disputes among their subjects. the community.
3. They created new institutions in the community for 3. They played both military and police functions.
law enforcement e.g. age-grades. 4. They gave the youths hard training that helped them to
4. Ancestral spirits were used by the traditional rulers to defend their various communities.
control their subjects. 5. They acted as agents of socialization.
5. They appointed Baale’s to control their villages. 6. They served as repository of the ancient arts and
6. The traditional chiefs introduced reward method for cultures.
those who have contributed to the development of their 7. Secret societies checked abuse of power by paramount
community. The rewards were in form of titles, land chiefs and council of elders.
and war booty. 8. They educated their members and other members of
7. They also introduced the use of sanction and the community.
punishment against law breakers e.g. banishment. 9. They served as intermediary between members of the
8. They used oath taking as means of controlling their community and their ancestors.
subjects. 10. They gave special protection to their members.

Functions and Powers of Paramount Chiefs Functions and Powers of Age Grades
1. They acted as the supreme rulers of their various 1. Age grades helped to defend their communities against
communities. both internal and external aggression.
2. As paramount rulers they were the heads of their 2. They carried out civil and communal works.
communities. 3. They performed police duties in maintaining and
3. The paramount chiefs were the heads of the enforcing law and order.
administration of their various communities. 4. They performed socialization functions.
4. They performed religious functions as high priest of all 5. They checked wrong use of powers by paramount
religious cults. chiefs and council of elders.
5. The paramount chiefs performed rituals and other 6. They helped in the execution of policies and decisions
ceremonial functions in their communities. made in the community.
6. The controlled commerce and trade in their various 7. They performed ceremonial functions during
communities. important occasions in their communities.
7. They ensured the defence of their communities.
8. They were looked upon as the fountain of honours and Functions and Powers of Religious organisations
therefore, they conferred titles and honours on all 1. The religious organisation or institutions performed
deserving members of the communities. the function of propitiating the deities to appease the
9. The paramount chiefs safeguarded the lives of traders gods atone for the sins of the people, etc.
and officials of their communities. 2. They played mediation role between the people and
10. The lesser chiefs paid homage to them and they were their ancestors.
looked upon as second only to the gods. 3. They performed rituals to usher in good harvests.
11. They also performed legislative functions of law 4. They gave the people special protection against evils
making in their various communities. or ill luck.
5. They performed judicial functions through their
settlement of disputes between people of the
community.

318
6. They ensured peaceful society by maintaining law and 2017/81 (NDU, BAYELSA)
order. Which of the following towns is NOT a pre-colonial town?
7. They performed the functions of checks and balances A. Ilorin B. Bida C. Lome D. Lagos E. Enugu
on the other organs of traditional system of Answer – C
government. Lome is not a city in Nigeria, so Lome is not a pre-colonial
8. They performed useful rituals during the ceremonies town in Nigeria
of the installation of chiefs.
2014/5 UTME
A major consequence of colonialism in Nigeria
Safeguards against Tyranny or Abuse of Power by the
A. economic dependence
Rulers in the Pre-Colonial Era and Factors that Helped
B. the attainment of equal status with Europe
to Make Pre-Colonial Administrations Democratic
C. suppression of state structure
1. The separation of powers into different organs in the pre-
D. the upliftment of the situation
colonial administrations like the Old Oyo Empire helped
Answer – C
to safeguard against tyranny and made the system
A major consequence of colonialism in Nigeria is suppression
democratic.
of state structure
2. The diffusion of political authority into different groups
in Igbo pre-colonial administration, instead of
1988/28 UTME
concentrating all the powers in a single hand, helped in
The ruling system in pre-colonial Hausa-Fulani societies
checking tyranny and ensured democracy.
where rulers were both religious and political heads was
3. Age grades acted as pressure groups that checked
referred to as
misrule.
A. meritocracy B. oligarchy C. theocracy D. aristocracy
4. The constitutional position of the Oba in Yoruba land
Answer – C
made him not to be despotic and his administration
The pre-colonial Hausa-Fulani societies practiced the
democratic.
theocracy, where rulers were both religious and the political
5. The power of appointment and destoolment of an Oba
head. Usman Dan Fodio was the Sarkin Muslim (Commander
which was granted the council of chiefs made the Oba not
of Faith) and the Hausa/Fulani political head.
to be authoritarian.
6. Secret societies like the Ogboni in Yoruba land helped to
1989/26 UTME
check abuse of power by the council of chiefs.
In the traditional Hausa-Fulani political system, political
7. The Igbo village assembly that looked like the direct
authority was vested in the
democracy practiced in ancient Greece made it possible
A. Emir B. Talakawa C. Alkali D. Emirate Council
for accredited male family representatives to freely
Answer – A
express their views and those of their families.
In the Hausa-Fulani political system, powers are vested in the
8. Religious beliefs in the pre-colonial era contributed a lot
emirs as administrative head of their sections.
in making the administration that existed in that period
less despotic and more democratic.
1997/23 UTME
A major feature of the system of government in the Sokoto
2005/22 UTME Caliphate was that
The pre-colonial society can best be described as A. it was based on customs and traditions
A. monarchical B. republican C. aristocratic D. feudalistic B. it was theocratic C. it was democratic
Answer – A D. power was effectively decentralized
The pre-colonial society can be best described as Answer – B
monarchy. The main feature of the Sokoto caliphate was that it was
theocratic. Theocracy is a system of government in which
2000/35 UTME priests rule in the name of God or a god.
A characteristic of most pre-colonial governments in
Nigeria is that they 2018/2019/8 (UI,IBADAN)
A. had no defined functions The Headquarters of the eastern zone of the emirate political
B. performed only executive functions system was
C. had no clear separation of powers A. Kano B. Sokoto C. Kaduna D. Gwanda
D. observed independence of the judiciary Answer – B
Answer – C Sokoto caliphate was the headquarters of the eastern zone of
A feature of most pre-colonial governments in Nigeria was the emirate political system. Mohammed Bello son of Usman
that, they had no clear separation of power in their local Dan Fodio was given the administration of eastern section.
administrations, which gave the colonial masters free
access to rule and dominate use indirectly. 2018/2019/11 (UI, IBADAN)
The founder of the Emirate political system in Northern
2018/2019/91 (UNIZIK, AWKA) Nigeria was
The traditional system of government in pre-colonial A. Ahmadu Bello B. Lord Lugard
Nigeria was largely on C. Muhammed Bello D. Usman Dan Fodio
A. socialism B. communalism C. capitalism D. fascism Answer – D
Answer – B Usman Dan Fodio was the founder of the Emirate Political
The traditional system of government in pre-colonial System in Northern Nigeria.
Nigeria was largely communalism.
319
2014/2015/45 (UI, IBADAN) 2016/7 UTME
In the pre-colonial Hausa/Fulani System, the appointment Under the emirate system, the commander of the army is
of an Emir in the caliphate was approved by the
A. Sultan of Sokoto and the Emir of Gwandu A. Hakimi B. Sarkin Fada C. Madawaki D. Alkali
B. Galadima and the Waziri Answer – C
C. Sardauna of Sokoto and the Alkali Madawaki under the emirate system (Hausa/Fulani) was
D. Shehu of Bornu and the Galadima the commander of all the armies.
Answer – A
In the pre-colonial Hausa/Fulani system, the appointment 2014/21 UTME
of an Emir in the caliphate was approved by Sultan of In the pre-colonial Hausa political system, the Madawaki
Sokoto and the Emir of Gwandu performed the function of
A. Minister of Works B. Minister of Education
2012/2013/43 (UNIZIK, AWKA) C. Minister of Defence D. Minister of Interior
Islam was introduced into northern Nigeria Answer – C
A. before the 13th century B. in the 17th century In the pre-colonial Hausa political system, Madawaki
C. after the Jihad of Usman Dan Fodio performed the function of the Minister of Defence.
D. by Iran in the early 20th century
E. by Iran in the early 19th century 2010/6 (OAU,IFE)
Answer – C Which of the following in the Sokoto caliphate performed
Islam was introduced into the Northern part of Nigeria functions similar to that of the Bashorun Oyo kingdom?
after the Jihad of Usman Dan Fodio, he took over the A. Waziri B. Galadima C. Ma’aji D. Alkali
political administrative and traditional system. Islam was Answer – A
introduced and he became the Sarkin Muslim (the Waziri meaning the administrative adviser to the kingdom,
Commander of Faith). whom also acted as the Prime Minister or Head of all the
officials in the pre-colonial traditional political system of
2019/2020/13 (UI,IBADAN) the Hausa’s performed functions similar to that of the
The Sharia legal system was first introduced in which state Bashorun of Oyo Kingdom. Bashorun known as the head
A. Sokoto B. Kano C. Zamfara D. Kaduna of the Oyomesi and the prime minister of the Oyo Empire.
Answer – C
On October 27th, 1999, the then-governor of Nigeria’s 1998/22 UTME
Zamfara State, Ahmed Sani Yerima, introduced Sharia The administration of the capital of the emirate under the
law. pre-colonial Hausa-Fulani political system was entrusted
to the
2012/36 UTME A. Galadima B. Waziri C. Sarkin Fada D. Sarkin Pawa
The sharia legal system was first introduced in the fourth Answer – A
republic in The administration of the capital of the emirate was under
A. Kano State B. Katsina State the Galadima in the pre-colonial Hausa-Fulani Political
C. Zamfara State D. Sokoto State system.
Answer – C
The Sharia legal system was introduced in the fourth 2005/21 UTME
Republic in Zamfara State, Nigeria by Governor Ahmed Under the emirate system, legislature functions were
Sani Yerima in 27th October, 1999. performed by the
A. Utama B. Khadi C. Emir D. Hakimi
1986/28 UTME Answer – C
In which of the following ethnic groups was the pre- Under the emirate system, legislature functions were
colonial political structure NOT influenced by the Islamic performed by the Emir. The Emirs make laws in the
culture? emirate political system of the Hausa/Fulani’s.
A. Kanuri B. Nupe C. Tiv D. Fulani 2011/25 UTME
Answer – C Under the pre-colonial Sokoto caliphate system, the next
Tiv was an ethnic group that was not influenced by the in command to the Sultan was the
Islamic culture in pre-colonial political structure in A. Madaki B. Waziri C. Alkali D. Galadima
Nigeria. Answer – B
Waziri under the pre-colonial Sokoto caliphate system was
2014/16 (OAU,IFE) the next in command to the sultan.
In the pre-colonial Hausa/Fulani emirates system, the
head/commander of the army was 1991/25 UTME
A. Waziri B. Galadima C. Madawaki D. Maaji The style of government in the Sokoto caliphate was
Answer – B A. democratic B. authoritarian C. populist D. totalitarian
In the Hausa/Fulani emirate system in the pre-colonial Answer – D
political system, the Madawaki was the head/commander The style of government in the Sokoto caliphate was
of the army. totalitarian. Totalitarianism is a system of government that
is centralized and dictatorial and requires complete
subservience to the state.
320
1992/23 UTME 2010/7 (OAU, IFE)
Vassalage as a political system was practiced by the In the Igbo political system, the most senior member of the
A. Ibibio and Igala B. Tiv council of elders is the
C. Hausa-Fulani D. Igbo and Efik A. Okpara B. Obi C. Eze D. Ofo
Answer –C Answer – A
Vassalage as a political system was practiced by the Hausa- The most senior member of the council of elders in the Igbo
Fulani. Vassalage is the state or condition of being a vassal. political system was Okpara.
A vassal or liege subject is a person regarded as having a
mutual obligation to a lord or monarch whom he has vowed 2018/2019/87 (UNIZIK,AWKA)
homage and fealty. Under the Hausa-Fulani, the people of the In the Igbo traditional political system, the “Okpara” was the
emirates are like vassals they were subjects to the emirs. A. administrative head of his kindred
B. priest C. king D. head of his age-grade
1993/21 UTME Answer – A
In the Habe political system, the Sarki was assisted in The Okpara was the administrative head of his kindred in the
performing his executive functions by the Igbo traditional political system.
A. Alkali B. Khadi C. Ulama D. Galadima
1998/21 UTME
Answer – D
An acephalous, pre-colonial system is, best represented by the
Galadima in the Habe political system, assists the Sarki in
A. Oyo empire B. Igbo political organization
performing his executive functions.
C. Ijo political organization D. benin empire
Answer – B
2008/26 (OAU,IFE)
An acephalos, pre-colonial political system is best
In the pre-colonial era, which of the following was not a
represented by the Igbo political organization.
feature of the emirate administration?
A. Madawakin B. Waziri C. Sarkin Dogari D. Sarkin Emir
1986/26 UTME
Answer – D
Pre-colonial Igbo society was
Sarkin Emir was not a feature of the emirate administration.
A. centralized B. acephalous C. feudal D. capitalist
Answer – B
1994/22 UTME Pre-colonial Igbo society was acephalous. Acephalous is a
In terms of administrative structure, which of the following term used to describe the political system of societies without
sets of pre-colonial Nigerian political systems do not centralized state authority.
match
A. Igbo and Tiv B. Benin and Igbo 1987/25 UTME
C. Sokoto and Oyo D. Benin and Sokoto Which of the following traditional political systems was
Answer – B republican?
Benin and Igbo administrative structure of pre-colonial A. Igbo B. Yoruba C. Fulani B. Bini
Nigerian political system doesn’t match. The Benin Answer – A
kingdom has a traditional ruler that handles the Igbo traditional political system was republican.
administrative management of the kingdom while the Igbo 1989/28 UTME
have no king as their ruler. Igbo traditional system of government encouraged
participation through
2011/23 UTME A. Ozo title B. segmentary kinship
In pre-colonial Igbo land, autocratic rule was made C. divine kingship D. town assembly
difficult by the Answer – D
A. pressure from age-grades Igbo traditional system of government encouraged
B. activities of cult societies participation through town assembly.
C. fear of dethronement 1991/26 UTME
D. absence of a centralized system of authority Which of the following traditional political system was
Answer – D segementary?
In pre-colonial Igboland, autocratic rule was made difficult A. Kanem Bornu B. Benin C. Igbo D. Yoruba
by the absence of a centralized system of authority. There Answer – C
was no king in the Igbo land which made autocratic very The Igbo traditional political system was segmentary into
difficult because public issues were reached mainly different groups that controls the system.
through consensus.
1997/21 UTME
2011/26 UTME In the Igbo political system, authority was shared among
Which of the following societies was classified as A. men and women with ozo titles
B. all age groups and warrant chiefs
acephalous
C. elders of the community and ofo title holders
A. Igbo B. Ijaw C. Benin D. Ibibio
D. title holders and age groups
Answer – A Answer – D
Igbo society was classified as acephalous. In anthropology, The Igbo political system in the pre-colonial had a shared title
an acephalous society is a society which lacks political holders and age groups. There are two main groups or
leaders or hierarchies. Such groups are also known as non- institutions that made up the village government. The ofo
stratified societies. headed by the Okpara and Oha-na-eze (grown male or adult
men) in the society.
321
2018/2019/12 (UI,IBADAN) 2010/23 UTME
Direct democracy was practiced in pre-colonial The Igbo political system was based on
A. Yoruba land B. Igbo land A. age-grades B. umunna C. family ties D. umuada
C. Tiv land D. Benin kingdom Answer – A
Answer – B The Igbo political system was based on age grades.
Direct democracy was practiced in pre-colonial Igbo land,
the community will come together and have village 2001/21 UTME
meeting in the town hall or village square. They all agreed Some pre-colonial Nigerian societies are described as
on consensus dialogues. stateless because
A. they had no formal governmental institutions
2014/2015/62 (UI,IBADAN) B. they had no definite political boundaries
Which of the following ethnic groups had the best C. their population was too small
egalitarian traditional political system? D. they were not independent
A. Hausa-Fulani B. Yoruba C. Igbo D. Edo Answer – A
Answer – C The Igbo pre-colonial Nigerian society was described as
Igbo group had the best egalitarian traditional political stateless because they had no formal governmental
system. Egalitarian doctrines are generally characterized institutions.
by the idea that all humans are equal in fundamental worth
or moral status. Egalitarianism is the doctrine that all 1922/22 UTME
citizens of a state should be accorded exactly equal rights. During the pre-colonial period in Eastern Nigeria,
autocratic rule was made difficult by the
2002/43 UTME A. activities of secret societies
In pre-colonial Igbo society, decisions or public issues B. ruler’s fear of dethronement
were reached mainly through C. absence of a system of centralized authority
A. the oracles B. majority votes C. imposition D. D. demands of pressure groups
consensus Answer – C
Answer – D During the pre-colonial period in Eastern Nigeria,
In pre-colonial Igbo society, decisions or public issues autocratic rule was made difficult by the absence of a
were reached mainly through consensus. Consensus means system of centralized authority. No king in Igbo land
to come to an agreement or is general agreement among a during pre-colonial era, it made centralization of authority
group of people. to be very rigid and difficult.

2010/24 UTME 2013/24 (OAU,IFE)

The Aro system in Igbo land was a Which of the following ensured the practice of democracy
A. political organization B. commercial organization in the pre-colonial Yoruba political system?
C. religious organization D. imperial organization A. checks and balances B. fusion of power
Answer – C C. individual responsibility D. the rule of law
The Aro system in Igbo land was a religious organization, Answer – A
the people of Aro are an Igbo subgroup that originated Checks and balances ensured the practice of democracy in
from the Arochukwu kingdom in present day Abia State. the pre-colonial Yoruba political system.
The Aro people began slave trading activities around Igbo
and Ibibio lands. 2004/15 UTME
The pre-colonial Yoruba political system as a whole can
2003/23 UTME best be described as a
In the pre-colonial Igbo society, the maintenance of peace A. federation of chiefdoms and localities
and order was the function of the B. confederation of chiefdoms and localities
A. assembly of Ezes B. clan elders C. confederation of monarchies and chiefdoms
C. age grades D. assembly of title holders D. highly centralized kingdom
Answer – C Answer – C
The age grade in the pre-colonial Igbo society, have the The pre-colonial Yoruba political system as a whole can
following functions- defence of the village, maintenance of best be described as a confederation of monarchies and
law and order, implementation of policies, abuse of chiefdoms.
powers, ceremonial and cultural functions.
2005/22 UTME
2006/17 UTME The pre-colonial Tiv society can best be described as
In pre-colonial governance, women plays prominent roles A. monarchical B. republican C. aristocratic D. feudalistic
in the Answer – A
A. Tiv society B. Igbo society The pre-colonial Tiv society can best be described as the
C. Yoruba kingdom D. Jukun Kingdom monarchical system.
Answer – B
In pre-colonial governance, women play prominent roles
in the Igbo society which led to Aba riots of 1929.

322
1979/45 UTME 1999/35 UTME
In the Oyo traditional political system, the Alaafin of Oyo The legislative functions of the government of Benin
was elected or chosen by a group known as Kingdom were performed by the Oba and a council of
A. tributary chief B. Baales C. Obas D. Ogboni E. Oyomesi Chiefs known as the
Answer – E A. Esama B. Ndichie C. Uzama D. Enigie
The Oyomesi in the Oyo traditional political system Answer – C
consists of seven hereditary kingmaker that elected or The legislative functions of the government of Benin
chose the Alaafin intercessing with their god (Ifa). Kingdom were performed by the Oba and a council of
Chiefs known as the Uzama.
2015/39 UTME
In the Oyo Empire, the Alaafin was 2006/14 UTME
A. an absolute monarch B. popularly elected In the pre-colonial Yoruba political system, the Council of
C. a constitutional monarch D. worshipped as a deity Chief constituted the
Answer – A A. Ombudsman B. Executive
In the Oyo Empire, the Alaafin was an absolute monarch. C. Judicial Arm D. Legislative arm
Answer – D
1994/21 UTME The pre-colonial Yoruba political system, the council of
Which of the following traditional Nigerian societies chief constituted the legislative arm. The Oyomesi,
practiced the system of checks and balances? Ogboni, Alaafin, etc.
A. Tiv B. Yoruba C. Hausa D. Igbo
Answer – B 2007/47 UTME
Yoruba (Oyo Empire) practiced the system of checks and The Ogboni cult in the pre-colonial Yoruba political
balances in pre-colonial era. system played the role of the
A. judiciary B. executive C. police D. legislature
2020/10 UTME Answer – A
The performance of ritual rites in the Yoruba empire is the The Ogboni cult in the pre-colonial Yoruba political
responsibility of the system possessed judicial powers.
A. Aare-Onakakanfo B. Oba C. Ogboni D. Oyomesi
Answer – C 2008/35 UTME
The Ogboni performed ritual rites in the Yoruba Empire. The officer in charge of the administration of the palace in
The maintenance and preservation of the cultural values of the Yoruba political structure is the
the people were also delegated to them. A. Baale B. Oluwo C. Ilari D. Iwarefa
Answer – D
2014/22 UTME Iwarefa was the officer in charge of the administration of
In the old Oyo Empire, the Ajele the palace in the Yoruba political structure of the pre-
A. ensure the safety of all trade routes colonial administration
B. ensured good governance of the districts
C. mobilized the army 1990/40 UTME
D. was the Head of the army Which of the following had a centralized administration in
Answer – A pre-colonial Nigeria?
The old Oyo Empire, the Ajele ensure the safety of all A. the Igbo’s B. the Tiv’s C. the Ibibio’s D. the Yoruba’s
trades in his routes. Answer – D
The Yoruba’s had a centralized administration in the era of
2017/26 UTME pre-colonialism in Nigeria.
Territorial defence in the Yoruba pre-colonial system was
the responsibility of the 1988/23 UTME
A. Bashorun B. Oyomesi C. Aremu D. Are-ona-Kankanfo One main feature of government in many pre-colonial
Answer – D solution in Nigeria was
Are-ona-Kankanfo was the head of the army that defend A. age-grade organization B. grade union movement
the pre-colonial Oyo Empire. C. student’s organization D. council of Oba’s
Answer – A
1998/23 UTME Age-grade organization is one main feature of government
In the pre-colonial Yoruba society, the powers of the in many pre-colonial societies in Nigeria.
Oyomesi were checked by the
A. Baale B. Ogboni C. Aare-ona-Kankanfo D. Bashorun 2022/1 Neco
Answer – B The modern day principle of government similar to that of
In the pre-colonial Yoruba society, the powers of the pre-colonial Yoruba administration is
Oyomesi were checked by the Ogboni. This society A. bicameral legislation B. checks and balance
possessed judicial powers and was involved also in policy C. multi-party system D. rule of law E. written constitution
making. The Ogboni Society was a secret society that Answer – B
influenced events in the society. The modern day principle of government similar to that of
pre-colonial Yoruba administration is the principle of
checks and balance.
323
2019/6a NABTEB NOV C. give judgment on land tenure matters
Explain the operation of the principle of checks and balances in the D. make sure that the religion of the people were observed
Yoruba pre-colonial government. E. install a new Ofo
Answer 10. Who among the following could pass death sentence on an
The operation of the principle of checks and balances in the Yoruba accused person in the pre-colonial Yoruba kingdom?
pre-colonial government are as follows: A. a paramount ruler B. provincial heads
1. The oracle, Ifa, the oracle, played vital roles in deciding policies C. queen mother D. cults E. family heads
and the directions of the community. 11. An important feature of the traditional government in West
2. Impeachment or dethronement of the king can only be through Africa was the Council of
the collaboration of the Oyomesi and the Ogboni cult, the A. farmers B. family heads C. elders
impeachment of the Oba was by death. D. tax-collectors E. ministers
3. There was an occultic calabash in the Yoruba pre-colonial called 12. The traditional system of government in pre-colonial Nigeria
(Igba-iwa) was used as an instrument of checking and controlling was based largely on
the dictatorial rule of the Oba. A. socialism B. fascism C. communalism
4. Swearing/oath or vows (Ibura) were administered on public D. capitalism E. feudalism
office holders to ensure compliance or adherence to public 13. How did the traditional rulers in the pre-colonial days control
policies, rules and regulations. their subjects?
5. There was hierarchical structure of political/public 14. Describe the functions of the age-grades in the pre-colonial rule
administration, there were several political institutions charged contribute to the decline of the powers of the traditional rulers in
with the specific public responsibilities e.g. the Royalty (Afin), West Africa.
the kingmakers (Oyomesi) and the cult (Ogboni). 15. In what way did Colonial rule contribute to the decline of the
6. Revolt, rebellion, demonstrations, etc., are some of the elements powers of the traditional rulers in West Africa?
of checks and balances in pre-colonial Yoruba System. 16. Highlight six features of the Igbo traditional societies.
17. Identify five functions and powers of the kingmakers in the
Yoruba pre-colonial political system.
REVISION EXERCISES 18. Highlight five features of the Hausa/Fulani pre-colonial political
1. The following were limitations imposed on traditional rulers system in Nigeria
under colonial rule except they 19. How were the various levels of authority controlled under the
A. were not permitted to raise armed forces Yoruba pre-colonial era?
B. had no power to impose taxes 20. Highlight briefly the features of Hausa/Fulani pre-colonial
C. had no power to install or depose a chief political system.
D. were no longer spiritual heads of the people 21. Who are the age-grades?
2. Which of the following generally influenced the enactment of 22. Mention seven functions of the age-grade in the traditional Igbo
laws in pre-colonial societies in Nigeria? political system.
A. political parties B. trade union movement C. students’ 23. What are the functions of the Ogboni society in the old Oyo
organization D. press councils Empire?
E. religious institution 24. Compare the judicial system of the pre-colonial Hausa/Fulani
3. Some pre-colonial West African governments were democratic society with the Igbo political system.
because of the existence of 25. State six methods used by the pre-colonial chiefs of the country
A. powerful traditional rulers B. age grades to control their subjects.
C. religious institutions D. checks and balances 26. Explain any five functions of the traditional rulers in the pre-
4. In the absence of the existence of traditional rulers in the Igbo colonial political system.
Communities, the British Colonial administration appointed the 27. Describe the checks and balances inherent in the pre-colonial
A. Eze B. Permanent Chiefs C. Ozo D. Warrant political system of the Yoruba.
Chiefs E. Obi 28. Discuss and mention three duties of the Oyomesi in the Yoruba
5. The equivalent of the modern day Prime Minister under the pre-colonial political system.
Hausa-Fulani pre-colonial system was the 29. Show why the Igbo pre-colonial government has been described
A. Akali B. Waziri C. Dogari as a direct democracy.
D. Galadima E. Madawaki 30. a) Explain the following under Hausa/Fulani political system.
6. The pre-colonial political organization described as acephalous i. Sarkin Fada ii. Madawaki
was the iii. Dongari iv. Galadima
A. Hausa-Fulani emirate system v. Sarkin Ruwa
B. Igbo political organization b) State five features of the traditional Hausa-Fulani system of
C. Yoruba political organization government.
D. pre-colonial Bini system 31. a) Explain how the following powers of government were
E. pre-colonial Ashanti system exercised in the Hausa/Fulani pre-colonial government.
7. In pre-colonial West Africa, no centralized political i. Legislative powers
administration existed among the ii. Executive powers
A. Hausa B. Igbo C. Yoruba D. Kanuri iii. Judicial powers
8. Which of the following had a segmentary political institution in b. Why was the Igbo pre-colonial government a direct democracy?
pre-colonial West Africa? The 32. a. State three institutions in Yoruba Pre-colonial political system
A. Igbo B. Hausa/Fulani C. Yoruba of administration.
D. Mende E. Efik/Ibibio b. Explain four checks and balances that existed in Yoruba pre-
9. The function of the age group in the Igbo pre-colonial was to colonial political system
A. enforce laws and punish erring members
B. make laws of the people when an Ofo died
324
1981/29 UTME
Chapter Twenty Six The main goal of colonial administration in Nigeria were
the
COLONIAL ADMINISTRATION A. industrialization and expansion of the economy
Colonialism is the establishment, exploitation, maintenance, B. education and employment of Nigeria
acquisition and expansion of colonies in one territory by C. preservation and protection of traditional heritage
people from another territory. This is a situation whereby D. maintenance of law and order and exploitation of a
economic and political affairs of a particular country are national wealth
dominated and managed by a foreign power. It is a set of E. introduction and protection of human rights
unequal relationships between the colonial power and the Answer – D
colony and between the colonists and the indigenous The aim objective of colonial administration in Nigeria
population. was the maintenance of law and order and exploitation of
the national wealth of the country.
The scramble for and the partitioning of West Africa by the
European nations acted as the genesis of the establishment of 2008/42 UTME0
colonial administration in West Africa. With the exception of Which of the following formalized colonial penetration
Liberia, the whole West African countries came under the into Africa?
colonial rule of Britain, France, Germany and Portugal- A. Paris Treaty B. Treaty of Wesphalia
nations that shared out West Africa as a result of its C. Berlin Conference D. Treaty of Versailles
partitioning which took place during the Berlin conference of Answer – C
1884/85 in response to the call made at the 1890 Brussels
The whole West African Countries exceptional of Liberia,
Conference, the European nations that shared out West
came under the colonial rule of Britain, France, Germany
Africa, sent their officials to their West African territories for
and Portugal. Nations that shared out West Africa as a
effective occupation and that marked the commencement of
the real colonial rule. Therefore, the period of 1885 – 1914 result of its portioning which took place during the Berlin
served as a period of colonial conquest and amalgamations in Conference of 1884/85.
West Africa. The period witnessed economic dehumanization
for the people of West Africa. The doctrine of Dual mandate 2005/7a Neco
was put forward to justified colonialism. Describe Colonialism
Answer
Colonialism is a situation whereby economic and political
affairs of a particular country are dominated and managed
by a foreign power.

2002/43 Nov Exercise 26.1

The rule and domination of Africa by the white before
independence is called
A. colonialism B. nationalism
C. Atlantic slave trade D. independence

2017/42 Neco Exercise 26.2

Colonial administration in West Africa was as a result of
Nigeria Colonial Era A. a need for a new environment
1996/43 Nov B. the desire to under develop West Africa
Colonial administration in West Africa was basically C. a need for raw materials and markets
A. authoritarian B. fascist C. democratic D. the urge to introduce western education
D. feudalistic E. socialistic
Answer 2015/39 Neco Exercise 26.3
The colonial administration in West Africa was Colonialism is defined as the
authoritarian in nature, the colonial masters uses the A. struggle against foreign domination
language of decree. They also uses feudalistic features to B. political struggle for independence
steal from us. (A) C. economic dependence on development nations
D. imposition of foreign rule on a territory
1994/36
The major aim of colonial rule in Nigeria was to
A. spread Christianity Historical Background of Colonial Administration
B. stop slave trade and slavery British government saw Africa as a “Gold mine” especially
C. satisfy European curiosity about Africa economically, because Africa had diamond, gold, silver,
D. stop inter-ethnic wars herbs, rubber, palms and slaves to be bought. Nigeria had
E. obtain cheap raw materials and secure ready markets the largest population in Africa of about 14 million people
Answer back then. Also Nigeria, had palm products, rubber, coal,
The main objective of colonial rule in Nigeria was obtain tin and petroleum was not discovered then.
cheap raw materials and secure readymade markets. (E)

325
The British imposed crown colony government on the areas Trust Territory
of West Africa; Gambia, Nigeria, Ghana and Sierra-Leone. Germany had her own share of colonies in Africa. These
When the British government came into Nigeria, they used included Tanganyika (now Tanzania), South West Africa
both autocratic and bureaucratic leadership system. (Namibia) and Cameroon. After the First World War
Autocratic leadership, also known as authoritarian leadership, (1914-1918), Germany was mercilessly defeated and
is a leadership style characterized by individual control over crushed. The League of Nations, the then existing
all decisions and little input from group members or international or world organization, took these territories
autocratic leaders typically make choices based on their ideas and put them under the administration of the imperial
and judgment and rarely accept advice from followers. powers that contributed to the defeat of Germany. One of
Bureaucracy is a large group of people who are involved in
these imperial powers was Britain which got Tanganyika
running a government but were not elected.
(Tanzania), and Western and Northern Cameroon. The
In May 1906, the British merged the Lagos colony and the
territories were administered as mandated territories for the
southern protectorate together as new colony of southern League of Nations until the people were politically
protectorate. In 1912 Lord Lugard was appointed as the first matured to govern themselves.
Governor–General of Nigeria (Northern and Southern After the Second World War, when the United Nations
Nigeria). The task given to him was to merge the colony and Organization (UNO) was formed as a result of the demise
protectorate together. In the same vein, Lord Lugard of the League of Nations, the territories became the UNO
gradually amalgamated the colony and protectorate together: Trust territories. Northern Cameroon was administered as
The Lagos colony, the southern protectorate and the northern part of Northern Nigeria while Western Cameroon was
protectorate. administered as part of Eastern Nigeria. But after Nigeria’s
independence, Western Cameroon decided in a plebiscite
In the late 19th century the name Nigeria was coined by British sponsored and supervised by the UNO to cede from
Journalist called Flora Shaw, who later married Fredrick Nigeria and join the Cameroon Republic while Northern
Lugard, a British Colonial administrator. The combination of Cameroon decided to remain as part of Nigeria.
the words “Niger” (the country’s longest river) and “Area”
formed the name “Nigeria” after the amalgamation. The 2006/10
Britain adopted an “Indirect Rule System”, they claimed that Under Colonial administration, what the status of the
the system involved not governing the people directly but inhabitants of the Lagos Crown Colony?
through their local traditional rulers and chiefs in each district
A. British servants B. British citizens
or region. C. British settlers D. British subjects
Answer – D
The amalgamation of different ethnic and religious group into
Under colonial administration, the status of the inhabitants
one federation created internal tension which persists in
of the Lagos Crown Colony was British subjects.
Nigeria to the present day. Lord Lugard later was referred to
as the “father of indirect rule system”. The Colonial period
proper in Nigeria lasted from 1900 to 1960, after which 1981/27
Nigeria gained its independence. The four British Colonial territories in West Africa were
A. Ivory Coast, Nigeria and Senegal
Structure of British Colonial Rule in West Africa B. Nigeria, Ghana, Gambia and Sierra-Leone
Prior to the independence of these territories, British had C. Gabon, Cameroon, Nigeria and Gambia
divided West Africa into three broad categories as follows: D. Senegal, Sierra-Leone, Nigeria and Ghana
i. Crown colony E. was based on democratic principles
ii. Protectorate Answer – B
iii. Trust territory The four British colonial territories in West Africa were
Nigeria, Ghana, Gambia and Sierra-Leone. Colonialism is
Crown Colony defined as control by one power over a dependent area or
A crown colony was a territory that was owned by the people. It occurs when one nation subjugates another,
British Crown as a property which was directly conquering its population and exploiting it often.
administered from Britain. Crown colony was usually
established by military conquest, e.g. the Colony of Lagos. Reasons for Colonialism
The British laws applied in British crown colonies. The 1. Economic Reasons: The desire of the European
people of the crown colony were recognized and powers to secure cheap raw materials for the
considered as British subjects. All the lands and minerals manufacture of industrial good back home was also
within the crown colony were taken over and owned by the another important reason for the imposition of colonial
British Crown. rule in West Africa. Such raw materials included palm
oil, cocoa, groundnut, and rubber.
Protectorate 2. Religious Reasons: The desire to protect their
A protectorate was a territory under the protection of the citizens, who were working as missionaries and traders
British Government. The British government provided in different parts of West Africa, necessitated the
security for the territory. The traditional rulers governed imposition of colonial rule on West Africa by
their people according to their traditional political European countries.
institutions and culture but under the overall control of the
British Government. The people of the protectorate were
not British subjects, but were only protected by Britain.
326
3. Exploration Reason: Many European explorers came i. The Secretary of State for the Colonies
to Africa to explore various parts of Africa so as to The Secretary of State for the colonies was a member of
discover various human and natural resources of the the British Parliament. He was a cabinet minister in
continent. This activity was followed by colonialism. charge of the British colonies. He resided in London and
4. Civilization Reason: Many Europeans claimed that worked from the colonial office there.
Africa was a dark continent, as such, there was the The secretary of state for the colonies was the link
need to come down to Africa to civilize the people of between the British Government and the colonial
the continent. government. He initiated colonial policies and was
5. Slavery Reason: In the late 18th and early 19th responsible for the administration of the colonies.
centuries, slave trade was very high. Laws were passed
to stop the trade, and movements were formed to stop Functions and Powers of the Secretary of State
it too. European countries thereby decided to come The functions of the Secretary of State included:
1. Recommended the appointment of governors: One of
down to Africa for effective stoppage of the trade.
the functions of the Secretary of State was to advise the
6. Political and imperial ambition of some European
British Crown on persons who could be appointed as
powers: Colonialism was introduced into Nigeria and Governors for the British colonies. He had the power to
other parts of West African territories as a result of the promote, transfer and dismiss colonial governors if they
desire of countries like Great Britain, France and did not perform well. For example, Governor Sir Fredrick
Germany, to acquire foreign territories as part of their Hudgson of the Gold Coast was transferred to Barbados
empire. The acquisition afforded them the opportunity based on the recommendations of the then Secretary of
of exercising direct political control over a large State. This happened because he interfered in the Ashanti
empire. Golden stool case.
7. Imposition of foreign culture: Colonialism was 2. Approval of new constitutions: For a new constitution
introduced as a means of using European culture to to be drafted and implemented in the colonies, the
replace African culture which the Europeans regarded secretary of state must have given his approval.
as inferior. For instance, the French policy of 3. Received petitions: Anytime the local people had any
assimilation was meant to substitute African culture complaints, this was put in a petition and sent to the
with that of France. Secretary of State. One of his functions was to receive
8. Compensation for lost territories: Colonial rule was this petition from the local people. The Aborigines Rights
introduced into Africa partly as an attempt by Protection Society for example sent a petition to, the then
European states that had lost some of their territories Secretary of State, Joseph Chamberlin, expressing their
in Europe during the wars, to increase the size of their disapproval of the Land Bill of 1897 in the Gold Coast.
empires. For instance, France diverted her attention to 4. Supervision of Governors: Another function of the
Africa after losing two of her territories, namely Secretary of State was to ensure that the Governors
Lorraine and Alsace, to Germany. France then who resided in the British colonies performed the
embarked on colonization in order to make European duties assigned to them properly. The aim was to
powers believe that she was still an important actor in ensure that the colonies’ administration did not go
the international political system. contrary to British overseas policies.
9. The search of new markets: Nigeria and other West 5. Approval of annual budget: The Secretary of State
African territories were identified by the industrialized was the only official who could give approval to the
nations as potential markets for the surplus goods colonial budget before it could be implemented in the
produced in Europe. They therefore made serious colonies.
efforts to colonise as much of the territory as possible 6. Implementation of major public work: The
in order to have a larger market. Secretary of State for the colonies must approve every
10. Investment of surplus capital: Colonialism created major public work before it could be implemented in
an opportunity for the citizens of the industrialized the colonies. Without this approval, the work could not
Western Europe to invest their surplus capital in be initiated. For example, the massive infrastructure
agriculture and manufacturing sectors in West Africa. undertaken by Governor Guggisberg in the Gold
This was to enable them to generate much more profit Coast, had to be approved by the Secretary of State at
for repatriation to their countries. the time.
7. Power to set up commissions of inquiry: The
Political Institutions of the Colonial Central Secretary of State had the power to establish a
Administration commission of inquiry to inquire into anything that
The Secretary of State for the Colonies was the most occurs in the colony, especially if the occurrence was
crucial figure in the colonial administration. Below the out of the ordinary. A good example was the Watson
colonial secretary was the Governor of the territory. The Commission which was established to inquire into the
governor worked with the legislative and the executive causes of the 1948 Riots.
councils. The status, functions and powers of these 8. Power to override the Governor’s veto power: The
political institutions are stated as follows: Governors of the various colonies had the power to
veto decisions of the Legislative Council. However,
anytime the Governor exercise the veto power, he
needed to inform the Secretary of State. The Secretary
of State could revoke the veto that was exercised by
the Governor.
327
Limitations of the Secretary of State Functions and Powers of the Governor under the
1. He was answerable to the British Parliament: As Crown Colony System
indicated earlier on, the Secretary of State was a The functions of the governor included:
minister appointed by the British government and 1. Formulates and implements policies: One of the
therefore, he was a cabinet member. Under the British functions of the Colonial Governor was to formulate
constitution, the ministers were responsible to the and implement policies for the development of the
British parliament and the Secretary of State was no colony and ultimately for the interest of the British
exception. Before he could implement any policy in government. He also ensures that he carries out the
his ministry, that policy must have received the day-to-day administration of the colony.
approval of parliament. 2. Prerogative of Mercy: Another function of the
2. Control by Parliament: Under the Crown colony Governor was to exercise the royal prerogative of
system, the Secretary of State was answerable to the mercy. In other words, the Governor, the only
British parliament. If he was suspected of being representative of the British Crown in the colony,
responsible for something that happened in any of the could pardon a convicted criminal, commit a death
colonies, he could be questioned by the penalty to life imprisonment or release those who have
parliamentarians. When the 1948 riots occurred in the serves more than half of their jail term.
Gold Coast for example, the Secretary of State was 3. Appointment of members of the Executive Council:
hauled before the British parliament for questioning. Also, the governor as the head of the Executive
3. Control by public opinion: There was a level of Council, had the power to appoint all the members of
control from the British public on the Secretary of the Council.
State for the colonies. This opinion was expressed 4. Appointed officials: The governor had the power to
through the British media. The media could mirror the appoint people worked in the colonial Civil Service.
displeasure of the British public against any unpopular He also appointed senior members heading the various
policy that the Secretary of State may introduce in the departments and agencies. The Governor also had the
overseas territory. This served as a check on his power to promote officials, to transfer them or even
powers and functions. dismiss them when they fall foul of the tenets of their
4. Control by the constitution: The powers of the engagement.
Secretary of State was derived from the constitution of 5. Power of veto: The power of veto gives the Governor
the British people. This compelled him to work within the power to reject any legislation emanating from the
the framework of the constitution. He was found to be Legislative Council if he does not support it. The
in breach of his powers if he went beyond the powers power of Certification, on the other hand, allowed him
granted him under the constitution. to pass into law, a bill that has been rejected by
5. Cabinet reshuffle: The British cabinet could be majority of the members of the Legislative Council.
reshuffled by the Prime Minister and the cabinet 6. Accent to legislation: Another function of the colonial
members moved around or even some ministries could Governor was to accent to legislation by the
be scrapped. If such a reshuffle happens, a cabinet Legislative Council before it could become effective,
member could be changed or sent to another was subject to the Governors assent, which could be
department by the Prime Minister. This could affect withheld at his discretion.
the Secretary of State who was also a cabinet minister
and therefore this served as a check on him. Limitations of the Governor
6. Advise by senior members in his ministry: In the 1. Follow policy guideline: One of the limitations to the
colonial office in London were senior Civil Servants powers of the Governor was that he could never
with a lot of experience. They could advise the deviate from the policy direction of the colonial office
Secretary of State over issues and policies pertaining in London. He had to ensure that he toed the official
to the administration of the British territories. This line. Any attempt to sideline official policy guidelines
served as a check on the powers and functions of the was met with swift resistance.
Secretary of State. 2. Annual report: The governor was required to prepare
an annual report and submit same to the office of the
Secretary of State for the colonies. In this report, the
ii. The Governor Governor detailed all his activities in the previous
The governor was the most central figure in the British year. The Secretary of State could question him on any
colonial administration. He was appointed by the aspect of the report with he finds a problem of a
secretary of state for the colonies who had the power breech.
to remove or re-deploy him. The governor who resided 3. Powers of the Secretary of State: Though the
in the colony was responsible for the administration of Governor had the power to use his veto, anytime he
a colonial territory. He exercised all the powers of did, he had to inform the Secretary of State about the
government in the territory on behalf of the British grounds on which exercised the veto. Apart from that,
Crown and was responsible and accountable to the where the Secretary of State felt compelled by
Crown through the secretary of state for the colonies. circumstances on the ground, he could override the
Governor’s veto power.

328
4. Approval major civil works: The Governor needed 4. Discussed Budget: Another function of the
to seek the approval of the Secretary of State before Legislative Council debated the annual budget of the
any major public works could be undertaken in the colonial territory before it was sent to the Secretary of
colony. State for the colonies for approval.
5. Executive and Legislative Council: The Executive
and the Legislative Council could advise the Governor Limitations to the Powers of the Legislative Council
on certain aspects of his administrative work. Though 1. Governor’s veto power: One of the limitations to the
the governor could discard their advice, nonetheless, it powers of the Legislative Council was the Governor’s
served as a check on the exercise of his powers. veto power. The veto power meant that the Governor
6. Petition by the locals: Another limitation on the could prevent a law from being passed if he disagreed
powers of the Governor was that the natives right to with it. He also had the power of certification which
petition the colonial office in London against some of gave him the power to force a bill in law if he felt it
his policies. When the petition is upheld, the particular was necessary. These powers constituted a limitation
policy had to be withdrawn completely, or modified. to the powers and functions of the Legislative Council.
2. Limited scope: The jurisdiction of the Legislative
Council was limited to only the coastal areas of the
iii. The Legislative Council Gold Coast. The activities and laws of the Legislative
The legislative council was the legislative organ of Council did not extend to the Ashanti and the Northern
government in the colony. In Nigeria, it started with a territories. It was the Governor who was responsible
composition of a majority of appointed officials and for the direct administration of those territories.
few nominated Nigerian traditional rulers. The 3. Colonial Validity Act of 1865: Another limitation of
legislative council under the 1922 Hugh Clifford the Legislative Council was the passage of the
Constitution was composed of a total of 46 members. Colonial Validity Act of 1865. Under this law, the
Out of the 46 members, 27 were officials including the British crown was granted the power to declare null
governor, 15 were non-officials nominated by the and void any law made in the colony which violated
governor and four (4) were elected members – three natural justice or was not in consonance with British
(3) for Lagos and one (1) for Calabar. Thus, the law.
membership of the legislative council under the 1922 4. Governor’s casting vote: Again, the powers of the
Constitution which remained unchanged until the 1946 Legislative Council is limited by the Governor’s
Constitution was official majority. The council was casting vote. Whenever there was a tie in the votes cast
presided over by the governor. For the election of the in the Legislative Council over a policy or programme,
four elective members, franchise was restricted to this enabled him to decide whether a decision should
adult males whose incomes were not less than £100 per hold or not, when there was a tie of votes in the
annum and who had resided in the area for not less than council.
twelve months. The fifteen (15) nominated members 5. Powers of the Secretary of State: Again, the
represented the rest of the protectorate, where elections Secretary of State for the colonies had to approve the
were not conducted, and various commercial interests. drafting of all important bills before it could come
The legislative council legislated for southern before the Legislative Council. This was a limitation
provinces only. It did not legislate for northern Nigeria because, in other words, if the Secretary of state did
and Cameroon. The governor made laws for northern not give his approval then a bill could not be drafted.
Nigeria and Cameroon by proclamation. 6. Manipulations by the Governor: Most of the
members of the Legislative Council were either
Functions of the Legislative Council under the Crown appointed or nominated by the Governor. To a certain
Colony System extent therefore, the Governor exerted a lot of
The functions of the Legislative Council included: influence over them. For that reason, he could have his
1. Made Laws: One of the functions of the Legislative way in the Council.
Council was to help the Governor in making laws for 7. Only the Governor could introduce money-bills:
the administration of the colony. The laws that were Another limitation was that the Legislative Council
passed were referred to as Ordinances. was not mandated to introduce money-bills. Only the
2. Amend Laws: Another function of the Legislative Governor had the exclusive right to introduce money
Council was the power to amend ordinances. The bills in the Legislative Council.
Council also had the power to alter any administrative
policies of the Executive Council if it felt that the
policy was not going to inure to the benefit of the iv. The Executive Council
colony or its masters in London. The crown colony system of administration also made
3. Measures public opinion: Public opinion is defined provision for an Executive Council as part of the
as the views of a people on a particular issue at a administrative structure of the British colony. The
particular time. The Legislative Council served as a members of the Executive Council were mainly heads
place the views of the people are expressed though the of important governmental departments in the
people in the Council. Therefore, the colonial colonies.
administration is able to ascertain the opinions of the
public on very important issues of colonial interest. The council, under the 1922 constitution, consisted of
the Governor as the chairman, the Chief Secretary to
329
the colonial government, the Lt-Governors of southern Therefore, since the members owe their continued
and northern provinces, the administrator of the presence on the Council to the Governor, they
colony, the Attorney-General, the Commandant of the supported him and the decisions he endorsed.
Nigerian Regiment, the Treasurer, the Director of 3. Members were all Europeans: Another criticism of
Medical Services, the Director of Marines, the the Executive council was that it was made up only of
Comptroller of Customs and the Secretary for Native European officials. This was the case up until 1942.
Affairs. Before this time, Africans were excluded from the
membership of the Executive Council.
Until 1942, the membership of the Executive Council 4. Accountability to the Legislative Council: Unlike
was mainly Europeans. It was only until 1942 that two the practice of parliamentary system in Britain at the
Africans were appointed to serve on that Council. time, where the cabinet was and still is responsible to
These Africans were Nana Ofori Atta and Sir Arku the Parliament, in the Gold Coast, the members of the
Korsah. Then in 1943, Nana Tchibu Darko was added. Executive Council were responsible to the Governor,
instead of being responsible to the Legislature. This
The governor was also given the powers to appoint was clearly against what pertained in Britain at the
other officials as members of the council whenever he time.
considered such action desirable. The executive 5. Oversight by Secretary of State for the colonies:
council was an advisory body to the governor. The secretary of State for the colonies also had some
control over the Executive Council. In order to ensure
Functions of the Executive Council under the Crown that the policies that were pursued in the colonies were
Colony System in tandem with metropolitan London, the minutes of
The functions of the Executive Council included: all the Executive Council meetings were forwarded to
1. Formulation of policies: One of the functions of the the Secretary of State for the Colonies for perusal.
Executive Council was to advise the Governor on the
formulation of policies. Constituted by heads of 1993/35 Nov
important departments within the colony, the input of Colonial rule influenced the decline in the power of
the members of the Council is very crucial because traditional rulers in West Africa because
they have a first-hand information on the goings on in A. It introduced the indirect rule system
their individual departments and therefore have an idea B. the traditional rulers did not wage war against the
about how best to fix them. colonial masters
2. Implementation of policies: Another function of the C. it introduced forced labour
Executive Council was to implement the policies so D. of the introduction of Western education
formulated. Being the heads of Departments and being E. of the non-alignment of Britain and France at the Berlin
privy to the processes leading to the final policy conference.
document, they appear to be the best people to Answer
implement them once they have been approved. The Colonial rule influenced the decline in the powers of
3. Granting of amnesty: Again, the Executive Council the traditional rulers in West Africa because it introduced
played a prominent role in the granting of pardon to the indirect rule system. The traditional rulers were not
convicted criminals. They, for example, could advise ruling by the customs and traditional of their domains
the Governor on the exercise of that power of again but indirectly influenced by the colonial masters for
prerogative of mercy. their profiting. (A)
4. Allocation of land: Though the governor had the
power to allocate land to people who needed it for 2011/42 Neco
commercial activities, he received advise from the Under the British crown colony system of administration, the
Executive Council in taking a decision. head of the executive council was the
5. Acted as an intermediary: The Executive Council A. Governor General B. Head of government business
was the arena of the formulation of policies before C. speaker D. prime minister
laws are made to actualize those policies. Therefore, Answer
the Executive Council functioned to link the Governor The Governor-General was the head of the executive
and the Legislative Council. council of the British Crown Colony system. (A)

Limitations to the Powers of the Executive Council 2013/43 Neco Exercise 26.4
1. Governor not bound to take their advice: One of the A British Colony means
limitations of the Executive Council was that the A. a territory endowed with arable farmland
Governor was not under any obligation to take its B. an area for colonial plantation
advice. To take or not to take advice from the C. an area directly under the control of the traditional rulers
Executive Council was at the discretion of the and chiefs
Governor. D. a territory acquired by the colonialists through
2. Governor appointed most members of the Council: settlement or conquest
The Governor a certain controlling influence over the
members of the Executive Council. This was so 2001/7 Nov Exercise 26.5
because he was the head of the Council and most of the Describe the main features of the colonial administration
appointments to the Council were made by him. in the crown colonies of British West Africa.
330
1996/43 Nov Exercise 26.6 2013/10 Neco Exercise 26.9
Colonial administration in West Africa was basically Explain the term indirect rule.
A. authoritarian B. fascist C. democratic
D. feudalistic E. socialistic 26.5. NATIVE AUTHORITY
Native authority was an institution of local administration
2022/5 Neco Exercise 26.7 of indirect rule system in British West Africa colonies.
Examine six functions of the colonial governor in British Native authority was a system whereby the indigenous or
West Africa. chiefs in the community were used indirectly by the British
colonial government to accomplish their mission or
objectives.
INDIRECT RULE
Indirect rule was a system of administration in which the 2004/9a Neco Exercise 26.10
British colonial administration adopted and utilized the Explain the term Native Authority.
traditional political institution of the people to govern the
people in accordance with their traditional norms and
practices which did not conflict with British law but was The Features of Indirect Rule
under the guidance and control of the British government 1. A Governor: One of the features of indirect rule was
officials. the position of a Governor. He was the highest political
figure in the colony. He was responsible for the
Indirect rule was first introduced in Nigeria by Lord formation and implementation of policies in the
Frederick Lugard who describe the system of colony.
administration as a “Child of Necessity”. Lord Lugard, 2. Regional Commissioners: The colony was divided
referred to as the “father of indirect rule” first introduced into regions for ease of administration and each region
the indirect rule system in Nigeria around 1906 first in was headed by a regional commissioner.
Northern Nigeria when he was the high commissioner of 3. District Commissioners: Each region was further
the Protectorate of Northern Nigeria. Lord Frederick divided into districts and each was headed by a District
Lugard became the first Governor-General for Nigeria Commissioner. These District Commissioners were
after the Northern and Southern protectorates were responsible for the implementation of official policies
amalgamated in 1914, also he introduced the system of through the Chiefs at the local level.
indirect rule to Southern part of Nigeria. 4. Native Authorities: Under the system of indirect rule,
native authorities were created across the various
In Nigeria the traditional rulers and traditional political colonies. The Native Authority was made up of the
institutions were retained and used as an instrument to rule paramount Chief, Sub-Chiefs and a council of elders.
their subjects. For example, the emirs of the north, the The main reason for their establishment was to help in
Obas of the west and the warrant chiefs of the east were the the implementation of the policies of the British
main actors in the indirect rule system. In most places, the government at the local level. They were also tasked
emir, the Oba, and the warrant chief each exercised all the with the responsibility of maintaining law and order
powers of the native authority of his area. The British with the help of a local police.
officials – residents and district officers – provided 5. Native Treasury: The system also made provision for
supervision, guidance and control for the native authority. a native treasury where taxes, court fines and other fees
collected by the traditional rulers, on the behalf of the
2018/39 Neco British colonialists were lodged. After the taxes were
A system of administration which allowed traditional collected, part of it was paid into the central
rulers to rule their people under the supervision of the government treasury and the rest kept by the Native
British officials in West Africa is Authority for the development of the area.
A. divide and rule B. colonialism 6. Native Courts: The system also made provision for
C. indirect rule D. assimilation native courts. The court comprises the chiefs, and their
Answer elders who were supervised and guided by District
Indirect rule is a system of administration used by the Commissioners. The District Commissioners were
British Colonial government to govern the people through whites. The main function of the Native Court was to
the use of traditional rulers and traditional political ensure the administration of proper justice.
institutions. The indirect rule system was introduced into 7. Respect for the Culture: The cultural values of the
Nigeria by Lord Fredrick Lugard who was known to be the people were respected by the British officials.
father of indirect rule in Nigeria. (C) 8. Respect for the Traditional Rulers: They were
respected and given exalted positions in the
1992/35 Exercise 26.8 administration which made it easy for the colonialist to
Indirect rule means operate and rule.
A. a system of local administration that makes use of chiefs
B. rule by traditional rulers in council
C. rule by government officials
D. a system of government by a few people
E. a system of government common to all West Africa
colonies
331
1998/7a Reasons for Adoption of Indirect Rule System in Nigeria
State any three features of the indirect rule system. The following are reasons why the British colonial administration
Answer adopted indirect rule system in Nigeria:
1. The British colonial government rule indirectly 1. Lack of Personnel: The lack of adequate British personnel
through the engagement of our traditional rulers and to effectively control area under their authority permitted the
chiefs. indirect rule system.
2. The customs and traditions of the people played a 2. Lack of finance: There was no sufficient fund from the
significant role in the administration. British government to engage British officials for direct
3. They had respect for our traditional rulers and chiefs. administration.
3. British Economic Purpose: The British Colonial
4. There was a governor that formulates and implements
government wanted to create a platform for their market and
policies.
they needed to encourage the West Africans for the
5. The colony was divided into regions and headed by a production of those raw materials.
regional commissioner. 4. To involve traditional Rulers: The use of the traditional
6. Each region was divided into district and each district rulers was in Africa as most people saw the traditional ruler
was headed by the district commissioner. as divine and should be respected.
7. There was Native Authority comprising of the 5. Success of the System: Lord Lugard felt that, the success of
traditional rulers, chiefs and sub-chiefs. this policy in India, Uganda, etc. was enough proof that the
8. Native treasury was a place where taxes, court fines, system would succeed in any of the British colonies.
etc. were collected by the traditional rulers for the 6. Vast Areas Involved: Large expanse of land made the
British Colonialist. British to adopt indirect rule e.g. in the Northern part of
9. There was a native court for settling disputes and Nigeria.
justices. 7. Language Difficulties: Indirect rule succeeded in removing
10. The cost of administration was not high because those the language barrier because of the traditional rulers that
involved were paid peanuts. served as a link between the white and their subjects.
8. Favourable Political Atmosphere: There was stable
2011/43 Neco political system because of obedience to constituted authority.
Taxation as a feature of indirect rule served as 9. Poor Climate: Poor climatic condition also aggravated the
A. source of revenue for colonial administration situation. Many British citizens refused coming down to be
B. system of modernizing chieftaincy involved in the administration due to poor climate and the
C. policy of making the local people poor presence of mosquitoes. They nicknamed Africa as the
“Whiteman’s grave”, because of these undermining factors.
D. means to ridicule the chiefs
10. Lack of Knowledge of the Areas Involved: The British
Answer officials lacked adequate knowledge of the local areas in the
Taxation as a feature of indirect rule served as a source of country.
revenue for colonial administration in terms of money or 11. Its Cheapness: The cost of indirect administration was very
natural agricultural produces. (A) cheap and this was because little money was paid to the
traditional rulers used for the system.
1990/25 12. Poor transport and Communication System: The system
Traditional rulers in Nigeria exercised the greatest political of transportation and communication was poor and this also
powers under necessitated the adoption of indirect rule.
A. the military administrations B. the second republic
C. the first republic D. indirect rule
Answer – D 2018/40 Neco
Traditional rulers in Nigeria exercised the greatest political One reason for the adoption of indirect rule in British West Africa
powers under indirect rule. was
A. availability of British officials B. to ensure justice
1998/26 C. inadequate finance D. to assimilate the indigenes
Which of the following was a feature of the government of Answer
a British protectorate? Inadequate or insufficient fund was one of the reasons why the
A. legislative council B. provincial authority British government engaged or adopted indirect rule system. (C)
C. executive council D. native authority
Answer – D 2013/44 Neco
Which of the following was not a reason for the adoption of
Native Authority was a feature of the government of a
indirect rule in British West African territories?
British protectorate
A. the chiefs approved of it
B. administrative officers were in short supply
2012/7 Neco Exercise 26.11 C. there was insufficient funding
Identify any four features of the policy of indirect rule in D. the traditional rulers commanded respect among their subjects
West Africa. Answer
The chiefs approval of indirect rule was not a reason for the
adoption of the system in British West African territories. (A)

332
1996/31 3. The influence of Western education: The influence of
Which of the following was the most senior official under western education on the subject modified their lives
the British colonial administration? and this led to the collapse of homage and respect to
A. district officer B. lieutenant governor the traditional rulers. The traditional values were
C. president D. governor eroded by the new values of the Whiteman.
E. secretary for native affairs 4. Influence of foreign religion: It scales down the
Answer powers of the traditional rulers and their spiritual
The Governor was the highest political figure in the colony, authority. It interferes with their traditional religion.
he was responsible for formulation and implementation of 5. Establishment of legislative council by the
policies in the colony. (D) colonialist: This equally reduced the law-making
functions of the traditional rulers.
2006/7 Neco Exercise 26.12 6. Inter-tribal war: As inter-tribal war was put to an end,
Outline four reasons for the adoption of the indirect rule the means by which traditional rulers’ accumulated
system. wealth stopped.
7. Appointment and deposition: Power to appoint and
1992/6 Nov Exercise 26.13 depose which was vested in the colonial governors
Highlight any five reasons for the adoption of indirect rule by reduced the prestige of traditional rulers and
the British Government in her West African Colonies. misdirected their loyalty.
8. The introduction of native/local authorities: As a
result of the inception of colonialism, native /local
Reasons why British Government involves African authorities were introduced, this undermined the
Traditional Rulers in the Colonial Administration of West absolute control of the traditional ruler in respect to
Africa taxes collection and disbursement.
1. There was few or shortage of personnel (British). 9. Law Courts: The establishment of law courts by the
2. It was economical. colonialist reduced the law making abilities of the
3. Their past experience made them to use our local traditional rulers thereby weakening their powers.
chiefs and traditional rulers. 10. Forced labour and conscription by the colonialists:
4. There was maintenance of law and order during the This reduced the manpower available to the traditional
indirect rule because the custodians of the people’s rulers thereby reducing their popularity.
culture were used for the administration.
5. The traditional rulers were found useful in the 2011/7 Neco
collections of taxes and rates. In what six ways did colonial rule contribute to the decline of
6. The presence of the local chiefs in the administration the powers of the traditional rulers in West Africa?
would bring about political stability. Answer
7. The local chiefs were easily used as a tool of 1. There was a breakdown of the existing links between
manipulation. The educated elites were exempted from them and their people when the former became
the system. appendages of an alien government.
2. The introduction of wage earning gave their subjects
economic independence.
2016/41 Neco 3. The impact of Western education led to the breakdown
One of the measures introduced by indirect rule was of traditional norms and values of the society.
A. collection and keeping of taxes by the chiefs only 4. The influence of foreign religion sealed down the
B. not recognizing traditional institutions power of the traditional rulers as the spiritual authority
C. fixing and collection of taxes by British officials of their people.
themselves 5. Establishment of law courts by the colonialists eroded
D. exclusion of the educated elite from the colonial their judicial powers.
administration 6. Establishment of legislative councils reduced their law
Answer making powers.
The British introduced the use of local chiefs in the 7. The establishment of the public treasury removed
administration, they were used as tools instead of the taxation powers from the traditional rulers.
educated elites because they were easily manipulated. (D) 8. Forced labour and conscription by the colonialists
reduced the manpower available to the traditional
rulers.
Ways Colonial Rules Contributed to the Decline of the 9. Stoppage of inter-tribal war deprived traditional rulers
Powers of the Traditional Rulers in West Africa of their wealth.
1. Collapse of the existing links: Colonial rule led to the 10. Emergence of political parties after World War II led
collapse of the existing links between the traditional to the decline of powers of the traditional rulers.
rulers and their subjects making the former 11. Appointment and deposition of traditional rulers by
appendages of alien government. colonial authorities led to decline in their prestige.
2. Subject independent on the ruler: The introduction of
salaried jobs to the working subjects empowered the
subjects to be independent of their rulers.

333
Roles played by the traditional rulers during the 1995/32
British colonial rule in Nigeria The indirect rule system succeeded in Hausa/Fulani society
1. They took part in the colonial policies of indirect rule. because the
2. They assisted in the maintenance of law and order. A. society had only one religion
3. The traditional rulers and chiefs helped to preserve the B. people received Quaranic education
culture and customs communities. C. people were peaceful
4. They acted as a link between the colonial masters and D. existing administration favoured the system
their people. E. people were descendants of Usman Dan Fodio
5. They organized communal work on behalf of the Answer
British. Indirect rule system succeeded in Hausa/Fulani society
6. They assisted in settling disputes arising from their because the existing administration favoured the system.
customs and traditions. The Britain acknowledged the need to preserve the
7. They helped in tax assessment and collection for indigenous culture and institutions by assisting them to
colonial government. adapt to modern government. (D)
8. The traditional rulers helped to conscript youths to
perform forced labour and serves in the Britain army 1998/43
during the world wars. Indirect rule was adopted by the British in Northern
9. They helped to preside over native courts established Nigeria because of the
by the British. A. provisions in the chapter of the Royal Niger Company
B. availability of skilled personnel
1996/36 C. existing stable traditional government
Which of the following best describes the position of the D. availability of surplus funds
traditional rulers during the colonial period? E. existence of a democratic government
A. were directly involved in the government Answer
B. made laws for the people Indirect rule was adopted by the British in Northern
C. were part of the executive arm of government Nigeria because of the existing stable traditional
D. served as a link between the people and the government government in the Northern part of Nigeria. (C)
E. were directly accountable to secretary of state for the
colonies 1996/41 Nov
Answer Indirect rule succeeded in Northern Nigeria because the
The traditional rulers during the colonial period served as A. residents were good administrators
a link between the people and the government through the B. British used force
indirect ruling system. (D) C. policy was meant to train traditional rulers
D. system was based on the pre-colonial political
organization
Factors that Lead to the Success of Indirect Rule in E. British officials learnt the Hausa language
Northern Nigeria Answer
The following were the factors that led to the success of Indirect rule succeeded in the northern part of Nigeria because
indirect rule in the northern part of Nigeria: the system was based on the pre-colonial political
1. Preservation of the existing culture of the organization and it was suitable for indirect rule. (D)
Hausa/Fulani in the northern part of Nigeria.
2. Centralization of power to the Emir. Nobody can
question the authority of their Emir, he has absolute Reasons why the Educated Elites Opposed the
power. There were no checks and balances in the Introduction of Indirect Rule in Southern Nigeria
Hausa/Fulani pre-colonial political system and the 1. The use of uneducated traditional rulers and chiefs.
British colonial masters accepted it. 2. Non-recognition of the educated elite, made the elite
3. High rate of illiteracy in the Northern part that led to to fight against it fiercely.
no questioning or challenging of their Emirs. 3. The introduction of warrant chiefs as native court of
4. The Islamic religion believes that their rulers are native authority.
divine sent, so respect and obedience are necessary for 4. The combination of judicial and executive functions in
a true believer. the hands of the colonial officers, even to the detriment
5. Imposition and collection of taxes were in existence of the people.
even before the coming of the British authorities. 5. The introduction and imposition of different taxation on
6. Indirect rule aids the training of local leaders in the people. This actually caused riots in different parts of
methods, ways and means of local administration. the country, for example the Aba Women’s riot of 1929
7. British officials promoted the positions of traditional and other similar riots.
rulers during the indirect ruling system. 6. The position of some chieftaincies was disrespected by
8. Total obedience to constituted authority was the logo giving them menial jobs to perform.
of the Hausa/Fulani 7. Traditional chiefs were appointed and deposed by the
colonial masters. The people were not giving the rights
to choose or elect their rulers.

334
8. The level of education was high in the eastern part of Reason for the Partial Success of Indirect Rule in
Nigeria. So they could question the relevance of indirect Western Nigeria
rule. 1. Subjects were not fully submissive from the fact that
9. In the eastern Nigeria “Obiship or Igwe” titles was not people could question realistically actions of their
clearly defined in the sight of the colonialist because there rulers and were not ready to accommodate dictatorship
was no Igwe or Obi then, the communities were ruled by leaders.
the council of elders (Ofo title holders). 2. Their political system or administration was more of
10. In the eastern Nigeria, power of administration was democratic. People detest authoritarianism.
decentralized and not concentrated, indirect rule cannot 3. Education acquired by most of them, made them to
work where the powers in government are under check. know their right and they asked questions which must
be answered from their traditional rulers and chiefs.
2000/7 Neco 4. The system of checks and balance limited the powers
Why was indirect rule not successful in some parts of of their traditional rulers, chiefs and even the British
Nigeria? officials because most of the Oba’s were constitutional
Answer Obas and not absolute
1. The system of indirect rule alienated the educated elite 5. Decentralized political system and power.
in preference for the illiterate ones. 6. Before the coming of British authority or indirect rule,
2. Traditional rulers were made to be autocratic as a result there was a system of collecting tax from the people
of power vested in them by the indirect rule system. which was accepted. A new system was imposed on
3. The system brought about division between the the people by the colonial authority. It was
traditional rulers looked upon as British puppets and unacceptable and resulted to protests in some parts of
the alienated elites thereby strengthening the policy of the region.
divide and rule. 7. Non-recognition of the educated elite.
4. The system denied the people the power of
appointment and deposition of chiefs which was given Merits of Indirect Rule
to the British governor. 1. It led to the introduction of Western education
5. The appointment of traditional rulers (warrant chiefs) although they wanted to teach us the basic but Africans
in Eastern Nigeria led to social, political and economic were fast learners.
upheaval. 2. Introduction of English language which is a universal
6. The concentration of too many powers in the language now.
traditional rulers led to serious abuse of power. 3. Indirect rule introduced us to Western civilization i.e.
7. Traditional rulers under the system of indirect rule their ways of dressing, modern hospitals, roads,
became corrupt and enriched themselves at the technologies, even though it was for their selfish
expense of their subjects as there were cases of interest but we benefited too.
embezzlement and mismanagement of tax money. 4. The colonial administration, taught us modern ways of
8. The system denied the people the democratic system governing, which is still useful up-to-date.
of checks and balances that were existing before the 5. The colonial amalgamated the country as one and with
advent of the British. that, they used the resources from different parts of the
9. Traditional rulers were deprived of their personal country to develop the less developed part.
initiatives and the power to defend the interest of their 6. Respect for the people’s tradition and culture.
people against British colonial rulers. 7. It was very economical.
10. The system encouraged tribalism and sectionalism at 8. The system was used for training our traditional rulers
the expense of national consciousness no wonder one and chiefs.
part of Nigeria did not want independence when other 9. The system was accommodating to some parts of
parts were clamouring for it. Nigeria.
11. The British indirect rule did not spell out how the 10. It led to eradication of crimes in some part of the
system could metamorphose into a central government country e.g. Eastern Nigeria, birth of twins were seen
in Nigeria. as an abomination and also human sacrifices were
12. Another weakness of the system was its inability to stopped.
state the limit of the function of different local 11. Indirect rule developed traditional institution in this
authorities which was one of the causes of many country, it made them effective and durable.
disorderliness in many parts of Nigeria. 12. There was stable political system during the colonial
13. The system had no universal application because it administration.
could not be applied to all environments; no wonder 13. It introduces new method of tax collection.
the system failed woefully in Eastern Nigeria. 14. Introduced us to established religion (Christianity).
15. The system of indirect rule stimulated the spirit of
1990/7 Exercise 26.14 nationalism in the Britain colonies.
Why did the educated elite criticize the policy of indirect rule? 16. Indirect rule system led to the political awareness of
the people.
17. The system of indirect rule ensured maintenance of
law and order.

335
1992/39 14. The system made the chiefs corrupt through
One of the merits of indirect rule system was that it mismanagement and embezzlement of public funds.
A. did not tax the people much 15. Indirect rule was autocratic since colonial authorities had
B. allow educated Africans to participate in government power to override the decisions of the native
C. further trained traditional rulers in native administration administration.
D. encouraged democratic principles 16. It slowed down the pace of constitutional development; it
E. brought about even development drained the voices of the people.
Answer 17. The system reduced the traditional rulers to mere stooges
One of the advantages of indirect rule administration was and puppets of the colonial authorities. The traditional
rulers were hated by the people
they further trained traditional rulers in native
administration. (C)
2013/45 Neco
A major disadvantage of the indirect rule system was that the
2006/7b Neco A. economy was over industrialized
Enumerate two achievements of the indirect rule system. B. appointments were based on qualification
Answer C. British failed to give qualitative education to Africans.
1. It brought colonial ruler closer to the subjects through D. British colonial ministration fails to give qualitative
the traditional rulers. education to Africans.
2. It contributed to the training of traditional rulers in the Answer
act of modern local government administration. The main disadvantage of the indirect rule system was that
3. The system of indirect rule recognized and preserved the British colonial ministration fails to give qualitative
the existing traditional and cultures of the people in education to Africans. (D)
some areas.
4. It stimulated the spirit of nationalism in the British 1993/33 Nov
colonies. The Indirect rule system was criticized in Nigeria because it
5. Indirect rule system led to the political awareness of A. was against the objective of the colonialists
the people. B. delayed development of the colonies
6. It ensured the maintenance of law and order. C. prepared the educated elite for self-rule
D. was meant to penetrate colonial rule
Demerits of Indirect Rule E. made stooges of traditional rulers
The following are demerits of indirect rule system: Answer
1. Explored all our resources which splashed. The system reduced the traditional rulers to more stooges and
puppets of the colonial authorities. The traditional rulers were
2. They caused chaos in the country, because they
hated by the people. (E)
developed some parts at the expenses of the others i.e.
Lagos, Calabar, etc.
2001/46 Nov
3. They gave authority to some high handed Nigerians Which of the following was a demerit of the indirect rule
i.e. the warrant chiefs. system?
4. They took along our resources to build their own A. government revenue was spent solely by the chiefs
country. B. able-bodied men were forced to join the colonial army
5. They deceived African men by promising them jobs if C. powers were concentrated in the hands of the Africans in
they should fight along with them in the world war, the civil service
with that some African men agreed but after the war, D. difference in the traditional government were not
the few of them that survived were not given what they recognized by the British
were promised, so with that they depopulated the Answer
Africans. The disadvantage of indirect rule was able-bodied men were
6. They left the Africans emotionally wounded because forced and deceived to join the colonial army by the colonial
during their administration, they made Africans felt masters with fake promises that was never fulfilled. (B)
like they had nothing to offer, they said nothing good
can come out of Africa, if we continued this way. 2004/9b Neco
7. Indirect rule was a system imposed on the people by State four defects of the indirect rule system
the Colonial masters through our traditional rulers and Answer
chiefs. 1. It increased the powers of the traditional rulers to the
8. In indirect rule, democratic rights of the people were detriment of their subjects.
abused and denied. 2. The imposition of warrant chiefs and taxations where
there were none made the system unpopular.
9. The colonial authority monopolized the right to
3. It created tensions and misunderstanding between the
appoint and depose traditional rulers and chiefs
chiefs and educated Africans.
without the people’s consent. 4. The system was made of corrupt chiefs e
10. It made our development in Africa to be retarded. 5. The activities of the native courts were unsatisfactory.
11. The educated Nigerians were excluded from taking 6. The system was autocratic.
part in the colonial administration. 7. It slowed down the pace of constitutional development.
12. The appointment of the warrant chiefs made the 8. The system adjusted with the establishment of traditional
traditional institutions of the people to be neglected. institutions.
13. It created tension and misunderstanding between the
chiefs and educated Africans.
336
WARRANT CHIEFS Weakness of the British Colonial Administration
The warrant Chiefs were the indigenous chiefs who were 1. The legislative councils were dominated by British
appointed by the Europeans (British) to help them rule out officials only.
their system of indirect rule in their African colonies. The 2. The elective principle was restricted i.e. limited
chief may not necessarily belong to the society in which franchise.
they rules. The warrant chiefs were given certificates of 3. The colonial administrators sidelined the educated
recognition by the British authority. elite and limited their representation in the colonial
administration.
Warrant Chiefs (recognized) nobleman who served as tax 4. The executive council was dominated by British
collectors and native authority created by the colonial officials.
administration. The warrant chiefs were hated because 5. The governors had double votes which could be used
they were corrupt and arrogant. In Igbo land, they had no to promote British colonial policies as against African
single leader before the coming of the British authority. interests.
The Igbo Enwe Eze which translates to “the Igbo have no 6. Governors were dictators as they had the power to
king”, led to Aba women riot of 1929. accept or reject advice given by the executive councils
and laws passed by the legislative councils.
2001/37 Neco 7. The British dominant interest in banking, commerce,
A major reason why the warrant Chiefs were rejected in mining etc. were detrimental of African interest.
Eastern Nigeria was that 8. The British administration in some cases interfered
A. the chiefs were illiterates with the people’s culture and tradition, e.g. warrant
B. they were no indigenes chiefs and deposition of traditional rulers.
C. they usurped the positions of the nationalists 9. Democratic electioneering or campaign was limited to
D. the system was not customary few areas of the colonies.
Answer 10. The colonialists created artificial boundaries for their
The main reason why the warrant chiefs were rejected the selfish interest.
Eastern Nigeria was that the system was not customary. (D) 11. The divided and rule policy created an uneven
development.
1999/39 Neco
The implemented indirect Rule in Eastern Nigeria, the 1991/28 UTME
British appointed Warrant Chiefs were appointed to
A. village heads B. warrant chiefs A. prevent tribal wars B. supervise native courts
C. Ozo title holders D. Aba women as head C. decide divorce cases D. take charge of local
Answer Answer – D
The appointed of the warrant in the eastern Nigeria, made In Eastern Nigerian traditional rulers or paramount
the indirect rule system to fail in that part. The warrant traditional rulers cannot be easily identified. Obiship
chiefs were corrupt and arrogant. Most of the warrant institution, for instance, was not clearly defined and so the
chiefs were not indigenes of the communities which led to colonial authority decided to select some people whom
hatred by the people. (B) they made chiefs, and given “certificates of recognition”,
which were called warrants. This was why they are
2000/40 Neco popularly referred to as Warrant Chiefs.
Traditional rulers appointed by the British to implement
indirect rule in eastern Nigeria were called 1979/46 UTME
A. palace chiefs B. village chiefs Colonialism was successfully imposed on West Africa
C. warrant chiefs D. crown chiefs because
Answer A. the colonial people thought colonialism was divinely
The traditional rulers appointed by the British to inspired and therefore readily welcomed the imperial
implement indirect rule in Eastern Nigeria were called power with open arms
warrant chiefs. The warrant chief serves as noblemen who B. the colonial people believed the white man to the
collect taxes from the people. (C) superior to the black man and that they were in Africa on a
civilizing mission.
Functions of Warrant Chiefs C. the colonial people could not withstand the
The following are some functions of the warrant chiefs: technological superiority of the colonialists
1. Take charge of local administration. D. the colonial people behaved that they could be liberated
2. They can also pass bye-laws. from the autocratic indigenous ruling elite
3. They also have the power to recruit and supervise E. all of the above
workers. For example, the men building or Answer – C
constructing road, etc. Colonialism was successfully imposed on West Africa
4. They were also involved in the collection of taxes. because the colonial people (blacks) could not withstand
5. Warrant chiefs were involved in assessing the people’s the technological superiority of the colonialists (white) or
wealth. Europeans.
6. The warrant chiefs were the trainers, operators,
managers, sustainers, integrators, maintainers and
adviser in their locality.
337
1980/19 UTME 2010/26 UTME
The doctrine “The Dual Mandate” was put forward to The Foremost British trading company on the West
justify African Coast was
A. apartheid in South Africa B. the Neo colonialism A. Royal Niger Company B. United African Company
C. the introduction of Islam in Africa D. slavery C. Lever Brothers D. John Holt and Sons
E. colonialism Answer – A
Answer – E The British trading company used on the West African
The doctrine of dual mandate was put forward to justify Coast for convening our raw material was Royal Nigeria
colonialism by the Europeans. Company.

1978/33 UTME 2010/27 UTME

The colonial administration in Nigeria was Which of these rulers resisted colonial rule was deported
A. authoritarian B. democratic C. development orientated to Calabar?
D. dominated by Nigerians E. none of the above A. King Kosoko B. King Dosumu
Answer – A C. Oba Ovonramuen D. King Jaja
The colonial administration in Nigeria was authoritarian. Answer – D
The British used indirect rule to control all the resource of King Jaja of Opobo was a merchant prince and the found
Nigeria without seeking for the opinion of the citizens. of Opobo City – State in an area that is now the River State
of Nigeria. Born in Umuduruoha Amaigbo in present day
1992/24 UTME Imo State, he was taken at about the age of twelve as a
Which of the following was not a feature of colonial slave in Bonny by Obua Ajukwu of Oguta, who had come
administration in Nigeria? to Bonny to bury slaves. The salve Boy who became King,
A. forced labour B. low prices for exports in 1870, feeling reasonably secured, Jaja proclaimed the
C. taxes on the population D. education levy independence of his settlement which he name Opobo after
Answer – D Opubu the Great. He became a trading partners with the
Education levy of the populace of the colonial rule was not a European.
feature of colonial administration.
2004/22 UTME
2012/26 UTME
The major motivation for British colonization of Nigeria
Colonization of Africa was mainly motivated by
was to
A. security considerations B. economic reasons
C. religious reasons D. cultural factors
A. Westernize Nigerians B. spread religion
Answer – B C. protect Nigeria from external attack
Colonization of Africa was mainly motivated by economic D. satisfy British economic interest
reasons, when the Europeans and British noticed that, there Answer – D
were enough raw-materials e.g. rubber, palm oil, etc. in the The main motive of British colonization of Nigeria was to
region. They utilized the opportunity to export to their various satisfy British economic interests, it was for their selfish
countries with peanut paid money to the owners of the land. interest.

1993/23 UTME 1995/24 UTME

Which of these sets represents the disadvantages of In which order did the various European groups penetrate
colonialism? into the interior of present-day-Nigeria?
A. exposure to western education, culture imperialism and A. explorers, missionaries, trader and imperialists
external trade relations B. explorers, traders, missionaries and imperialists
B. cultural imperialism and external manipulations and C. explorers, traders, imperialists and missionaries
foreign control of domestic economy D. explorers, imperialists, traders and missionaries
C. external manipulation, civil service evolution and liberal Answer – B
democracy The European groups were able to penetrate into the
D. liberal democracy, foreign domination and cultural interior of present-day Nigeria because of explorers,
imperialism traders, missionaries and imperialists.
Answer – B
The colonialism disadvantages was cultural imperialism and
1990/27 UTME
external manipulations and foreign control of domestic
The principal objective of British Colonial Policy in
economy.
Nigeria was to
1981/4 UTME A. lay a solid foundation for Nigerian independence
The power of British Trade Unions now constitutes B. help build a virile Nigerian economy
A. real threat to the queen and the British establishment C. promote missionary activities
B. a danger to the judiciary D. exploit and expropriate Nigerian resources for British
C. a threat to the House of Lords interests
D. a challenge to the idea of parliamentary sovereignty Answer – D
E. a menace to the confederation of British industries The principal objective of British colonial policy in
Answer – D Nigeria was to exploit and expropriate Nigerian resources
The power of British Trade Unions now constitutes a for British interests.
challenge to the idea of parliamentary sovereignty.
338
1990/28 UTME 1987/24 UTME
Which of the following factors contributed most of cash The forceful domination of one country by another is
crop production during the colonial administration in called
Nigeria? A. nationalism B. totalitarianism
A. education B. pacification C. forced labour D. taxation C. dictatorship D. colonization
Answer – C Answer – D
Forced labour was the factors that can tribute mostly to The forceful domination of one country by another is
cash crop production during the colonial administration in called colonization. Colonization can also be defined as
Nigeria. control by one power over a dependent area or people. It
occurs when one nation subjugates another, conquering its
1987/29 UTME population and exploiting it, often while forcing its own
Who was the architect of the British rule in Nigeria? language and cultural values upon its people.
A. George Tuman Goldie B. Frederick Lugard
C. Hugh Clifford D. Arthur Richards 1983/38 UTME
Answer – B Lagos became a crown colony in
Lord Frederick Lugard was the architect of the British rule A. 1900 B. 1914 C. 1886 D. 1861 E. 1862
in Nigeria. Sir Frederick Lugard played a major part in Answer – D
Britain’s colonial history between 1888 and 1945. He was Lagos was bombarded by the British in 1851, annexed on
also called the father of indirect rule in Nigeria. 6 August 1861 and declared a colony on 5 March, 1862.

1980/42 UTME 1994/24 UTME

It was through the activities of ___ that the Niger area In British West Africa, the elective principle was first
become a British sphere of influence introduced in
A. Lord Lugard B. the United Africa Company A. Nigeria B. Ghana C. Sierra-Leone D. the Gambia
C. Herbert Macaulay D. the Royal Niger Company Answer – A
E. Ajayi Crowther In British West Africa, the elective principle was first
Answer – D introduced in Nigeria.
It was through the activities of the Royal Niger Company
that the Niger area became a British sphere. 2007/3 (OAU,IFE)
This African rulers resisted colonial rule and was later
2011/2012/22 (NDU, BAYELSA) exiled by the colonial officials.
The first Governor-General of Nigeria was A. Alaafin of Oyo B. Oba of Benin
A. Lord Lugard B. Dr. Nnamdi Azikiwe C. King Jaja of Opobo D. Onisanbo of Ogbooro
C. Sir James Robertson Answer – C
D. (the late) Major General Aguiyi-Ironsi King Jaja of Opobo resisted colonial rule and was later
E. the Oni of Ife exiled by the colonial officials from the country.
Answer – A
The first Governor-General of Nigeria was Lord Lugard. 2008/2009/16 (NDU, BAYELSA)
In the political history of Nigeria, 1914 was
1985/33 UTME A. the year of the British establish their rule over Nigeria
The amalgamation of the Northern and Southern B. the beginning of the First World War
protectorate of Nigeria was in C. the year Lord Lugard effected the amalgamation of
A. 1914 B. 1922 C. 1951 D. 1953 E. 1960 Nigeria
Answer – A D. the year the first election into the legislative council
The amalgamation of the Northern and Southern Answer – C
protectorate of Nigeria was in 1914. In the political history of Nigeria, 1914 was the year Lord
Lugard Frederick effected the amalgamation of Nigeria
1999/26 UTME between the Northern and Southern protectorate.
The British Government revoked the charter of the Royal
Niger Company and took over the direct administration of 2003/26 UTME
Nigeria in One of the legacies of pre-colonial Nigeria destroyed by
A. 1961 B. 1900 C. 1906 D.1914 the British was the
Answer – B A. peace and harmony in the land
The British Government revoked the charter of the Royal B. indigenous cultures of the people
Niger Company and took over the direct administration of C. education of the local people
Nigeria in 1900. D. nation’s farmlands
Answer – B
One of the legacies of pre-colonial Nigeria was the
British e.g. food, dressing, language even our way of life.

339
2008/2009/7 (NDU,BAYELSA) 2006/4 (OAU, IFE)
Indirect rule introduced into Nigeria by The British took over Nigeria through
A. Dame Margery Perham B. Sir Donald Cameroon A. Negotiation B. Bargaining C. War D. the Sea
C. Sir Frederick Lugard D. Arthur Richards Answer – A
E. James Robertson The British took over Nigeria through the sea. The sea gave
Answer – C them encourage to exploit our resources and human
Indirect rule was introduced into Nigeria by Sir Frederick slavery.
Lugard.
2009/2010/93 (NDU, BAYELSA)
2009/2010/44 (NDU, BAYELSA) One of the merits of indirect rule system was that it
The concept of indirect rule in Nigeria is usually associated A. did not tax the people much
with B. allowed educated Africans to participate in government
A. Sir George T. Goldies B. Sir Donald Cameroon C. further trained traditional ruler native administration
C. Sir Arthur Richards D. Lord Lugard D. encouraged democratic principles
Answer – D E. brought about even development
The concept of indirect rule in Nigeria is usually associated Answer – D
with Lord Lugard. One of the advantages of indirect rule system was that, it
encouraged democratic principles. Respect for the people’s
2018/2019/7 (UI,IBADAN) tradition and culture.
Indirect rule was adopted in Nigeria for the following
reason except 2018/17 UTME
A. paucity of fund B. its success in other places The indirect rule system succeeded in the Hausa-Fulani
C. communication barrier D. none of the above society because the
Answer – A A. society had only one religion
Indirect rule was adopted in Nigeria for all of the following B. people received Quaranic education
reasons, lack of British personal, insufficient fund, poor C. people were descendants of Usman Dan Fodio
climate, to satisfy their economic needs, the role and D. existing administration favoured the system
position of traditional rulers the use of the traditional rulers Answer – B
and their institution the success of this system, language The indirect rule system succeeded in the Hausa/Fulani
barrier, stable political system, the British Officials, the society because the people were religiously educated in
system was very cheap, poor communication system. None Islam, which believes that their rulers are divinely sent and
of the above is the answer. respect and obedience are necessary for a true believer.
This helped in propagating the tenets of indirect rule
2018/2019/10 (UI, IBADAN) system.
The British Minister in charge of the colonies of Britain
was 2013/25 UTME
A. Foreign Affairs Minister B. Governor-General The indirect rule system of administration was more
C. President D. Secretary of State for the colonies successful in Northern Nigeria because
Answer – D A. of the existence of an organized structure in the area
The British Minister in charge of the colonies of Britain B. the European ensured that the farmlands of the natives
was secretary of state for the colonies. were not confiscated.
C. the natives showed little or no resistance
2018/2019/9 (UI, IBADAN) D. the people were mainly interest in being governed indirectly
A colonial policy that made use of the traditional Answer – A
institutions in the governance of the people was The indirect rule system of administration was more
A. divide and rule B. assimilation successful in Northern Nigeria because of the existence of
C. direct rule D. indirect rule an organized structure in the area.
Answer – D
Indirect rule was the colonial policy that made used of the 1987/33 UTME
traditional institutions (rulers) in the governance of their Under the indirect rule system
people. A. chiefs were allowed to govern their people
B. colonial administrators shared power equality with
2006/10 (OAU,IFE) traditional rulers
Which of these men introduced indirect rule in Nigeria? C. traditional rulers were encouraged to adopt the British
A. Mungo Park B. Dr. Nnamdi Azikiwe system of government
C. Lord Lugard D. Sir James Robertson D. colonial administrators increased the powers of
Answer – C traditional rulers
Lord Frederick Lugard introduced indirect rule in Nigeria Answer – A
that was why he was called the father of ‘indirect rule’. Under the indirect rule system, the chiefs and traditional
rulers were allowed to govern their people.

340
1980/20 UTME 2007/33 UTME
The common colonial institutions in British West Africa Indirect rule as a British Colonial policy was first in
included A. India B. Uganda C. Ghana D. Nigeria
A. the West African joint Admissions and Matriculation Answer – A
Police Force Indirect rule as a British Colonial policy was first practiced
B. the West African Universities Commission and West in India. India princely states, where from the mid-
African Joint Admissions and Matriculation Board eighteenth century the British first employed and
C. the West African currency Board and the West African developed this system of indirect rule, stood as the
Airways Corporation conscious model for later imperial administrators and
D. the West African Teacher’s Association and West African
politicians who wished to extend the empire without the
Labour Union
economic and political costs of direct annexation.
E. none of the above
Answer – C
The common colonial institutions in British West African 2014/2015/41 (UI, IBADAN)
included the West African Currency Board and the West Educated elites did not like the system of indirect Rule in
African Airways Corporation. Nigeria because it
A. did not make provision is for them
1981/19 UTME B. was exploitative and cumbersome
Lord Lugard is widely regarded as C. made traditional rulers too powerful
A. the most imaginative governor in the British Colonies D. was undemocratic and oppressive
B. the originator of the Jurbar Ceremony in Northern Nigeria Answer – A
C. the best friend which south Nigerian nationalist leaders The educated elites were not happy with the system of
ever hand indirect rule in Nigeria because they were not involved i.e.
D. the ‘father’ of indirect rule no provisions was made for the educated elites.
E. an anti-imperialist
Answer – D 2001/22 UTME
Lord Lugard is widely regarded as the ‘Father of Indirect The method used by the British to facilitate the
rule’. administration of southern Nigeria was
A. persuasion B. dialogue
2007/33 UTME C. divide and rule D. trade concession
Under the indirect rule system, Answer – C
A. chiefs were allowed to govern their people The method used by the British to facilitate the
B. colonial administrators shared power equally with
administration of southern Nigeria was divide and rule.
traditional rulers.
Answer – A
Under an indirect rule system, the chief and traditional rulers 2006/13 UTME
were allowed to govern their people. During colonial administration, the office of the Warrant
Chief was introduced in
1980/20 UTME A. Western Nigeria B. Northern Nigeria
The common colonial institutions in British West Africa C. the Lagos Territory D. Eastern Nigeria
included Answer – D
A. the West African Joint Admissions and Matriculation During the British Colonial administration, the office of
Police Force the Warrant Chief was introduced in Eastern Nigeria. The
B. the West African Joints Universities and Matriculation Warrant Chiefs were selected recognized individuals to
Board serve as administrators, rulers, judges and tax collectors,
C. traditional rulers were encouraged to adopt the British because Igbo land has no king structure before the pre-
system of government colonial system in Nigeria.
D. colonial administrators increased the powers of traditional
rulers 2007/2008/81 (UNIZIK, AWKA)
Answer – A Indirect rule, as practiced by the British in their West
Under the indirect rule system, the Chiefs and traditional African colonies
rulers were allowed is govern the people. A. did not attempt to reform existing traditional institutions
B. was over glorified and expedient nonsense
1981/19 UTME C. satisfied neither the rulers nor the ruled
Lord Lugard is widely regarded as D. had nothing in common with the reality of French rule
A. The most imaginative governor in the British colonies in their colonies
B. the originator of the Durbar ceremony in Northern E. meant ruling through existing rulers and attempting to
Nigeria check their excesses
C. the best friend which southern Nigerian nationalist Answer – E
lenders ever had Indirect rule, as practiced by the British in their West
D. the ‘father’ of indirect rule African colonies meant ruling through existing traditional
E. an anti-imperialist rulers and attempting to check the excesses of the
Answer – D traditional rulers by their laws or principles.
Lord Lugard is widely regarded as the ‘father’ of indirect
rule.
341
1979/26 UTME 2011/27 UTME
Islam was introduced into Northern Nigeria Indirect rule encouraged
A. before the 13th Century A. inter-communal cooperation B. the rise of nationalism
B. in the 17th Century C. communal integration D. exploitation and oppression
C. by the British in the early 20th Century Answer – D
D. after the Jihad of Usman Dan Fodio Indirect rule encouraged exploitation and oppression of the
E. none of the above colony populaces.
Answer – A
Islam was introduced to northern and central Nigeria in the 2016/12 UTME
middle ages as early as the 11th Century and was well The indirect rule system of administration was more
established in the major capitals of the region by the 16th successful in Northern Nigeria because
Century, spreading into the country side and toward the A. the Europeans ensured that the farmlands of the natives
Middle Belt uplands. Muhammed Rumfa (1463 – 1499) were not confiscated
was the first ruler to convert to Islam in Hausa land. B. of the existence of an organized structure in the area
C. the natives showed little or no resistance
19814/28 UTME D. the people were mainly interested in being governed
The system of the indirect rule in Nigeria indirectly
A. enhanced the attainment of political independence Answer – B
B. provided employment for educated Nigerians The indirect rule system of the administration more
C. slowed down the nationalist movements successful in Northern Nigeria because of the existence of
D. suited the traditional political system of Eastern Nigeria an organized structure in the Hausa/Fulani emirate
E. was based on democratic principles councils.
Answer – C
The system of the indirect rule by the British colonial 2018/2019/72 (NDU, BAYELSA)
masters, slowed down the nationalist movement in Nigeria. Which of the following made the earliest contact with the
Most traditional rulers were not in support of nationalist Nigerian society?
movement because of their selfish interest and agreed. A. British B. Portuguese C. French D. German
Answer – B
2011/2012/21 (NDU, BAYELSA) The Portuguese’s promptly established trade with the
A popular principle of colonial administration in British Nigerians, mostly with the Benin people. It is estimated
West Africa was that as many as 3.5 million Africans were traded to
A. association B. indirect rule C. paternalism Europe and eventually America. The Portuguese in their
D. westernization E. assimilation early trading relationship with the kingdoms would trade
Answer – B by offering them cloth, copper and brass.
Indirect rule was the popular principle of colonial
administration in British West Africa.
2004/18 UTME
1991/27 UTME The Native Authority system was most effective and
Which of the following led to the introduction of indirect successful in
rule in Nigeria by the British? A. Eastern Nigeria B. Northern Nigeria
A. need for adequate financial resources C. Mid-Western Nigeria D. Western Nigeria
B. desire for rapid development Answer – B
C. speedy transition to independence The Native Authority System was most effective and
D. manpower and personnel shortage successful in Northern Nigeria.
Answer – D
The introduction of indirect rule in Nigeria by the British 1995/25 UTME
was because of lack of British personnel the system had Indirect rule was introduced in Nigeria because
few Europeans to control effectively areas under their A. traditional rulers were powerful
control. B. there were few administrators in the country
C. the colonialists were poor administrators
1992/27 UTME D. the native authorities were already well organized
The Aba women riot was caused by the attempt to Answer – D
introduce Indirect rule was introduced in Nigeria because the native
A. indirect rule to southern Nigeria authorities were already well organized.
B. direct taxes
C. the warrant chiefs system 1997/23 UTME
D. force labour The people of Southern Nigeria first came in contact with
Answer – C Europeans through.
The Aba women riot of 1929 was caused by the attempt to A. military expeditions B. church missions
introduce direct taxes. C. gunboat diplomacy D. peaceful trade
Answer – D
The people of southern Nigeria first came in contact with
Europeans through peaceful trade.
342
1993/31 Nov 3. A major objection to the indirect rule system was
Before Lord Lugard introduced indirect rule in Nigeria, the system A. economy in administration
had first been practiced in B. administration through illiterate heads
A. Canada and Pakistan B. India and Uganda C. the involvement of many Africans in administration
C. Burma and Indonesia D. Ghana and Sierra-Leone D. the control of territories by the colonial secretary
E. Australia and America E. the refusal of the British to educate Africans
Answer 4. Which of the following best describes the administration
Lord Lugard felt because the system of indirect rule succeeded in of a crown colony?
India and Uganda, gave him the assurance that it would succeed A. administration of a colony through local chiefs
anywhere in the whole. (B) B. appointment of local chiefs as Governors-General of the
colonial territories by the home government
1999/38 C. oppressive rule by the British home government
Where was indirect rule successfully practiced before it was D. direct rule of the colonial territories by the British
introduced to Africa? home government
A. Latin America B. India C. Britain 5. The implemented indirect rule in eastern Nigeria, the
D. Japan E. USA British appointed
Answer A. village heads B. warrant chiefs
It was practiced to India before its introduction to Africa, indirect C. Ozo title holders D. Aba women as head
rule ended in 1947 in India. (B) 6. The executive head who was responsible for British
1993/25 UTME Colonial territories in West Africa was the
The Lagos colony and the southern protectorate of Nigeria were A. Lord Chancellor B. heir to the British throne
joined in the year. C. warrant chief D. secretary of state
A. 1904 B. 1906 C. 1910 D. 1914 7. Which of the following countries popularized the use of
Answer – D indirect rule by the British?
The Lagos colony and the Southern protectorate of Nigeria were A. Nigeria B. Ghana C. Sierra Leone
joined in the year 1914. D. the Gambia
8. Who was the father of indirect rule in Nigeria?
2011/40 UTME A. Mathias Gatebill B. Charles Williams
Following the reform of the Native Authority System in Northern C. Fredrick Lugard D. David Joseph
Nigeria, traditional rulers became E. Arthur Richard
A. prefers B. chief-in-council 9. Warrants chiefs are
C. council D. chief-and-council A. tax collectors B. builders C. street hawkers
Answer – B D. policy makers and implementers
The reform of the native authority system in northern Nigeria, 10. The traditional rulers were used as
traditional rulers became chief-in-council. A. gods to the people
B. link between the colonial masters and the people’s
2022/7 Neco
ancestors
State and explain six reasons for the success of the indirect rule in
C. link between the colonial administration and the people
northern Nigeria during the colonial administration.
D. shrine and priest
Answer
11. Mention and explain fully, reasons for the adoption of
The following were the reasons that led to the success of indirect
indirect rule system.
rule in the northern part of Nigeria
12. What are the reasons for the success of indirect rule
1. Preservation of the existing culture of the Hausa/Fulani in the
system in Northern Nigeria?
northern part of Nigeria.
13. Define colonialism.
2. Centralization of power to the Emir. Nobody can question the
14. What are some of the positive impacts of colonialism,
authority of their Emir, he has absolute power. There were no
state them.
checks and balances in the Hausa/Fulani pre-colonial political
15. Explain any five weaknesses of the British colonial
system and the British colonial masters accepted it.
administration.
3. High rate of illiteracy in the Northern part that led to no
16. Who is a warrant chief?
questioning or challenging of their Emirs.
17. Explain the decentralization of Yoruba land.
4. The Islamic religion believes that their rulers are divine sent,
18. Explain the principles and structure of British colonial
so respect and obedience are necessary for a true believer.
administration in Nigeria.
5. Imposition and collection of taxes were in existence even
19. Explain the merits and demerits of colonial rule.
before the coming of the British authorities.
20. Account for the introduction of the indirect rule system
6. Total obedience to constituted authority was the logo of the
in Nigeria and its failure in some parts of the country.
Hausa/Fulani
21. Highlight five powers of the British Governor in any one
REVISION EXERCISES West African Colony.
1. The crown colonies in the British West Africa was 22. Account for the reasons for adopting indirect rule in
administered through Nigeria by the Colonialists.
A. assimilation B. decentralization 23. a. Define the term “indirect rule”
C. association D. direct rule b. Write short notes on the operation of the indirect rule
2. Colonial administration in West Africa was a result of policy in the following:
A. a need for a new environment i. Hausa-Fulani Emirate.
B. the desire of the underdeveloped in West Africa ii. Yoruba Kingdom.
C. a need for raw materials and market iii. Igbo society.
D. the urge to introduce western education
343
a. The individual has to be born in any of the four (4)
Chapter Twenty Seven communes: Dakar, Goree, Rufisque and Saint
Louis.
COLONIAL ADMINISTRATION 2 b. Must provide evidence of good and attestable
behaviour from the French Colonial government.
FRENCH COLONIAL ADMINISTRATION IN c. Must have served with the French colonial
WEST AFRICA government for about 10 (ten) years.
The French colonial interest in West Africa started in the 4. Education was limited/restricted: Few schools were
late seventeenth century with the establishment of slaves’ built by the French authority and as a result of that,
departure point in Senegal. After the 1885 Berlin treaty very few people were educated. However, more
which resulted in the scramble for, and partition of Africa education opportunities existed in the four (4)
by European countries, the French had an effective communes than elsewhere and even at Paris for the
occupation of many areas in West Africa. By 1920, she has Africans who were citizens. Few Africans were
established a big empire in West Africa. The French fortunate to reach secondary school level.
colonial territories in West Africa were Ivory Coast, 5. No regards for traditional institutions: In assimilation,
Dahomey (Republic of Benin), Senegal, Mali, Mauritania, recognition was not given to traditional rulers. The
Guinea, Upper Volta (now Bulkina Faso) and Niger. The French administrators appointed traditional rulers or
French, after the First World War, was given part of the chiefs as their auxiliary officials, and they could be
two German territories of Togo and Cameroon as demised at will (anytime). They were mainly used to
mandated or trust territories. collect taxes and to obey orders.
6. Cultural heritage was disregarded: French did not
respect the culture of the people in her colonies. They
tried to impose their culture on the people because they
felt that they owned the best culture in the world.
7. Opposition: The French merchants and intellectuals
felt that this policy would create equality between
them and Africans and so there was opposition to it.
8. Financial burden: This policy placed financial burden
on French citizens who in turn opposed it.
9. Absence of political parties and association was a big
problem of assimilation policy.
10. There was absence of local assemblies of Africans in
their various colonies.

2015/42 Neco
Colonial Era in Senegal The administrative structure adopted in the French colonial
territories was
In 1919, the League of Nations gave Togo to France. Togo A. more of a centralized administration
was administered by France, different from her colonies in B. focused mainly on traditional rulers
West Africa. This was because Togo was a mandate and C. favourable to the African age grades
under the supervision of the League of Nations. D. for the development African culture
Answer
Features of French Colonial Administration The French colonial administration adopted centralization
1. Centralized administration: France formed all its 9 of administration. All the nine (9) colonies under the
(nine) colonies into a federation with the headquarters French Colonial was formed into a federation with the
at Dakar. The head of this federation was a Governor- headquarters at Dakar. The head of the federation was a
General. The head of each colony was a Governor. The Governor-General while the head of each colony was a
Governors were subordinate to the Governor-General, Governor. The Governor General and Governor were
while the Governor-General was subordinate to the subordinate to the minister of the Colony in Paris. (A)
minster of colonies in France.
2. Direct Rule: France ruled the colonies directly. It was 2016/7b Nov
believed that France had sufficient men and women, Identify four qualifications for assimilation of indigenous
whom were ready to partake in the administration. Africans into French citizenship.
France was always of the opinion that their culture and Answer
civilization were the best in the world and their 1. Any West African born in any of the four communes
mission was to expose this culture and her rich heritage of the French Colonial Administration (Senegal).
to the world. France fought protracted wars with most 2. The person must provide evidence of good conducts
of these colonies before acquisition e.g. Senegal, and attestable behaviour from the French colonial
Upper Volta, Dahomey, etc. government.
3. Dual citizenship: West African citizens were given 3. Must have served with the French colonial government
dual citizenship based on the following attributes: for about 10 (ten) years.
4. Parents served the French masters’ for more than 10
years.
344
1992/6 Exercise 27.1 2022/3 Neco
What were the features of the French colonial The French colonialists adopted the policy of assimilation
administration in West Africa? because they considered African culture as
A. elaborate B. expensive C. inferior D. popular E.
THE POLICY OF ASSIMILATION superior
The Policy of assimilation was the official colonial policy Answer
of the French administration in West Africa. The System The French colonialists adopted the policy of assimilation
involved the imposition of French culture on the West because they considered African culture as inferior (C)
African Culture. It was meant to substitute the culture,
language, religion, law, mode of dressing, etc. of the 1988/48
people of West Africa with that of the French people. This The French policy of Assimilation
was imposed on the people of West Africa as a result of the A. was a device of transfer technology to Africa
beliefs in the superiority of French civilization and B. was the same in theory as the British policy of indirect rule
inferiority of African civilization. C. was aimed at converting Africans to Frenchmen
D. enabled the French to stay in Africa
However, this policy of assimilation was only put into E. produced well educated Africans who opposed the
practice in parts of Senegal (1920–1956) and they were policy
called the four (4) communes – Dakar, Goree, Rufisque Answer
and Saint Louis. The term “Commune” was used to The French policy of assimilation was aimed at converting
describe models of towns and villages in colonies as they Africans to Frenchmen. The system involves the
were in France. Assimilation was not adopted outside these imposition of French culture on the West African culture.
communes. The French man wants their colonies to do way with their
traditions, customs, beliefs, thought, traditional institution,
Features of the French Policy of Assimilation etc. (C)
1. The French policy of assimilation was a direct rule
method of administration. 1997/37
2. It was meant to substitute the culture, language, The French policy of Assimilation attempted to
religion, law, mode of dressing, etc., of the people of A. use chiefs as intermediaries between the government
West Africa with that of the French people. and the citizens
3. The policy was based on the arrogant belief in the B. Africanize the civil service
superiority of French civilization over that of the C. make the Africans think and behave like French citizens
Africans. D. allow Africans develop on their own
4. Frenchified elites were absorbed into the French social E. establish legislative council for the Africans
system. Answer
5. French-fried West Africans enjoyed the rights and The French policy of assimilation attempted to make the
privileges enjoyed by the French people. Africans think and behave like French citizens by doing away
6. The policy accorded French citizenship to West with Africa culture to embrace the French way of life. (C)
Africans.
7. The policy brought all West African French colonies 2000/47
together. The French policy of Assimilation in West Africa was a
8. Parish served as the base of centralized administration. form of
9. Educated elites were recognized and were involved in A. indirect rule B. direct rule C. democratic rule
the administration. D. monarchy
10. Traditional rulers were not recognized since they did Answer
not acquired the French culture and education. The French policy of Assimilation in West Africa was a
11. The colonies were governed according to laws made in form of direct rule. The French master’s ruled their
Paris. colonies directly without any intermediary. (B)
12. African represented their colonies in the French
Parliament in Paris, this is, in the House of Deputies. 2002/40 Neco
13. The people of the colonies were divided into citizens With which of the following did the French attempt to
and subjects. Citizens were those that acquired French change the African culture?
education and culture, and those that lived in the four A. socialization B. association C. assimilation
communes of Senegal-Dakar, St. Louis, Refisque and D. indirect rule
Goree. Subjects were the people who did not acquire Answer
French education and culture. The policy of assimilation was the official colonial policy
14. French subjects were subjected to ridicule policy of of the French administration in West Africa. The system
forced labour and indignant law. Indignant law was the involved the imposition of French culture on the West
right to arrest and imprison any French subject for up African culture. It was meant to substitute the culture,
to two years without trial by the French officials. language, religion, law, mode of dressing, etc. (C)
15. Education was limited/restricted as only the French
authority could established schools.
16. Formation of political parties and associations were
discouraged.
345
2005/40 Neco 7. French traders featured competition, so they opposed
The French policy of assimilation implied that the system.
A. the French transferred powers to Africans 8. It was expensive to implement the system because of
B. traditional rulers were recognized the vastness of the French empire.
C. African countries were granted independence 9. The French citizens in France feared that assimilies
D. Africans were modeled after the French would out number them in the lower house, therefore
Answer controlling them.
The French assimilation model was based on the idea of 10. Despite the assimilation, the French discriminated the
spreading French culture to these outre-mer colonies in the Africans by treating them as unequal.
19th and 20th century. As long as the French culture and 11. French acquisition of colonies was primarily
customs were adopted, natives of these colonies were motivated by economic interests in terms of getting
considered French citizens. (D) markets and raw materials for her industries.
12. No respect or regards for the people’s colony and
2009/40 Neco cultures.
The French colonial policy of Assimilation was first 13. Assimilation produced first class and second class
applied in citizens. Some West Africans were made citizens and
A. Conakry, Goree, Bamako and St. Louis others remained as subject.
B. Dakar, St. Louis, Goree and Conakry 14. Indigent policy was an obnoxious policy that received
C. Goree, Dakar, Bamako and Abidjan condemnation from the world. Africans could be
D. St. Louis, Dakar, Goree and Rufisque arrested and detained for two years and above without
Answer trails by the French administrators.
The policy of assimilation was only put into practice in 15. There was no formation of political parties and
parts of Senegal and they were called the four (4) association in assimilation policy.
communes–Dakar, Goree, Rufisque and Saint Louis. (D) 16. The West Africans expressed love of their culture and
traditions. It contributed to the failure of assimilation
2016/7a Neco policy.
Mention three former French colonies in West Africa 17. Adoption of French culture in assimilation policy led
Answer to the failure of assimilation.
1. Senegal 18. The policy of forced labour created hatred in the minds
2. Guinea of these subjects for the French people and thus
3. Mali contributed to the failure of the policy.
4. Niger 19. Nationalist activities were discouraged in all the
5. Ivory Coast French colonial administration.
6. Cote D’ Ivoire
7. Dahomey (Benin) Comparing Indirect Rule with the Policy of
8. Burkina Faso/Upper Assimilation
9. Mauritania S/N INDIRECT RULE POLICY OF
ASSIMILATION
2017/43 Neco Exercise 27.2 1. Indirect rule of colonial Direct rule of colonial
Policy of assimilation was successfully operated by the administration was administration was
French in used. used.
A. Lome B. Goree C. Bamako D. Abidjan 2. Made use of African Did not make use of
traditional chiefs. African traditional
1996/34 Exercise 27.3 chiefs.
The French policy of assimilation was based on the idea 3. Traditional rulers Traditional rulers did
that the African culture was served as the pivot of not serve as the pivot
A. expensive B. unwritten C. inferior indirect rule. of assimilation.
D. elaborate E. popular 4. Traditional laws and Traditional laws and
customs were used in customs were not used
Reasons for the Failure of the Policy of Assimilation the administration. in the administration.
1. The varied African cultures made it difficult for them 5. British officials did not French officials
to be absorbed into the French culture. exert their influence exerted their influence
2. The Africans were not able to get the French type of directly to the people directly to the people
education. There was limited right to education. but through the local not through the local
3. The Africans were not willing to change their religions chiefs. chiefs.
into Christianity. 6. The system was meant The system was not
4. They forced opposition from the Muslims for to assist in the meant to assist in the
conversion. development of the development of the
5. The French did not compete with the Africans for traditional political traditional political
cabinet posts and commercial activities. institutions for institutions for
6. African traditional rulers feared they would lose their effective effective
position. administration. administration.

346
7. The system did not The system disturbed 1992/40
disrupt the existing the existing traditional One of the criticisms against the policy of assimilation was
traditional system of system of that it
administrations and administrations and A. recognized the traditional rulers
political order. political order. B. ignored the educated elites
8. It was not an expensive It was an expensive C. did not recognize Africa culture as good enough
system of system of D. recognized all the communities in French West Africa
administration. administration. E. granted French citizenship to all the people in Senegal
9. The system was not The policy was based Answer
based on the arrogant on the arrogant belief The main reason for criticizing policy of assimilation was
belief in the superiority in the superiority of that, the policy did not recognized Africa culture as good
of British civilization French civilization enough. (C)
over that of Africans. over that of Africans.
10. It was not meant to It was meant to 2011/45 Neco
substitute the culture, substitute the culture,The late development of nationalism in French West
language, religion, law, language, religion, Africa was due to
mode of dressing etc., law, mode of dressing A. absorption of French colonial ex-service men into the
of the people of West etc., of the people of French army
Africa with that of the West Africa with that B. migration of the citizenry to British West Africa colonies
Britain. of the French. C. establishment of the traditional council of Chiefs
D. oppressive French colonial policies
2019/10 Nov Answer
Which of the following is a reason for the failure of the The oppressive French colonial policies led to the late
assimilation policy in French West Africa? development of nationalism in French West Africa. (D)
A. the change in the name of their culture
B. the refusal of Africans to be culturally colonized with 2011/7 Neco
the democratic policy of the French Why did the French abandon the policy of assimilation?
C. bribery of the opinion leaders by the French Answer
Answer 1. They policy of assimilation was an expensive policy.
Assimilation in Africa has to do with the French attempting 2. There was stiff resistance by West Africans against the
to turn Africans into model French citizens. They did this imposition of French.
by teaching the French language at schools and churches, 3. The policy was discriminatory against traditional
along with French history and other aspect of the French institutions.
culture. (B) 4. The rise of power of President Charles de Gaulle and
his determination to replace assimilation with
2016/7 Nov association etc.
Describe the factors that contributed to the failure of the
policy of Assimilation in the French West Africa colonies. 1996/42 Nov Exercise 27.4
Answer Which of the following was an effect of the French policy
1. Division of Africans into two/dual citizenship. of Assimilation on West Africa?
Assimilation produced first class and second class A. nationalist activities were discouraged
citizens. Some West Africans were made citizens and B. no African in the colonies became a French citizen
others remained as subjects. C. many colonies became independent
2. No respect or regard for the people’s colony, culture, D. its adoption led to the Second World War
customs and traditions. E. political parties became militant
3. No regards for their traditional rulers and traditional
institution. 2005/40 Nov Exercise 27.5
4. Indignant policy was an obnoxious policy commended The elite in French West African countries were against
by the whole world. the policy of Assimilation because
5. There was no formation of political parties and A. it relegated the culture and customs of their people
association in assimilation policy. B. it did not regard them as second class citizens
6. There was limited/restricted right for education by C. no schools were established in the colonies
non-citizens. D. the traditional rulers were involved in the administration
7. Assimilation policy has highly centralized
administration. 2003/8 Neco Exercise 27.6
8. The West Africans expressed the love of their culture Highlight the factors that contributed to the failure of the
and traditions. It led to the failure of assimilation. policy of assimilation in French West Africa colonies.
9. Adoption of French culture in assimilation policy led
to the failure of assimilation.
10. There were no local assemblies for Africans in their
various colonies.

347
THE POLICY OF ASSOCIATION 9. Freedom to leave Union: The people were given the
The policy of association was a political arrangement by option to leave the French Union if they wanted. In
which France granted some measure of autonomy to its view of this, Guinea opted out in 1958
former colonial territories. Through this policy, France was 10. Rights guaranteed: Personal rights and liberties were
able to secure the cooperation of the people and he made extend to all French West Africans. The people had the
greater use of their political institutions. The French policy right to vote and be voted for. They had the right to
of association in Africa was adopted to resolve the freedom of assembly and association and the right to
problems connected with the implementation of its engage in any economic activity of their choice.
assimilation policy.
Merits of French Colonial Policy
Features of the Association Policy 1. The policy of association which was adopted after the
The Association policy had a number of characteristics, Second World War accelerated the pace of
which includes the following: constitutional and political development for French
1. African culture recognized: Before this period, West Africa. Under the policy, France started to make
African culture was relegated to the background. plans for the ultimate independence of her colonies and
Those in Senegalese communes were seen as French there was increased participation of the people in
citizens and taught French culture. Traditional rulers politics. The French started to give some powers of
were appointed and deposed at the instance of French local administration to paramount chiefs.
authorities. The association policy put an end to these 2. The principle of association gave effect to a Loi Cadre
acts. The French government recognized African (the outline law) of 1956 which set French territories
institutions and values. The policy allowed for the on the path to self-government. The Loi Cadre
existence of cultural co-operation between the French recognized the separate existence of each territory in
and the West Africans. French West Africa, created a legislative assembly and
2. No more forced labour: Under the assimilation an executive council for each territory and granted
policy, the French subjects were subjected to forced universal adult suffrage.
labour and the indigent policy. They could be made to NB: The ‘loi cadre’ or framework law was formulated
do any form of work without the payment of in 1956. The law encompassed all the political and
compensation. They could be arrested, tried and constitutional changes or reforms introduced by the
imprisoned for the least offence committed. These French Government in 1956 to grant some autonomy
practices were stopped under the association policy. to its overseas colonial territories. As said above, the
3. No division of people: In the assimilation policy, changes did not come on their own but as a result of
people were divided into citizens and subjects. Those pressure mounted on the government from within and
in the Senegalese communes were regarded as French abroad.
citizens and those outside the communes were called The loi cadre was significant in the following aspects
French subjects. The policy of association abolished (a) The loi cadre abolished the policy of assimilation and
this division. Everybody was treated equally as French replaced it with association
subjects. Africans were not seen as French citizens any (b) It introduced universal adult suffrage for elections in
more. The people operated under the laws. There were the territories
no discriminatory laws again. (c) The distinction between French citizens and French
4. Governor-General appointed: A Governor-General subject was removed
was appointed by the French minister for Colonies. (d) The territorial assemblies were granted power to
The Governor-General administered the central make laws on all subjects.
government of the federation of French West Africa at (e) An executive council was established in each
territory under the control of the governor
Dakar. In each territory, there was a governor that
(f) A large council was established at the federal level to
managed its affairs.
coordinate the activities of the different territories
5. Political parties: the citizens of French West Africa (g) Each territory had its own public service.
were allowed to form political parties. As a result, the 3. The establishment of the French community in 1958
first political party was formed in the area in 1946. by General Charles de Gaulle was a product of the
6. National Assembly established: Each territory had a policies of assimilation and association. Guinea under
national assembly. The assembly was made up of Sekou Toure refused to be in the French Community
elected representatives of the people within the area. and she was granted independence.
7. Africans involved: The policy permitted Africans to 4. The principle granted independence to West Africa
be fully involved in the management of their affairs French territories. France under General de Gaulle
especially in the rural areas. Africans stepped into guided by the principle of association, granted
positions initially occupied by the French. Africans independence to each of all the French territories in
could engage in any form of business enterprise of West Africa in 1960 (apart from Guinea which was
their choice. granted independence in 1958) through individual
8. French Union formed: Under the association policy, negotiations.
the French empire was renamed French Union or 5. Today, French has very strong and close ties with her
French Community. The colonies became known as former colonies in West Africa and this is the after-
oversea territories. Each territory had the opportunity effect of French colonial policies of assimilation and
of being represented in the Union. association.
348
Demerits of French Colonial Policy 2016 /42 Neco
The following are the negative impacts of French colonial Which of the following polices was replaced by the French
policy on the political development of French speaking policy of association?
West Africa. A. apartheid B. Assimilation C. indirect rule
1. The principle of assimilation retarded the progress in D. Frenchification
constitutional and political development of French Answer
West Africa: As a result of the policy, France regarded Assimilation policy was replaced by the French policy of
her colonies as integral parts of France and had no plan association. (B)
for their independence. Moreover, the educated elite were
regarded as French citizens enjoying equal rights with the 1994/37
French people. The educated elite considered themselves After sometimes, the French replaced their colonial policy of
as French citizens and thus did not rise against the French assimilation with that of
colonisers as those in the British West Africa did. A. indirect rule B. Frenchification
Consequently, nationalist activities did not start in time C. direct administration D. association
in the French West African territories. E. ascription
2. Assimilation resulted in late development of local Answer
governments: At the early period of colonial rule, local The policy of association is causing Africans to be black
governments were not developed. In the British system, Frenchmen. Association acknowledges the Euro-African
local governments were developed around the native relationship should be mutual. (D)
authority, but in the French territories, the people were
directly administered. Paramount chiefs (canton and 1995/33
village chiefs) were used as agents of the commandant de The policy of association was adopted by the
cercle and chef de sub-division, they were in fact A. British to replace their policy of indirect rule
regarded as officials under the control of the French B. French to replace their policy of assimilation
colonial. C. British on their arrival in West Africa
3. The principle of assimilation was also responsible for D. French on their departure from West Africa
the late development of political parties: In the British E. French for their home government
territories, political parties developed from nationalist Answer
movements, but in French West Africa, these developed The policy of association was adopted by the French to
late. Moreover, the political parties followed the federal replace their policy of assimilation. (B)
arrangement of the colonies. Consequently, the parties
were not initially based on individual terror ties, e.g. the 2008/38 Neco
RDA party was political party for the whole French West The policy of association was introduced in the French
African terror ties. colonies by
4. Many people were not involved in politics and A. Jacques Chirac B. Charles De Gaulle
government: The centralization of government and direct C. Francois Milterand D. Nicholas Sarkozy
administration did not give the people the opportunity to Answer
participate in government and politics; consequently, the Charles De Gaulle was the person that introduced the policy of
people did not acquire the necessary political education association when he saw that, the policy of assimilation has
and training which are normally acquired from political failed. The policy of association is partnership of the Frenchmen
participation. with West African men. (B)
5. The principal of assimilation was responsible for the
1999/7
organization of all French territories in West Africa
a. Why was the policy of association introduced in French
into a federation: By the arrangement, each colony was
West Africa?
not autonomous. National policies institutions were not
1. There was a negative reaction from the assimilated
created in each territories early enough for the people to
be experienced in their institutions’ functioning as they elites towards the obnoxious policy.
2. The policy of assimilation was very expensive to
did in the British West African territories. Consequently,
operate because French men and women were fully
political institutions like the legislation did not developed
involved.
early in these areas. Furthermore, as a result of the federal
3. President De Gaulle replaced assimilation with
system, people did not manifest strong feelings of love,
loyalty and identity to their individual territories. Thisassociation.
4. France had to abandon the policy of assimilation
created the problem of lack of nationalism and identity to
one’s own country. because after the Second World War, the tempo of
nationalist activities in West Africa went up
2022/24 Neco drastically.
The policy of association was adopted by the b. Describe the characteristics of the policy
A. British on their arrival in West Africa 1. Dual citizenship was abolished to reflect the new
B. British to replace the policy of indirect rule policy of association.
C. French for their home government 2. The new policy of association accommodated the
D. French to replace the policy of assimilation formation of political parties.
E. Portuguese on their departure from Africa 3. France originally, did not recognize other culture
Answer outside the French culture but his new policy paved
The policy of association was adopted by the French to the way for her recognition of different cultures.
replace the policy of assimilation (D) 4. Local and national assemblies were created or
established in the colonies.
349
5. The new policy abolished forced labour, indignant Comparison between the British and French Colonial
policy and compulsory military service. Administrations
6. Education was liberalized to both citizens and non- 1. The French adopted direct rule system while the
citizens. British adopted indirect rule system.
7. Political institutions were recognized, the traditional 2. The primary aim of French colonialism was to create
rulers and chiefs were given powers/functions to French citizens out of assimilated Africans. British
perform. attitude of indirect rule was to colonize British subjects
not citizens.
Recommendation of the Brazzaville Conference 3. British indirect rule was a system of division of labour
1. The French would remain united. known as decentralization while the French
2. Semi-autonomous assemblies would be established in assimilation policy was highly centralized political
each colony. administration.
3. Citizens of France colonies would share equal rights 4. Britain recognized and respected the traditional
with French citizens. institutions. France destroyed the institution, they
4. Citizens of French colonies would have the right to appointed chiefs without consulting the people and the
vote for the French parliament. chiefs can be dismissed at anytime.
5. The native population would be employed in public 5. The French colonial masters disregarded the local
service positions within the colonies. language and culture of their colonies but laid much
6. Economic reforms would be made to diminish the emphasis in French language. Britain colonial masters
exploitative nature of the relationship. treated their colonies languages and culture with respect.
7. There should be African representatives in French 6. The French policy of assimilation was primarily aimed
chambers of deputies. at creating French citizens in all their colonies. The
8. There should be the retention of African traditional British did not pursue such policy. They want their
institution culture. colonies to remain themselves with their culture,
9. There should be expansion of agricultural and language and traditional intuitions.
educational services to all Africans. 7. The British believed the possibility for self-
government in their colonies while the France
excluded autonomy from her colonies.
Economic Policies and Developments in West Africa 8. The French colonies under France were made a
during the Colonial Period federation at Dakar and controlled by a French
1. Raw materials: Both colonies authorities (Britain and Governor–General creating uniformity in their colonies.
France) encouraged the people of West Africa to be Colonies under Britain developed differently (uneven).
fully involved in the production of raw materials for 9. British allowed legislative houses in colonies while the
their selfish interests. French had parliament in Paris with representatives from
2. Manufactured goods: Africans were used to fully their colonies.
participate in the production of raw materials and little 10. Britain allowed the formation of political associations
account was paid in returned. in her colonies. France opposed and suppressed the
3. Selfish economic policies: Both the French and British formation of political parties.
economic policies were selfish and mainly designed 11. There was mass education in British colonies, while
for their own benefits. limited/restriction of education in French colonies.
4. Cash Crops: The colonial masters mainly promoted
the production of cash crops and not food crops. 2003/37 Neco Exercise 27.7
5. Research centres: Research centres were set up The two main policies introduced by the French in West
mainly to see how to improve the yield of rubber, Africa were
cocoa, palm produces etc. and nothing was done to A. indirect rule and direct rule
improve the growing and preservation of yams, B. indirect rule and assimilation
cassava, etc. C. direct rule and indignant
6. No industries: There was no plan for the French and D. assimilation and association.
British colonial administrations to establish industries
in their West Africa colonies. 1989/6 Nov Exercise 27.8
7. Most of these cash crops produced in West Africa were Explain the French policies of assimilation and
sold to European businessmen at cheap rates. association.
8. Trade by barter: They abolished trade by barter as well
as the local currencies. The Negative and Positive Impact of Colonialism
9. Transportation: Railway and roads were made down What are the positive and negative effects of colonialism
to the coast to serve their economy purposes and to in Africa? Often times, people criticize colonialism,
facilitate the movement of soldiers and policies. highlighting only the negative effects it had on Africa. The
10. Communication: Telegram, post office and postal truth is that, colonial rule did not just have negative
orders were made available for easier communication impacts. There are areas where it really contributed
among the colonies. positively and Africa is still enjoying some of those
positive effects till today. One of those areas is the
exposure to western education. Today, Africans value and
enjoy the benefits of the introduction of western education.
350
We can now communicate with people from other 9. Puppets: Most states lost their power and
continents, join international organizations and even enter independence irrespective of whether they were big
into contract with countries in other continent just because empires or small polities. Certain traditional rulers
of western education. were kept in office and the formal structure of some
kingdoms or empires were partially retained but
That notwithstanding, it does not override the fact that political power had passed into the hands of foreign
colonialism had negative impacts too. We are going to overlords. Sometimes, some African rulers were
cover both the positive and negative effects of colonialism chosen to serve as agents of foreign colonial rulers and
in Africa. they were obviously nothing but puppets.
10. Education: The type of education introduced by the
Negative Impact of Colonialism colonialists laid emphasis on reading, writing and
1. Means of communication: They were not constructed arithmetic. Technical, vocational and science
for the benefits of Africans. They were not laid down education were neglected. Thus the educational system
to facilitate internal trade in African communities. All produced person who were qualified only for local
roads and rail ways led to the sea. They were built to administration at the lowest rank, and relegated other
extract cotton, gold, palm produce, groundnut, cocoa white-collar jobs, as they were off- limits to the
etc. Africans. This retarded the rate of economic, social,
2. Economic dependence and exploitation: In as much technological and political development of West
that the colonialism brought development into Africa, Africa.
it was also a form of exploitation too. The idea of 11. Cultural imperialism: Chinua Achebe’s Things Fall
colonialism was introduced to make Africa forever Apart has already said much on this. From that book,
dependent on the colonial masters. They took all the we could see how the colonial masters treated African
wealth and resources of Africa to their own country. culture as inferior and theirs as superior. They
During the time of colonialism, people were highly disregarded African culture, changed anything that
taxed by the colonial Masters so as to generate funds wasn’t in their favor and made gullible African to see
to make their plans of colonization successful. the new culture as the best. The local language of
Coupled with that, the colonial masters made sure that Africans, religions, names, education, dress, music,
they were in charge of all the metropolitan industries, sport etc. were replaced with foreign ones.
thus making Africans economically dependent on the 12. Alienation of people from the government: Before
colonizers. the inception of colonialism, Africans had a type of
3. Human resources development: Colonialism failed political system were everybody took part in the
to advance Africa along the path of human resources political decision making of their state. But when the
development. colonial master introduced their own system of
4. African raw-materials: The industries using African government, a lot of Africans were no longer allowed
raw-materials were located outside Africa, thus there to participate in the political decision making of their
could be no beneficial backward and forward linkages nation. This was one of the causes of the Aba women
inside Africa. For example, after the Second World riot of 1929.
War, Guinea began to export Bauxite. In the hands of 13. Production of cash crops: They concentrated their
French and American capitalists, the bauxite became efforts in the areas of producing cash crops e.g. cocoa,
aluminum and it went into the making of electrical cotton, palm produce, groundnut etc. for industries in
conductors, kitchen utensils, glass etc. but in Guinea, Europe without efforts made to encourage the people
the colonial bauxite mining activities left holes in the to go into the production of food crops.
ground, which led to erosions.
5. Negation of freedom: Colonialism was a negation of Positive Effects of Colonial Rule in West Africa
freedom. It could not possibly bring modern political 1. Introduction of Modern Ideas of Government: The
liberation to Africans. political culture of liberal democracy is introduced;
6. Colonialism creates problem of Unity: Colonial rule legislative body for law making, the executive for the
has divided the countries in West Africa into two major enforcement of law and the judiciary for the
groups – the English speaking and French speaking interpretation of laws. The people now have certain
countries. This is one of the problems facing opportunities of writing down their constitutions. The
ECOWAS. introduction of elections through the ballot and the
7. Introduction of the Salve Trade, Deportation and changes from monarchy to republicanism is a result of
Humiliation of African: Perhaps the greatest damage colonialism.
of colonialism was the introduction of the salve trade 2. Creation of Larger Political Units: Colonialism
which reduced the populations of able-bodied men in brought together as one big state formerly independent
the colonial territories. Colonial rule was also and sovereign emirates, kingdoms, communities and
accompanied by humiliation and deportation and even ethnic groups. Nigeria is an example. The
total elimination of certain West African leaders. Oba geographical entity known today as Nigeria was not in
Overamwen was deported in 1896 after the Benin existence before the advent of the colonialists.
Massacre; and later died in exile. 3. Development of the Civil Service: The civil services
8. Set of indigenous cultural goals: African ceased to of the colonies were developed and made uniform with
set indigenous cultural goals and standards and lost full those of the colonial masters.
command of training young members of the society.
351
4. Development of Political Parties: Before the coming 13. The Commonwealth: This organization was formed
of colonialism the concept of political parties and to bring together all former colonies under Britain
election was abstract in Africa. It was the colonialism and Britain itself. They co-operate among themselves
that necessitated the creation of political parties and in different areas of human endeavor, e.g. sports,
elections, which became the formal way of choosing scholarship programme etc.
political leaders.
The idea of political parties came into place due to the 2022/9 Exercise 27.9
struggle for independence. Indirectly, it can be seen Highlight five positive impacts of British and French
that colonialism actually caused the establishment of colonial administration in West Africa
political parties in Africa. In Nigeria for instance,
political parties like NCNC, UPC, NNDP, AG etc.,
were established to stand against colonialism in the IMPERIALISM
Imperialism is policy of extending the rule or authority of
country.
an empire or nation over foreign countries, or of acquiring
5. Introduction of Money Currency and
and holding colonies and dependencies. Imperial
Establishment of Banks: This replaced trade by
government is ruled by an emperor or empress.
barter and the cumbersome currency of iron bars and
cowries. In 1912, the first silver coins were introduced Imperialism is a state policy, practice or advocacy of
by the British, and the West African Currency Board extending power and dominion, especially by direct
set up to supply currency to British West African territorial acquisition or by gaining political and economic
Colonies. The colonial Bank was also established in control of other areas. It always involves the use of power,
1917. whether military or economic or some subler from,
6. Establishment of Trade Relations: West African imperialism has often been considered morally
Countries established trade relations with their reprehensible, and the term is frequently employed in
formation colonial masters, Britain and France are the international propaganda to denounce and discredit an
major trading partner with their respective former opponent’s foreign policy.
colonies in West Africa.
7. Common Central Bank: Colonialism in Africa also NEO-COLONIALISM
introduced a common central bank in the French Neocolonialism is the practice of using economics,
colony. Though this is with the exception of Guinea. globalization, cultural imperialism and conditional aid to
The introduction of a central bank which supplied all influence a country instead of the previous colonial
the French colonies the same currency helped to methods of direct military control (imperialism) or indirect
promote inter-state trade among the colonies. political control (hegemony).
8. Common Language and Legal System: Colonialism
promoted the development of common languages Neocolonialism has been broadly understood as a further
among colonial territories: English by those colonized development of capitalism that enables capitalist powers
by Britain, and French by those colonized by France. (both nations and corporations) to dominate subject nations
The British and French legal systems were through the operations of international capitalism rather
improvements on the African traditional legal systems. than by means of direct rule. In 1965, Kwame Nkrumah,
It stopped such acts as human sacrifice, torture, who became Ghana’s first president, coined the word neo-
banishment etc. colonialism to describe the influence of the former
9. Exposure to Western Education: The colonialists imperial nations on the ex-colonies in the areas of
built schools and colleges in their colonies which economy, language, culture and political philosophy.
enabled most African to acquire western education.
Most African states have consistently demonstrated this
The knowledge of English and French language helps
neo-colonial tendency by maintaining diplomatic links
West Africans to communicate easily with the outside
with either the West or the East bloc and accepting aids
world.
from both blocs.
10. Development of Modern Transport and
Therefore, as a result of their dependence on foreign aid,
Communication Systems: Railways, seaports,
the foreign policy of most of them is skewed in favour of
airways, roads, bridges and communication facilities
their former colonial masters.
constructed by the colonial masters helped to remove
the barrier of movement between West African states 2006/20 (OAU, IFE)
and opened up the countries to modern civilization. Which of the following best describes French colonial
11. Military and technical aid: Some former colonial policy in Africa?
territories especially the French territories, receive A. policy of association B. policy of casus belli
military and technical aid from their former colonial C. policy of hostility D. policy of assimilation
masters. Answer – D
12. Emergence of the press: Another impact of Policy of Assimilation best describes French colonial
colonialism was the emergence of the press, policy in Africa. The policy or system involves the
especially, the print media (newspaper). The press imposition of French culture on the West African culture.
developed and became the mouthpiece of the people in It is the people’s ways of life, traditions, customs, beliefs,
the struggle for political independence. thought, traditional institution etc. which would give way
to a more ‘advanced’ French culture and civilization.

352
2008/1 (OAU,IFE) 2007/38 UTME
The French colonial policy of assimilation was intended Acculturation in colonial administration was associated
A. to transfer technology to Africa with the
B. to make Frenchmen out of Africans A. French policy of assimilation
C. to produce well educated Africans B. British policy of direct rule
D. to prepare Africans for the Olympic Game C. French policy of association
Answer – B D. British indirect rule system
The French colonial policy of assimilation was intended to Answer – A
make Frenchmen out of Africans. The policy wants to turn Acculturation in colonial administration was associated
all African to Frenchmen through their culture, belief, with the French policy of assimilation. Acculturation is a
dressing, etc. process of social, psychological, and cultural change that
stems from the balancing of two cultures while adapting to
2010/25 UTME the prevailing culture of the society. Acculturation is a
France introduced the policy of assimilation in her colonies process in which an individual adopts, acquires and adjusts
primarily to to a new cultural environment.
A. teach them the art of leadership
B. give them a sound education 1978/43 UTME
C. change their way of life The French idea of assimilation as applied in their colonies
D. discourage them from ritual killings A. was to make Frenchmen out of African subjects
Answer – C B. would have been allowed to produce more Frenchmen
The France (French) introduced the policy of an in the colonies than in France itself
assimilation to her colonies primarily to change their ways C. recognized real value in traditional African culture and
of life from Africans to French men and women. was merely aimed at upgrading it
D. produced nothing but African puppets in the colonies
2005/39 Neco E. was abandoned with a couple of years of its operation
The policy of indigent was practiced in the colonies Answer – A
controlled by The French idea of assimilation as applied in their colonies
A. Belgium B. Portugal C. Britain D. France policy was to make Frenchmen out of African subjects.
Answer
The Indigent policy was practiced in the French colonies, 1978/28 UTME
where the ‘black’ man was subject to the ‘White’ man and The French pattern of colonial administration in West
the white man being a French citizen had the right to Africa
punish their subject in most cases with imprisonment in A. was basically the same as the British
acts of insubordination or disloyalty. B. had as its primary objective, the development of the
colonial territories
2002/40 Nov C. was based on the principle of assimilation
The indigent policy in the French colonies was meant to D. included the policy of indirect rule
A. punish offenders through a summary trial E. involved the settlement of a very large number of French
B. raise the standard of living of the people people in West Africa
C. educate the people of the colonies Answer – C
D. unite the people of the colonies The French pattern of colonial administration in West
Answer Africa was based on the principle of assimilation.
The Indigent policy in the French colonies was a policy in Assimilation was predicated on a presumption of the
which French administrators could beat African and superiority of French culture and civilization as party of
imprison them for up to 2 years without trial (A) the French policy in their colonies.

1980/40 UTME 1981/32 UTME

The French policy of Assimilation Cultural assimilation was a feature of
A. enabled Europeans to assimilate and come to terms with A. French colonial policy in Africa
African cultural values B. the Portuguese rule in Angola
B. produced radical African leaders who were anxious to C. the British rule in Africa
terminate cordial relationships with France D. king Leopold’s rule in the Congo
C. was aimed at converting Africans into Frenchmen E. A and B
D. was the same in theory as the British policy indirect rule Answer – E
E. was a device to transfer French technology to Africa Cultural assimilation was a feature of French colonial
Answer – C policy in Africa and the Portuguese rule in Angola. These
The French policy of assimilation was aimed at converting implied, unquestioned acceptance of French and
Africans into French men. Portuguese languages, dressing, foods, education,
mannerism and ways of life distinguished France and
Portugal from its colonial peers.

353
2003/43 UTME for the overall profit of the colony and metropolis. In
The main constraint on Nigeria-Francophone West African theory, the new policy was supposed to respect African
Cooperation is culture and institutions. The association also was
A. cultural differences B. ideological differences considered more cost – effective, and less prone to local
C. economic dependence D. poor road network resistance. (B)
Answer – A
The main constraint on Nigeria-Francophone West Africa 2005/23 UTME
Cooperation is cultural differences. The failure of the assimilation policy necessitated the
introduction of
2011/27 UTME A. indirect rule B. direct rule C. association
The French colonial system was underlined by the policy D. paternalism
of Answer
A. assimilation B. paternalism C. socialism D. indirect rule As a result of intensive oppositions and worldwide
Answer – A condemnation, France therefore decided to abolish the
The French colonial system was underlined by the policy policy of assimilation and embrace that of association
of assimilation. which involves respect and recognition of the people’s
culture, each colony is allowed to develop in the way
2018/2019/84 (UNIZIK, AWKA) acceptable to them, the indignant policy was abolished.
The French policy assimilation was based in the idea that Abolition of first class and second class citizenship,
the African culture was freedom of assembly and of forming political association
A. expensive B. unwritten C. interior D. elaborate was permitted. (C)
Answer – C
The French policy of assimilation was based on the idea 1996/39 Nov
that the African culture was interior. The French policy of The basic feature of the French colonial administration in
assimilation have no regard of the people’s culture. West Africa was the policy of
A. association B. accountability C. decolonization
2012/2013/45 (UNIZIK, AWKA) D. assimilation E. indirect rule
The abolition of the “indignant” was effected in French Answer
colonies in The policy of assimilation was one of the main features of
A. 1943 B. 1944 C. 1946 D. 1956 E. 1958 French colonial administration in West Africa because
Answer – C they are of the opinion that their culture and civilization
Indignant was abolished in 1946 in French colonies. were the best in the world and their mission was to expose
Indignant was an obnoxious policy that received world the culture and her rich heritage. (D)
condemnation. West Africans could be arrested and
detained for two years without trial by the French 2014/39 Neco
administrators. The following were features of the French policy of
Assimilation except
2009/2010/74 (NDU, BAYELSA) A. centralization administration
Which of the following countries was a former French B. recognition of chieftaincy institution
territory in West Africa? C. limited education D. indignant policy
A. the Gambia B. Ghana C. Liberia D. Senegal Answer
Answer – D Policy of assimilation has no recognition of the traditional
Senegal was a former French territory in West Africa. The rulers or chief, the French administrator appointed them as
establishment of Senegal as a French colony is merely one their auxiliary officials. Their appointment can be
part of the French colonial effort in West Africa during the terminated at anytime, they were mainly used for tax
1880s and 1890s. Senegal therefore, remains at the centre collection and rates. (B)
of France’s West African empire, until all the separate
colonies with their independence in 1960. 2000/40 Nov
Which of the following is not a feature of the French policy
2018/18 UTME of Assimilation?
The policy of association was adopted by the A. encouragement of Africans to form political parties
A. British to replace their policy of indirect rule B. centralized system of administration
B. French to replace their policy of assimilation C. colonial representation in the French national assembly
C. British on their arrival in West Africa in Paris
D. French on their departure from West Africa D. forced labour and indigents policies
Answer Answer
The policy of association was adopted by the French to Encouragement of Africans to form a political parties was
replace their policy of assimilation. The French policy of not a features of a French policy of assimilation. (A
association in Africa was adopted to resolve the problems
connected with the implementation of its assimilation
policy. Rather than causing Africans to be black
Frenchmen, the association acknowledged that the Euro-
African relationship should be one of mutual cooperation
354
1993/40 9. The central aim of the Loi cadre was to
Which of the following is true of the French Colonial A. concede territorial autonomy to French West
policy of assimilation? African colonies
A. was similar in essence to the British colonial policy of B. grant independence to West Africa colonies
indirect rule C. stop African from attending the French senate
B. enabled France to transfer technology to its colonies D. dismantle the French Union
C. enabled France to transfer capital to its colonies E. decentralize the government of the communes
D. was used to turn Frenchmen to Africans 10. The basic element of French colonial Administration
E. sought to integrate French colonies with France in West Africa was the policy of
administrationlly, politically and culturally A. association B. assimilation C. decolonization
Answer D. divide and rule E. indirect rule
The true features of French colonial policy of assimilation 11. The French divided each of their West African
was sought to integrate French colonies with France colonies into
administratively, politically and culturally. (E) A. circles B. councils C. state D. localities
12. Assimilation, as a colonial policy, emphasized that
1988/50 A. Africans were superior to the Europeans
The use of forced labour was one of the features of B. Europeans were more educated than the Africans
A. British colonial policy B. French colonial policy C. African culture was the same as that of the Europeans
C. American colonial policy D. Japanese colonial policy D. African culture was inferior to that of the French E.
E. divide and rule policy French culture was well documented.
Answer 13. Discuss five features of French colonial
The use of forced labour was one of the features of French administration.
colonial policy or administration. (B) 14. Define colonialism.
15. Explain assimilation and association policies in French
colonies.
REVISION EXERCISES 16. What is imperialism?
1. The French colonial policy of assimilation failed in 17. Discuss five negative and positive impact of
Africa because colonialism.
A. African culture was deeply rooted 18. State any seven recommendation of the Brazzaville
B. the African elite opposed to it was not consistently conference of 1944.
implemented 19. Mention four communes in Senegal.
D. it was expensive to implement 20. Explain any four reasons why the Europeans colonized
2. One effect of the French policy of assimilation was that West Africa.
it 21. State the main features of the direct rule system in any
A. made all French West Africans French citizens one of French colony in West Africa.
B. increased nationalism activities in French West Africa
C. delayed nationalism in French West Africa
D. expanded education into the interior of French West
Africa
3. The policy which sought to turn Africans into
Frenchmen and rule them through institutions similar
to those in France was
A. assimilation B. association C. loi-cadre
D. Africanization
4. The policy of indignant was practiced in the colonies
controlled by
A. Belgium B. Portugal C. Britain D. France
5. The French policy of direct rule was also called
A. association B. indirect rule
C. integration D. divide and rule
6. Which colonial administration is West Africa sought
to integrate her colonies with their home country?
A. British B. Dutch C. French D. Danes
7. One of the criticisms against the policy of assimilation
was that it
A. did not recognize African culture as good enough
B. granted French citizenship to all the people in Senegal
C. ignored the educated elite
D. recognized the traditional ruler
8. The Europeans were able to acquire colonies in Africa
because of their
A. education B. religion C. dressing
D. superior military power
355
1996/44 Nov
Chapter Twenty Eight Which of the following best explains the meaning of
nationalism?
NATIONALISM A. consciousness of belonging to one political party
Nationalism is loyalty and devotion to one’s nation, B. tendency for people of the same race to think alike
C. conscious efforts of people of the same nation to resist
especially a sense of national consciousness, exalting one’s
foreign rule
nation above all others and placing primary emphasis on D. conscious effect of the black people to form a
promotion of its culture, norms and interest as opposed to continental government
other nations. E. struggle of the black race in the Diaspora to return to
Africa
Nationalism is an awareness by people who share some Answer
common interest or heritage that they belong to a nation- Nationalism is an awareness by people who share some
common interest or heritage that they belong to a nation-
state. Such awareness usually arouses in the people the
state. Such awareness usually arouses in the people the
desire to be free from foreign rule or domination. desire to be free from foreign rule or domination. (C)
Nationalism was one of the problems that led to the civil
war. 1998/7a Exercise 28.1
Define nationalism.
Nationalism is defined as being devoted to one’s country,
or the feeling that your nation is far better than any other
Types of Nationalism
strange land. Nationalism is also the feeling that one’s Nationalism is classified into two forms:
nation should be given the access to act independently in 1. Proto–nationalism.
taking decisions. 2. Modern–nationalism.

As a collective phenomenon, national identity can arise as PROTO NATIONALISM

a direct result of the presence of elements from the Proto-nationalism refers to the activities geared towards
inclusiveness in the administration of the colonies before
“common points” in people’s daily lives: national symbols,
the commencement of the Second World War. The proto-
language, the nation’s history, national consciousness, and nationalists demanded for Africans representations in the
cultural artifacts. executive council, since there was none to take decision on
behalf of the Africans. They also requested for the
Nationalism in the African context may be defined as the increment of Africans in the legislative councils.
struggles by Africans to free themselves from foreign rule,
and to determine, after independence has been won, their 2018/7 Neco
own future. In the period before the Second World War, a. What is proto nationalism?
Proto-nationalism was the activities of the nationalist
nationalism was aimed at resolving certain grievances of
movements which geared toward reforms and
the elites. The nationalists demanded better prices for participation of the native in the colonial
agricultural commodities and fair treatment for African administration rather than for immediate self-
businessmen and merchants in their competition with government.
Europeans who dominated the economy. Africans also
wanted representation in the legislative councils which b. Identify four feature of proto-nationalism.
1. Demands of the nationalists were aimed at reforms
usually had European majority. In the social field, they
and participation in the colonials administration.
complained about discrimination in the civil service, 2. Movements formed under proto-nationalism were
disparity in salaries between European and Africans and elitists.
inadequate educational facilities. Africans did not, in any 3. The proto-nationalism organizers employed
way, seek to undermine the colonial system. They merely constitutional and nonviolent means in seeking
sought for reforms and they employed a peaceful approach. redress.
The nationalists wrote petitions and carried out peaceful 4. The leaders were conservative; their activities
were restricted to the urban centres.
campaigns.
5. Their activities were more popular along the
coastal areas.
This method, however, changed drastically after the 6. It was also characterized by youth movement.
Second World War. The nationalists embarked upon mass
demonstrations, strikes and civil disobedience. They PROMINENT NATIONALISTS IN NIGERIA
condemned colonialism and called for immediate HERBERT SAMUEL MACAULAY
independence. Olayinka Herbert Samuel Badmus Macaulay (14th
November, 1864 – 7th May, 1946) He was the seventh
child of Reverend Thomas Babington Macaulay and
Abigail Macaulay (daughter of Bishop Ajayi Crowther).
356
He attended Paul’s Anglican School, Breadfruit Street and said, was recognized by all Nigerians as the rightful king
C.M.S Day School, Faji both in Lagos. He was later of Lagos. This episode embarrassed the British, although it
admitted into the C.M.S Grammar School, Lagos. He left did not deter their activities, and established Macaulay as
the school in 1880 after his secondary education, which a leading advocate of the rights of traditional leadership in
was four years then. Lagos.

He was employed as a Clerical Assistant in the Public In 1922, a new Nigerian constitution was introduced
Works Department in Lagos. He was recognized as a providing for limited franchise elections in Lagos and
promising civil servant and in 1890 was awarded a Calabar. In order to contest the three elective seats in
government scholarship to study civil engineering in Lagos, Macaulay organized the Nigerian National
England, where he spent 3 years. Upon his return to Lagos, Democratic Party (NNDP). The platform of the NNDP
he was appointed surveyor of crown lands for the colony sought self-government for Lagos, the introduction of
of Lagos, a position he held until 1898, when he resigned institutions of higher education into Nigeria, compulsory
the post. primary school education, the Africanization of the civil
service, and non-discrimination in the development of
private economic enterprise.

Macaulay’s political activities were limited to Lagos

affairs until the very end of his life, when the quest for
independence began to pervade all Nigerian. He presided
in 1944 at the meeting of the Nigerian Union of Students,
from which ultimately emerged the National Council of
Nigeria and the Cameroons (NCNC), Nigeria’s first
national political party. Macaulay was elected president of
the NCNC and was engaged in a national tour for the party
in 1945, when he was taken ill and had to return to Lagos,
where he was treated by Dr. Ibikunle Olorunnmbe, his
personal physician and political associate in NCNC. He
died on May 7, 1946.

DR. BENJAMIN NNAMDI AZIKIWE

He is usually referred to as Nnamdi Azikiwe and popularly
known as “ZIK”, he was one of the leading figures of
modern Nigerian nationalism who became the first
president of Nigeria, after Nigeria secured its
independence from the United Kingdom on 1st October,
1960. He was the president throughout the First Republic.
Herbert Samuel Macaulay (1864 – 1946)

Macaulay’s resignation seems to have been precipitated by

his growing resentment for the racial discrimination
practiced by Europeans in the civil service. He established
himself as a private surveyor in Lagos and slowly over the
ensuing years emerged as spokesman for opposition to
British rule in Lagos and all Nigeria. Macaulay addressed
himself to numerous issues, usually in articles he
contributed to the Lagos Daily Times. He opposed every
attempt by the British authorities to expand their
administration, interpreting these developments as
detrimental to the interests of indigenous Nigerians, who
inevitably would be forced to pay the bills in taxes. He
agitated against the payment of water rates in 1915 and, as
a leader of the Lagos auxiliary of the Antislavery and
Aborigines Protection Society, led the opposition against
government plans to reform land tenure arrangements in
Lagos and Yorubaland.

Through his antigovernment activities, Macaulay rose to Dr. Benjamin Nnamdi Azikiwe (1904 – 1996)
prominence in Lagos politics. In 1921, he was sent to
London by the Eleko, or king of Lagos to represent him in Nnamdi Azikiwe was born on November 16th, 1904, of
the legal appeal of a local land tenure case. In London, Igbo parents in Zungeru, Niger State, Northern Nigeria,
Macaulay proclaimed that the British colonial government where his father worked as a clerk in the Nigerian
was eroding the power and authority of the Eleko, who, he Regiment. He attended school in Onitsha, Lagos and
357
Calabar. He was fluent in the languages of the major ethnic
groups of Nigeria–the Hausas, Yorubas and Igbos. In 1925,
Azikiwe went to the United States to study. He attended
Storer College and then Howard and Lincoln Universities.
He received a Bachelor of Arts Degree in political science
from Lincoln and advanced degrees from Lincoln in 1932
and University of Pennsylvania in 1933. As a black
penurious student (nicknamed zik), Azikiwe worked at a
wide range of mostly lowly jobs and was frequently a
victim of racial discrimination. His American experience
was certainly a source of his pan–African patriotism.

Azikiwe also became directly involved in political

movements. In 1937, he joined the Nigerian Youth
Movement, leaving it for the Nigerian National
Democratic Party in 1941. In 1944, on Azikiwe initiative,
the National Council of Nigeria and the Cameroons
(NCNC) was founded to “weld the heterogeneous masses
of Nigeria into one solid block. Azikiwe was elected the
council’s secretary and in 1946 its president. In this period,
his major political writings, apart from his newspapers
articles, were political blue print of Nigeria and economic
reconstruction in Nigeria.

Between 1947 and 1960 Azikiwe, as leader of the NCNC,

held a number of elected public offices. He was a member
of the Nigeria Legislative Council (1947–1951), member
of the Western House of Assembly (1952–1953), Premier Chief Obafemi Jermiah Awolowo (1909 – 1987)
of the Eastern Region (1954–1959). He greatly expanded
educational facilities in the Eastern Region and laid the Awolowo was nicknamed (Awo), he was an active
foundation of the University of Nigeria at Nsukka, journalist, editing publications such as the Nigerian
formally opened in September, 1960. worker, on top of others as well. After receiving his
bachelors of commerce degree, he travelled to London to
On October 1 , 1960 Nigeria became independent and pursue his degree in Law. Obafemi Awolowo was the first
st

Azikiwe was appointed Governor General with the prime premier of the Western region and later Federal
ministership going to Sir Alhaji Abubakar Tafawa Balewa, Commissioner for finance, and vice chairman of the
deputy governor general of the Northern People congress, Federal Executive council during the Nigerian civil war.
the largest single party of the federation. On October 1st, He was thrice a major contender for his country’s highest
1963, Nigeria became a republic, and Azikiwe was named office.
its first president, a position he held until he was deposed
by the military coup of January 15, 1966. A native of Ikenne in Ogun State of South–Western
Nigeria, he started his career, like some of his well–known
In the Nigerian–Biafran Civil war, May 1967– January, contemporaries, as a nationalist in the Nigerian Youth
1970, Azikiwe at first reluctantly supported Biafra, but in Movement in which he rose to become western provincial
August, 1969 came out against Biafran succession and in secretary. Awolowo was responsible for much of the
favour of a united Nigeria. From 1978–1983 Azikiwe led progressive social legislation that has made Nigeria a
the Nigeria People’s Party (NPP); he was the NPP’s modern nation. Awolowo was the first leader of
Presidential candidate in 1979 and 1983 general elections. Government Business and Minster of Local Government
He retired from politics in 1986. and Finance, and first premier of the western region under
Nigeria’s parliamentary system, from 1952 to 1959. He
Azikiwe died in Eastern Nigeria on May 11, 1996, was the official leader of the opposition in the federal
following a long illness. Marking his death, the New York parliament to the Balewa government from 1959 to 1963.
Times commented that Azikiwe “Towered over the affairs In 1963 he was imprisoned under the accusations of
of Africa’s most populous nation. sedition and was not pardoned by the government until
1966, after which he assumed the role as Minister of
CHIEF OBAFEMI JEREMIAH OYENIYI AWOLOWO Finance. Awolowo was the first individual in the modern
Chief Obafemi Jeremiah Awolowo was born on 6th March, era to be named as the leader of the Yorubas. Asiwaju
1909. He was a Nigerian nationalist and Staterian who Awon Yoruba or Asiwaju Omo Oodua. He died at Ikenne,
th
played a key role in Nigeria’s independence movement, the Ogun State on 9 May, 1987 aged 78 years.
first and second Republic and the civil war. The son of a
Yoruba farmer, he was one of the truly self–made men Awolowo was the leader who believed that the state should
among his contemporaries in Nigeria. channel Nigeria’s resources into education and state – led
infrastructural development and he introduced free
358
primary education for all in the Western Region. He also Assembly, and became a member of the regional executive
established the first television service in Africa in 1959, council as minister of works. Ahmadu Bello was
and he also established the Oduduwa group with the high successively minister of works of local government and
lucrative cocoa industry which was the mainstream of the community Development in the Northern Region of
region’s economy. Nigeria. In 1954, Bello became the first premier of
Northern Nigeria. In the 1959 Independence elections,
ALHAJI (SIR) AHMADU BELLO Bello led the NPC to win a plurality of the parliamentary
Alhaji Ahmadu Bello was born on 12 June, 1910 and was seats. Bello’s NPC alliance with Dr. Azikiwe’s NCNC to
the first premier of the Northern Nigeria region from 1954– form Nigeria’s first indigenous government which led to
1966. He was one of the prominent leaders in Northern independence from Britain.
Nigeria alongside Abubakar Tafawa Balewa, both of
whom were prominent in negotiations about the region’s Ahmadu Bello was assassinated on 15 January, 1966 by
place in an independent Nigeria. As leader of the northern Major Chukwuma Kaduna Nzeogwu an Igbo Nigerian
people’s congress, the party was able to win the 1959 Army Officer in a coup which toppled Nigeria’s post –
parliamentary elections. However, he was assassinated on independence government.
January 15, 1966. He was born in Rabbah, Sokoto State.
The son of a district head and heir to the throne of the ALHAJI ABUBAKAR TAFAWA BALEWA
Sokoto emirate. His great grandfather was Sultan Bello, Abubakar Tafawa Balewa was born in December, 1912, in
the founder of Sokoto and son of the revered Usman Dan Tafawa Balewa, North East State, Nigeria, now Bauchi
Fodio. Ahmadu Bello received his education first at the State. Abubakar Tafawa Balewa was from a humble
Sokoto provincial school, the only modern school at the background, his father having been a client to a district
time in the Sokoto province. Then, he proceeded to the head. He attended Katsina Teacher Training College (1928
Kastina Teacher’s Training College. He was appointed by – 1933), he was a teacher and later headmaster of the
the Sultan to become a teacher at the Sokoto Middle Bauchi Middle School. He studied at the London
School. He was made the district head of Rabbah, four University Institute of Education (1945 – 1946), where he
years later; he was promoted and sent to Gussau to become received a teacher’s certificate in History.
a divisional head.

Alhaji Abubakar Tafawa Balewa (1912 – 1966)

During World War II, Tafawa Balewa had become

interested in political activities. In 1943, he founded the
Bauchi Discussion circle, an organization interested in
political reform. In 1948, he was elected Vice President of
the Northern Teacher’s Association, the first trade union in
Northern Nigeria. In 1948, he helped organize the
Alhaji (Sir) Ahmadu Bello (1910 – 1966) Northern People’s Congress (NPC), originally conceived
as a cultural organization but by 1951 a political party.
In 1934, he made an unsuccessful bid to become the new
Sultan of Sokoto. The title of Sultan of Sokoto was In 1946, Tafawa Balewa had been selected by the Bauchi
conferred upon Sir Ahmadu Bello, the traditional honorary Native Authority as their representative to the Northern
title of Sarduna. He was offered a scholarship to study local House of Assembly, and the House of Assembly in turn
government administration in England. After returning selected him to become a member of the Nigerian
from England, he was nominated to represent the province Legislative council. In 1951, in the North’s first election,
of Sokoto in the regional House of Assembly. As a member Tafawa Balewa won seats in the Northern House of
of the assembly, he was a notable voice for the northern Assembly and in the House of Representatives in Lagos,
interest and embraced a style of consultation and where he became a minister in the central council. In 1952
consensus with the major representatives of the northern he became Nigerian minister of works and in 1954,
emirates: Kano, Bornu and Sokoto. minister of transport and the senior minister and leader of
the NPC in the House of Representatives. In 1957, he
In the first election held in Northern Nigeria in 1951, Sir became the first prime minister of Nigeria, a position he
Ahmadu Bello won a seat in the Northern House of held until his death.
359
As prime minister, Tafawa Balewa developed a favourable He later became the editor of Zik’s comet, Kano, 1945–49, also
reputation in international circles. He was considered pro an associate editor, West African pilot, Lagos, editor-in-chief,
– western leader but was very critical of South African morning star from 1950–53. In 1953, Chief Anthony Enahoro
racial policies and of French plans to test atomic devices in became the first to move the motion for Nigeria’s
the Sahara. His last public act was to convene a independence and consequently, he has since then been
commonwealth conference in Lagos to discuss action regarded by academics and many people as the father of “The
against the white supremacist unilateral declaration of Nigerian state”. Though his motion was rejected by parliament
independence by Rhodesia. and the northern members of parliament which led to staging a
walk out as a consequence of the attempt, the actually
Throughout his career, Tafawa Balewa played a leading successful movement of the motion for Nigeria’s
role in national policy making. In 1950, in the Northern independence did not take place until 1958. Chief Anthony
House of Assembly he had advocated fundamental reforms Enahoro died on 15 December, 2010.
to the system of native authorities in the North, a proposal
highly unpopular among many of the Northern leaders. MODERN NATIONALISM
Throughout the 1950s he participated with great skills in Modern-nationalism on the other hand refers to the quest,
the discussions on constitutional reform which ultimately after the Second World War, for the absolute removal of
led to independence. Nevertheless, Tafawa Balewa often colonial rule, they were specifically demanding for
seemed limited in his own personal power, because as Vice independence for their countries.
President of the NPC he was answerable theoretically to
Sir Ahmadu Bello, premier of the Northern Region and Features of Nationalism before Second World War
President of the NPC. Some observers have concluded that 1. Leadership: One of the main features of the proto-
the relationship with Bello hindered Tafawa Balewa in nationalist movement was limited to only one party.
handling the major crisis which arose in the first years of The party was also led by the British government.
Nigeria’s independence. It was one of these crises, the National congress of British West Africa and the
Western region elections of 1965, which led to chaos in the Aborigines Right protection society. The Aborigines
Western Region and was the immediate cause of the protection society was an international human rights
downfall of Tafawa Balewa’s government. In January organization founded in 1837, to ensure good health
1966, a discontented segment of the army attempted a coup and well-being of the indigenous-legally and religious
d’état in which Tafawa Balewa was kidnapped and rights. Aborigines protection society is also known as
murdered. humanitarian society.
2. There was no violence in proto nationalist: The proto
CHIEF ANTHONY ENAHORO nationalist movement adopted non-violent approach in
Anthony Enahoro was born on 22 July, 1923, he was Nigeria’s its agitation. The proto-nationalist uses petitions to the
foremost anti–colonial and pro–democracy activist. He was secretary of the withdrawal of land will of 1897 and
born the eldest of twelve children in Uromi in the present Edo dialogue method was also used which was known as
State of Nigeria. Chief Enahoro had a long and distinguished round table discussion.
career in journalism, politics, and the civil service and the pro– 3. No demand for independence: There was no demand
democracy movement. Educated at the government school, for independence in proto-nationalist policy. They
Uromi, Government School, Owo and the King’s College, only demands for involvement in policy making in the
Lagos, Chief Enahoro became the editor of Dr. Nnamdi region or country.
Azikiwe’s newspaper. The Southern Nigerian defender, 4. Racial Segregation: There was discrimination
Ibadan in 1944 at the age of 21, thus becoming Nigeria’s between the British citizen and Nigeria citizens that’s
youngest editor ever. the natives. The discrimination against the natives was
mostly witnessed in the 20th century in Nigeria; such
segregation was openly experienced in the area of
maintaining separate residential areas (GRA)
Government Reservation Area for the white with all
the social amenities such as good roads, good houses,
portable water, health care facilities and provision for
electricity.
5. Economic exploitation: There was economic
exploitation in Nigeria during the pre-colonial and
colonial administration by the foreign firms and
leaders. They were exporting our natural resources and
materials to develop their own country.
6. Harsh treatment: The colonial administration
maltreated Nigerians including the traditional rulers
for example Jaja of Opobo, Nana of Itsekiri etc. These
led to negatives reactions and disregard for the colonial
authority. The natives opposed the colonial rule, since
their traditional rulers were even maltreated.
Chief Anthony Enahoro (1923 – 2010)
360
Jaja of Opobo was the titled given to his throne. Jaja’s name 3. Colonial posture of United Nations Organization:
was Jubo Jubogha, was born in 1821 and died in 1891. He UNO gave their support to nations that need their
was born in Umuduruoha Amaigbo, in Igbo land now River independence, by explaining to them what the Atlantic
State. Nana of Itsekiri was born in 1832–1916. Nana Olumu charter stated on freedom of all human in the world.
was the fourth Itsekiri chief to held the position of Governor United Nation Assembly was used as a medium by
in Benin City. most Heads of states, nationalists and government to
7. Lack of adequate educational facilities: The criticize colonial and imperial powers.
missionaries who were out to provide education did not 4. The independence of some countries: The
achieve much due to financial problems. However, the independence of some countries motivated our
essence of education at the time was not to produce high
nationalist to continued struggling and fighting for the
level manpower but basic education that will help the
independence of our country. India got their freedom
recipients to be able to read and write.
8. Impact of the First World War: The impact of the first
in 1947 and Ghana in 1957.
war was too much in the development of national and 5. The super powers: After the Second World War, USA
political consciousness and this was due to the movement and USSR emerged as the super powers of the world.
of pan-Africanism, the struggle for independence in It reduced the influence and power of British colonial
India, opened the eyes of educated Nigerians to become in Africa as a whole. It gave the nationalist the freedom
critical with all the colonial rules and policies. of speech and movement for agitating for their
9. Emergence/introduction of political organization: The freedom.
National Congress of British West Africa (NCBWA), the 6. Activities of Pan-African leaders/organization: The
Nigerian Youth Movement (NYM), Nigerian National Pan-African movement was an emotional, cultural,
Democratic Party (NNDP) etc., were established as psychological and ideological movement that began
effective instruments to oppose or resist colonial rule. among the African Diaspora in the Western
10. The mass media: The West African pilot Lagos Daily hemisphere, for a closer purpose, so that African
news etc. played vital roles in fighting colonial rule and people could feel secured, attain political powers,
domination Nigeria. economic as well as psychological power vis a vis
other races or world region. Dr. William Edward
2008/40 Neco Burkhart Du Bois was the father of modern Pan-
Which of the following was nationalist organization? Africanism, George Padamore as well as organization
A. People’s Redemption Organization like West African students union, Negro world
B. National Congress of British West Africa movement etc. gave inspiration and support to
C. West African People’s League
Nigerian nationalist.
D. National Council of African People
7. Japan defeat Britain: The humiliation of the Britain
Answer
The National Congress of British West Africa (NCBWA)
reduced their power, influence and prestige of the
founded in 1917, was one of the earliest nationalist Britain Government Worldwide.
organizations in West Africa, and one of the earliest formal 8. Economic Depression: After the Second World War,
organizations working towards African emancipation. (B) there was economic recession all over the world, so it
led to the struggles of independence by our nationalist,
so that we can manage and control our small resources
Factors that led to the Rise and Growth of Nationalism by ourselves.
in Nigeria 9. The impact of the Second World War: The imperialist
In Nigeria, there are two factors that led to the rise and countries became very weak after the Second World
growth of nation. War. National movements against colonialism started
1. External factors. in Asia and Africa. The impact of the Second World
2. Internal factors. War exposed the evil surrounding British Supremacy.
The Atlantic Charter was like a world constitution that
EXTERNAL FACTORS stated the equality of all human races in the world,
An external factor means substance that influences the rise neither black nor white. The Atlantic charter enlighten
and growth of nationalism outside Nigeria. The following the black to know the white (Europeans) were not
are the external factors: superior to them, they all equal before God because
1. The Atlantic Charter: The Charter explained the right God created man in the image.
of self-determination of every individual in the world. 10. The Influence of Western and Eastern ideas:
Britain and USA administrations signed and sealed the Information by intellectuals from both the West and
charter, which was published after the Second World East (USA and USSR) encouraged the nationalists to
War. The charter encourages other nations under their continue with their struggles for independence.
colonial masters to demand for independence.
2. British Labour Party: The influence of labour party in 1996/46 Nov
Britain was opposing the conservative party policy on Nationalist activities in Britain West Africa increased after
colonization, this led to the external growth of the Second World War because
nationalists in Nigeria. The labour party constitution A. of the expulsion of Kwame Nkrumah from Britain
stated the fundamental human rights and economic B. of the return of the educated elite from abroad
rights of individuals in the world. C. prices of commodities fell below expectation
D. Africans were nominated to the Executive Council
E. the traditional rulers were given little respect
361
1991/13 Exercise 28.2 2013/44 Neco
Article 3 of the North Atlantic charter of 1941 recognized the Nationalism prior to the Second World War was led by
A. rule of law B. fundamental rights of man A. educated elite and chiefs B. chiefs and the elders
C. rights and duties of citizens C. aggrieved cocoa farmers D. African merchants
D. rights of the people to choose their own form of Answer
government Nationalism prior to the Second World War was led by
educated elite and chiefs. (A)
INTERNAL FACTORS
The internal factors were the factors that was inside the 2019/45 Neco
immediate environment that led to the rise and growth of An African – American who contributed greatly to the
Nationalism in Nigeria. The following are the internal growth of nationalism in West Africa was
factors. A. Martin Luther King B. Jesse Jackson
1. The discriminatory attitude of the Europeans to C. Nelson Mandela D. William Du Boise
Nigerians: There was racial discrimination in Answer
employment and welfare, leading to limited opportunities An African American who contributed greatly to the
for Nigerians in the civil service. growth of nationalism in West Africa was William Du
2. The influence of Christianity and establishment of Boise (D)
schools: The knowledge acquired by some nationalist
made them to realize that all men were created equally by 2002/7 Neco Exercise 28.3
God, so nobody is supreme but God. Highlight the external and internal factors that aided the
3. The return of the ex-service men: Some African men nationalists in their struggle for political independence.
fought alongside with the British government promised
them good jobs after the war. However, the British
2006/8b Neco Exercise 28.4
government didn’t keep to their words. This led to the
agitation of freedom by the ex-servicemen. Outline four external factors that led to increased
4. Activities of educated elites: The activities of the nationalist demand after the Second World War in West
educated elites like Nnamdi Azikiwe, H. O. Davies, Africa.
Herbert Macaulay, Obafemi Awolowo, Kwame
Nkrumah, Ahmadu Bello, etc. mobilized the masses for Nationalist Movement in British West Africa
support during the struggle for independence. It was an association formed by a group of people who
5. Trade/Labour Unions: Some of the trade and labour share common interest, to resist political domination and
union e.g. Railway workers union led by Michael cultural intimidation and to struggle for political
Imoudu, Oyewole Adebayo and others, became militants independence. The nationalist movement played
and used strike actions to back up their demands for better significant role in influencing Nigerians and compelling
condition of service. They also supported the nationalist them towards the struggles for self-rule (independence).
leaders in the struggle against colonial rule. The West African Students’ Union (WASU) was formed
6. Formation of Political parties: The acceptance of in 1925 by Chief Ladipo Solanke of Nigeria. The main aim
formation of political parties by the colonial government and achievement of this Union will be thoroughly studied
led to the growth of nationalism in Nigeria. Nigeria but notwithstanding, it centered on commerce, education,
Youth Movement (NYM), NNDP. NCNC, etc. politics etc.
7. Establishment of newspapers houses: Newspapers
houses where established e.g. the West African pilot, Achievement/Contributions of West African Student
Lagos daily news, etc. played vital roles in
Union
decolonization process.
The West African Students’ Union (WASU) was founded
8. Economic exploitation: There was open economic
on the 7th August, 1925 by twenty-one law students in
exploitation of Nigerians by foreign enterprises or firms.
9. The effect of Western education after the Second World
London, led by Ladipo Solanke and Herbert Bankole –
War: A number of educated West Africans, who had the Bright. WASU is a Yoruba word meaning “preaching”.
opportunity of studying in USA and Britain, came back One of the founders Ladipo Solanke met Marcus Garvey
to support and lead nationalists struggles for political in 1928, Marcus Garvey worked with the local branch of
independence. the United Negro improvement Association (UNIA).
Marcus Garvey gave WASU great moral and financial
1995/34 support, to be sure they achieved their aims and objectives.
Nationalism in Africa eventually led to
A. a rapid political awareness among the colonialist
WASU’s headquarters were located in a building
B. the alignment of the new states previously used by the UNIA, Garvey allowed WASU to
C. decolonization use the building vacated by the UNIA. WASU had
D. the formation of continental army different branches in Nigeria, Ghana and Sierra-Leone
E. international economic grouping between 1928 to 1930. The following were the
Answer contributions of West African Students Union.
The enlightenment of nationalists in Africa eventually led to 1. WASU campaigned against racism in Britain and against
decolonization because establishment of newspapers played colonialism and for independence in West Africa.
vital roles in the decolonization process. (C) 2. WASU became the key political, social and cultural
organization for West Africans in Britain and the main
African organization in the country for over thirty years.

362
3. WASU was a link between Nigerian Trade Union 2010/42 Neco Exercise 28.5
Movement and British government. The West African Students’ Union worked towards
4. WASU was a significant supporter of the Nigerian A. the end of colonial rule B. the end of indirect rule
general strike in 1945. C. getting accommodation for West African students
5. The Union built four hostels in London they provide D. the end of the policy of direct rule
lodgings and a “home from home for all West African
students and other African visitors at a time”. When
racism and colour bars were real, it was difficult or National Congress of British West Africa
impossible for them to secure accommodation in The National Congress of British West African (NCBWA)
London. was formed in Accra, Gold Coast now (Ghana) in 1920 by
6. The WASU acted as a training ground for future West the educated elites from English – speaking West African
African politician and from the late 1930’s established Colonies led by Mr. Joseph Casely Ephraim Hayford of
branches all over the West Africa. Ghana and Dr. Akinwande Savage of Nigeria. The
7. A journal known as WASU and other materials were NCBWA first meeting was held at the Rogers (African)
published and they had effects on West Africans in Club House in Accra from 11th to 29th of March, 1920. It
Diaspora and at home. was attended by fifty-two delegates; forty two from Gold
8. WASU became a link between West Africa leaders at Coast, six from Nigeria, three from Sierra Leone and one
home and those in the parliament in Britain, who from the Gambia.
supported the African cause of political development
and change. In most of Mr. Joseph Ephraim Casely Hayford writings,
9. The WASU publication made the British press and he criticized the short comings of British Colonial
public opinion to constantly study and critically administration after the First World War. His criticisms
analyzed the journal of Africans distributed throughout helped in rekindling people’s interest in the congress aims
West African and internationally. and objectives.
10. WASU groomed some nationalists in West African
e.g. Late Kwame Nkrumah of Ghana 1993/37 Nov
The leading founder of the National Congress of British
In the late 1940’s and early 1950’s WASU began to lose its West Africa was
strength, because of division within the organization, based A. Dr. W. E. Du Bois B. Mr. Casely Hayford
on ethnic and religious differences. The Union were not C. Dr. Nnamdi Azikiwe D. Dr. J. B. Danguah
having one voice again, it also loses its financial support and
E. Dr. Kwame Nkrumah
simply could not afford to continue its activities. WASU was Answer
forced to close one of its London hostels because of tax. Mr. Joseph Casely Ephraim Hayford was the leading founder
Ladipo Solanke died in 1958 and without him WASU lost of the National Congress of British West Africa. (B)
much powers and influences. When some West African
countries got their independence, Ghana in 1957 and other 2006/41 Neco
West African Colonies, they felt that many of WASU’s initial
The National Congress of British West Africa (NCBWA)
goals had been fulfilled.
was found in IGM by
A. Kobina Sekyi B. J. B. Danguah
2008/8a Neco
What is Nationalist Movement? C. Sarbah D. J. D. Casely Hayford
Answer Answer
Nationalist movement is an association formed by a group of The National Congress of British West Africa (NCBWA)
people, who share common interest, to resist political was founded in IGM by J. E. Casely Hayford. (D)
domination, economic exploitation, racial discrimination and
cultural intimidation and the struggle for political 2010/41 Neco
independence. The National Congress of British West Africa (NCBWA)
was founded in 1919 in
2012/43 Neco A. Lagos B. Monrovia C. Accra D. Bathrust
The West African Students Union (WASU) was formed by Answer
A. Siaka Stevens B. K. A. Gbedemah The National Congress of British West African (NCBWA)
C. E. F. Small D. Oladipo Solanke was formed in Accra, Gold Coast now (Ghana). (C)
Answer
The West African Students Union was formed by Oladipo 2012/42 Neco
Solanke on the 7th August, 1925. (D) The National Congress of British West Africa (NCBWA)
was founded in
2005/41 Neco A. Sierra-Leone B. Liberia C. Ghana D. Nigeria
The West African Students Union (WASU) was formed in Answer
1925 in
The National Congress of British West Africa (NCBWA)
A. Dakar B. London C. Washington D. New York
was founded in Ghana. (C)
Answer
The West African Students’ Union (WASU) was founded on
the 7th August, 1925 by twenty-one law students in London.
(B)

363
2002/41 Nov Activities of the National Congress of British West Africa
The first meeting of the Nationalist Congress of British (NCBWA)
West Africa (NCBWA) was held in 1. It tried to unite the four British West African colonies of
A. The Gambia B. Sierra-Leone C. Ghana D. Nigeria Nigeria, Gold Coast, Sierra-Leone and The Gambia by
Answer holding meetings.
The National Congress of British West Africa (NCBWA) 2. The congress under the leadership of J. E. Caseley Hayford,
was held at the Rogers (African) Club House in Accra from a Gold Coast lawyer, mobilized educated elite in the four
11th to 29th of March, 1920. (C) British Colonies.
3. At the meeting held in Accra in 1920, the congress sent a
Aims and Objectives of the National Congress of British delegation to London to present certain demands.
4. The congress identified the shortcomings of the British
West Africa (NCBWA)
policies of their colonial administration.
The following are some aims and objectives of National
5. The congress introduced radical approach to the nationalist
congress of British West Africa.
activities in British West Africa.
1. Granting Africans the right of installing and deposing 6. The congress enlightened the people of West Africa through
their rulers. its meetings and publications.
2. Establishing a legislative council in the four
Anglophone West African Colonies. Anglophone Effects of the Activities of the National Congress of British
consisting or belonging to an English-speaking West Africa (NCBWA)
population. 1. Introduction of elective principles in Nigeria in 1920,
3. Establishing at least a university in West Africa. Sierra Leone in 1924 and the Gold Coast (Ghana) in
4. Granting Africans the right to vote and be voted for. 1925.
5. The congress pressed for an increased in Africa 2. Establishment of educational institutions in Nigeria, the
representation in advisory councils. Gold Coast and Sierra Leone e.g. Fourah Bay college,
6. Respect for traditional forms of land ownership. Yaba College and Achimota College.
7. The local legislative council should be empowered to 3. Africans were elected into the legislative council.
control taxation. 4. The activities unified the nationalists in British West
8. Establishment of medical sectors in all the colonies to Africa towards fighting a common cause.
improve the health status of the citizens. 5. The introduction of elective principle in some British
9. They wanted trained and qualified lawyers to be made West African Countries was followed by the springing up
judges and that the flogging of women for any offence of Political parties e.g. NNDP in Nigeria and NCSL in
should be stopped. Sierra Leone.
10. It demanded for administrative reforms, and also equal 6. The awareness created by the NCBWA led to the
opportunities irrespective of skin colour. It also argued development of newspapers in British West Africa e.g.
and urged that the civil services should be Africans. Daily News of 1925 in Nigeria and The Morning Star of
the Gold Coast (Ghana).
7. The congress did not get the blessing and cooperation of
2003/35 GCE
the West African traditional rulers who considered the
Which of the following was not a demand by the National
body as a rival group that intended to usurp their powers.
congress of British West Africa from the British colonial 8. The colonial governors used divide and rule tactics on the
Government? The members of the congress which eventually led to its
A. establishment of a legislative council in each British demise.
Colonial territory with half nominated membership 9. It led to the abolition of Nigerian Council.
B. establishment of a West African House of Assembly
C. appointment of Africans to judicial offices 2005/42 Neco
D. appointment of an African as governor in each of the One of the achievements of the National congress of British
British Colonial territories West Africa was the
E. establishment of a West African University A. introduction of railway transportation
Answer B. appointment of a federal president
The appointment of an African as Governor in each of the C. Improvement of living standard
British Colonial territories was not a demand by the D. introduction of the elective principle
National Congress of British West Africa (NCBWA). (D) Answer
The achievement of the national congress of British West
2008/40 Neco Africa was the introduction of the elective principle. (D)
Which of the following was a nationalist organization?
A. People’s Redemption Organization 2015/44 Neco
B. National Congress of British West Africa Which of the following was the first print media used by
C. West African People’s League nationalist to oppose colonialism in the British West
D. National Council of African People Africa?
Answer A. Daily News B. Daily Times
National Congress of British West Africa was a nationalist C. West African Pilot D. Guardian Newspaper
organization called NCBWA. (B) Answer
The first printing media used by the nationalist to oppose
colonialism in the British West Africa was Daily
Newspaper. (A)
364
2006/44 Neco NYM competed for the political control of Lagos with
National Congress of British West Africa (NCBWA) failed Nigerian National Democratic Party (NNDP) which was
to achieve its aims initially because founded by Sir Herbert Macaulay. Later on, Dr. Nnamdi
A. the chiefs and governors opposed those aims Azikiwe, Samuel Ladoke Akintola, Chief Obafemi
B. African workers opposed those aims Awolowo and H. O. Davies joined the party. The party was
C. Africans employed Europeans to write those aims the first to have a national outlook in Nigeria based on the
D. the congress failed to bring foreigners into its fold composition of its members. Prof. Kofo Ayobami was the
Answer president of the party, while Ernest Ikoli was the Vice
National Congress of British West Africa (NCBWA) failed President and H. O. Davies served as the secretary.
to achieve its aims initially because the chiefs and
governors opposed those aims. The traditional rulers, 1996/5 Nov
chiefs and governors considered themselves as a rival One of the founders of the NYM was
group or body that intended to usurp their powers. (A) A. Chief H. O. Davies B. Dr. Nwafor Origu
C. Chief Anthony Enahoro D. Dr. K. O. Mbadiwe
2005/8 Neco E. Chief Dennis Osadebey
a. Outline three activities of the NCBWA Answer
1. It tried to unite the four British West African Chief H. O. Davies was one of the founding fathers of the
colonies. Nigerian Youth Movement; he served as the secretary of
2. The congress under the leadership of J. E. Caseley the movement. (A)
Hayford, a Gold Coast lawyer, mobilized educated
elite in the four British Colonies. 1993/36 Nov
3. At the meeting held in Accra in 1920, the congress Which of the following nationalist leaders was not a
sent a delegation to London to present certain member of the Nigerian Youth movement (NYM)?
demands. A. Dr. Nnamdi Azikiwe B. Chief Obafemi Awolowo
4. The congress identified the shortcomings of the C. Chief H. O. Davis D. Herbert Macaulay
British policies of their colonial administration. E. Ernest Ikoli
5. The congress introduced radical approach to the Answer
nationalist activities in British West Africa. Dr. Herbert Macaulay was not a member of the Nigerian
6. The congress enlightened the people of West Youth Movement (NYM), he was the Founder of National
Africa through its meetings and publications. Democratic Party (NNDP). (D)
b. State three effects of the activities highlighted above.
1. Introduction of elective principles in Nigeria 1922, 2019/8a Neco
Sierra Leone 1924, The Gold Coast, 1925. List three key members of the Nigerian Youth Movement
2. Higher Educational Institutions were established (NYM)
in Nigeria and the Gold Coast and Sierra Leone Answer
e.g. Fourah Bay College, Yaba College, Achimota The following were members of NYM: Prof. Eyo Ita Esau,
college. Ernest Ikoli, Dr. Nnamdi Azikiwe, Samuel Ladoke
3. Africans were elected into the Legislative Council. Akintola, Chief Obafemi Awolowo and H. O. Davies.
4. The activities unified the nationalists in British
West African towards fighting a common cause. 1999/43 Nov Exercise 28.6
5. Introduction of elective principle in some British The party that emerged from the Nigerian Youth
West African countries was followed by the Movement (NYM) was the
springing up of political parties e.g. NNDP and A. Northern Elements Progressive union (NEPU)
NGSL. B. National Council for Nigeria and the Cameroons (NCNC)
6. The awareness created by the NCBWA led to the C. Nigerian National Democratic Party (NNDP)
development of newspapers in British West D. Northern People’s Congress (NPC)
Africa.
7. The congress did not get the co-operation of West
African traditional rulers who considered the body Achievements/Contributions of Nigerian Youth
as the rival group. Movement
8. It brought about policy changes e.g. abolition of The following are some contributions of Nigerian Youth
Nigerian Council. Movement:
1. Nigerian Youth Movement promoted national unity by
composing its members from several ethnic groups in
NIGERIA YOUTH MOVEMENT Nigeria.
The Nigeria Youth Movement (NYM) was founded in 2. NYM fought hard for the political independence of
1933 after the introduction of the Clifford constitution of Nigeria.
1922, which paved way for the formation of political 3. NYM arouse modern nationalism among Nigerians.
parties in Nigeria. Prof. Eyo Ita Esua was known to be the 4. NYM played a prominent role in the abolition of the
founding father of NYM, and other members like Ernest indirect rule.
Ikoli, the first editor of the Daily Times Newspaper of 5. NYM led to the formation of other political parties like
Nigeria. NCNC (1944), AG (1951) and NPC (1951).

365
6. NYM won all three elected seats allocated to Lagos in 3. To strive for the establishment of a new legislative
the Legislative Council during the general election of council built on the principle of an unofficial majority.
1938. NYM defeated NNDP which was formed in 4. To demand for equal economic opportunities for
1923. Nigerians with those enjoyed by foreigners.
7. Ernest Ikoli was the first editor of the Daily Times 5. To demand better pay for African in the civil service.
Newspaper of Nigeria. 6. To demand for higher executive appointments for
Africans within the civil service.
2019/8b Neco 7. To see that more use are being made of Africans in the
Highlight four achievements of the Nigerian Youth administrative branch of the public service.
Movement (NYM) 8. To cooperate with all bodies whose aims and
Answer aspirations are similar to its own.
1. The movement won all the three legislative seats 9. To struggle for the complete control of the Township
allocated to Lagos in 1938. councils by Nigerians.
2. It led to the struggle for national unity and political 10. To work for political emancipation of Nigerians with
independence. the aim of achieving complete autonomy within the
3. It helped to put pressure on the colonial government to British Empire.
speed up the constitutional development and
independence of Nigeria. 2022/12 Neco
The major reason for the formation of Nigerian Youth
4. It fought for equality of opportunities for all Nigerians.
5. It also fought for the establishment of universal adult Movement (NYM) was to
suffrage in Nigeria. A. ensure economic, security and religious tolerance
B. extend democratic principles to the people of the
6. It was the first multi-ethnic political party that brought
people together from different ethnic groups in country
Nigeria. C. obtain national support for political reforms
7. The Movement nurtured early nationalists in Nigeria. D. organize and collaborate with all its branches in the
8. It fought against economic exploitation by European country
firms. E. work towards the unity of Nigeria
Answer
The development of a united nation out of the
The Organization Structure of the Nigerian Youth conglomeration of people who inhabited Nigeria was a
Movement (NYM) major reason for the formation of NYM.
The following are the structure of Nigerian Youth
Movement (NYM): 2009/9 Neco Exercise 28.7
1. Headquarters – Lagos was its national headquarters. Highlight four objectives of the Nigerian Youth
2. Branches – The movement had branches established in Movement.
some urban areas throughout Nigeria.
3. National executive – The movement also had their
national executive in place headed by the President. Reasons for the Collapse of Nigerian Youth Movement
4. Congress/convention: The NYM had convention as 1. Internal dispute with the movement and the
part of its organizational structures to enlighten their establishment of the daily services as their official
members, motivate new members to join by listing out mouthpiece of the party didn’t go down well with Dr.
their main aims and objectives as an organization. Nnamdi Azikiwe, the publisher and founder of the
West African Pilot.
2003/7a Neco 2. Internal weakness of the organization structure of
Describe the organizational structure of the Nigerian Nigerian Youth Movement could not solve the
Youth Movement (NYM). movement problems because of their religious
Answer sentiment.
1. The NYM had a congress/convention as part of its 3. Resignation of Dr. Nnamdi Azikiwe and Samuel
organizational structure. Akinsanya virtually destroyed the limited national
2. A national executive was also in place headed by the character of the NYM.
President. 4. Ethnic/Tribal conflict was the main problem of their
3. It also had branches established in some urban areas leadership.
throughout Nigeria and a committee of twelve to
prepare for the 1938 elections. 2003/7b Neco
4. Its national headquarters was in Lagos. What led to the collapse of the Nigerian Youth Movement?
Answer
1. Internal wrangling within the movement because of the
Objectives of the Nigerian Youth Movement launching of Daily services as the official mouthpiece of
1. To develop a united nation out of the conglomeration the party did not go well with Dr. Nnamdi Azikiwe, the
of people who inhabited Nigeria. publisher of the West African Pilot.
2. To pressurize the government to award scholarship to 2. Internal weaknesses of the Nigerian Youth Movement
the youths to study abroad. structure which could not solve the movement’s
problems.
366
3. Ethnic/Tribal conflicts which pitched the lands in the British Colonies, racial discrimination and
leaders/supporters against one another. dealing with other issues of interest to Blacks.
4. The resignation of Dr. Nnamdi Azikiwe and Samuel
Akinsanya, which destroyed the limited national Originally, this movement began as a reaction of the Negro
character of the NYM. people to years of humiliation and combination of the
black of the white race. The popular slogan for the
1992/37 Exercise 28.8 proponents of this concept has been “Africa for the
Whose resignation led to the disintegration of Nigerian Africans’ and “African personality”. Some of the leading
Youth Movement in 1941? members were Edward Blyden, Marcus Garvey, W. E. Du
A. Ernest Ikoli B. Samuel Akinsanya Bois, an Afro-American and George Padmore, a Jamaican.
C. Herbert Macaulay D. Nnamdi Azikiwe Different Pan-Africanism Conference took place in Paris
E. Adeyemo Alakija 1918, Lisbon in 1923, New York in 1927 and Manchester
in 1945.

Gold Coast Aborigines’ Rights Protection Society: Achievements of Pan-Africanism

The incentive for inaugurating this organisation came in 1. Liberation of Africa: The movement worked and
1897 when the Gold Coast Government passed a law spoke against colonial rule.
which in effect converted all lands in the Gold Coast into 2. Articulation of demands: It helped African nationalist
crown land. In 1896 a group of Africans who were fierce in articulating their demands and supported them in
opposition to this new law, formed the Gold Coast their struggle for independence.
Aborigines’ Rights Protection Society, under the 3. Creation of consciousness: It accelerated the tempo of
leadership of John Mensah Jarbah the first Gold Coast national consciousness, especially after the Second
lawyer. In its decisive bid to secure the repeal of the critical World War.
law, the society sent a delegation to the Secretary of State
for the colonies. As a result, the law was repealed. 1991/28
One of the pioneering figures is the pan-African movement
With many Chiefs and educated Africans as its members, was
the society became a force to be reckoned with and A. Dr. W. E. Du Bois B. Dr. Kwame Nkrumah
subsequently claimed to be the spokesman of the natural C. Dr. Nnamdi Azikiwe D. Siaka Stevens
rulers. Notable leaders of the country are J.P. Brown and E. Herbert Macaulay
Jacob Sey. Answer
Dr. W. E. Du Bois was an Afro-American, one of the pioneer
Aims of ARPS figures of pan-African movement. The movement began as a
1. To unite the educated and traditional elites to fight for reaction of the Negro people to years of humiliation and
a common goal. domination of the black race by the white race. (A)
2. To protect through constitutional means the rights of
the aborigines of the Gold Coast . 2015/43 Neco Exercise 28.9
3. To arouse national consciousness and inculcate into The Pan-African movements emerged as a result of
members the need for continued loyalty to the British A. African cultural heritage
Crown. B. European racial domination
4. To develop in the growing generation a knowledge of C. the formation of the African Union
their historical past, laws, customs and institutions. D. the growth of Socialism in Europe

PAN-AFRICANISM 2011/29 UTME Exercise 28.10

Pan-Africanism is a worldwide intellectual movement that The major external factor that promoted nationalism in
aims to encourage and strengthen bonds of solidarity Nigeria was
between all people of African descent. It is based on the A. the second world war B. Anti-Apartheid Movement
belief that unity is vital to economic, social and political C. Pan-Africanism D. the Yom Kippur war
progress.

Pan-Africanism can be said to have its origins in the The Effects of Second World War on Nationalism in
struggles of the African people against enslavement and Nigeria West Africa
colonization. Pan Africanism politics, economic and social The war began on September 1st, 1939, when the German
change in the first 20th century and this struggle may be forces invaded Poland, and in retaliation, France and other
traced back to the first resistance on a slave ships – European nations attacked Germany. It went on for six
rebellion and suicides through the constant plantation and years, it stopped on the 2nd September, 1942.
colonial uprising and the “Back to Africa movement”.
However, it was in the 20th century that Pan Africanism The following are the effects of Second World War
emerged as a distinct political movement initially formed nationalism in Nigeria/West Africa.
and led by people from the Diaspora (people of African 1. Labour Party: The introduction of Labour Party in
heritage living outside of the continent). In 1900, Henry Britain, enlighten the nationalist on the essential of
Sylvester Williams called a conference that took place in freedom in our country.
Westminster Hall, London to protest against stealing of
367
2. Atlantic Charter: The Charter also opened up the eyes 12. Executive Council Seats: Some unofficial members of
of our nationalist on fundamental human right, that legislative council were given seats in the executive
every human created by God are equal and should council. This development took place in 1942 in
enjoy the same right, it was also known as world Nigeria and Gold Coast (Ghana). The Council was
constitution on fundamental human right. dominated by the British and all the white members
3. The super powers: USA and USSR emerged as the were official, while the blacks were unofficial meaning
two superpowers at the end of the war. Both countries their decision cannot be considered, they were just
detested colonialism and imperialism and supported bench warmers. After the Second World War, few
the demands of those oppressed for justice and fair blacks were made official and it promoted the struggle
play, equity and self-rule. for self-rule or government.
4. West African Students Union: WASU was formed in 13. Attainment of independence nationalist: Activities
1925, the union encouraged political reforms in 1925, helped in the attainment of independence for some
it was done through public lectures and lobbying of the countries e.g. Ghana–March 6th, 1957, Nigeria–
British parliament for a sympathetic hearing. WASU October 1st, 1960, Sierra-Leone – 27th, April 1961.
educated most of their members on political and civil Gambia–18th February, 1964 and others.
rights, they also groomed leaders, engaged in
leadership training, etc. Later many of their members 2008/8b Neco
(WASU) became leading State men in their various Highlight five effects of nationalist activities in British
countries. West Africa.
5. Economic expansion: There was greater economic Answer
dependence on Africans by the Allied powers. They 1. Increased African participation in politics as it led to
needed African raw materials for their industries. This the inclusion of Africans into the executive and
led to the rapid development in our export and import legislative councils.
trade in Nigeria and also in West Africa as a whole. 2. Their agitations led to the introduction and extension
Within a short while the people became rich and of franchise in West Africa (elective principle).
famous. 3. Their struggle led to the Africanization of the civil
6. Return of the ex-servicemen: The ex-service men service.
returned with new ideologies and exposed the wrong 4. They made Africans aware of the shortcomings of
notion about indirect ruling. The ex-servicemen Colonial rule and their political rights.
educated the people that the whites (Europeans) were 5. Nationalist movements led to the development of
not different from blacks, they can die like the blacks political parties in West Africa.
too because they saw it during the Second World War. 6. Higher institution of learning was established led to the
They also encouraged the nationalist towards the development of political parties in West Africa.
struggle for self-rule. 7. Emergence of nationalist newspaper.
7. The trade Unions: Many Trade Unions came into 8. They achieved independence for their respective
existence during this period because the railway countries.
workers and the ex-servicemen protested for the self- 9. Emergence of militant trade unions, pressure groups,
rule. interest group etc.
8. Political parties: Political parties were formed e.g. 10. Brought about several constitutional reforms in British
NCNC, NPC, AG, etc. West Africa.
9. Newspapers: Newspapers houses were established e.g.
West African Pilot by Dr. Nnamdi Azikiwe, Lagos 2010/40 Neco
Daily News by Herbert Macaulay etc., played major Before the Second World War, the British colonial
and vital roles in educating the people in urban areas executive council consisted of
about their political rights, obligations of citizens A. only elected Africans B. only white officials
towards their country and the duties of the country C. unofficial members D. official and unofficial members
towards her citizens. Answer
10. Improved communication: There was improvement Before the Second World War, the British Colonial
of communication between the urban/rural areas even Executive Council consisted of both the officials and
with the Europe countries. The construction of roads, unofficial members. (B)
railways, etc. by the colonial authority to serve their
own economic needs, now became an advantage to Contribution of Nationalists to the Achievement of
nationalist activities to carry out their campaigns from Independence In Nigeria
one place to another. Reach out to people was made 1. Formation of political parties and associations:
possible through this improved communication. NCNC, NNDP, NPC, AG etc. were some of the
11. Constitutional revision: The constitutional revision political parties formed. NCNC was the first set of
gave African and Nigerians the opportunity to partake political party to be formed in Nigeria in 1944, the
in issues of government. Nigeria first revised in 1946, party was led by Dr. Nnamdi Azikiwe and Herbert
it was also revised in 1951 by Macpherson, 1954 by Macaulay. The second political party was the Northern
Lyttleton constitution, etc. in Nigeria. People’s Congress (NPC), it was led by Ahmadu Bello
in 1949. The party was majorly populated by the
Hausa-Fulani from the North. The third one was the
Action Group and it was led by Chief Obafemi
368
Awolowo in 1951. The party was mainly populated by 3. The press: Printed media (newspapers) played
the Yorubas. The Nigerian National Democratic Party effective and functional roles in awakening the minds
(NNDP) and founded by Akintola after the Nigeria of Nigerians towards the struggle for self-rule, e.g.
Civil War in 1970. West African pilot and Lagos Daily news.
2. The Print Media (Newspaper): The newspapers 4. Constitutional changes: Nationalism resulted in the
agitate for social, political and cultural rights of their amendment of most colonial constitutions. Nigerians
people. were given the opportunities to be involved in the
3. They organized Labour Union and meeting: The affairs of their country.
Railway Workers Union, Teachers Union and Labour 5. Constitutional conference: Nationalism made Nigerians
Congress became force to reckon with because they to participate in the constructional conferences both
supported the struggle of self-rule in Nigeria. within and outside Nigeria e.g. Ibadan constitutional
4. Strikes and boycotts: The nationalist equally conference of 1950 and London constitutional
organized strikes and boycotts to back up their conference of 1953.
demands for independence. 6. Emergence of militant trade unions: Nationalism
5. Petitions: They wrote petitions to the secretary of state gave inspiration to some trade unions, making them to
for colonies in London on issues of pressing concern become militant. They kept pressing and demanding
e.g. reforms self-government and constitutional for their rights and improved condition of service.
revision, etc. They later found themselves in working together with
6. They sent delegate to London to express their demand the nationalist movement in Nigeria.
for freedom and self-government. 7. Labour party in Britain: The activities of nationalists’
7. Voting rights: In parliament, they voted in favour of movement drew the support of labour party in Britain.
motions and policies favourable to the attainment of Labour – party supported the rights of self-
self-rule. determination for the people.
8. Constitutional conferences of 1953 and 1957 in 8. Independence: Nationalism or nationalist activities
London made them to take part in conference, because led to the independence of Nigeria on the 1st October,
Atlantic charter was used as a reference point to form 1960.
our constitution.
9. They organized rallies, symposia and lectures: This is 1999/38 Nov
done to educate the people on their political rights. One of the effects of nationalism in Nigeria is the
10. They also used propaganda: Propaganda means A. improvement in the conditions of public service
information that is biased or misleading in nature. This
B. chaos and anarchy in the country
was seen in the activities of the West African StudentsC. political and economic backwardness of the people
Union (WASU) D. growth of thuggery and hooliganism
Answer
2015/7 Neco Improvement in the conditions of public service is one of
a. State any three newspapers founded by nationalists in the effects of nationalism in Nigeria. (A)
Nigeria after the Second World War.
1. Nigerian Tribune
2. Eastern Guardian Achievements of Nationalist in Nigeria between 1945
3. Northern Advocate and 1960
4. Morning Post 1. Political parties: Development of political parties was
5. New Africa made by Nigerians, with the motive of self-
b. Highlight any four roles played by local newspaper in government.
the struggle against colonial rule. 2. Training of leaders: Nigerians were trained and
1. Mouthpiece of the nationalists. groomed as political leaders to take up responsible
2. Exposing the ills or misconducts of the colonial posts in the government of the country.
masters. 3. Political education: Political education was
3. Expressing the grievances of the people to the introduced by the nationalists to the masses, so that
whole world. they can know their rights and obligations to the
4. Giving political and civic education. country.
5. Mobilizing the people against colonial rule. 4. Educational institutions: The nationalists were
6. Promotion of African cultural heritage. engaged in agitation for the establishment of higher
7. Educating Africans about political ideology and institution of learning in Nigeria, which led to the
manifestoes or political parties. establishment of Yaba High College in 1934,
8. Pressing for political, social and colonial reforms. University College, Ibadan 1948, etc.
5. Economic development plans: Nigerians were
Effects of Nationalism on Nigeria encouraged to participate actively in drawing the
1. Political education: Political education was economic plan.
encouraged which led to the grooming of our political 6. Constitutional developments: The constitutional
leaders in Nigeria. development processes contributed to the acceleration
2. Formation of political parties: Nationalism led to the of political development in Nigeria.
acceptance and formation of political parties e.g.
NNDP, NCNC, NPC, AG etc.
369
2000/6 Nov 10. Independence: Most of the nationalist movements
What were the achievements of the nationalist in Nigeria achieved independence for their respective countries,
between 1945 and 1960? bringing an end to colonialism in this part of the world.
Answer 11. Emergence of trade unions: Trade unions that fought
1. Development of political parties in Nigeria by for improvement in the working conditions in West
Nigerians. Africa emerged as a result of the nationalist activities.
2. Training and grooming political leaders in Nigeria. 12. Constitutional reforms: Activities of nationalist
3. Political education was introduced to Nigerian citizens movement brought about several constitutional
(fundamental and civil rights) reforms in British West Africa.
4. Establishment of educational institution e.g. Yaba
Higher College in 1934, University College, Ibadan 2006/8a Neco
1948, etc. Highlight two methods used by nationalists’ leaders in
5. Economic developmental plan drown by Nigerians. their opposition to Britain rule in West Africa.
6. There was constitutional development conferences. Answer
7. Independence of Nigeria in 1960. 1. The use of the press, e.g. West African Pilot, Comet,
Daily Express.
Methods used by Nationalist Leaders in their 2. Strike, protests, demonstration, rallies, etc. e.g. 1945
opposition to British Rule in West Africa nationwide strike in Nigeria.
1. The Use of the Press: West African Pilot, comet, daily 3. Constitutional conferences.
express, etc., were used as vocal points of opposition 4. Organizing seminars, conferences, symposia, etc.
to the British rule. 5. The use of petitions and sending delegations.
2. Strikes, boycott, protests, etc., were also used in 1945 6. The use of political parties e.g. NNDP, NPC, AG etc.
nationwide in Nigeria and 1948 in Ghana (then Gold
coast). Reasons why nationalist activities were slow in French
3. Constitutional Conference: 1953 and 1957 London West African Colonies
constitutional conferences was attended by most of the Nationalism in French West Africa was different from that of
nationalists with the aim of injecting reforms into the British West Africa. Nationalist movement were much
political administration of some countries e.g. Nigeria. delayed in French speaking West Africa. The restriction of
4. Organizing seminars and symposia: It was another education for Africans greatly retarded the emergence of
way of educating the people about political education. nationalist elites. The following are the reason why nationalist
5. The use of political parties e.g. NNDP in Nigeria, CPP activities were slow in French West African colonies:
in Ghana, PPP in the Gambia and SLPP in Sierra 1. Policy of Assimilation: The French policy of
Leone. assimilation was aimed at converting Africans to
Frenchmen and women in culture, beliefs, norms,
Effects of Nationalist Activities in British West Africa dressing, etc.
1. Development of political parties: Activities of 2. People’s Welfare: The policy of assimilation
nationalist movements led to the development of endangers its colonies socially, economically and
political parties in West Africa. politically.
2. Participation in politics: It increased African 3. Lack of fundamental human rights: There was
participation in politics as it led to the inclusion of absence of fundamental human rights in all French
Africans into the executive and legislative councils. colonies. The French administrators do not recognized
3. Creation of awareness: They made Africans aware of the rights of the people.
the shortcomings of colonial rule, the awareness of 4. No freedom of the Press: This made it very difficult
ones political and fundamental human rights in West for people to criticize government activities because
Africa was also made known. their voices were low.
4. Elective principles: Their agitations led to the 5. Agitation for independence: The vision of the French
introduction and extension of franchise in West Africa. colonies towards freedom was not encouraged; the
5. Africanisation of the civil service: Their struggle led people were not really agitating for independence
to the Africanisation of the civil service. It also forced because the motive of assimilation and association was
the colonial rulers to modify their racial discrimination to turn the African men into Frenchmen.
in the civil service. 6. Indignant policy: The policy frustrated the liberty of
6. Institutions of learning: Higher institution of learning Africans. They were subjected to arbitrary arrests and
were established imprisonment.
7. Element of check: Nationalist movements were able 7. Restriction on education: Education was restricted to
to check the excesses of the colonial government. only few individuals (Africans), those seen as citizens.
8. Newspapers: There was the emergence of nationalist Even missionaries were not allowed to build schools, the
newspapers. first school built by the missionary was in 1943.
9. Economic Participation: The nationalist movement 8. Absence of political parties and association: This
made it possible for West Africans to participate in made it difficult for people to express their political
many economic sectors of their countries hitherto opinions on government activities and policies.
dominated by foreigners. 9. Minor Political offices: The election of Africans into
the French chamber as Deputies also reduced the urge
for nationalist activities.
370
10. Provision of amenities: There was no discrimination activities. This led to the delay of nationalism in
between the Africans and their French counterparts in French West African colonies.
the areas of social and basic amenities. This non- 9. No freedom of press: This made it difficult for people
professional treatment prevented the civil servants and to criticize government policies.
the elites from agitating against the colonial 10. France did not permit trade union activities in its own
government. colonial territories.

2002/39 Neco 2014/7 Neco Exercise 28.12

The method used by the French to slow down the Highlight five reasons for the slow rate of nationalism in
development of nationalist activities in West Africa French speaking West Africa.
territories was
A. free press B. the indignant
C. free education D. certification Factors that led to the increase in Nationalism in French
Answer West Africa after the Second World War
The existence of this indignant policy threatened the 1. Nationalist activities: The activities of nationalists
liberty of Africans. They were subjected to arbitrary arrests British West Africa influenced the increase in
and imprisonment. (B) nationalism in French West Africa after Second World
War.
1998/38 2. Independence: The independence of Ghana and
Nationalist movements started late in French West Africa Algeria motivated the French colonies in West Africa.
because 3. Survival of Guinea: The survival of Guinea as a
A. Africans were allowed to enlist in the army nation-state after independence was also an
B. Africans felt they were free inspiration.
C. Africans wanted to maintain trade relations with France 4. Constitutional reforms: Another factor was also the
D. France did not allow Africans to travel abroad willingness of France President, President Charles de
E. France suppressed political associations and parties Gaulle to grant constitutional reforms to French
Answer colonies.
The nationalists movement started very late in the French 5. The Atlantic charter: This charter declared the right
West Africa because France suppressed political of every human in the world and it was signed by
association and parties, this made it difficult for the people Britain, France, USSR and USA.
to express their political views on government policies and 6. Lifting of the ban: The lifting of the ban on political
activities. (E) activities led to the formation of political parties, trade
union and Youth Movement tin French West Africa.
2005/39 Neco Exercise 28.11 7. Introduction of reform: The Loi cadre of 1956 which
The policy of indignation was practiced in the colonies introduced reforms gave some degree of autonomy to
controlled by the French colonies.
A. Belgium B. Portugal C. Britain D. France 8. The press: The emergence of the press especially in
Senegal and Dahomey was an additional factor to the
1997/6 increase in nationalism in French West Africa after the
Why was the development of nationalist activities slow in Second World War.
French West African colonies? 9. Discrimination: The policies of indigent and corvee
Answer (force labour) led to the increase of nationalism in
1. There was no discrimination on the civil service, so the French West Africa after the Second World War.
African civil servants could not revolt or agitate for 10. The United Nations Organization (UNO): The
independence. influence and support of this organization gave the
2. The policy of assimilation: The French policy of nationalist leaders the much needed encouragement.
assimilation was aimed at converting Africans to
Frenchmen and women in culture, beliefs, norms, 2010/38 Neco
dressing, etc. The Loi-cadre Reforms of 1956 in the French West Africa
3. The existence of indignant policy that threatened the were as a result of
liberty of Africans. A. pressure from the French territories
4. Education was restricted to few: Only citizens had full B. change in French policy of Association
rights for education. C. opposition to Bamako conference
5. Employment opportunities open to everybody no D. British colonial policy of granting internal-self government
discrimination. Answer
6. Citizenship: France extended their citizenship rights to The pressure from the French territories made Loi-cadre of
Africans in some of its colonies. 1956 possible. It gave some degree of autonomy to the
7. Election of Africans: Some Africans were elected as French colonies. (A)
Deputies into the French Chamber and this movement
discouraged their agitations for independence.
8. No formation of political parties and association:
There was no freedom of association in the French
colonies to form political opinions on government
371
Reasons for the European Colonization of West Africa 1980/39 UTME
1. They were in search of new markets for legitimate Nationalist movements in West Africa
trade. A. began earlier in the French colonies that in the British
2. The French wanted to extend their self-acclaimed rich ones
culture to Africa hence their policy of assimilation. B. were given all necessary support by the colonial
3. They wanted to provide security for their traders, trade governors who were liberal at heart
routes and workers. C. were assisted by economic discontent and led by
4. One of the reasons was to put an end to slave trade and indigenous individuals educated in Europe and North
slavery. America
5. There was the growing need to search for raw materials D. were infect encouraged and later led by traditional rulers
for home industries. who had the much needed foresight and courage
E. were parochial and did not really influence one another
2009/7 Neco Answer
Highlight four reasons for the European colonization of Nationalist movement in West Africa were assisted by
West Africa economic discontent and led by indigenous individuals
Answer educated in Europe and North America (C)
1. They were in search of new markets for legitimate
trade. 1981/21 UTME
2. Extension of cultural heritage e.g. assimilation policy. Nationalism in West Africa was aimed at
3. To provide security for their traders, trade routes and A. marking out an alliance with colonial regimes
workers. B. bringing all the educated elite together
4. To halt slave trade and slavery. C. the attainment of political independence from Britain
5. To find outlets for surplus capital. D. the attainment of political independence from
6. Search for raw materials for home industries. colonizers
7. To acquire more colonies for their glory and prestige. E. funding an economic union like ECOWAS
8. To find employment for displaced Europeans. Answer
Nationalism in West Africa was aimed at the attainment of
2009/43 UTME political independence from the colonizers. It was also
The consciousness of a common identity of a people is aimed at identification with one’s own nation and support
called for its interests, especially to the exclusion or detriment of
A. nationalism B. integration C. indoctrination the interests of other nations (D)
D. emancipation
Answer 1994/23 UTME
The consciousness of a common identity of a people is Nationalist activities were earlier in British than in French
called nationalism. Nationalism is a way of thinking that West Africa because the
says some group of humans, such as ethnic groups should A. French West Africans were not interested in having
be free to rule themselves. The other definition of self-government
nationalism is the identification with one’s own nation and B. British colonialists were no longer interested in having
support for its interests, especially to the exclusion or in governing their acquired territories
detriment of the interests of other nations. C. French administrative policies did not allow for political
agitation
2004/20 UTME D. nationalists in British West Africa were more united
The process of nationalism was accelerated by than their French counterparts
A. the signing of the Atlantic Charter Answer
B. improvement in warfare tactics Nationalist activities were earlier in British than in French
C. rapid economic development West Africa because the French administrative political
D. the coming of Christian missionaries policies did not allow for political agitation but
Answer assimilation later turned to association (C)
The process of nationalism was accelerated by the signing
of the Atlantic charter (A) 2009/28 UTME
NB: The signing of the Atlantic Charter accelerated the Nigerian nationalism was described as two-phased by
process of nationalism. The declaration in article 3 of the A. John Payne-Jackson B. Edward Wilmot Blyden
Atlantic Charter in 1941 of the right of all people to choose C. James S. Coleman D. David Ricardo
the form of government under which they will have to live Answer
gave much impetus to nationalist activities in West Africa. Nigerian nationalism was described as two phased by
Edward Wilmot Blyden. Edward Wilmot Blyden was a
Liberian educator, writer, diplomat and politician who was
primarily active in West Africa. Born in the Danish West
Indies, he joined the waves of black immigrants from the
America who migrated to the country (B)

372
2008/39 UTME 2016/4 UTME
In orientation, early nationalism in Nigeria was essentially The earliest nationalist activities in Nigeria were spearheaded
A. revolutionary B. reformist C. reactionary by
D. radical A. trade union B. educated elite C. political parties
Answer D. traditional rulers
In orientation, early nationalism in Nigeria was essentially Answer
reformist. (B) The earliest nationalist activities in Nigeria were spearheaded
by educated elites. The idea of nationalism in Nigeria, first
emerged in the 1920’s under the influence of Herbert
1978/40 UTME
Macauley, who is considered to be the founder of Nigerian
Which of the following would you consider the most
Nationalism. (B)
famous among the leaders of nationalist movements in
Nigeria? 2018/19 UTME
A. Kwame Nkrumah B. General Olusegun Obasanjo Nationalism in Africa eventually led to
C. Herbert Macaulay D. Anthony Enahoro A. a rapid political awareness among the colonialists
Answer B. the alignment of the new states
Herbert Macaulay should be considered the most famous C. de-colonization
among the leaders of Nationalist Movements in Nigeria D. international economic groupings
(C) Answer
Nationalism in Africa eventually led to de-colonization of
1998/29 UTME African states (C)
Nationalism in Nigeria was facilitated by
A. the actions of the veterans of the two world wars and 2017/25 UTME
traditional rulers The struggle for self – government from foreign rule is known
B. the activities of Christian churches and missionaries as
C. education and urbanization A. imperialism B. nationalism C. patriotism
D. rapid economic growth D. neo-colonialism
Answer Answer
Nationalism in Nigeria was facilitated by the actions of the Nationalism is the struggle for self-government from foreign
veterans of the two world wars and traditional rulers (A) rule (B)

2011/28 UTME
1981/26 UTME
The main achievement of the nationalists in Nigeria was
The three well-known nationalist leaders in Nigeria
A. political liberation of the nation
between 1948 and 1966 were B. building the nation
A. Dr. Nnamdi Azikiwe, Chief Obafemi Awolowo and C. registration of political parties
Alhaji Ahmadu Bello D. economic liberation of the nation
B. Lord Lugard, Sir Arthur Richard and Sir John Answer
Macpherson The main achievement of the nationalists in Nigeria was
C. Herbert Macaulay, Ernest Ikoli and Okoken Ndem political liberation of the nation. The rights for the citizens to
D. Alhaji Isa Kaita, Dr. K. Mbadiwe and Chief S. L. participate in their own government, etc.
Akintola
E. Mallam Aminu Kano, Sir Mobola, Bank Anthony and J. 2004/6 UTME
S. Tarka Nigeria’s relation with black political communities outside
Answer Africa is built on
The three prominent leaders in Nigeria between 1948 andA. shared political aspirations
1966 were: Dr. Nnamdi Azikiwe, Chief Obafemi B. expectations of political support from them
Awolowo and Alhaji Ahmadu Bello (A) C. economic considerations
D. perceived cultural affinities
1983/30 UTME Answer
The three great Nigerian nationalists between 1950 and Nigeria’s relationships with black political communities
1966 were outside Africa’s is built on economic considerations (C)
A. Herbert Macaulay, Nnamdi Azikiwe and Theophilus
1986/32 UTME
Danjuma
Which of the following sets of factors contributed to the
B. Obafemi Awolowo, Herbert Macaulay and Ahmadu
development of nationalism in Nigeria?
Bello A. racial discrimination and oppression
C. Nnamdi Azikiwe, Obafemi Awolowo and Ahmadu B. corruption and ethnicity
Bello C. paternalism and indirect rule
D. K. O. Mbadiwe, S. L. Akintola and Herbert Macaulay D. election malpractices and party differences
E. Funsho Olowoniyi, Ali Hassan and Joseph Yacim Answer
Answer Racial discrimination and oppression as a sets of factors that
The three great Nigerian nationalists between 1950 and contributed to the development of nationalism in Nigeria (A)
1966 were Nnamdi Azikiwe, Obafemi Awolowo and
Ahmadu Bello (C)

373
1986/46 UTME 2012/29 UTME
The greatest achievement of nationalist movements in Two foreigners that directly aroused nationalist feelings
Africa is the among Nigerians are
A. unity of African states A. Edward Blyden and Payne Jackson
B. love and peace among African states B. Casely Hayford and James Horton
C. sovereignty of most African states C. W. E. Du Bois and H. O. Davies
D. economic independence of African states D. Marcus Garvey and Casely Hayford
Answer Answer (D)
The greatest achievement of the nationalists movements in
Africa is the sovereignty (independence) of most African 2014/21 (OAU, IFE)
states (countries). (C) The ultimate goal of Nigeria’s nationalists was
A. increased political representation of Nigerians in
1989/35 UTME colonial government
Which of the following aroused and promoted nationalistic B. to educate Nigerians on the ills of colonialism
feeling among Nigerians? C. to give political dominance to the North
A. slave trade, indirect rule and amalgamation D. to ensure the independence of Nigeria from Britain
B. economic exploitation, racial discrimination and Answer
political parties The ultimate objective of Nigerian’s nationalists was to
C. communal riots, news media and religious differences ensure the independence of Nigeria from Britain (D)
D. traditional rulers, district officers and governors-general
Answer 2008/2009/23 (NDU, BAYELSA)
Economic exploitation, racial discrimination and political Nigeria elites agitated against colonial rule
parties aroused and promoted nationalistic feelings among A. by Geurilla warfare B. by civil war
Nigerians that led to our political, social and economic C. through television D. by bribing governors
liberties (B) E. through newspapers
Answer
1989/30 UTME The Nigerian elites agitated against colonial rule through
The author of the famous book Renascent Africa which newspapers (E)
inspired Africa nationalism is
A. Obafemi Awolowo B. Duese Mohammed Ali 2015/45 Neco
C. Ernest Ikoli D. Nnamdi Azikiwe One of the prominent West African nationalists leaders was
Answer A. Kwame Nkrumah B. Jomo Kenyatta
Renascent means being reborn, springing again into being C. S. L. Akintola D. Sokou Toure
or vigour. Becoming active or popular again. The revival Answer
of something that has been dormant. Dr. Nnamdi Azikiwe One of the prominent West African nationalists leaders
in his famous book Renascent Africa which inspired was Kwame Nkrumah of Gold Coast (Ghana). (A)
African nationalism to wake up from their slumping and to
be active to defend themselves from the British 1993/27 UTME
government, so that they can accomplish the goal of Which of the following internal factors did not accept the
nationalism which is self government (D) development of nationalist movements in colonial
Nigeria?
2014/26 UTME A. denial of equal opportunities to Nigerians – vis-à-vis
The emergence of nationalism was essentially the result of their European counterparts
its B. the establishment of political parties and newspapers
A. imperialism B. independence C. slavery C. the influx of West Indian and American intellectuals
D. colonialism D. the development of modern education
Answer Answer
The emergence of nationalism was essentially the result of The influx of West Indian and American intellectuals did
its colonialism. Colonialism is the policy or practice of not affect the development of nationalist movement in
acquiring full or partial political control over another colonial Nigeria (C)
country, occupying it with sellers and exploiting it
economically (D) 2004/22 UTME
The major motivation for British colonization of Nigeria
2012/28 UTME was to
Radical nationalism in Nigeria is generally attributed to the A. westernize Nigerians B. spread religion
influence of C. protect Nigerians from external attack
A. Aminu Kano B. Herbert Macaulay D. satisfy British economic interests
C. Nnamdi Azikiwe D. Mbonu Ojike Answer
Answer The main motivation for British colonization of Nigeria
Herbert macauley is considered to be the founder of was to satisfy British economic interests (D)
Nationalism in Nigeria. (B)

374
REVISION EXERCISES 9. One of the problems encountered by Nigerian
1. All the following were the demands made by the Nationalists in their struggles for constitutional
national congress of British West Africa from the changes was the
colonial government except the A. opposition from traditional rulers
A. establishment of a legislative council in each of the B. superior firearms of the colonial masters
British colonial territories C. opposition from the queen of England
B. appointment of an African as a governor in each of D. refusal of the Secretary of state to visit the colonies
the British colonial territories E. corruption and high handedness of the British
C. establishment of West African House of Assembly official
D. establishment of a West Africa University 10. The major aim of colonial rule in Nigeria was to
2. The first pan-West African political organization A. spread Christianity
formed by the educated elite in the early twentieth B. stop slave trade and slavery
century was the C. satisfy European curiosity about Africa
A. Aborigines’ Rights Protection Society (ARPS) D. stop inter-ethnic wars
B. National Congress of British West Africa (NCBWA) E. obtain cheap raw materials and secure ready
C. West African Students’ Union (WASU) markets
D. West Africa Youth League 11. Which of the following was not a result of nationalist
3. Nationalism in Africa refers to the idea that people activities in West Africa?
A. have the right to their own independent government A. development of many political parties
B. were prepared to accept European rule B. rapid political and constitution development
C. needed to learn from the political experience of C. gradual movement towards independence
Europeans D. development in education
D. needed only cultural but not political autonomy 12. Which of the following is a result of nationalist
4. Nationalism in West Africa was aimed at activities in French West Africa?
A. working out an alliance with the colonial regimes A. indigent B. free trade C. negritude
B. attainment of political independence from Britain D. direct rule E. the Loi-cadre
C. attainment of political independence from the 13. Nationalism in British West Africa aimed at
colonizers A. gaining independence B. abolishing chieftaincy
D. bringing all the educated elite together C. collecting revenue D. constructing roads
5. The development of nationalist activities was earlier in 14. What is Frenchification?
British West Africa than in French West Africa 15. Discuss the Zikist movement of the colonial era in
because Nigeria.
A. French West Africa were not interested in having 16. Define cercles.
self-government 17. Describe any five factors that contribute to the failure
B. British colonialist were no longer interested in of assimilation policy in French West Africa.
governing their acquired territories 18. Explain native Authority and three of its features.
C. French administrative policies did not allow for 19. Outline five positive effects of colonialism on West
political agitations Africans.
D. nationalists in British West Africa were more united 20. State any three countries colonized by British
than their French counterparts government in West Africa.
E. British colonialists wanted the development of 21. State the dates and years of independence of the
nationalist activities in British West Africa following countries:
6. Which of the following delayed nationalist movement a. Gambia
in French West Africa? b. India
A. presence of educated elite c. Senegal
B. the policy of assimilation d. Nigeria
C. the use of local chiefs e. Ghana
D. granting of freedom of Africans 22. Write a brief background of WASU.
7. The development of nationalist movement was late in 23. a) i. Give a short account of the Nigerian Youth
French West Africa because of the Movement.
A. Second World War B. indirect rule system ii.State three relevance of the Nigerian Youth
C. assimilation policy D. obnoxious land laws Movement to the Country.
8. Which of the following is true of the nationalists b). Explain briefly what led to the collapse of the
during the colonial days? They Nigerian Youth Movement.
A. used propaganda and blackmail to achieve their aim
B. preferred dealing with the secretary of state to
dealing with the governor
C. established universities in Ghana and Sierra-Leone
D. Took the Governor to court to press for the review
of obnoxious policies
E. Preferred working in the central government

375
1993/30 Exercise 29.3
Chapter Twenty Nine The amalgamation of Northern and Southern Nigeria in
1914 by Lord Lugard was to
CONSTITUTIONAL DEVELOPMENT IN A. check Portuguese encroachment from Cameroon
NIGERIA 1: PRE – INDEPENDENCE B. make for administrative convenience
C. check French encroachment
CROWN COLONY SYSTEM D. ensure that indirect rule succeeded
Crown colony is a form of direct rule of British annexed E. complete the colonization process
territories in which the British established political
institutions such as the executive council, legislative 1995/38 Exercise 29.4
council and governor which were used in ruling the people The decision to separate Lagos from the Western region
who were regarded as British subjects. The crown colony and make it a neutral federal territory was taken at the
system was headed by the governor. A. 1950 general conference
A crown colony is a British overseas territory under the B. 1953 constitutional conference
direct authority of the British crown. As such a crown C. 1954 constitutional conference
colony does not possess its own representative government D. 1957 constitutional conference
and is not represented in the British parliament. The colony E. 1963 all party constitutional conference
is administered by a governor appointed by the crown and
responsible to the colonial office.
Reasons why the Crown Colony System was Unpopular
British colonial rule in West Africa started towards the end among the Educated Elite
of 1898. Lagos was annexed and made a colony in 1861, 1. The legislative councils were dominated by the
Gold coast in 1821, Freetown became a colony in 1808. In British in the 1920s.
other words, Britain, decided to take over full colonial and 2. The governors were the colonial administrators and
administrative responsibility of Nigeria. dictators, they had veto power to reject or accept bills.
3. Executive councils were the advisory bodies to the
Nigeria was of three administrative units during the governors.
colonialism. 4. The use of traditional rulers as unofficial members in
i. The colony of Lagos. the legislative councils.
ii. The protectorate of Southern Nigeria. 5. The governors had casting votes which were used to
iii. The protectorate of Northern Nigeria. promote British colonial policies.
6. The executive councils consisted of only British
There are different government and administrative control officials alone.
in each unit. In May 1906, Lagos colony and protectorate 7. The educated elites were excluded from the
of Southern Nigeria were joined together to form Lagos administration of the crown colony.
colony and protectorate of Southern Nigeria. In 1914, 8. Africans who were members of the legislative
Lagos colony and protectorate of Southern Nigerian were councils were nominated instead of elected.
amalgamated with Northern protectorate to form single
colony known as the protectorate of Nigeria. Features of the Colonial Administration in the Crown
Colonies of British West Africa
In the British colony, the minister responsible to the The features of the colonial administration in the crown
parliament for administration of colonies was the secretary colonies are in three aspects:
of state for the colonies. The secretary of the state 1. The Governor.
appointed colonial governors in each of their colonies as 2. The Executive Council.
administrative leader. 3. The Legislative Council.

2017/7a Neco THE GOVERNOR

What is a crown colony? 1. The system of administration in the crown colonies of
Answer British West Africa was a direct administration by the
Crown colony is a form of direct rule of British annexed Governor.
territories in which the British established political 2. The governors of the crown colonies were appointed
institutions such as the executive council, legislative from London.
council and governor which were used in ruling the people 3. The governors had veto powers on bills.
who were regarded as British subjects. The crown colony 4. The governors also were used as advisory bodies in
system was headed by the governor. the executive and legislative councils.
5. The governors were administrative dictators of the
1998/52 Nov Exercise 29.1 colonies.
Lagos became a crown colony in
A. 1780 B. 1800 C. 1861 D. 1922 E. 1960

2008/7a Neco Exercise 29.2

Describe the crown colony system.

376
1998/46 Functions of the Colonial Governor in British West
The head of the British administration in the colonies was the Africa
A. Governor B. colonial secretary C. monarch 1. The main function of the colonial governor in British
D. secretary of state E. executive council Africa was the formulation or implementation of
Answer policies, appointment of officials, power of veto.
A crown colony known in the 17th century as royal colony 2. The governor had the power to appoint, promote and
was a type of colonial administration of the English and discipline or dismiss any public servant in the colony.
later British empire. Crown or royal colonies were ruled by 3. The governor assents or sign all bills.
a governor which is decided by the Monarch. By the 4. The governor presided over the meetings of both the
middle of the 19th century, the sovereign appointed royal executive and legislative councils.
governors on the advice of the secretary of state for the 5. The governor exercises powers of the head of
colonies. (A) government, the governor replaces the British
government in their colonies.
1991/58 6. The governor performs ceremonial functions.
During the early colonial period in Nigeria, the governor 7. The unofficial members were appointed by the
ruled by protectorate by governors in the British West Africa colonies.
A. crown colony orders B. proclamation C. decree 8. He also ensures that, he carries out the day–to–day
D. order – in – council E. the act of parliament administration of the colony.
Answer 9. The governor was responsible to the crown through
During the early colonial period in Nigeria, the governor the secretary of state for the colonies.
ruled the protectorate by proclamation. A proclamation
was an official declaration issued by governors to make 2010/9B Neco
certain announcements known. It is also known as Highlight five functions of the Governor – General in the
authority on declarations. (B) British West shortly after independence.
Answer
1993/31 1. He was authorized to appoint a prime minister.
The last colonial Governor for Nigeria was 2. He appointed ministers on the advice of the prime
A. Dr. Nnamdi Azikiwe B. Oliver Lyttleton minister.
C. Bernard Bourdillon D. Arthur Richards 3. He gave his assent to bills.
E. James Robertson 4. He was empowered to dissolve prorogue and summon
Answer parliament on the advice of the prime minister.
Sir James Wilson Robertson was a British civil servant 5. He appointed members of the public service
who served as the last colonial Governor–General of commission and other important government officials
Nigeria. (E) on the advice of the prime minister.
6. He received credentials from foreign dignitaries
THE EXECUTIVE COUNCIL accredited to his country.
1. The executive council was responsible to the crown 7. He addressed the parliament during the first
colony. parliamentary session.
2. The executive council were the advisers to the 8. He performed ceremonial functions.
administrator or governor of the crown colony. 9. He could dismiss the prime minister and cabinet if
3. The executive council were made up of the whites there was a vote of no – confidence.
(Europeans) mostly. 10. He exercised prerogative of mercy on the advice of
4. All the official members of the executive councils were the prime minister.
heads of departments e.g. governor; chief secretary or 11. He was the commander – in – chief of the armed
colonial secretary, attorney–general, financial secretary forces.
and lieutenant–governors, or chief commissioners.
2006/8 Neco
THE LEGISLATIVE COUNCIL What were the functions of the colonial governor in British
1. The legislative council had official majority.
West Africa?
2. The legislative council had no legislative power, its
Answer
role was purely advisory.
1. He performed ceremonial functions, e.g. conferment
3. The unofficial and the official members were
of honours.
European merchants, African chiefs and educated
2. He reported to the crown through the secretary of the
Africans were appointed by the colony governor.
state for the colonies.
3. He appointed some members of the executive and
2005/36 Nov legislative.
The official members in the legislative council of the
4. He formulated social and economic policies for the
British colonial government were
colony.
A. all Africans B. all white C. minority white
5. Presided over the meetings of both the legislative and
D. majority Africans
the executive councils.
Answer 6. He assented to all bills passed by the legislative
The unofficial and the official members were European
council.
merchants. (B)
377
7. He approved the allocation of land occupied by the The National Congress of British West Africa
government. (NCBWA)
8. He exercised all the powers of head of government on In 1920, the National Congress of British West Africa
behalf of the British e.g. declaration of a state of (NCBWA) was formed in Accra Gold Coast (Ghana).
emergency, the exercising of the prerogative of Joseph Casely Hayford and Dr. Akinwande Savage of
mercy. Nigeria were instrumental to its formation. One of the main
9. He exercised reserved powers in making laws for the reasons for the establishment of National Congress of
colonies through veto power and certification. British West Africa was the issue of granting elective
10. He was the administrator of the colony. principle and independence. After the congress was
constituted, it sent a delegation to London, to present a
The Nigerian Council of Lord Lugard petition to the secretary of state, Lord Milner.
The Nigerian council of Lord Lugard was created in 1914
after the amalgamation of the Northern and Southern The members of National Congress of British West Africa
protectorates. Membership of the council was 24 official were accused of self–centeredness and that they only
and 12 unofficial members. The unofficial members were represent the educated elites in Nigeria. The petition was
6 Europeans representing commerce, shipping, banking, not welcomed because the British government were not
mining, chambers of commerce and 6 Africans made up of satisfied with the African misconducts and they felt that,
Sultan of Sokoto, Alaafin of Oyo, Emir of Kano, Chief we were not matured enough to handle administrative
Dogho and a few educated Nigerian from Lagos and matters. Clifford settled up legislative council made a
Calabar. The officials include members of the executive recommendation for granting of elective representation
council, first class residents, political secretaries and and it was granted by the new secretary of state for the
secretaries of Southern and Northern provinces. colonies, Wilson Churchill. Nigeria then became the first
country to adopt this principle.
This council was purely an advisory body. It had no power 2011/47 Neco
of legislation nor of finance. It was a medium for public The first British West African country to practice the
opinion and not even an effective one in this regard. Most elective principle was
of the traditional rulers in the council could not see A. Nigeria B. the Gambia C. Sierra-Leone D. Ghana
themselves as part of the issues of the council. Even Answer
educated Nigerians who were in an unofficial capacity did Nigeria became the first country to adopt the elective
not play any vital role either. So, in 1922, Sir Hugh Clifford principle of British West African. (A)
succeeded Lord Lugard as the Governor of Nigeria. He
abolished the Nigerian council of Lord Lugard and in its
2006/42 Neco
place, a new legislative council was set up for the whole of
Elective principles was introduced in the British colonies
Southern Protectorate. The North was to be governed by
after
proclamation coming from the Governor. A. series of negotiations by the Chiefs
B. consultations with the age grades
2007/3 (OAU,IFE) C. a series of agitations by the educated elites
The amalgamation of the Northern and Southern D. the Queen’s desire to come to the colonies
protectorates and the colony of Lagos was in Answer
A. 1906 B. 1966 C .1914 D. 1957 The elective principle was introduced in the British
Answer colonies after a series of agitation by the educated elite,
The amalgamation of the northern and southern through National Congress of British West Africa
protectorate took place in 1914 (C) (NCBWA). (C)

2010/30 UTME 2006/4 Neco Exercise 29.5

Nigeria’s first law making body after the amalgamation An important innovation of the constitutions of British
was known as the West African colonies in the 1920’s was the
A. Nigerian council B. National Assembly A. introduction of elective principle
C. Nigeria National Assembly D. Legislative council B. appointment of Africans to the executive councils
Answer C. restriction of the Government veto powers
The Nigerian first law making body after the D. opening of regional assemblies
amalgamation of 1914 was known as the Nigerian council
of Lord Lugard (A) 2010/41 Neco Exercise 29.6
The National Congress of British West African (NCBWA)
1995/41 Nov was founded in 1920 in
The Nigerian council of 1914 contained only A. Lagos B. Monrovia C. Accra D. Bathrust
A. six Nigerians B. eight Nigerians C. ten Nigerians
D. ten traditional rulers E. twelve representatives
Answer
The Nigerian council of 1914 contained only six
Nigerians: Alafin of Oyo, Sultan of Sokoto, Emir of Kano,
Chief Dogho Numa and two educated elites, one from
Lagos and another from Calabar. (A)
378
Functions of the Secretary of State for the Colonies in 2010/9a Neco
the Colonial Period Distinguish between a Secretary of state for the colonies and a
1. The Secretary of state was to advise the British crown Governor–General in the British colonial administration.
on persons who could be appointed as Governors for the Answer
British colonies. The Secretary of state for the colonies was a minister resident
2. He had the power to promote, transfer and dismiss in Britain. He was responsible for advising the British
colonial governors, if they did not perform well. government on matters affecting its colonies while a
3. The Secretary of state must give approval for the Governor–General on the other hand was not a minister, he
drafting and implementation of new constitutions in was appointed by the Queen of England on the advice of the
colonies. prime ministers. He was resident in the colony and acted as
4. He received petitions from the local people, anytime the Head of State.
they had any complaints about the British government. The Secretary of the state approved drafting and
5. The Secretary of state was to ensure that the Governors implementation of new constitution while the Governor –
who resided in the British colonies performed the duties General seeks for the approval of its colony drafting
assigned to them properly. The aim was to ensure that constitution from the Secretary of state.
the colonies’ administration did not go contrary to 1996/40 Nov
British overseas policies. The reserved power exercised by the Secretary of state for the
6. The Secretary of state was the only official who could colonies was a check on the
give approval to the colonial budget before it could be A. legislative council B. executive council
implemented in the colonies. C. judiciary D. colonial secretary E. Governor
7. The Secretary of state for the colonies must approve Answer
every major public work before it could be implemented The Secretary of state for the colonies was a check on the
in the colonies. Without this approval, the work could Governor of the colony, he supervises the colonial
not be initiated. administration and he recommends people to the crown to be
8. The Secretary of state had the power to establish a appointed as the governors of the colonies. (E)
commission of inquiry to inquire into anything that
occurs in the colony, especially if the occurrence was 1992/22 Exercise 29.7
out of the ordinary. For example, the Aba riots of 1929, Which of the following was the feature of the British colonial
the Secretary of state set up commission of inquiries administration in West Africa between 1919 and 1946?
over such disturbances or any unusual occurrences in the A. Assimilation B. association C. direct rule
colonies. D. appointment of an African Chief Justice
9. He has legislation power, he could declare null and void E. appointment of the Secretary of state for the colonies
or disallow any controversial colonial legislation.

2015/6 Neco CLIFFORD CONSTITUTION OF 1922

Highlight any five functions of the Secretary of state for The Clifford constitution of 1922 disposed the Nigerian
council of Lord Lugard (1914) and set up a new legislative
the colonies in the colonial period.
council for the Southern protectorate. The Clifford
Answer constitution of 1922 established the elective principle for the
1. Responsible and accountable to the British first time in Nigeria, the elective principle was limited to male
parliament. adults that have resided in Nigeria for over 12 months and
2. Advised the governors on the affairs of the colonies have gross annual income of 100 pounds to be entitled to vote
e.g. during crisis. and be voted for.
3. Received petitions and grievances from the colonies
on behalf of the British parliament. The membership of the Clifford legislative council was forty-
4. Submitted annual reports on the colonies to the crown six (46). Twenty–seven (27) out of the forty-six members
through parliament. were officials while nineteen (19) were unofficial members.
5. Approved the drafting of a new constitution for the Ten out of the (19) were Nigerians. Out of the ten (10)
colonies. unofficial Nigerians, four (4) were elected, three (3) from
6. He could override the governor’s veto and power of Lagos and one (1) from Calabar. The remaining six (6) were
certification. appointed by the Governor to represent other parts of the
7. He could disallow any law which was not consistent country. However, the Northern protectorate was not part of
with British colonies policies. this council.
8. Controlled the finances of the colonies through
approval of budgeting and auditing of accounts. 1993/38
9. He approved major projects to be undertaken in the A historic feature of the legislative council of Nigeria that met
colonies. in 1923 was that for the first time, it
10. Supervised the colonial administration by giving A. included elected African members
B. legislated for the whole country
directives to the British parliament.
C. acted in a deliberative capacity
11. Set up commission of enquiry to investigate issues in
D. included British officials
the colonies. E. included official members who were Nigerians
12. Recommended people to the crown to be appointed as Answer
governors for the colonies. The Clifford constitution of 1922 for the first time in 1923
included elected African members into the legislative council
in Nigeria. (A)
379
2005/39 Nov 1998/43
The elective principle was first introduced in colonial West In the 1922 Clifford constitution of Nigeria
Africa in A. all the members of the executive council were British
A. 1922 B. 1951 C. 1954 D. 1960 B. none of the members of the executive council were British
Answer C. all the members of the executive council were Nigerians
The elective principle was first introduced in colonial West D. all the members of the executive council were popularly
Africa in 1922 through Clifford constitution. (A) elected
E. governor had no legislative power
2011/47 Neco Answer
The first British West African country to practice the The executive council was an all European council. No
elective principle was Nigerian was included i.e. Nigerians were not taking part
A. Nigeria B. the Gambia C. Sierra Leone D. Ghana in their decision making. (A)
Answer
Nigeria was the first British West African country to 1998/32 Nov
practice the elective principle. The elective principle was The Clifford constitution of 1922 in Nigeria provided for
limited to male adults that have resided in Nigeria for over A. no elective principle B. one elected representatives
12 months and have gross annual income of 100 pounds to C. four elected representatives
be entitled to vote and be voted for. (A) D. one elected representative for Lagos colony
E. universal adult suffrage
2010/7A Neco Exercise 29.8 Answer
Describe the composition of the executive council of the The Clifford constitution of 1922 in Nigeria provided for
1922 Clifford constitution. four elective representatives, 3 (three) were elected from
Lagos and 1 (one) from Calabar. (C)

Features of Clifford Constitution of 1922 2004/41 Neco

1. Elective principle to elect desired persons into the A major feature of the constitutions in British West Africa
legislative council. colonies in the 1920’s was the
2. The Governor was Hugh Clifford, he was sent to A. abolition of local governments
Nigeria to represent the Queen of England. B. introduction of the elective
3. All colonial governors were to report to the secretary C. introduction of council of elders
of the state for colonies, who was a cabinet minister D. introduction of universal adult suffrage
in Britain. Answer
4. The executive council was an all-European council. The major feature of Clifford constitution of 1922 in
No Nigerian was included i.e. Nigerians were not British West African colonies, it introduced the elective
taking part in their decision making. principles. (B)
5. The legislative council consists of 46 members of
which 27 members were officials and 19 were 1995/10
unofficial. What were the major changes introduced in Nigeria by the
6. The Governor nominated some legislative council Clifford constitution of 1922?
officials. Answer
7. The northern part was ruled by proclamation coming 1. A new legislative council for the colony and
from the governor. protectorate of Nigeria (Northern protectorate not
8. Formation of political parties e.g. NNDP of Herbert inclusive) was established.
Macaulay. 2. The Nigerian council of Lord Lugard was abolished.
9. Establishment of newspapers e.g. the West African 3. One of the major achievements or changes introduced
Pilot and Lagos Daily News to increase political by Clifford was the introduction of the elective
activities. principle in Nigeria.
10. The new legislative councils were for the southern 4. A new executive was established for the whole
provinces, including the colony of Lagos. country.
5. Lagos and Calabar were mostly favoured in the areas
1989/49 Nov of political activities and formation of political
The first political party in Nigeria was formed after the parties.
introduction of the 6. Daily Lagos News, West African Pilot, etc. were
A. Richard constitution B. Clifford constitution some of the newspapers that helped to further the
C. Bourdillon constitution D. Macpherson constitution tempo of political activities.
E. Lyttleton
Answer 1989/9 Nov
The Clifford constitution of 1922 also gave way to the In what ways was the 1922 constitution in Nigeria
establishment of political parties in Nigeria. In 1923, Herbert significant?
Macaulay founded the first political party in Nigeria, the 1. The constitution introduced elective principle which
Nigerian National Democratic Party (NNDP). (B) for the first time allowed Nigerians to elect their
representatives into the legislative council.

380
2. It gave special impetus to political activities which led to the1996/37
formation of political parties. A major result of the Clifford constitution of 1922 in
3. It increased political agitation and awakened the spirit of Nigeria was the
nationalism which quickened Nigeria’s independence. A. creation of office of the Governor–General
4. It served as the first ever constitution in Nigeria. B. increase a nationalist activities throughout West Africa
5. The constitution allowed Nigerians more representation than C. introduction of party system
the Nigerian council. D. establishment of the University of Nigeria
6. It also witnessed the birth of newspapers in Nigeria. E. adoption of the federal system of government
7. It started the process and prepares Nigerian, for self–
Answer
government
Correct option is C. The main result of the Clifford
1999/40 Neco Exercise 29.9 constitution of 1922 in Nigeria was introduction of
The colonial government whose constitution introduced elective political parties.
principle into the Nigerian politics was
A. Arthur Richards B. Frederick Lugard 2001/42 Neco Exercise 29.12
C. Hugh Clifford D. John Macpherson One important effect of the 1922 constitution of Nigeria
was the
1995/31 Nov Exercise 29.10
A. formation of political parties
The elective principle was first introduced in Nigeria in
B. establishment of university in West Africa
A. 1914 B. 1920 C. 1922 D. 1953 E. 1960
C. fusion of both the legislative and executive powers D.
1998/36 Nov Exercise 29.11 establishment of a military government
Which of the following pair of towns was given a voting right
under the 1922 constitution of Nigeria? 2018/6a NABTEB Exercise 29.13
A. Kaduna and Jos B. Lagos and Kano Explain five merits of Clifford constitution of 1922.
C. Zaria and Ibadan D. Lagos and Calabar
E. Enugu and Lokoja
Demerits of Clifford Constitution Of 1922
Merits of Clifford Constitution of 1922 1. The constitution isolated the Northern part of Nigeria.
1. Political activities: This constitution created a conducive 2. The legislative council was dominated by Europeans.
atmosphere for political activities and formation of political 3. A large percentage of Nigerians were not allowed to
parties in Lagos and Calabar e.g. the NNDP of Herbert vote and voted for. Only four (4) of the unofficial
Macaulay. members were to be elected by an adult male suffrage
2. Newspapers: These were established to further popularize with residential qualification of one year (12 months)
the increased political activities. and a gross income of 100 pounds per annual.
3. Elective principle: This constitution made it possible for the 4. There were many more officials and nominated
elective representation of Nigerians into the legislative members than elected members in the legislative
council. council.
4. New legislative council: This constitution established a new 5. Clifford’s constitution was accused of sectionalism
legislative council for the colony and protectorate of by its definition. It was a constitution for the south
southern Nigeria. and Lagos colony alone, the north was excluded.
5. Inspiration: The constitution gave inspiration to nationalist 6. The elective principles of Clifford constitutions were
activities in the country which acted as preparatory ground
only for the legislative council and were unofficial.
for self government.
The principle was not extended to the executive
6. Legislative council: More Africans were allowed into the
legislative council. council.
7. Written constitution: Clifford constitution was the first
written constitution for Nigeria. 2018/6B NABTEB Exercise 29.14
8. Constitutional agreement: It established a constitutional Describe five demerits of Clifford constitution of 1922.
government in Nigeria as opposed to government by
statutory instrument or orders.
9. Political awareness: It increased political awareness
through political education and campaigns. RICHARD CONSTITUTION OF 1946
10. Political participation: It enhanced greater political The Governor of Nigeria during the outbreak of the Second
participation by means of political party membership. World War in (1939–45) was Sir Bourdillon, he was in
office between 1939–1944. During his tenure, the Northern
2007/43 Neco and Southern protectorate were made provinces. The
The introduction of elective principle in colonial West Africa Northern Nigeria remained as a single province while the
allowed
Southern Nigeria province was broken into two – Eastern
A. Africans to be elected into the conferences
and Western provinces. When Bourdillon retired in 1944,
B. the Africans to be councils to be dominated by Africans
C. an African to become a Governor – General he almost concluded the constitution, he emphasized on
D. the removal of the Governor – Generals’ veto powers regionalism in his new constitution, so that all the regions
Answer can be treated equally. After his retirement in 1944, Sir
The introduction of elective principle in colonial West Africa Richard took over the office and concluded the constitution
allowed Africans to be elected into the conferences. (A) that Bourdillon started, but he maintained all the ideologies
and features of Bourdillon.
381
In 1946, Sir Richard constitution, replaced that of Clifford 11. Members of the central legislative council were at the
constitution of 1922. The new constitution of Richard was same time members of the regional councils. The
geared towards unity and growth of all the regions in central legislature did not possess a national outlook
Nigeria, the constitution also promotes greater but a regional outlook.
participation of Nigerians in their own government and all 12. The constitution created a central legislature in which
parts of Nigeria was included in the constitution. all the regions were represented.
2000/27 Neco 13. The constitution created regional assemblies of the
The concept of regionalism in Nigeria was first introduced Northern, Western and Eastern region.
by the 14. The regional assemblies submitted their deliberations
A. independence constitution B. Macpherson constitution to the central legislature.
C. Richard’s constitution D. Lyttleton constitution
Answer
Richard’s constitution was the first to introduce the 1991/29
concept of regionalism in Nigeria. (C) Nigeria was formally divided into three regions under the
constitution of
Features of Richard’s Constitution Of 1946 A. 1922 B. 1946 C. 1951 D. 1954 E. 1960
1. Nigerians were the minority members of the central Answer
legislative council. Richard’s constitution of 1946 introduced regionalism into
2. Bicameral legislature was established in the Northern Nigeria’s political structure e.g. Eastern, Western and
part of Nigeria during Sir Richard 1946 constitution. Northern regions. (B)
The constitution granted the North a bicameral
legislature – Regional Assembly and the Regional 1991/31
House of Chiefs. All first class chiefs were members Under which constitution was a bicameral legislature
by right. Only one chamber was created for the introduced into the Northern region of Nigeria?
Eastern and Western Region – Regional House of A. 1922 constitution B. 1946 constitution
Assembly. C. 1951 constitution D. 1954 constitution
3. Integration of the North with the South – Members E. 1960 constitution
form northern Nigeria and members from southern Answer
Nigeria sat together for the first time in the council. The Richard’s constitution of 1946 granted the North a
4. It laid the foundation for federalism and federal bicameral legislature – Regional Assembly and the
constitution in Nigeria. Regional House of Chiefs. All first class were members by
5. It linked native authorities with regional assemblies – right. (B)
The constitution incorporated the native authority
structure in selecting unofficial members of the 1992/42
legislative council. One of the features of the 1946 Richards constitution in
6. Bilateralism is the conduct of political, economic or Nigeria was
cultural relations between two independent states. A. unofficial majority in the legislative council
7. It introduced the legislative council which has the B. African majority in the executive council
Governor as its president based in Lagos. The C. ministerial responsibility D. universal adult suffrage
legislative council consists of 44 members, 28 were E. appointment of premiers for the regions
unofficial and 16 official members. Official members Answer
comprised of thirteen ex – official and three Richard’s constitution of 1946 produced an unofficial
nominated members while unofficial members were majority into the central legislative council. (A)
made up of four elected and twenty four nominated or
indirectly elected members. The four elected 1997/42
members were from Lagos and Calabar (three Regionalism was fully operated in Nigeria by the
members from Lagos and one member from Calabar). A. Clifford constitution B. Macpherson constitution
8. The regional assemblies were given limited powers to C. Richard constitution D. Republican constitution
legislate minor matters subject to the governor’s E. independence constitution
reserved powers. The following are the composition Answer
of the House of Legislative. Richard constitution of 1946 created regions out of the
i. Northern Regional Assembly – 19 officials and former three provinces – Eastern, Western and Northern
20 unofficials. regions. (C)
ii. Eastern Regional Assembly – 13 officials and 14
unofficials. 2001/8 Neco
iii. Western Regional Assembly – 14 officials and Describe the main features of the 1946 Richard’s
15 unofficials. constitution in Nigeria.
9. The constitution still retained the elective principle Answer
with limited franchise. Three representatives were 1. Certain services were reserved for the central
elected for Lagos and 1 for Calabar. government and were financed by the central
10. The revenues of the country were made available to government, e.g. railways, army, post and telegraphs.
each region in the form of bulk grants. 2. The revenues of Nigeria were apportioned to each
region in the form of bulk grants.
382
3. The native authorities were linked with the regional 5. The constitution widened the scope of Nigerian
assembly. representation in the legislative council. Many
4. The regional councils were used as electoral colleges communities in Nigeria were represented in the
for representation in the legislative council. legislative council even though in an official capacity.
5. Members of the central legislative council were at the 6. Richard constitution gave the unofficial members a
same time members of the regional council; majority in the legislative council.
6. It brought on African unofficial majority into the 7. The constitution brought unity for the very first time
central legislative council. since 1923, Northern and Southern Nigeria working
together as a nation.
Aims and Objectives of Richards Constitution of 1946 8. The Regional assemblies later became the body
1. Richard constitution promotes unity in the country. (Electoral College) for electing representatives into
2. To secure greater participation by Africans in the the central legislature.
discussion of their own affairs. 9. Richard’s constitution served as a link between native
3. Richard constitution introduced regionalism. This administration and the central legislative council
was by creating three regions out of the three through the Regional Assemblies.
provinces. 10. Richard’s constitution also served as a stimulant
4. Richard constitution was a broad based constitution. activities in that era.
This was different from Clifford’s and it was meant 11. Franchise qualification was reduced from one
to embrace all parts of the country. hundred pound to fifty pounds annual income and 24
5. Legislative council was introduced in order to months to 12months of residence.
accommodate every section of the Nigerian society.
1995/35
1995/42 Nov One major achievement of the Richard’s constitution of
The Richard’s constitution of 1946 was significant because Nigeria was that it
A. it was the most acceptable constitutional reform for A. united the North and South under a single legislature
Nigeria B. introduced the elective principle
B. all sections of Nigeria were consulted on its provisions C. provided for official African members of the executive
C. it brought Northern and Southern Nigeria under one council
legislative body D. allowed the participation of traditional rulers in
D. Governor Arthur Richards was very influential in Nigeria government
E. it contained provisions for the immediate attainment of Answer
self-government in Nigeria The main achievement of Richard’s constitution of Nigeria
Answer was bringing together of the Northern and Southern
The Richard’s constitution of 1946 was the most Nigeria, for the unity of the country. (A)
significant because it was acceptable in Nigeria. (A)
2001/34 Neco
1995/41 Which of the following Nigerian constitutions brought the
One effect of the Richard’s constitution of 1946 was that it Northern provinces into the legislative court?
A. brought Nigeria under a unitary government A. the 1979 constitution B. the Richard’s constitution
B. dissolved the executive council at the centre C. the Clifford constitution D. the Lyttleton constitution
C. gave residual powers to traditional rulers in Northern Answer
Nigeria Richard’s constitution brought the Northern provinces into
D. brought an African un-official majority into the the legislative council in Nigeria. (B)
legislative council
E. discouraged nationalist activities 2007/8 Neco
Answer Highlight six merits of the Richards constitution of 1946
One effect or vital role of the Richard constitution of 1946 in Nigeria.
was that it brought an African unofficial majority into the Answer
legislative council. (D) 1. The constitution increased Nigerian representation to
the legislative council.
Achievements of Richard’s Constitution 2. It provided a link between the native administration
The achievements of Richard’s constitution are advantages and the central legislative council through the
of Richard constitution. regional assemblies.
1. The constitution was able to lay the foundation for 3. It brought the North and South, for the first time, into
federalism in Nigeria. one legislative council.
2. Bicameral legislature was introduced in the Northern 4. It provided for unofficial majority in the legislative
regions, through the Houses of Assembly and Chiefs. council.
East and West had only unicameral legislature. 5. The constitution served as a stimulant for the
3. Introduction of regionalism was the foremost development of nationalist activities.
achievement of this constitution. The former three 6. It introduced bicameral legislature in Northern
provinces gave way to three regions. Nigeria.
4. The constitution was able to link native authorities 7. It laid the foundation for the establishment of
with the regional assemblies. federalism in Nigeria.
383
8. Franchise qualification was reduced from one Nationalists Opposition to the 1946 Constitution of
hundred pounds to fifty pounds annual income and 24 Nigeria
months to 12 months residence. 1. Nigerians were not consulted before drawing and
9. The constitution provided for one Nigerian member applying for the constitution.
in the executive council. 2. The elective principle was restricted only to Lagos
and Calabar as it was with the Clifford constitution of
1997/42 Exercise 29.15 1922.
Regionalism was fully operated in Nigeria by the 3. The regional assemblies were advisory and
A. Clifford constitution B. Macpherson constitution consultative bodies only.
C. Richard constitution D. Republican constitution 4. The governor should not have reserve powers to veto
E. Independence constitution or certify bills.
5. The chiefs and their nominees into the legislative
council were not representative of the people.
Weakness of Richard’s Constitution of 1946 6. There was no provision in the constitution for
The following are some disadvantages of Richard’s Nigerians to take active part in the management of the
constitution: affairs of Nigeria.
1. The executive council was still dominated by 7. The constitution was imposed on the people of
Europeans as in Clifford’s constitution. Nigeria.
2. The constitution did not allow full participation of
nationalist leaders in the administration of the 1992/38
country. The nationalists were not impressed with the constitutional
3. Nigerians were not fully consulted before the development in Nigeria between 1919 and 1945 because
operation of the constitution. Therefore, it was A. the elective principle was limited in many respects
regarded as autocratic. B. Lugard was high – handed
4. The Richard’s constitution introduced regionalism in C. the legislative council was dominated by the chiefs
Nigeria which was the foundation of regional rivalry D. Governor Clifford was not given a free hand
in Nigeria because each regions represents an ethnic E. the Governor maltreated the chiefs
group in Nigeria e.g. the Northern region represents Answer
the Hausa/Fulani’s, the Eastern region represent the The nationalists of Nigeria were not impressed with the
Igbos while the Western Region represents the constitutional development between 1919 and 1945
Yorubas. The Southern represents the Igbos. These because of the elective principle which limited most
regions gave birth to ethnic and tribal contradictions Nigerians from performing their civil rights. (A)
in Nigeria politics up to date.
5. The governor still exercises veto power. THE MACPHERSON CONSTITUTION OF 1951
6. The constitution represents colonial interest. In 1948, John Macpherson succeeded Sir Arthur Richards as
7. The constitution was partial on the ground, it created the Governor–General of Nigeria. After (Macpherson)
houses of chiefs and House of Assembly in the resumed office, he began to draft a new constitution for the
Northern region which made them to have bicameral country. He was very patient and careful in the process, so as
legislative council while the southern and western not to repeat the same mistakes his predecessor made.
regions had unicameral legislative council. The Richard’s constitution of 1946 was criticized by most
citizens of Nigeria felt that there was unequal Nigerian nationalists on the ground that it was imposed on
treatment of the citizens based on regional them and operated without their consultation.
sentiments.
8. The constitution divided the country into three Sir Macpherson ensured that Nigerians were involved in the
constitutional drafting, on the 9th January, 1950, delegates
unequal regions, making the Northern region larger
from Northern, Western and Eastern Regions of Nigeria met
than the other two combined.
in Ibadan for a constitutional conference (1950 Ibadan All
9. The elective principle was retained by Richard’s Nigerian constitutional conference). At the Ibadan 1950
constitution; it was only practiced in Lagos and conference, suggestions and decisions were generally made
Calabar. This principle of representation was not on the constitution, Macpherson constitution was seen as
extended to other parts of the country. Nigeria constitution by Nigerians because they were part of
10. The Chiefs were nominated and not elected into the the drafting.
legislative council.
IBADAN ALL–NIGERIAN CONSTITUTIONAL
1993/39 Exercise 29.16 CONFERENCE OF 1950
One major weakness of the 1946 Richard’s constitution in On the 9th of January, 1950, delegates from the northern,
Nigeria was its eastern and western regions of Nigeria met as a body in
A. cumbersome constitutional provision Ibadan to discuss issues on the new constitution Sir
B. limited application of the elective principle Macpherson was drafting (Macpherson constitution of 1951).
C. imprecision in legal classification The conference was held as a part of Sir Macpherson’s efforts
D. disregard for the views of traditional rulers to have a home-made and acceptable constitution unlike the
E. provision for an official majority in the legislative earlier ones (Clifford constitution of 1922 and Richards
assembly constitution of 1946) which Nigerians claimed were imposed
on them.
384
Sir Gerald Howe, the then Attorney-General, was the 5. Regional legislative council: The constitution increased
chairman of the conference. Several issues were discussed a legislative council for the three regions. The legislative
at the Ibadan 1950 conference concerning political council was called “House of Assembly”. A bicameral
administration of Nigeria, the system of government to be legislative (House of Assembly and House of Chiefs)
adopted and revenue allocation as well. Other important existed in the Northern and Western regions, while
issues were also discussed at the conference. The political unicameral legislature for the Eastern region i.e. a House
leaders of the three regions (northern, eastern and western) of Assembly.
wanted the country to adopt a federal system of 6. The constitution created the position of the governor.
government which will grant autonomy to the three regions 7. Only male tax payers were allowed to vote in the
and then allow each of them to develop at its own pace. North, while both male and female voted in the
Eastern and Western regions of Nigeria.
Recommendations of the Conference 8. Creation of public service commission for recruiting,
1. A federal system of government should be adopted in dismissing, promoting and disciplinary control of
the three regions. public servant.
2. The three regions should become administrative 9. Election was direct and indirect methods.
regions with a governor and a House of Assembly. 10. The Eastern region had a single chamber of the house
3. Lagos should become an autonomous metropolitan. of Assembly.
4. There should be existence of federal government 11. The constitution established bicameral legislature for
territory that will monitor the affairs of the three the Northern and Western regions. i.e. House of
regions. Chiefs and House of Assemblies for each and
5. Revenue from tax should be allocated to the three unicameral legislature for eastern region i.e. a House
regions based on per capital. of Assembly.
6. Nigerians should start participating in their own
governance. 2000/36 Neco Exercise 29.19
The Nigerian Macpherson constitution of 1951 was
1997/43 Exercise 29.17 significant for
The General conference of 1950 on Nigeria was held in A. the introduction of Electoral College
A. Lagos B. Ibadan C. London D. Enugu B. providing for the office of the prime minster
E. New York C. the creation of states
D. establishing the Supreme Court
2019/38 NABTEB Exercise 29.18 2014/6a Neco
The consultation and debate that took place in the process Outline three features of the Macpherson constitution.
of drafting the Macpherson constitution was concluded Answer
with which conference? 1. The establishment of a central legislature known as
A. Ibadan conference of 1950 House of Representatives.
B. Lagos conference of 1950 2. The establishment of central executive council.
C. London conference of 1948 3. Provision for the establishment of regional
D. Sokoto conference of 1946 legislatures.
4. Establishment of a unicameral legislature in the
Eastern region.
Features of Macpherson Constitution of 1951 5. It provided for the establishment of regional executive
1. Central legislative council: The Macpherson council in each region.
constitution made provision for central legislative 6. Establishment of bicameral legislatures in the
council also called House of Representatives. The Northern and Western Regions.
legislative council consisted of 148 members of
whom 136 were elected from the Regional Houses. 2012/9 Neco Exercise 29.20
Six members were appointed by the Governor, six Identify six features of the Macpherson constitution of 1951.
also were ex–official members. Answer
2. Central executive council: This was called the 1. It provided for a central legislature and executive
“council of ministers” and was made up of 12 council for the country.
Nigerians, ministers, six ex–official members and the 2. It provided for an executive made up of 18 members.
president (Governor). 3. Increased the membership of central legislature.
3. The country was divided into three unequal regions: 4. Council of ministers was constituted and charged
Northern, Western and Eastern Region. The Northern with the responsibility of executing policies.
Region was the largest region in 1951. 5. Supremacy of the central legislative over regional
4. Regional executive councils: The Macpherson legislature.
constitution of 1951 provided executive councils for 6. Each region was also provided with regional
the regions. The Executive councils were headed by executive council.
Lieutenant–Governors. The members (five officials 7. It also provided for a regional legislative council for
and nine ministers of whom four were Nigerians) each region.
were all appointed by the Lieutenant Governors. 8. It introduced a new electoral system.
9. Provided for regional houses of chiefs for the northern
and western regions.
385
Achievements of Macpherson Constitution Of 1951 2. Veto power, the 1951 constitution provided veto
1. It introduced legislative principles. power to the governor on legislative matters.
2. It made provision for offices of ministers. 3. Regional based political parties, the three major
3. It introduced a revenue allocation formula in Nigeria. parties, the NCNC, NPC and AG were all regional
4. The constitution had a national outlook, as it covered parties. Infact, none of the political parties
all parts of Nigeria. commanded a nationwide support.
5. It encourages the wider participation of each region. 4. Crisis within the NCNC in 1953, led to some
For example, North 68 seats and West had 34 seats. members expulsion from the party, they formed a new
6. Autonomy of the regions, the regions was empowered party called United Independent Party (UIP).
to be autonomous. 5. There was no provision for the office of prime
7. Macpherson constitution was home–made minister as the head of government in the country.
constitution. For the first time, Nigerians took part in 6. Ethnic nationalism and regional division was
the making of the constitution, through constitutional encouraged based on the constitution.
conference. 7. The constitution made no provision for a responsible
8. Formation of political parties, the constitution government at the centre.
stimulated the formation and development of political 8. There was dual membership in the legislature; the
parties. lieutenant governors of the regions were members of
both the regional legislature and the House of
2000/26 Neco Representatives.
The Nigerian Macpherson constitution of 1951 significant
for 1997/44
A. the introduction of Electoral College One defect of the Macpherson constitution was that
B. providing for the prime minister A. franchise was still limited to Lagos and Calabar
C. the creation of states B. Nigerians were not given representation in the
D. establishing the Supreme Court parliament
Answer C. Nigerians ministers were not charged with full
The Macpherson constitution of 1951 introduced Electoral ministerial responsibility
College which is also known as indirect election. (A) D. Nigerians were not consulted before introducing the
constitution
The weakness of Macpherson Constitution of 1951 E. Nigerians could not discuss their own affairs in the
1. There were three main crisis in 1953 which led or regional assemblies
contributed to the collapse of Macpherson Answer
constitution. The constitution made no provision for a responsible
a. The first crisis was in the Eastern Region. Dr. government at the centre; the ministers were not given
Nnamdi Azikiwe was not elected into the House of portfolios with full ministerial responsibilities but could
Representatives (central legislative) in Lagos and as initiate discussions of policy in the council. (C)
a result of the expulsion of some ministers, the party
was not willing to continue to support the 2018/36 NABTEB
constitution. The breakdown of the Macpherson constitution was partly
b. The second crisis was due to the motion moved by caused by the crisis within the
Chief Anthony Enahoro in 1953 at the House of
A. Northern People’s Congress B. Action Group
Representatives for self–government in Nigeria. The
C. Nigerian National Democratic Party
Northerner opposed the motion on the grounds that
Nigerians were not ripe enough to get independent at D. National Council of Nigerian Citizens
1956. Answer
c. The third was a riot in Kano in 1953. The Kano riot In 1953, crisis erupted within the NCNC as a party and the
of 1953 refers to the riot which broke out in the outcome of this was the expulsion of some party members.
ancient city of Kano, located in Northern Nigeria, in The expelled members formed a new party called United
May 1953. The natures of the riot were clashes Independent Party (UIP). (D)
between Northerners, who opposed to Nigeria
independence and Southerners made up of mainly 1992/7
the Yoruba’s and Igbo’s who also supported Why did the Macpherson constitution of 1951 breakdown?
immediate independence for Nigeria. The riot that Answer
lasted for four days claimed many lives of the 1. There was no provision for the post of premier as head
Southerners and Northerners and many others were of government for the regions and prime minister as
wounded. The last straw that broke the camel’s back head of government for the country.
was the tour by a delegation of the Action Group 2. Macpherson constitution made as one of its
(A.G) and National Congress of Nigerians and provisions, ministers to be nominated by the regional
Cameroonians (NCNC) led by Chief Samuel legislatures.
Akintola, the tour which was aimed at campaigning 3. Ministers were mere appendages; ministerial
for self government acted as the immediate cause of responsibilities were not part of the constitution.
the Kano riot. These three crises exposed the defects 4. The Governor had veto and reserved powers.
of Macpherson constitution and led to its collapse.

386
5. Regional legislature had limited powers in law– 6. The legislative power should be shared between the
making and this had to be approved before it could federal, state and federating units (local governments).
operate. 7. Residual power was given to the region (local
6. The anticipation for political independence as government).
envisaged by the nationalists was not met by this 8. Electoral colleges were no longer, the regional
constitution. legislatures for the central legislature.
7. Political parties were region based for example for the 9. The office of the prime minister was created as head
East, AG for the west and NPC for the North. of government of the federation.
8. In 1953, Chief Anthony Enahoro moved a motion in 10. The police force would continue to be a federal
the House of Representatives for self–government for institution.
Nigerian to be obtained in 1956. This motion was one 11. There was to be a commission of inquiry to look into
of the reasons for the breakdown of Macpherson the fears of the minorities in the country.
constitution. 12. The Eastern and Western regions were to be self –
9. The 1953 Kano riot was another reason for the governing in August, 1957.
breakdown.
10. There was no provision for the three leaders of the 1996/7 Nov
parties – NCNC, NPC and AG to be part of the central What were the major decisions of the London
decision making body. This contributed to the constitutional conference of 1953 on Nigeria?
breakdown. Answer
11. The crisis of 1953 in the Eastern Region was also part 1. The Regional Governors should be called lieutenant
of the breakdown. Governors while the Governor of Nigeria should be
12. Macpherson constitution was not able to contain the known as Governor–General.
inter-ethnic rivalry that existed then. 2. Federal system of government was acceptable with all
the essential lists: exclusive, concurrent and residual
1994/43 Exercise 29.21 lists.
The 1953 motion that Nigeria should attain self– 3. Separation of powers among the three tiers, arms and
government in 1956 was moved by essential lists were agreed.
A. Nnamdi Azikiwe B. Chief Anthony Enahoro 4. A concurrent list is a list that has the combination of
C. Sir Ahmadu Bello D. Mallam Aminu Kano two essential duties of both central (federal) and state
government which was the regional.
5. Lagos should be separated from the Western region
THE LONDON CONSTITUTIONAL CONFERENCE and made a neutral federal territory.
OF 1953 6. Residual power was given to the local government
The colonial secretary, Mr. Oliver Lyttleton informed the alone.
House of Common on May 20th, 1953, that the three 7. Electoral colleges were no longer the region
regions in Nigeria could not work together as federation. legislatures for the central legislature.
He suggested that, the representatives of each region
should come to London, so that the constitution of Nigeria LAGOS CONFERENCE OF 1954
can be redrafted, based on the regions and jurisdiction. January 19th, 1954, the constitutional conference official or
delegates met again as scheduled in Lagos to discuss the
A new constitutional conference was recommended by the pending issue that were not attended to during the
colonial secretary in July, 1953 to work–out the new constitutional conference at London in 1953. It was Sir
constitution of Nigeria. Each region delegated six (6) Louis Chick’s that summarized the report and made the
representatives and one from Cameroon. The London submission.
conference lasted from July 30th–22nd August, 1953. The 1. Allocation of financial resources: Financial resources
following were some of the agreement reached. were to be allocated to the federal and regional
1. Regional governors should be known as Lieutenant government based on the principles of derivation.
Governor, while the Governor of Nigeria should be 2. Autonomy to the Southern Cameroon, the
called Governor General. commission recommended that the Southern
2. Federal System of government was accepted with all Cameroon should be granted autonomy.
the essential lists which is also known as legislative 3. Quasi – Federal Territory: Northern Cameroons to
lists: exclusive, concurrent and residual list, so that remain with the Northern region of Nigeria but the
there will be separation of power among them. Southern Cameroon to remain part of the federation
3. A concurrent list is a list that contains the duties of but should be separated from Eastern region to be a
both central (federal) and state government which quasi – federal territory with a legislature of its own.
was the regional. 4. Regionalism of the public service: In agreement with
4. The Cameroon’s delegation asked for a separate region the principle of federalism, public service and the
of its own. In 1956, Her Majesty’s (Queen of England) judiciary were to be regionalized.
agreed to grant those regions their desire by giving or
allowing them to operate self–government. LYTTLETON CONSTITUTION OF 1954
5. Lagos should be separated from the Western Region Lyttleton constitution paved way for independence in
and made a neutral federal territory. Nigeria. Lyttleton constitution of 1954 was the product of
the Macpherson constitution which was reviewed and
387
revised through constitutional conference e.g. the 1953 11. The governor of the country became the Governor–
London constitutional conference and 1954 Lagos General.
constitutional conference. Lyttleton constitution is 12. There was no position for the post or office of prime
regarded as the main key in the constitutional history of minister as the head of government in Nigeria during
Nigeria. The constitution addressed some key points to Lyttleton constitution.
separate most of the central and inter dependence activities 13. The governor and governor–general were no longer
among the regions of the central. members of the regional and central legislatures
respectively.
1996/7 14. The constitution established Supreme Court which is
Trace the constitutional evolution of the federalism in the highest court.
Nigeria up to 1954. 15. Regionalism of the civil service and judiciary was
Answer established.
1. Lord Lugard amalgamated the Northern and Southern 16. The Governor–General and the regional Governors
protectorates in 1914 for administrative convenience. were given veto powers to accept or reject any bill
2. The 1922 Clifford constitution provided for that is contradictory with the constitution.
legislative council for colony and Southern 17. The post and office of the premier was created in each
protectorate of Nigeria’s only, instead of building on region for the first time and he was to advice the
the 1914 amalgamation. region.
3. In 1946, the Arthur Richard’s constitution changed
the provinces to three regions of North, East and West Important Provisions of the Lyttleton Constitution
with regional assemblies without legislative powers. 1. Federal House of Representatives: The constitution
4. In 1951, the Macpherson constitution gave legislative established a Central Legislature composed of 184
power on specific issues to the regional governments representative members directly elected on the basis of
subject to the final approval by the central single-member constituencies. The North was
government. represented by 92 members, East and West had 42
5. In 1954, the Lyttleton constitution established a true representative each, Southern Cameroon had 6 and the
federation in Nigeria with the division of powers into Federal Territory of Lags had 2 members. A speaker
exclusive, concurrent and residual list between the was elected from these members who could no longer
central and the regional governments. serve in both the regional and federal legislatures at the
same time and 3 ex-official member (European
Features of Lyttleton Constitution of 1954 minister).
1. Autonomy of regions was the most essential aspect of 2. The Federal Council of Ministers: The 1954
Lyttleton constitution of 1954. constitution which made Nigeria a federation did not
2. The constitution introduced a federal system of establish a second chamber as in other federations but
government by sharing government powers between established a Council of Ministers as a policy-making
the central and the region. body for the whole federation. The council was
3. Lagos was carved out of the Western region and was composed of the Governor-General as the President, 3
made the federal capital territory. official members, 3 ministers from each of the 3
4. The constitution provided for council of ministers regions and one minister from Southern Cameroons.
with the Governor–General as the president, 3 (three) All the ministers were appointed by the Governor-
officials appointed by the Governor–General, from General from among the members of the House of
each region on the advice of the regional executive Representatives on the advice of the Regional
council. Executive.
5. Residual powers were given to the Regional houses 3. The Regional Executive Councils: The leaders of the
of assembly to pass bills into laws without the majority party in the Regional Assembly was expected
approval from the central government. to be appointed as Regional Premier by the Governor.
6. Concurrent legislative list consists of central and The regional Governors who presided over the
regional legislatures. If there was a conflict in the Executive Council meetings also appointed Regional
performance of such duties or functions, the central Ministers on the advice of the premier.
legislature would prevail. 4. The Regional Legislatures: The 1954 constitution
7. The house of representatives was retained but now retained bicameral legislatures (House of Assemblies
with a speaker, 3 (three) ex–official members, 92 and Chiefs) for both the Northern and Western
members from the North, 42 from West, 42 from East, Regions and unicameral legislature for Eastern
6 from Southern Cameroun and 2 (two) from Lagos. Region. Members of the Eastern and Western Houses
The total membership of the House of of Assembly were from March 1955 directly elected
Representatives was 184. through universal franchise. The North combined
8. The North, West and Eastern regions system was direct and indirect elections.
retained and preserved. The North and West were 5. The leader of the political party: The leader of the
made bicameral while the East remained unicameral. party with a majority in the Regional Assembly
9. The constitution introduced a real federal system of became premiers – Nnamdi Azikiwe for the East,
government. Ahmadu Bello for the North and Obafemi Awolowo
10. The lieutenant–governors in the regional became for the West.
known as the governors.
388
6. Appointment of Ministers: The regional governors 1994/38
were to appoint ministers based on the advice of the The 1954 Lyttleton constitution marked the beginning of
premiers. formal federalism in Nigeria because it
7. Division of Powers: The constitution divided powers A. created the posts of Governor–General at the centre and
of government between the central and regional government in the regions
governments thereby directing Nigeria towards B. created a council of members at the centre
independence under a federal constitution. The C. created the posts of prime ministers at the centre and
exclusive power/list was granted to the Federal premier in the regions
government. This list included, mining, railways, D. outlined the divisions of powers between the centre and
custom, foreign relations, etc. regions
E. outlined the limits of powers of the judiciary and the
The concurrent power/list contains subject over which executive and legislature
both the Federal and Regional governments could Answer
legislate like industrial development, insurance, Lyttleton constitution of 1954 outlined the division of
education, agriculture, etc. In case of contradictions, powers between the centre, regions and local government.
the federal laws should prevail. This residual The legislative unit entitled the following; exclusive list for
power/list contains subjects on which only the regions the centre alone, the concurrent functions were performed
could legislate upon like local government, land, by the centre and regional. The residual list was for the
chieftaincy affairs, etc. local government alone. (D)

1995/40 Nov 1996/38

Which of the following powers were assigned to the The 1954 Lyttleton constitution of Nigeria created the
regional governments under the Lyttleton constitution? office of the
A. residual power only B. concurrent powers only A. regional premier B. prime minister
C. exclusive and concurrent powers C. speaker of the house D. governor
D. exclusive powers only E. leaders of government business
E. residual and concurrent powers Answer
Answer Lyttleton constitution of 1954 created the post and office
Concurrent powers was the only power assigned to the of premier in each region for the first time and he was to
regional governments under the Lyttleton constitution. The advice the region. (A)
power of concurrent is shared between the federal (central) NB: The Lyttleton constitution did not establish the office
and regional government, e.g. roads, higher institutions, of the speaker of house. What is established was the office
etc. (B) of the speakers and deputy speakers of the regional
legislature (except for the north).
1995/43 Nov
Nigeria adopted a federal system of government in 1954 1995/38
because of the need The decision to separate Lagos from the Western region
A. for a one – tier system of government and make it a neutral federal territory was taken at the
B. to please colonial masters A. 1950 general conference
C. to put into practice the Richard’s constitution of 1946 B. 1953 constitutional conference
D. for regional autonomy C. 1954 conference
E. to meet the demands of the NCNC D. 1957 constitutional conference
Answer E. 1963 all party constitutional conference
Nigeria adopted a federal system of government in 1954 Answer
because of the need for regional autonomy. (D) 1954 constitutional conference, Lagos was suggested to be
carved out of the Western region and a neutral federal
1990/23 Nov territory. (C)
Nigeria became a federation under the 1954 constitution
because the constitution 2010/8 Neco
A. provided for equal representation between the North Highlight six political changes introduced into the
and South Nigerian political system by the 1954 constitution.
B. created the post of a prime minister Answer
C. provided for indirect election of members of parliament 1. Federalism: The constitution consolidated the federal
D. provided for a division of functions between the central system of government in the country.
and the component units 2. Full ministerial responsibilities: Nigerians were
E. abolished the practice of nominating some members of made ministers with portfolios.
parliament 3. Direct election: It brought direct elections to the
Answer Eastern and Western legislatures.
Lyttleton constitution of 1954 started the division of labour 4. Premier: Each of the three regions had a premier as
through essential legislative units. The lists provided for the leader of government.
the division of functions between the council regional and 5. Regionalization of the civil service and judiciary.
component units. (D) 6. Establishment of the offices of the speaker and
Deputy Speaker in each legislature.
389
7. It made Governor to become Governor – General and 2011/3
Lieutenant Governors to become Governors. The ____ constitution introduced Universal adult suffrage
8. Lagos was made a federal capital territory and no in Nigeria
longer part of the Western Region. A. 1922 B. 1954 C. 1958 D. 1979
9. Southern Cameroon was granted semi–autonomy. Answer
10. Membership of the central legislature was increased Lyttleton constitution of 1954 introduced universal adult
from 149 to 188. suffrage in Nigeria. In the Northern part, only adult male
were allowed to vote. Adult male suffrage was practiced in
2003/10 Neco the Northern Nigeria during Lyttleton constitution. (B)
Why did the nationalists criticize the post–1954
constitution in Britain West African colonies? 2002/9 Neco
Answer Explain the importance of the Lyttleton constitution of
1. They were opposed to the continuing inclusion of 1954 in the political development of Nigeria.
nominated members into the legislature. Answer
1. It introduced direct elections to the federal, Eastern
2. Inclusion of traditional rulers in the legislature was seen
as not allowing for greater participation of educated and Western legislatures but indirect election by adult
elite. male suffrage in the North.
3. The limited or qualified franchise. 2. Nigerians became ministers with full ministerial
4. The executive council was not responsible for the responsibilities.
legislature. 3. It established the offices of speaker and deputy
5. Few elected members in the executive council. speaker in Nigerian legislature.
6. The continuing retention of the veto and reserved 4. Powers of intervention by the centre was removed.
powers of the colonial governor. Regional legislatures could legislate on matters that
7. Inadequate consultation with people by the colonial affected them.
administrators before the adoption of some of the 5. The constitution regionalized both the civil service
constitutions. and the judiciary.
6. It raised the status of the Governor to Governor –
1997/45 Exercise 29.22 General and Lieutenant – Governors to Governors.
The regionalization of the civil service in Nigeria could be 7. It created the office of the premiers in the regions.
traced to the 8. The constitution separated Lagos and Southern
A. Nigerian Council of 1914 Cameroons from the West and East respectively.
B. Clifford constitution of 1922
C. Richard constitution of 1946 2008/9a Neco
D. General conference of 1950 Outline three merits of the Lyttleton constitution.
E. Lyttleton constitution of 1954 Answer
1. It introduced true federalism with the division of legislative
1994/6 Exercise 29.23 powers between the regions and the centre.
In what ways did the 1954 constitution establish true 2. It removed the Governor–General and the Lieutenant
federalism in Nigeria? Governor from membership of the Legislative councils.
3. It created the office of Regional premier for the first
time.
Achievements of Lyttleton Constitution of 1954 4. Elections into the central, West and eastern legislatures
1. The constitution gave Nigeria a federal system of were direct.
government. 5. It created the posts of the speaker and Deputy Speaker to
2. Supreme Court was established for the country. preside over the House of Representatives.
3. Lagos was removed from the Western Region and was 6. It extended democratic principle through expanded
made the federal capital territory. franchise and membership of house.
4. The regions now had its own civil service and judiciary. 7. It reduced official representatives in the legislative
5. The constitution defined the specific functions to Houses.
perform by the two tiers of government – central and 8. It regionalized the civil service and the judiciary.
regional. 9. It granted Nigeria ministers full ministerial
6. Nigerians became ministers at different department of responsibilities.
government with full ministerial functions. 10. Southern Cameroon was granted autonomy.
7. The constitution raised the status of the Governor to 11. It established a Federal Supreme Court.
Governor–General and Lieutenant–Governor to
Governors. Weakness of the Lyttleton Constitution of 1954
8. Elections in the Eastern, Western and Central 1. The constitution did not make provision for the office
legislatures became direct and with the introduction of of a prime minister as Head of Government.
indirect election by adult male suffrage in the North. 2. There was no uniformity in their electoral system.
9. Southern Cameroon was separated from the Eastern The North had a different electoral system – adult
Region to stand as semi autonomy. male suffrage, while the East, West and the central
10. The post of a premier as the head of government of a legislative was direct election based on universal
region was created. adult suffrage.

390
3. This constitution still retained official member in the 4. The Eastern region was to have its own House of
federal and regional executives. Chiefs.
4. Lyttleton constitution still gave veto power to the 5. The office of the prime minister was created as head
Governor–General to reject or accept a bill. of government of the federation.
5. The establishment of a supreme court, it had no power 6. The police force would continue to be a federal
to entertain appellate cases in Nigeria. Appellate – to institution.
recognize appeals or having the power to review the 7. Northern Region of Nigeria was to become self –
judgment of another tribunal. governing by 1959.
6. Ministers were appointed based on the three major 8. The issue of minority was to be looked into, through
political parties which were regional based. This the commission of inquiry.
made the central executive ineffective due to the fact 9. The Eastern and Western regions were to be self–
that the loyalty of the ministers belongs to their governing in August, 1957.
respective regions. 10. The Southern Cameroun was to have the status of a
7. The constitution made no plans for independence. region with its own premier and the Governor–
General of Nigeria would overseas their activities.
2008/9b Neco
Highlight three demerits of the constitution. WILLINK’S COMMISSION OF INQUIRY 1957
Answer It was constituted on 23rd November, 1957. It met between
1. It failed to create the office of the prime minister at 23rd November 1957 and 12th June, 1958. Willink’s
the centre. commission of inquiry was set–up to look into the grievances
2. The mode of selecting the ministers was of minority groups and their agitations that they need a
undemocratic as they were appointed instead of separate region or state so that their voices can be heard.
elected.
3. It retained the three regional structures despite calls Willink’s commission claimed that there were two reasons,
for the creation of more regions. why the minorities were agitating for their separate region.
4. The Governor still retained veto powers. 1. The use of physical force by the political parties, was
becoming a feature of Nigeria politics and minorities
5. It made no plans for independence for Nigeria.
were scared of being forced to elect the wrong political
6. It failed to provide for the second chamber of the
leaders.
federal level and Eastern region. 2. Regional government did not secure the minorities, they
7. It failed to provide for a uniform electoral system. were committed to meet the needs of the majorities. It
8. It rendered the central executive ineffective because was seen as a threat by the minorities, since democracy
the ministers held their allegiance to the regions. is the game of the majority. In democracy the majority
9. It retained official members in the Northern Regional will have its way and the minority must have its say.
Assembly and in the federal executive council.
10. The Nigerian Supreme Court had no power to 2011/41
entertain appellate cases. It was not the highest court The Willink commission was set–up in 1957 to investigate
of appeal. the problem of
A. higher education in Nigeria B. inter–ethnic rivalry
1998/6 Exercise 29.24 C. minority and their fears D. revenue allocation
Outline the defects of the Lyttleton constitution of 1954 in E. succession
Nigeria. Answer
Willink’s commission of inquiry was set–up to look into
the grievances of minority groups and their agitations, for
THE LONDON CONSTITUTIONAL CONFERENCE separate region or state, so that their voices too can be
OF 1957 heard. (C)
In London, Lyttleton constitution was revised. The
conference was to start in 1956 but had to wait till 1957, 1994/10a
due to the crisis in the Eastern Region. The problem was Why was the Willink’s commission of enquiry set–up?
between Chief Eyo and Dr. Nnamdi Azikiwe. Chief E. O. Answer
Eyo accused Dr. Nnamdi Azikiwe of corruption by Willink’s commission claimed that there were two reasons,
diverting the public money into the African Continental why the minorities were agitating for their separate region.
Bank (ACB). The colonial secretary had to set up a 1. The use of physical force by the political parties, was
committee to investigate the allegation. The London becoming a feature of Nigeria politics and minorities
constitutional conference was later held between May 23rd were scared of been forced to elect the wrong political
– 26th June, 1957, reaching the following agreement. leaders.
1. The governor of the region should be appointed as 2. Regional government did not secure the minorities,
premier, the person that commanded the majority in they were committed to meet the needs of the
the House of Assembly. majorities. It was seen as a threat by the minorities.
2. The Governor would no longer preside over the Since democracy is the game of number or majority.
executive council meetings of the state. In democracy the majority will have its way but
3. The Queen would appoint the Regional Governors, minority must have its say.
on the advice of the United Kingdom ministers.

391
Recommendations of Willink’s Commission THE 1958 CONFERENCE
1. Creation of more states, so that the problems of the The 1958 conference was to examine the recommendations
minorities can be resolved. of the Willink’s inquiry minority’s commission. The
2. A strong united police force under federal authorities was conference was held on the 29th Sept–27th October, 1958 to
recommended to guide and protect the lives and properties discuss the issue that guaranteed tension among the
of the citizens. To also protect the poor citizens from the rich existing political parties in Nigeria.
and wealthy ones. To protect the minorities from the
majority based on the constitution of the land. Action group (AG) as a party did not agree or accept the
3. The commission also recommended fundamental human findings of the minorities’ commission but NPC and
right in the constitution to safeguard the interests of the
NCNC accepted it. All the delegates agreed to entrench the
minority.
fundamental human rights into the constitution. All the
4. Muslim laws were recommended in the Northern part of
Nigeria as at then that was Sharia law. The commission political parties also agreed that 1st October, 1960 should
recommended that the non–Muslems in the Northern part of be Independence Day for Nigeria. Election was scheduled
Nigeria should be given option to choose the type of court, to hold before this date in 1959 to elect the representatives
they want their case to be judged with, that’s the constitution into the House of Assemblies.
either Islamic or Nigeria constitution.
5. Existing boundaries between Northern and Western Regions 2007/2018/23 (UI, IBADAN)
cannot be changed e.g. Kwara and Kabba. The Southern and Northern Nigeria was merged in
6. Annual reports of both majority and minority areas must be A. 1954 B. 1946 C. 1914 D. 1861
submitted to the House of Representatives and Regional Answer
Houses. The Southern and Northern Nigeria was merged in 1914
7. Development boards were also established by the (C)
commission e.g. special development boards for Niger Delta
Areas. 2007/2008/91 (NDU, BAYELSA)
8. The commission also recommended that in Nigeria, there In the political history of Nigeria, 1914 was
are special areas that have special problems e.g. in Niger A. the year in which the British established their rule over
Delta, they have problem with land, roads, water, electricity,
Nigeria
etc.. but have oil to sustain a nation. These areas should beB. the beginning of the First World War
given special attention by the Federal government, so that C. the year Lord Lugard effected the amalgamation of
there would not be any problem later in life. Nigeria
D. the year the railway system linking the North and South
1994/10b was completed
Give an account of its major recommendations. E. the year of the first election into the legislative council
Answer Answer
1. Problems cannot be solved by creation of more/new The political history of Nigeria, 1914 was the year Lord
states. Lugard effected the amalgamation of Nigeria (C)
2. Entrench fundamental Human Rights in the constitution
to safeguard the interest of the minorities. 1993/28 UTME
3. Police to be under federal control. One significant aspect of the legislative council of 1922
4. Minority areas with special councils for both Calabar and was that
mid–west to monitor regional government. A. Africans were in the majority
5. Special development boards for Niger Delta Areas. B. it made laws only for the Southern provinces
6. Plebiscite for Northern minorities. C. the colony of Lagos and the protectorate of southern
7. Majority parties would have to win the support of the Nigeria were merged
minorities. D. laws governing land ownership in the north were
1990/31 Nov extended to the South
The 1957 minorities’ commission in Nigeria recommends Answer
that One significant aspect of the legislative council of 1922
A. the existing three regions should be split into six states was that it made laws only for the Southern provinces. (B)
B. there should be a single police force under the control of
the federal government 2018/2019/6 (UI,IBADAN)
C. all the minorities should be constituted into separate states National Congress of British West Africa had its first
D. the federal government should build industries in the conference in
minority areas. A. Gold Coast/1919 B. Nigeria/1919
E. the minorities should have special representation in the C. Gold Coast/1920 D Nigeria/1920
House of Representatives Answer
Answer The National Congress of British West Africa had its first
The 1957 minorities’ commission in Nigeria recommended conference in Gold Coast/1920 (C)
that a strong united police force under federal authorities was
recommended to guide and protect the lives and properties of
the citizen and also protect the poor citizens from the rich and
the wealthy ones. To protect the minorities from the
majorities based on the constitution of the land. (B)

392
1988/29 UTME 1997/36 UTME
Which of the following Governors of Nigeria opposed the The first political party that contested election in Nigeria
demands of the National Congress of British West Africa? after the Clifford constitution was
A. Lord Frederick Lugard B. Sir Arthur Richard A. Nigerian Youth Movement
C. Sir Hugh Clifford D. Sir Alan Burns B. National Council of Nigeria and the Cameroons
Answer C. Northern People’s Congress
Sir Hugh Clifford opposed the demands of the National D. Nigerian National Democratic Party
Congress of British West Africa (C) Answer
The first political party that contested election in Nigeria
2017/2018 (UNIZIK, AWKA) after the Clifford constitution was Nigerian National
Which of the following nationalist was associated with the Democratic Party (D)
formation of National Congress of British West Africa?
A. Williams Du Bois B. Marcus Garvey 2010/3 (OAU,IFE)
C. Casely Hayford D. Nnamdi Azikiwe The Clifford constitution was notable for
Answer A. amalgamating the Northern and Southern provinces
National Congress of British West Africa (NCBWA) was B. introducing indirect rule
formed by Joseph Ephraim Caseley Hayford of Gold Coast C. establishing the legislative council
(Ghana) (C) D. creating a Northern major in the legislative council
Answer
2019/35 UTME The Clifford constitution was notable for establishing the
The Nigerian council was created by legislative council with 46 membership, 27 members were
A. Hugh Clifford B. Arthur Richards official while 19 members were unofficial. Ten out of the
C. Frederick Lugard D. Bernard Bourdillion 19 members were Nigerians. Out of the Ten (10)
Answer Nigerians, 4 were elected, 3 were elected from Lagos and
The Nigerian council was created by Frederick Lugard 1 from Calabar. The remaining six were appointed by the
(C) governor to represent other parts of the country. However,
the Northern protectorate was not part of this council (C)
2002/35 UTME
The constitution that introduced restricted franchise into 1985/41 UTME
Nigerian politics was the The Clifford constitution
A. Lyttleton constitution B. Clifford constitution A. provided for universal adult suffrage
C. independence constitution D. Richard constitution B. made the Governor dependent on the executive council
Answer C. provided for an unofficial majority membership of the
Clifford constitution of 1922 introduced legislative council
disenfranchisement only four (4) of the unofficial members D. provided for African representation on the executive
were to be elected by an adult male suffrage with council
residential qualification of one year and a gross income of E. introduced the elective principle into Nigerian politics
£100 per annum. The majority of Nigerians were Answer
disenfranchised. (B) The Clifford constitution of 1922 introduced the elective
principle into Nigerian politics (E)
2019/4 UTME
Elective principle in Nigeria was first introduced by 1997/29 UTME
A. Richards constitution B. Macpherson constitution Under the 1922 Clifford constitution, franchise was
C. Lyttleton constitution D. Clifford constitution granted in Calabar and Lagos to
Answer A. all adults B. male adults
Clifford constitution was the first constitution in Nigeria C. persons with an annual income of at least £100
that introduced elective principles in 1922 (D) D. male adults with an annual income of atleast £100
Answer
2014/2015/48 (UI, IBADAN) Under the 1922 Clifford constitution, franchise was
Nigeria’s first constitution was the granted in Calabar and Lagos to male adult suffrage with
A. Lyttleton constitution B. Clifford constitution an annual income of at least £100.
C. Macpherson constitution D. independence constitution
Answer 2000/30 UTME
Clifford constitution of 1922 was the first constitution in Which of the following contributed greatly to the
Nigeria that included Nigerians in political activities of introduction of the Clifford constitution?
their own country. (B) A. Nigeria National Democratic party
B. Lagos Youth Movement
C. Nigerian Youth Movement
D. National Congress of British West Africa
Answer
National Congress of British West Africa contributed
greatly to the introduction of the Clifford constitution of
1922 (D)
393
2019/2020/4 (UI, IBADAN) 1984/34 UTME
Clifford constitution introduced ____ in Nigeria for the The Richard’s constitution
first time A. abolished the elective principle in choosing members of
A. election B. supreme court C. federalism the legislative council
D. presidential system B. amalgamated the northern and southern group of
Answer provinces
Clifford constitution introduced election in Nigeria for the C. established a central legislative council
first time (A) D. abolished regional assemblies
E. abolished the system of indirect rule
1984/33 UTME Answer
A historic feature of the legislative council that met in 1923 The Richards’ constitution established a central legislative
was that for the first time it council were at the same time members of the regional
A. included official members who were Nigerians councils. It introduced dual membership (C)
B. included only British officials
C. acted in a deliberative capacity 1981/23 UTME
D. included elected African members The Richards constitution in Nigeria provided for the
Answer A. total independence of the country
The historical feature of the legislative council that met in B. introduction of self government
1923 was that for the first time it included elected African C. unification of the territories ruled by British West Africa
members (D) D. division of Nigeria into three administrative units
E. replacement of the colonial Governor with Nigerians
2009/16 (OAU, IFE) Answer
Africans were first elected to the legislative council in The Richards constitution in Nigeria provided for the
British West Africa in division of Nigeria into three administrative units (D)
A. Ghana B. Sierra Leone C. The Gambia
D. Nigeria
Answer 1982/37 UTME
Africans were first elected to the legislative council in Which of the following was the last constitution
British West Africa in Nigeria during Clifford constitution formulated for Nigeria without Nigerians participation?
of 1922 (D) A. The Clifford (1922) constitution
B. The Richard (1946) constitution
1986/33 UTME C. The Macpherson (1951) constitution
Which constitution was created to legislate for the Lagos D. The Lyttleton (1954) constitution
colony and the Southern province? E. the Independence constitution
A. the Richard constitution B. the Clifford constitution Answer
C. the Lyttleton constitution The Richards constitution of 1946 was the last constitution
D. the Macpherson constitution formulated for Nigeria without Nigerians participation in
Answer the contribution (B)
The Clifford constitution was created to legislate for the
Lagos colony and the Southern provinces of Nigeria. (B) 1982/44 UTME
1988/33 UTME The Richards constitution in Nigeria provided for the
One of the major features of the constitution operatives in A. House of Chiefs in the Western region
the British West African colonies during the 1920s was the B. unofficial majority in the legislative council
A. introduction of the elective principle C. appointment of Nigerians as Chief Judges
B. removal of colonial governors by colonial legislative D. House of Chiefs in the Eastern region
councils E. banning of the Trade Union Movement
C. introduction of universal adult suffrage Answer
D. abolition of the local government The Richards constitution in Nigeria provided for the
Answer unofficial majority in the legislative council. The Nigerian
One of the major features of the constitution operatives in legislative council was made up of 44 members, 16
the British West African colonies during the 1920s was the officials and 28 unofficial members. The unofficial
introduction of the elective principle (A) members were the majority in the legislative council (B)

1990/38 UTME 1985/38 UTME

Indirect election was first introduced in Nigeria by the The Arthur Richards constitution introduced into Nigeria
A. Lyttleton constitution B. Macpherson constitution A. federalism B. republicanism C. regionalism
C. Richard constitution D. Clifford constitution D. the multiparty system E. the office of prime minister
Answer Answer
Richards constitution introduced direct election in Nigeria The Arthur Richards constitution introduced into Nigeria
by 1946 (C) regionalism, which served as a bedrock for federalism in
Nigeria (C)

394
1989/31 UTME 1990/37 UTME
The civil service was first regionalized by the The two nationalist leaders who led the tour of Northern
A. Richard’s constitution B. Clifford constitution Nigeria in 1946 to campaign against the Richards
C. Lyttleton constitution D. independence constitution constitution were:
Answer A. Ahmadu Bello and Abubakar Tafawa Balewa
The Richard’s constitution was first regionalized the civil B. Ahmadu Bello and Obafemi Awolowo
service in Nigeria (A) C. Ahmadu Bello and Samuel Ladoke Akintola
D. Herbert Macaulay and Nnamdi Azikiwe
1988/34 UTME Answer
The principle of regionalism was introduced into Nigerian Herbert Macaulay and Nnamdi Azikiwe were the two
politics by the nationalist leaders who led the tour of Northern Nigeria in 1946
A. Macpherson constitution B. Lyttleton constitution to campaign against the Richards constitution of 1946 (D)
C. Richards constitution D. Clifford constitution
Answer 2011/2012/20 (UI, IBADAN)
Richards’ constitution was the first constitution that The NCNC sent a delegation to London in 1947 to protest
introduced the principle of regionalism in Nigeria (C) against the
A. Burns constitution B. Republican constitution
2018/20 UTME C. Richards constitution D. Lyttleton constitution
One major achievement of the Richards constitution of E. Macpherson constitution
Nigeria was that it Answer
A. united the North and South under a single legislature The NCNC political party sent a delegation to London in
B. provided for official African members of the executive 1947 to protest against the Richard constitution of 1946,
council Nigerians were not carried along in the constitution (C)
C. allowed the participation of traditional rulers in
government 1987/38 UTME
D. introduced the elective principle Under the Macpherson constitution, members of the
Answer central legislature were
Richards’ constitution of 1946 promoted unity in Nigeria A. appointed by the governor – general
as it brought the North and South together in the central B. chosen from the regional legislature
legislative council (A) C. elected directly by the whole country
D. appointed by the regional Lt. Governors
2000/26 UTME Answer
Regional consciousness in Nigeria was introduced by the Under the Macpherson constitution, members of the
A. Lyttleton constitution B. Clifford constitution central legislature were chosen from the regional
C. Macpherson constitution D. Richards constitution legislature (B)
Answer
Regional consciousness in Nigeria was introduced by the 1984/43 UTME
Richards constitution of 1946 (D) The constitution which introduced the ministerial system
into the Nigerian political system is the
2018/2019/14 (UI, IBADAN) A. Richards’ constitution B. Lyttleton constitution
One advantage of the Richards constitution was C. Macpherson constitution D. independence constitution
A. introduction of elective principle E. Republican constitution
B. introduction of federalism Answer
C. more African participation in the central legislative Macpherson constitution of 1951 introduced the
D. introducing executive council at the regions ministerial system into the Nigerian political system (C)
Answer
One merit of the Richards constitution was the introduction 1985/37 UTME
of executive council in regions (D) The Macpherson constitution of Nigeria created a
A. bicameral legislature for Eastern Nigeria
1991/29 UTME B. bicameral legislature for the Central government
The 1946 constitution is characterized by C. unicameral legislature for Western Nigeria
A. official majority in the legislative council D. bicameral legislature for Western Nigeria
B. non-official majority in the legislative council E. Unicameral legislature for Northern Nigeria
C. non-official majority in the executive council Answer
D. federal system of government The Macpherson constitution of Nigeria created a
Answer bicameral legislature for Western Nigeria and Northern
The Richards constitution of 1946 is characterized by non- region (D)
official majority in the legislative council (B)

395
2014/2015/52 (UI, IBADAN) 2018/2019/3 (UI, IBADAN)
The breakdown of the Macpherson constitution was The first colonial constitution that was enacted after the
A. NCNC B. AG C. NPC D. NNDP consultations with Nigerians was
Answer A. Clifford constitution B. Lyttleton constitution
The breakdown of the Macpherson constitution was partly C. Richard constitution D. Macpherson constitution
caused by the crisis with the NCNC. In 1953, crisis erupted Answer
within the NCNC as a party and the outcome of this was The first colonial constitution that was enacted after due
the expulsion of some party members. The expelled consultations with Nigerians was Macpherson constitution
members formed a new party called United Independent (D)
Party (UIP) (A)
2018/22 UTME
The decision to separate Lagos from the Western Region and
2007/50 UTME make it a neutral Federal Territory was taken at the
Ethnic politics in Nigeria can be traced to the A. 1950 general conference
A. Macpherson constitution B. Lyttleton constitution B. 1953 constitutional conference
C. Clifford constitution D. Richards constitution C. 1954 constitutional conference
Answer – D D. 1953 all party constitutional conference
This can be traced to the Richard constitution of 1946. Answer – C

2002/44 UTME
2014/2015/74 (NDU, BAYELSA) The Ibadan conference of 1950 was convened to discuss the
Nigeria was formally divided into three regions under the provisions of the
constitution of A. Richards constitution B. Macpherson constitution
A. 1922 B. 1946 C. 1951 D. 1904 E. 1960 C. Clifford constitution D. Lyttleton constitution
Answer – B Answer
The foundation of federalism in Nigeria was initiated and The Ibadan constitutional conference of 1950 was convened
laid by Bernard Boudillion in 1939 by the creation of three to discuss the provisions of the Macpherson constitution of
provinces. He later handed over the constitution to his 1951 (B)
successor. Arthur Richards and it became the Richards
constitution of 1946. 2018/24 UTME
Which of the following did not generate political crisis in
2019/2020/20 (UI, IBADAN) Nigeria?
A. adoption of Abuja as the new federal capital territory
Ministerial position was first provided for by ____
B. motion for self government in 1956 by Enahoro
constitution
C. 1965 election in the Western region
A. Macpherson B. Richards C. Lyttleton D. 1964 General Elections
D. independence Answer
Answer Adoption of Abuja as the new federal capital territory (A)
The Macpherson constitution of 1951 first provided
ministerial position in Nigeria (A) 2016/26 UTME
The first federal constitution in Nigeria was the
1992/28 UTME A. Clifford constitution B. Macpherson constitution
One of the unique innovations of the 1951 constitution was C. Lyttleton constitution D. Independence constitution
the introduction of Answer
A. regional premiers B. the office of the speaker Lyttleton constitution was the first federal constitution in
C. the office of the prime minister D. regional executives Nigeria which clearly made provision for division of powers
Answer between the federal and regional governments in which each
The Macpherson constitution of 1951 introduced unique was autonomous in its jurisdiction (C)
innovations to Nigeria’s constitution by having regional
executives (D) 1983/49 UTME
Nigeria became a federal under the new constitution of 1954
1990/39 UTME because the constitution
The motion for self-government was moved in Nigeria by A. provided for equal representatives between the North and
the the South
A. Lyttleton constitution B. Macpherson constitution B. created the post of a prime minister
C. Richards constitution D. Clifford constitution C. provided for direct election of members of parliament
D. provision for a division of functions between the centre
Answer
and the component units
The first motion for self government was moved in Nigeria
E. abolished the practice of nominating some members of
by Macpherson constitution of 1951 (B) parliament
Answer
Nigeria became a federation under the new constitution of
Lyttleton 1954 because the constitution provided for a
division of functions between the center and the component
units (D)

396
1981/24 UTME 2008/37 UTME
One important aspect of Lyttleton constitution was the A major shortcoming of the Lyttleton constitution was
A. abolition of the regional Houses of Assembly A. it did not provide for a second chamber at the federal
B. granting of greater regional autonomy level
C. declaration that Nigeria would be independent in 1960 B. the Governor-General continued to head the
D. economous powers given to the colonial governors government
E. creation of the post of a federal prime minister C. no provision was made for the office of the prime
Answer minister
One essential aspect of the Lyttleton constitution was the D. it failed to provide for the office of a premier
granting of greater regional autonomy (B) Answer
The main shortcoming of the Lyttleton constitution of
1985/36 UTME 1954, there was no provision made for the office of the
The Lyttleton constitution is important because it prime minister (C)
A. confirmed that Nigeria would be independent in 1960
B. confirmed Nigeria’s federal structure 2000/25 UTME
C. introduced franchise into Nigerian politics Federalism was introduced in Nigeria under the
D. made Nigeria sovereign A. Richards constitution B. Lyttleton constitution
E. abolished the principle of indirect rule C. Macpherson constitution D. Independence
Answer constitution
The Lyttleton constitution is important because it Answer
confirmed Nigeria’s federal structure. The constitution Federalism was introduced in Nigeria under the Lyttleton
made provision for federal system of government by constitution, it made provision for federalism structure by
sharing powers between the central and the regions. (B) sharing functions of the state between the centre and the
regional government (B)
1986/35 UTME
Before the 1953 constitution, the highest court of appeal 2014/47 UTME
for Nigerians was the Nigeria started to operate a real federal structure with the
A. Supreme court B. Federal Court of Appeal introduction of the
C. Privy council D. Federal High Court A. 1922 Clifford constitution B. 1946 Richard
Answer constitution
Privy council was the highest court of appeal in Nigeria C. 1953 London conference D. 1954 Lyttleton
before the 1953 constitution (C) constitution
Answer
1988/36 UTME Nigeria started to operate a real federal structure with the
A landmark of the Lyttleton constitution was introduction of the 1954 Lyttleton constitution
A. creation of the post of prime minister
B. creation of a second chamber at the centre
C. creation of the position of speaker of the House of 1999/32 UTME
Representatives During the 1957 constitutional conference, the Willink
D. removal of the governor-general as chairman of the commission was set up to
federal cabinet A. recommend a date for independence
Answer B. suggest an equitable revenue allocation formula
The landmark of the Lyttleton constitution of 1953 was the C. create new regions in Nigeria
creation of a second chamber at the centre (B) D. recommend solutions to the problems of the minorities
Answer
2018/21 UTME The 1957 constitution conference, the Willink commission
The 1954 constitution of Nigeria made the country a true was set up to recommend solutions to the problems of the
federation because it provided for minorities (D)
A. the abolition of representation of white officials
B. the election of all members of parliament 1995/34 UTME
C. a division of functions between the centre and the The minorities commission appointed in 1957 in Nigeria
regions was headed by
D. the post of prime minister at the centre A. Justice Udo Udoma B. Sir Henry Willink
Answer C. Sir Allan Lennox-Boyd D. Justice Darnley Alexander
The 1954 constitution of Nigeria made the country a true Answer
federation because it provided for a division of functions The minorities commission appointed in 1957 in Nigeria
between the central and the component units (regions) (C) was headed by Sir Henry Willink. (B)

397
1990/36 UTME 2009/9 UTME
One of the agreement of the 1957 constitutional conference The minorities commission appointed in Nigeria in 1957
was that recommended that
A. Southern Cameroons should constitute a separate region A. more states should be created in the federation
B. a House of Chiefs was to be created in the Western B. no more states should be created before independence
region C. Nigeria should revert to a unitary structure of
C. the office of the speaker of the House of Representative government
D. the Police was to be regionalized D. the federal legislature should legislate for the minority
Answer areas
One of the agreement of the 1957 constitutional conference E. all the minority are to constitute one state
was that Southern Cameroons should constitute a separate Answer
region (A) The minorities commission of Willinks appointed in
Nigeria in 1957 recommended that no more states should
1991/30 UTME be created before independence in 1960 (B)
The Willink commission was set up to
A. solve boundary problems 2006/6 (OAU, IFE)
B. review revenue allocation formula What was the primary purpose of the Sir Henry Willink’s
C. examine issues relating to the welfare of groups commission of inquiry?
D. draw up a new constitution A. to approve the independence of Nigeria
Answer B. to allay the fears of minorities in Nigeria
The Willink’s commission was set up to examine issues C. to amalgamate northern and southern Nigeria
relating to the welfare of groups of minority in the society D. to make Lagos a British colony
(C) Answer
The primary aim of the Sir Henry Willink’s commission of
1981/30 UTME inquiry was to allay the fears of minorities in Nigeria (B)
The 1958 constitutional conference responded to the fears
of minorities by recommending the 1978/41 UTME
A. creation of the mid-western region Sir Henry Willink of Britain was the chairman of a
B formation of a national government commission which investigated one of the following
C. regionalization of the public service problems of Nigeria
D. entrenchment of fundamental human rights A. commercial banking problems
E. creation of the office of Inspector-General of Police B. minority problems and fears
Answer C. problems of political parties
The 1958 constitutional conference responded to the fears D. problems of public corporations
of minorities by recommending the entrenchment of E. problems of higher education
fundamental human rights into the national constitution Answer
(D) Sir Henry Willink of Britain was the chairman of a
commission which investigated minority problems and
1994/25 UTME fears in Nigeria during 1958 (B)
A thorny issue during the 1957/58 Nigerian constitutional
conferences was the 2011/23
A. leadership of the first post-independence government The beginning of colonialism in Nigeria could be traced to the
B. problem of ethnic minorities A. amalgamation of Northern and Southern protectorate in
C. control of the mid-west by the Western Region 1914
D. status of Lagos B. Berlin conference of 1884-1885
Answer C. Clifford’s constitution of 1992
A thorny issue during the 1957/58 Nigerian constitutional D. conquest of Lagos by the British in 1861
conferences was the problem of ethnic minorities (B) E. enthronement of Sir Lord Lugard as the Governor –
General
1989/33 UTME Answer
The office of the prime minister of Nigeria was first created The beginning of colonialism in Nigeria could be traced to the
by Berlin Conference of 1884-1885
A. Ibadan constitutional conference of 1950
B. London constitutional conference of 1953 2019/37 NABTEB
C. London constitutional conference of 1957 Which of the following colonial governors was later
D. London constitutional conference of 1958 known as Lord Milverton?
Answer A. Hugh Clifford B. Oliver Lyttleton
The office of the Prime Minister of Nigeria was first C. John Macpherson D. Arthur Richards
created by the London constitutional conference of 1957 Answer
(C) Arthur Frederick Richards was later known as Lord Baron
Milverton was a British colonial administrator who over
his career served as Governor of North Borneo, Gambia,
Fiji, Jamaica and Nigeria. (D)
398
2022/8 Neco REVISION EXERCISES
Discuss six agreements reached at the London 1. The creation of the office of the prime minister in
Constitutional Conference of 1957. Nigeria was accomplished in
Answer A. 1951 B. 1954 C. 1957 D. 1959 E. 1960
Six agreement reached at the London Constitutional 2. One of the defects of the 1951 Macpherson
Conference of 1957 are constitution of Nigeria was the
1. The governor of the region should be appointed as A. registration of political parties by FEDCO
premier, the person that commanded the majority in B. direct funding of local government by federal
the House of Assembly. governments
2. The Governor would no longer preside over the C. abolition of judicial service commission
executive council meetings of the state. D. establishment of public complaints commission
3. The Queen would appoint the Regional Governors, E. provision for bicameral legislature at the centre
on the advice of the United Kingdom ministers. 3. One of the problems encountered by Nigerian
4. The Eastern region was to have its own House of nationalists in their struggle for constitutional
Chiefs. changes was the
5. The office of the prime minister was created as head A. opposition from traditional rulers
of government of the federation. B. superior firearms of the colonial masters
6. The Southern Cameroun was to have the status of a C. opposition from the Queen of England
region with its own premier and the Governor– D. refusal of the secretary of state to visit the colonies
General of Nigeria would overseas their activities. E. corruption and high–handedness of the British
officials
4. Nigeria became a federation as a result of the
promulgation in the constitution of
2018/6 NABTEB A. 1922 B. 1946 C. 1951 D. 1954 E. 1963
6a. Explain five merits of Clifford Constitution of 5. Which of the following was not a feature of the 1922
1922. elective principle in Nigeria?
b. Describe five demerits of Clifford Constitution of A. it restricted suffrage to men
1922. B. it confined elections to Lagos and Calabar
Answer C. it require a property qualification worth £100.00
(6a) Merits Of Clifford Constitution Of 1922 D. only four members were elected into the legislative
1. Political activities: This constitution created a council
conducive atmosphere for political activities and E. British citizens were allowed to vote
formation of political parties in Lagos and Calabar 6. One of the decisions of the 1953 London
e.g. the NNDP of Herbert Macaulay. constitutional conference was that
2. Elective principle: This constitution made it possible A. a federal government be established with full
for the elective representation of Nigerians into the federal functions
legislative council. B. larger regional legislatures be created
3. New legislative council: This constitution established C. Nigerians be given ministerial responsibilities
a new legislative council for the colony and D. regional governments be given more autonomy
protectorate of southern Nigeria. E. the judiciary be regionalized
4. Written constitution: Clifford constitution was the 7. The major innovation in the political history of
first written constitution for Nigeria. Nigeria by the Clifford constitution of 1922 was the
5. Constitutional agreement: It established a A. introduction of elective principle
constitutional government in Nigeria as opposed to B. introduction of civil service
government by statutory instrument or orders. C. abolition of the native authority
D. granting of legislative authority to the native
(6b) Demerits of Clifford Constitution Of 1922 authority
1. The constitution isolated the Northern part of Nigeria. 8. The 1953 Nigerian constitutional conference in
2. A large percentage of Nigerians were not allowed to London was convened because the
vote and voted for. Only four (4) of the unofficial A. 1950 general conference was inconclusive
members were to be elected by an adult male suffrage B. NPC wanted the secretary of state to intervene
with residential qualification of one year (12 months) C. NCNC ministers resigned from the council of
and a gross income of 100 pounds per annual. ministers
3. There were many more officials and nominated D. 1953 self-government motion crisis put Nigeria at
members than elected members in the legislative a cross road
council. E. colonial government wanted to favour the NPC
4. Clifford’s constitution was accused of sectionalism 9. In which of the following years did the first All Africa
by its definition. It was a constitution for the south conference took place?
and Lagos colony alone, the north was excluded. A. 1966 B. 1961 C. 1950 D. 1958 E. 1945
5. The elective principles of Clifford constitutions were Answer – C
only for the legislative council and were unofficial.
The principle was not extended to the executive
council.
399
10. One major effect of the introduction of the elective 19. A) Describe the composition of the federal council of
principle of 1922 in Nigeria was the minister under Lyttleton constitution of 1954.
A. creation of Calabar municipality B) Enumerate four advantages of the Lyttleton
B. release of Herbert Macaulay from prison constitution to political development in Nigeria.
C. emergence of political parties 20. Identify any five ways in which the Clifford
D. merger of Lagos town council with the legislative constitution is significant to Nigeria.
council 21. State two reasons for the breakdown of the Lyttleton
E. establishment of a higher institution constitution
11. The Clifford constitution was defective because it 22. What led to the collapse of the Macpherson
made provisions for constitution?
A. an executive council B. a legislative council
C. limited franchise D. a free press
12. One of the major features of the constitutions introduced
into British West Africa in 1920’s was the
A. formation of political parties
B. appointment of chiefs
C. introduction of local government system
D. introduction of elective principle
E. removal of the colonial government
13. Nigeria adopted a federal system for the first time by
the promulgation of the
A. 1922 constitution B. 1946 constitution
C. 1954 constitution D. 1979 constitution
Answer – C.
14. The Willink’s commission of 1957 which looked into
the complaints of minority ethnic groups
recommended that
A. three new regions be created
B. certain fundamental human rights be entrenched in
the constitution
C. people from the minority groups have double votes
D. citizens from the minority groups be appointed to
top posts
E. the principle of quota system be adopted
Answer – B.
15. The creation of the office of the prime minister in
Nigeria was accomplished in
A. 1951 B. 1954 C. 1967 D. 1959 E. 1960
Answer – B
16. Under what constitution did the Supreme Court
become the highest court of Appeal in Nigeria?
A. Lyttleton constitution B. republican constitution
C. Macpherson constitution
D. independence constitution
E. Richards constitution
Answer – B.
17. Nigeria became a federation under the 1954
constitution because the constitution
A. provided for equal representation between the
North and South
B. created the post of a prime minister
C. provided for indirect election of members of
parliament
D. provided for a division of functions between the
centre and the component units
E. abolished the practice of nominating some
members of parliament
Answer : D
18. What were the major changes introduced in Nigeria
by Clifford constitution of 1922?

400
Feature of the Independence Constitution of 1960
Chapter Thirty 1. Parliamentary system – The constitution provided for
a democratic parliamentary system of government.
2. Federal system: The constitution retained a federal
CONSTITUTIONAL DEVELOPMENT IN system of government.
NIGERIA 2: INDEPENDENCE AND POST 3. Head of State: The constitution established the office
of the Head of state, the Governor–General was the
INDEPENDENCE CONSTITUTION ceremonial Head of State, representing the Queen of
England.
INDEPENDENCE CONSTITUTION OF 1960 4. Head of Government: The office of the Head of
One of the most important decision of the 1958 London Government was introduced, the Prime Minister.
Constitutional Conference was that Her Majesty’s 5. National Parliament: The constitution provided
government would pass a bill to enable Nigeria become national parliament for a bicameral legislature at the
independent on 1st October, 1960. As a result of this, the federal tier – the senate and House of Representative.
British parliament passed the Nigeria Independent Act of 6. Regional legislature: Each of the three region had a
1960 on 29th July, 1960. By this act Nigeria became a House of Assembly and a House of Chiefs.
sovereign state on 1st October, 1960. 7. Regional Head of Government: The 1960
constitution provided a premier as the head of each
The 1960 constitution provided for a parliamentary system region.
of government. The Governor-General, who represented 8. Fundamental Human Rights: The independence
the Queen, was the ceremonial Head of State. The Prime constitution of 1960, stipulated the fundamental
Minister served as the Head of Government. The human rights of the citizens.
Governor–General appointed the Prime Minister who was 9. The Privy Council: This was the final court of
usually the leader of the party with the largest majority in Appeal in London.
Parliament. In the same vain, each region had a Governor 10. Citizenship: The constitution also indicated and
and a Premier. The Governor appointed as Premier the defined citizenship in the country and how to acquire
leader of the political party with majority in the regional citizenship.
House of Assembly. There was a provision for a council of 11. Procedure for Amendment: The constitution also
ministers which was headed by the Prime Minister. The spelt out the procedure for amendment. The 1960
Governor General appointed the Ministers on the advice of constitution was rigid.
the Prime Minister. Similarly, the Regional Governor 12. Creation of regions: The constitution laid down the
appointed the Regional cabinet on the recommendation of procedure for creating new regions e.g. mid –
the Premier. Western region was created in 1963.
13. State of Emergency: In 1960 constitution, the
Before independence, there was an election to make sure federal government was given the power to declare a
that things were put in right democratic order. The state of emergency in any part of the country, if there
constitution for the election stipulated that an were crisis of war. However, resolution would be
overwhelming majority or absolute majority would be the passed by the House of Representatives with a two
deciding factor for the winner of the election. The major third majority supporting it.
political parties which were regionally base contestant for 14. Division of powers: The constitution divided the
the election includes the following; Northern People three organs of government, executive, legislature
Congress (NPC), National Congress of Nigeria Citizens and judiciary. Federal system of government also
(NCNC), Northern Elements Progressive Union (NEPU), have three important legislative list – exclusive,
Action Group (AG). concurrent and residual lists.
15. Appointment of judges: Judges of the Supreme
The result showed that no party won the election, so the Court and high courts were appointed on the advice
NPC and NCNC, then agreed to form a coalition of a judicial service commission consisting of judges.
government with Sir Abubakar Tafawa Balewa as the 16. Commonwealth Citizenship: The constitution
prime minister that’s head the government, Nnamdi conferred commonwealth citizenship on every
Azikiwe as the Governor – General that’s president and Nigerian citizen.
Chief Obafemi Awolowo became the leader of the
opposition party in the parliament. 2015/2016/16 (UNIZIK, AWKA)
Under the independence constitution of Nigeria, Dr.
The first cabinet at the Federal Level had 18 members or Nnamdi Azikiwe was
ministers (10 from the NPC and 8 from the NCNC). The A. Head of state B. Governor-General
first post– independence government was formed by the C. Prime Minister D. Lieutenant Governor
NPC and NCNC coalition. The AG was the official Answer
opposition and it had a shadow cabinet. Under the Independence constitution of Nigeria, Dr.
Nnamdi Azikiwe was Governor-General. Under the 1960
Lyttleton constitution of 1954 was amended to be used as independence constitution, the British monarch was
independence constitution of 1960. Nigeria’s Head of State represented by the Governor-
General, Dr. Nnamdi Azikiwe (B)

401
2001/25 UTME 2004/10 Neco Exercise 30.3
When Nigeria achieved independence in 1960, the Head of Highlight any six features of the independence constitution
State was the of your country.
A. president B. prime minister C. Governor-General
D. Queen of England 1993/44 Exercise 30.4
Answer Under the independence constitution of Nigeria, the head
When Nigeria achieved independence in 1960, the Head of of state was
State was the Queen of England (D) A. the Queen of England B. the British prime minister
C. Alhaji Abubakar Tafawa Balewa D. Sir James
1999/27 UTME Robertson E. Oliver Lyttleton
The 1960 independence constitution could be described as
written Achievement of Independence Constitution
A. monarchical and parliamentary 1. Federalism Maintained: The constitution
B. republican and parliamentary maintained the federal structure of Nigeria. It made
C. monarchical and presidential each region to develop at her own pace. It brought
D. federal and republic regional government nearer to the rural people.
Answer 2. Independence for the country: Nigeria became
The 1960 independence constitution could be described as independent on 1st October, 1960. She had the
written monarchical and parliamentary. Monarchical absolute political and legal power to manage her own
because the Queen of England remained the Governor- affairs without external interference
General as the ceremonial head. Parliamentary because the 3. Bicameral legislature: This was introduced and
prime minister, the head of government also a member of retained at the region and central. For example, the
legislative was designated (A) Senate and the House of Assembly at the central, the
House of Assembly and Chief at the regions.
1991/32 4. Human rights entrenched: Fundamental human
Which of the following does not belong to the exclusive right was entrenched into the constitution. These
legislative lists under the 1960 constitution? rights were very essential for an individual’s
A. secondary education B. mining C. defence existence. They protect the citizens from arbitrary
D. banking E. telecommunication treatment. They also promote the rule of law.
Answer 5. Membership of UNO: Nigeria became the 99th
Under the 1960 constitution exclusive list entailed currency, members of the United Nations Organisation (UNO).
power, defence, external affairs, telecommunication, mining, 6. Citizenship: The constitution defined citizenship and
etc.., secondary education was not part of it. (A) how it could be acquired.
1992/21 7. Division of powers: It divided the legislative powers
One of the measures contained in Nigeria’s independence of the government into three- exclusive, concurrent
constitution to ensure the independence of the Judiciary and legislative list.
was the establishment of the 8. Independence of Judiciary: The constitution
A. privy council B. judicial service commission guaranteed the independence of the judiciary through
C. public complaints commission the establishment of the judicial service commission.
D. judicial review commission The commission saw to the appointment, promotion
E. West African court of Appeal and discipline of judicial staff. This actually helped in
Answer securing security of tenure and impartiality of judges.
Judicial service commission was included in Nigeria’s
independence constitution of 1960 to ensure the 1985/42 UTME
independence of the judiciary because the judge of SupremeUnder the independence constitution
Court and high courts were appointed on the advice of a A. the governor-general could appoint any member of the
judicial service commission consisting of judges. (B) House of Representatives a prime minister
B. a bicameral legislature was introduced in the country
1992/43 Exercise 30.1 C. forty-four members were elected into the senate
The highest court of appeal under the Nigerian D. higher education was made the exclusive responsibility
independence constitution was of the federal government
A. Federal Court of Appeal B. Sharia court of Appeal E. the Supreme Court of Nigeria was made the highest
C. Supreme court judicial authority in the country
D. Judicial committee of the Privy Council Answer
E. Federal High Court The independence constitution established bi-cameral
federal legislature consisting of the Senate and House of
2006/12 UTME Exercise 30.2 Representative and regional legislature consisting of the
The 1960 independence constitution of Nigeria provided House of chiefs and House of Assembly. (B)
for the
A. Queen as head of state
B. Governor-General as head of state
C. Governor-General as head of government
D. president as head of government
402
Weakness of Independence Constitution Reasons for Political Instability in Nigeria After
1. Monarchial government in place: One of the Independence
disadvantages and weaknesses of independence 1. Election irregularities: Election rigging and
constitution was that it retained the British Queen as persecution of public opponents remain the order of
the constitutional ceremonial Head of state of the day.
Nigeria. This was not in line with the multi-ethnic 2. Disregard for the constitution: There was complete
nature of the Nigerian state. disregard for the constitution and the rule of law.
2. Highest Court of Appeal: The constitution did not 3. Economic mismanagement: Politicians embarked on
make the supreme court of Nigeria as the highest prestigious and economically unviable projects which
court of Appeal in the land. The Judicial Committee did not benefit the citizens.
of the Privy Council in Britain continue to act as the 4. Embezzlement and mismanagement: There was
highest Court of Appeal for Nigeria. This did not embezzlement and misappropriation of public funds
guarantee the independence of the Nigeria Judiciary. by different regimes.
3. Regional Powers: The regional governments were 5. Bribery and corruption: Politicians engaged in large-
given much constitutional powers. The enormous scale bribery and corruption.
natural and human resources of each region were 6. Effect of coups: The initial psychological impact of
managed by her. This made some regions to be even coups in neighbouring African states also led to
richer than the federal Government and it created the instability in Nigeria
problem of national integration 7. Disagreement on revenue sharing: There was always
4. Uneven size of regions: The constitution did not disagreement over the revenue allocation formula and
consider the uneven size of the regions. The Northern control of resources among the ethnic groups.
region was bigger than the Eastern and Western 8. Tribalism and nepotism: There was tribalism and
regions put together. This situation gave the Northern nepotism, particularly in the appointment of public
region a comfortable position in the federal officers and in the distribution of amenities.
parliament as she got one half of the elective posts. 9. Interference in the military: There was political
5. Constitution not homemade: The 1960 interference in military affairs.
independence constitution was also disadvantaged 10. Religious intolerance: There was widespread
because it was not entirely home made one. Also the religious intolerance and violence which threatened
power of altering the constitution was the sole national unity.
responsibility of the British Government 11. Sit-tight leaders: The desire of political leaders to stay
6. No solution to tribalism: The constitution did not long in power is also responsible for the instability.
find solutions to tribalism. Each region viewed every 12. Census figures: Figures from headcounts were
issue from her narrow point of view. This threatened inflated by the component regions or states that make
national unity. up the country.
7. Women not allowed voting in the North: The denial 13. Foreign interference: External influence from big
of women the right to vote and be voted for in the nations and institutions also promoted instability in the
Northern region of the country due to islamicity country.
disenfranchised the women not only their voting 14. Economic hardship: There was economic hardship
rights but impeded also on their fundamental human caused by inflation and unemployment.
rights. Only the adult male was allowed to vote
constitutionally, this was a major set-back. THE REPUBLICAN CONSTITUTION OF 1963
At the period of independence, the political system was
2010/29 UTME traditional and the economy was underdeveloped and
One major weakness of the independence constitution is dependent. Inspite of the 1962 Western Regional and
that it Census crises, the citizens saw the need for a united
A. failed to provide the country with full sovereignty Nigeria.
B. gave total independence to Nigeria
C. gave full powers to the Supreme Court in Nigeria There was need to correct the defects of the 1960
D. empowered Britain to continue to rule Constitution. Nigerians decided to fashion out a
Answer completely indigenous (home-made) constitution. In
One major weakness of the independence constitution is November 1961, Dr. Nnamdi Azikiwe said that he would
that it failed to provide the country with full sovereignty like Nigeria to become a Republic.
(A)
The prime minister and all the regional premiers met in
2022/7 Exercise 30.5 May, 1963 at Jos to discuss the matter and other
Identify five weakness of the Independence Constitution of constitutional issues that will enhance the regions to come
1960 together perfectly. These leaders summoned all political
parties’ leaders to attend the constitutional conference in
Lagos to discuss essential matters that need to be changed.
All party conference met in July, 1963, the conference took
some decisions that were tabled at the Nigerian parliament.

403
The decisions are hereby identified: 13. Director of public prosecution: This was brought
1. The adoption of a new constitution and republicanism. under the political control of the executive.
2. The governor-general would be replaced by a 14. Creation of new regions: The process for the
ceremonial president. creation of new regions and the alteration of the
3. President of Nigeria would be elected at the joint existing regional boundaries was embodied in the
sitting of the Senate and the House of Representatives 1960 independence constitution.
for a period of five years.
4. That the appointment of judges would no longer be 2017/33 UTME
done by the judicial service commission but by the Nigeria became a republic with the
president on the advice of the Prime Minister. A. 1978 constitution B. 1989 constitution
5. The director of public prosecutions was brought under C. 1960 constitution D. 1963 constitution
the political control of the executive. Answer
6. That the removal process of a federal judge would now Nigeria became a republic with the 1963 constitution. At
be a two-thirds majority of both the Senate and the the all-party conference July, 1963 the delegates agreed
House of Representatives. that Nigeria should become a republic (D)

NB: Republican can be referred to as a government that is 2007/2008/97 (UNIZIK, AWKA)

not a monarchy or dictatorship, and is usually associated The major innovation of the Republican constitution of
with the rule of law i.e. constitution. Sir Nnamdi Azikiwe 1963 was that
was the president under the party of NCNC and Prime A. the prime minister ceased to be Head of State
Minister Abubakar Tafawa Balewa of NPC from 1st B. the Governor’s office as the representative of the Queen
October, 1963–16th January, 1966 respectively. was abolished
C. the cabinet was no longer responsible to the legislature
D. it introduced the executive presidential system
Features of First Republican Constitution Of 1963 E. the prime minister was nominated by the executive
1. Republican form of government: The Republican council
Constitution of 1963 established a Republican Answer
Government in Nigeria. The main innovation of the Republican constitution of
2. Type of System: The constitution maintained 1963 was that it introduced the executive presidential
parliamentary system of government. system (D)
3. Head of State: The Queen was replaced with the
President who became the constitutional Head of 1994/26 UTME
State and Commander-in-Chief of the Armed Forces. In the 1963 constitution, there was separation of powers
4. Election of the President: The president of Nigeria between the
was to be indirectly elected, through secret ballot for A. president and the commander-in-chief of the armed
a period of five years by the Senate and House of forces
Representatives sitting together. B. executive and the legislature
5. Head of Government: The head of government was C. head of state and the president
the prime minister. D. head of government and the head of state
6. Powers of the President: The power of the president Answer
is only ceremonial, president have no veto or real In the 1963 constitution, there was separation of powers
power. between the head of government and the head of state. The
7. National Parliament: The national parliament was head of government is the prime minister while the head of
made of 44 members of the senate and 312 members state is the ceremonial head of government (D)
of the House of Representatives.
8. Judicial service commission was abolished: The 2014/29 UTME Exercise 30.6
constitution abolished the Judicial Service The Nigerian independence constitution was modified by
Commission and the powers for the appointment, the
transfer and promotion were vested on the prime A. 1979 constitution B. 1963 constitution
minister. C. 1999 constitution D. 1989 constitution
9. Appeals to the judicial committee of the Privy
Council: These were abolished and the Supreme 2011/3 (OAU, IFE) Exercise 30.7
Court of Nigeria became the highest and final court in Under the 1963 Republican constitution, the president
the federation exercised
10. Removal of Judges: Judges could only be removed A. judicial powers B. nominal powers
by a two-third majority of House of Senate and C. concurrent powers D. executive powers
Representatives.
11. Office of the prime minister: The office of the prime 2017/2018/26 (UNIZIK, AWKA) Exercise 30.8
minister was strengthened but made accountable to The 1963 constitution in Nigeria is known as the
the parliament. A. residential constitution B. independence constitution
12. Removal of the Prime Minister: The prime minister C. republican constitution D. federal constitution
could not be removed except a vote of no confidence
was passed on him by the House.
404
Merits of the First Republic Constitution 4. Electing of President: The election of the president
1. Republican form of government: The first republic was not based on the choice of the majority but
constitution of 1963, gave Nigeria a republican form minority.
of government, based on elections to political 5. Corrupt Practices: Bribery, lobbying and all form of
positions in government. corrupt practices characterize the election of the
2. An elected president: The Queen of England ceased president by the two Houses of parliament.
to be Nigeria Head of State. An elected president 6. Fusion of power: The legislative and executive arms
became the president. of government were fused. It slowed down their
3. Homemade constitution: The first Republican effective performance.
constitution was a real home–made constitution. 7. Carpet-crossing: It permitted “carpet-crossing” in
4. Final court of Apppeal: The supreme court of which elected politicians shifted party allegiance for
Appeal that was established in Nigeria during personal rewards.
Lyttleton became the final court of Appeal.
5. Human rights: The rights of all citizens were fully Functions of the President Under the 1963 Constitution
entrenched and guaranteed. of Nigeria
6. Power of judicial review: The Supreme Court was 1. Head of State: The head of state performed
given power to check the excesses or unconstitutional ceremonial functions.
actions of the executive and the legislature. 2. Leader of the party: He appointed the leader of the
7. Political Participation: Nigerians were fully party that won majority seats in parliament at the
involved in the decision making process of the general election as the prime minister.
country. 3. The dissolution of the House of Representatives:
8. External Interferences: The constitution gave With the advice of the prime minister, he dissolves
Nigeria sovereignty over every external influence. the House of Representatives after a vote of no
The Britain undue external influence on the country confidence had been passed.
ceased. 4. Council of Ministers: He authorized any member of
the council of ministers to perform the functions of
1988/38 the prime minister when the latter was absent or in-
The highest court of appeal under the Republican capacitated.
constitution of Nigeria was the 5. Prime Minister’s Approval: He approved all the
A. Federal High Court prime minister’s appointments or nominees into
B. judicial committee of the Privy Council political positions.
C. Regional court of Appeal 6. Assent: He assented or signed into law all bills passed
D. Supreme Court E. Federal Court of Appeal by the parliament.
Answer 7. Advice: He could remove judges, directors of audit
The Supreme Court was given excess power to check from office on the advice of the parliament.
unconstitutional actions of the executive and the 8. Treaties: He approved treaties or agreements made
legislature. (D) with other countries on behalf of the country.
9. Parliament Address: He addressed the parliament at
1989/46 the beginning and end of the legislative year.
The Republican constitution of 1963 was indigenous 10. Dissolvement of Parliament: He summoned,
because, it was approved by prorogue and dissolved parliament on the advice of
A. a referendum the prime minister.
B. the representatives of the people in parliament 11. Appointment: He appointed parliamentary secretaries
C. the British government D. the colonial government from among the senators and members of the House of
E. the regional legislatures only Representatives.
Answer 12. Prerogative of Mercy: He had the power to show
The first Republican constitution of 1963 was fully a anyone mercy as he wished.
homemade constitution (indigenous) because it was approved 13. Commander–in–Chief: He was the commander–in–
by the representatives of the people in parliament. (B) chief, he controlled the Armed forces.
14. State of emergency: He had the power to declare a
state of emergency or war in the time of emergency.
Demerits of the First Republican Constitution
1. Parliamentary Supremacy: There was no supremacy
of the constitution but of the parliament. The Similarities and Differences of the 1960 and 1963
parliamentary members were more supreme than the Constitutions
constitution, because they made the laws. The following are the similarities between the 1960 and
2. Abuse of Power: Supremacy of the parliament, made 1963 Constitutions
them to abuse their power. 1. Presence of bicameral legislature: There was the
3. Accountability of the Prime Minister: The prime existence of bicameral legislatures at both federal and
minister was accountable to the parliament and not to regional levels. The federal legislature consisted of the
the people. queen being represented by the governor-general, the
Senate and the House of Representatives in the 1960
constitution. The Senate and the House of
405
Representatives formed the federal legislature under 3. Judicial service commission: Under the 1960
the 1963 constitution. Every region had a House of constitution, judges of the Supreme Court and High
Assembly and a House of Chiefs. Courts were appointed on the advice of the Judicial
2. Human rights entrenched: The two constitutions Service Commission. They were confirmed by the
identified a long list of fundamental human rights. judicial committee of the Privy Council. In the 1963
These rights were in line with the United Nations constitution, federal judges were appointed by the
declaration on Human Rights of 1948. The president on the advice of the prime minister. The
constitutions also provided the limitations to these Judicial Service Commission was abolished. Also
rights. abolished was the Judicial Committee of the Privy
3. Provided for citizenship: The two constitutions made Council as the highest Court of Appeal in Nigeria. The
an elaborate provision on how to become a Nigerian highest court became the Supreme Court of Nigeria.
citizen. 4. Removal of judges: The pattern of removing judges
4. Emergency powers given: The constitutions differed in the two constitutions. In the 1960
empowered the federal legislature to declare a state of constitution, when a judge was incapable of
emergency in any region or in the whole federation discharging his functions, the prime minister would
when the country was at war or part of it. request the Governor-General to investigate that. The
5. Judiciary was regionalized: The two constitutions Governor-General would set up a tribunal to that
regionalized the judiciary. Each region was expected effect. The report of the tribunal would be forwarded
to recruit her own judicial staff. The same also applied to the judicial committee of the Privy Council by the
to the federal government. Governor-General. If the judicial committee advised
6. Commonwealth membership: The two constitutions that such a judge be removed from office, the
allowed Nigeria to remain as a member of the Governor-General would remove him. Under the 1963
commonwealth. Nigeria became a member at constitution, the procedure was different. The
independence on 1st October, 1960 and this stand was president was empowered to remove a federal judge
maintained in 1963. after fulfilling these conditions. There should be an
7. Constitutional amendment: The constitutions address to the two federal legislative houses requesting
identified the various types of amendments that could for the removal of the judge. This has to be followed
be made on the constitution. These were the with a two-thirds majority vote in support of a motion
amendment of ordinary provisions of the federal to that effect.
constitution, amendment of ordinary provisions of the
regional constitution, amendment of constitutional 2009/10
provisions, boundary adjustments and creation of more Give any six functions of the president under the 1963
regions. constitution of Nigeria.
8. Constitutional conference: In May, 1960, under the Answer
chairmanship of the colonial secretary, Mr. Ian 1. He served as the commander–in–chief, he controlled
Macleod, a constitutional conference was held in the Armed forces.
London. It was attended by Nigerian leaders. The 2. He appointed parliamentary secretaries from among
leaders assisted the British officials in drafting the bill the senators and members of the House of
for the independence of Nigeria. The bill was Representatives.
presented to the British parliament. Before the 1963 3. He approved treaties or agreements made with other
constitution was put in place, a constitutional countries on behalf of the country.
conference was held in July 1963 at Jos by Nigerian 4. He approved all the prime minister’s appointments or
leaders. The conference agreed that Nigeria should nominees into political positions.
become a republic and a bill was presented to the 5. The Head of State, performed ceremonial functions.
federal parliament to this effect. Constitutional 6. He assented or signed into laws all bills passed by the
conferences were held before eth constitutions were parliament.
introduced. 7. He appointed the leaders of the party that won
majority seats in parliament at the general election as
The following are the differences between the 1960 and the prime minister.
1963 Constitutions
1. Type of government: Nigeria was a monarchy under THE SECOND REPUBLICAN CONSTITUTION OF
the 1960 constitution. The Head of State, the queen, 1979
represented by the governor-general, was a The Nigerian first republic (1963-1966) was faced with
constitutional monarch. The 1963 constitution made lots of problems. These were the defects of the
Nigeria a republic. The Head of State was no longer constitution, the census crisis of 1962/63, Action Group
the queen but an elected Nigerian president. crisis of 1962, the general election crisis of 1964, the
2. Promulgation of constitution: The independence western regional election crisis of 1965, tribalism,
constitution of 1960 was the accumulation of the nepotism, bribery and corruption. All these factors led to
various constitutional conference which the British the collapse of that constitution. As a result of these factors,
officials initiated and presided over. The republican the army under the leadership of major Kaduna Nzeogu
constitution of 1963 was initiated by Nigerians and the overthrew the government of Alhaji Abubakar Tafawa
bill was passed in Nigeria. It was indigenously made Balewa on 15th January, 1966.
and there were no foreign inputs.
406
It was the assassinated Head of State General Murtala REMOVAL OF THE PRESIDENT FROM OFFICE
Mohammed on coming to power in 1975, made a firm A. By impeachment:
promise to return the country to a civil rule after many 1. The President or Vice-President may be removed
years of military interregnum. General Murtala from office whenever a notice of any allegation in
Mohammed did not live to fulfil the promise but it was his writing signed by not less than one-third of the
successor Lieutenant General Olusegun Obasanjo who members of the National Assembly is presented to
made the promise a reality. The road to the Nigerian the President of the Senate stating that the holder of
th
second republic (1979-1983) started on 18 October, 1975 the office of President or the Vice-President is guilty
with the inauguration of a Constitution Drafting of gross misconduct in the performance of the
Committee. The constitutional drafting committee was to functions of his office.
amend the first republic constitution. The committee made 2. The President of the Senate shall within 7 days of the
receipt of the notice of the allegation, serve a copy to
up of 49 instead of 50 members had Chief Rotimi Williams
the President and each member of the National
(S.A.N) as the chairman, a guru in constitutional law.
Assembly. Statement of reply to the allegation by the
Chief Obafemi Awolowo opted out because he was not President should also be served to each member of
duly informed. the National Assembly.
3. Each House of the National Assembly shall resolve
In September 14, 1976, the constitutional drafting by motion without any debate within 14 days of the
committee published a two volume reports on the new presentation of the notice of the President of the
constitution they have worked on. The report was Senate whether the allegation was replied or not to
subjected to a nation-wide public debate by the military investigate the allegation or not.
government. The outcome of the public debate and draft 4. A motion of the National Assembly to investigate the
were submitted to a Constituent Assembly of 230 allegation must be supported by the votes of not less
members, of which 190 members were indirectly elected than two-thirds majority of all the members of each
by the local government units (Electoral College), another House of the National Assembly.
40 members were appointed by the military government 5. The President of the Senate shall within 7 days of the
members. passing of the motion to investigate the allegation
appoint 7 persons he thinks are of high integrity not
The constituent assembly began to work on the report belonging to any public service, legislative house or
submitted to them by the constitutional drafting committee political party, approved by the senate to conduct the
in December, 1976 under the chairmanship of Sir Justice investigation.
Udo Udoma. The work was completed in June, 1978. 6. The President whose conduct is being investigated
Some important amendments were made and the shall have the right to defend himself in person and
be represented before the committee by legal
constitution was adopted.
practitioners of his own choice.
7. The committee shall within 3 months of its
appointment, report its findings to each House of the
Features of the Second Republican Constitution of 1979 National Assembly.
1. To the President: The constitution adopted 8. If the committee reports to each House of the
executive presidential system, that is the president is National Assembly that the allegation has not been
the Head of state and Head of government, thus His proved, no further proceedings shall be taken in
duties now encompassed: respect of the matter.
a. Signing a bill into law through his veto power. 9. Where the report of the committee is that the
b. Representing the country in national and allegation against the President has been proved,
international conference. then within 14 days of the receipt of the report, each
c. Controlling the civil service and other House of the National Assembly supported by not
governmental agencies. less than two-thirds majority of all its members, shall
d. Nominate the appointment of ministers, adopt the report of the committee, then the President
ambassadors, secretaries to the federation, etc.., but shall stand removed from office as from the date of
subject to the approval of the National Assembly. the adoption of the report.
The president office is tenured for four years. The 10. No proceedings or determination of the committee or
president could only enjoy two tenures that is of the National Assembly or any matter relating to
eight years in office if re–elected. the impeachment shall be entertained or questioned
For a person to occupy the office of the executive in any court.
president of the country. The constitution stipulated 11. In the definition of the constitution, gross
misconduct means a grave violation or breach of the
some of the following conditions.
provisions of the constitution.
i. The person must be at least 35 years of age.
ii. He must be a citizen of Nigeria by birth and
B. Permanent Incapacity of President: The President
naturalization.
shall cease to hold office if two-thirds majority of all
iii. He must be a member of a political party and
the members of the executive council of the federation
is sponsored by that political party.
passed a resolution supported by a report of a medical
iv. He has been educated up to at least school
panel that he is suffering from infirmity of the body or
certificate level or its equivalent.
mind which has rendered him permanently incapable
of discharging the functions of his office.
407
C. By Resignation: The office of the President of Vice- 5. Separation of Powers: The 1979 constitution,
President can become vacant as a result of death or stipulated the separation of power between legislative
resignation. A President may decide to resign instead of and the executive in both functions and personnel.
being impeached. For instance, President Nixon of 6. Legislative powers: Legislative powers were shared
America resigned when the congress made its intention between the federal and the nineteen state governments
to impeach him known over the Watergate scandal. If the in the federation. The federal or central government
President resigns, the Vice-President will be operates an exclusive legislative list, while both the
automatically sworn in as the President, but where the central and state could legislate on items under the
two are involved, the President of the Senate would be concurrent legislature list.
sworn in as President. 7. Federal character: The appointment of qualified
personnel into federal establishment or agencies or as a
The same conditions that make the President or Vice- minister was done to reflect the federal characters. The
President to be removed from office also apply to the motive of the federal character was to make all regions
Governor or his Deputy. The legislature in the state is and state to have equal rights without segment, so that
known as House of Assembly headed by a Speaker. the federal benefit opportunities can be spread across the
entire country.
2. To the Vice-President: The presidential candidate has 8. Local government: The constitution of 1979 also made
the power to nominate his vice–president, i.e. his second provision for local government councils. The
in command, but they must belong to the same party. constitution stipulated residual list, which listed the
3. To the National Assembly: The constitution functions of the local government council.
established the National Assembly which was bicameral 9. Federal capital territory: There were provision to
legislature. House of Representatives had 450 members establish a new Federal Capital Territory (FCT) as the
and the senate as members. These Houses are jointly seat of the government of the federation.
known as National Assembly. The House of 10. Commander–in–Chief: The president was also the
Representatives would elect their speaker and deputy commander–in–chief of the country’s armed forces.
speaker, while the senate would elect their president and 11. Election of the President: The president has the whole
vice–president. Their tenures are for four years as country as his constituency and was directly elected by
Honourables and senators. the electorate.
12. Appointment of Political Advisers: The constitution
The constitution noted the functions of the National empowered the president to appoint his political
Assembly in 1979 constitution. advisers in other areas too. Also, to appoint liaison
a. It is responsible for lawmaking. officers in the 19 states of the federation.
b. It has the power of investigating the government. 13. Run–off–election: Run–off–election was made
c. It controls the raising and spending of money in the provision for in the 1979 constitution. In situations were
country. no winner emerged in the first general election with an
d. It has the power of impeachment. over–all–majority, another election would be held.
e. Members of parliament represent the people who 14. Fundamental Human Rights: The constitution
had voted for them in the general election. They are stipulated the fundamental human rights of citizens and
responsible to look into the needs of their it was entrenched into the constitution.
constituencies.
f. They have powers to interview nominees 1991/34
(ministers, ambassadors, Chief Judges of the The background work of the 1979 constitution all started
federation, etc.) with the
4. To the State Executive: The Chief Executive of each A. establishment of the constitution drafting committee in
state is known as the Governor. The duration of term in 1975
the Governor’s office is for four years but the Governor B. institution of a 49–members committee in 1976
can be re-elected for the second term, which means the C. publication of the report on the constitution in 1976 by
executive governor of any state in Nigeria can only Rotimi Williams
serve for eight years in office. The governor is assisted
C. appointment of 230 constituent assembly member in
in office by a deputy governor. The Governor can be
1979
impeached through the state House of Assembly, if
found guilty of violating the provision of the D. promulgation of the constitution in 1979
constitution. Answer
The background work of the 1979 constitution all started
The following are the functions of the Governors in any with the establishment of the constitutional drafting
state in Nigeria. committee in 1975. (A)
a. He is involved in the state and federal functions and
conferences. 2001/27 UTME
b. He appoints commissioners and other official Which of these constitutions recognized local government
political offices in the state, through nomination in as the third tier of government in Nigeria?
the State House of Assembly. A. 1946 constitution B. 1960 constitution
c. He implements policies and laws in the state. C. 1963 constitution D. 1979 constitution
d. He is the number one citizen of the state. Answer
e. He signs state bills into law, he also has the power The 1979 second republican constitution recognized local
to reject the bill (veto power). government as the third tier of government in Nigeria (D)

408
1993/36 UTME Merits of the Second Republic Constitution
The term federal character was popularized by the 1. Presidency Freedom: The executive president was
A. 1975 constitution drafting committee popularly elected as an individual, under a political
B. 1979 constitution party, but the party did not have control over him.
C. Murtala/Obasanjo regime This made him free in all fairness to administer the
D. Buhari regime country without been biased as a result of party
Answer politics and upheavals.
Federal character was introduced in Nigeria for the first 2. Separation of Power: Separation of powers in the
time through the 1979 constitution of Nigeria (B) second republic constitution was highly stipulated.
This enhanced the functions of the executive,
1983/47 UTME judiciary and legislature.
The 1979 Nigerian constitution provides for presidential 3. Power of Judicial Review: The constitution gave
elections every Supreme Court the power to check the excesses of
A. four years B. eight years any organ of government, to remove the tendency of
C. time the military hands over the reins of government any of them becoming high handed and dictatorial
D. time the incumbent is impeached or dies 4. Fixed Term of Office: Fixed term of office was
E. time the vice president is impeached given to all political position (offices) e.g. the office
Answer of the president is for four years.
With the 1979 constitution of Nigeria presidential election 5. Control of Ministers: The president could
takes place every four years. And a candidate could only effectively check the activities of the ministers,
serve two terms i.e. eight years (A) because they were individually responsible to him.
6. Supremacy of the Constitution: The constitution
1983/34 UTME made Nigerian laws to be very supreme and must be
The 1979 Nigerian constitution is unique because it obeyed and respected by everybody and all
A. provides for a head of government authorities.
B. introduces the participation of women in politics 7. Federal Capital Territory: The constitution made
C. provides for a head of state who is also head of provision for a new federal capital territory in Abuja.
government 8. Fundamental Human Rights: The rights of
D. provides for a House of Chiefs individuals were fully elaborated and guaranteed.
E. makes all men equal before the law 9. Impeachment: Any president or governor can be
Answer removed from office if they are working against the
The 1979 Nigerian constitution is unique because it constitution.
provides for a head of state who is also the head of 10. Best Candidates were made Ministers: The
government (C) president had a free hand when selecting his
ministers, hence qualified individuals which were
1990/20 Nov Exercise 30.9 best suited for the job were chosen.
To be qualified as president of Nigeria, the 1979
constitution state that he must have attained the age of Demerits of the Second Republican Constitution
A. 18 years B. 21years C. 30 years D. 35 years 1. Costly to Operate: This system is very expensive to
E. 45years operate as function were duplicated.
2. Federal Character: The political appointment and
1992/49 Exercise 30.10 civil appointment of people into federal
Which of the following was provided for in the 1979 establishments could not reflect the federal character,
constitution of Nigeria? because some sections of the country would still feel
A. Council of National Awareness neglected.
B. National Security Council C. Cocoa Research Council 3. Bottlenecks: Separation of powers could delay in the
D. Coca Cola Research Council execution of the government programmes e.g. the
E. Council of National Commissioners legislatures could delay the approval of the budget,
the executive could also delay the signing of bills into
1994/40 Exercise 30.11 laws, etc.
The 1979 constitution sought to solve some of the problems 4. Concentration of powers: Concentration of powers
associated with Nigeria federalism by providing for was too much in the hands of the president as both
A. the reflection of federal character in public appointment Head of State and government. This made the system
B. an equitable revenue allocation not to be too effective and the president too powerful.
C. less stringent conditions for the creation of more states 5. Impeachment Clause: The law-makers could use the
D. less stringent conditions for succession impeachment clause indiscriminately and to victimize
E. a weak centre vis a vis the states a political opponent.
6. Run–Off Election: The issue of run – off election
1997/46 Exercise 30.12 was not respected at all by the electorate.
The 1979 constitution of Nigeria introduced a system of
government similar to that of
A. China B. Britain C. France D. Australia
E. U.S.A.
409
The Differences Between 1963 And 1979 Constitutions 1992/44
First Republic Second Republic A common provision in the 1963 and 1979 constitution of
constitution Constitution Nigeria was
1. The 1963 Republican The 1979 constitution A. registration of political parties by FEDECO
constitution provided made provision for B. direct funding of local governments by the federal
for parliamentary or presidential executive government
cabinet system of system of government in C. abolition of the judicial service commission
government. Nigeria. D. establishment of the public complaints commission
2. The real executive All executive powers E. provision for bicameral legislature at the centre
powers were vested in were vested in the Answer
the council of president under the 1979 The common feature of the 1963 and 1979 constitution of
ministers headed by constitution. Nigeria was provision for bicameral legislature at the
the prime minister. central (federal). (E)
3. In the 1963 There was no difference
constitution, there was between the functions of 2000/10 Neco
difference between the Head of State and Distinguish between the 1963 constitution and 1979
Head of State and Head of government, the constitution of Nigeria.
Head of government two functions were fused Answer
as well as together under the 1979 The following are some factors that distinguished between
commander–in–chief constitution as the the 1963 and 1979 constitution in Nigeria.
of the Armed forces. president duties. The I. The 1963 Republican constitution provided for
president is also the parliamentary or cabinet system of government while
commander–in–chief of the 1979 constitution made provision for
the Armed forces. presidential/executive system.
II. In 1963, the real executive powers were vested in the
4. The constitution of In the 1979 constitution,
council of ministers headed by the prime minister while
1963 has some members of the executive
all executive powers were vested in the president under
members of the were not members of the
the 1979 constitution.
legislature as also the legislature. III. In the 1963 constitution, there was difference between
members of the Head of State and Head of government as well as
executive. commander–in–chief of the Armed forces.
5. Collective In the 1979 constitution, IV. In the 1963 constitution, some members of the
responsibility of the ministers were personally legislature were also members of the executive but in
cabinet to the responsible to the 1979, members of the executive were not members of
legislature was a president. the legislature.
common feature of the V. Collective responsibility of the cabinet to the legislature
1963 constitution. was a common feature of the 1963 constitution while in
6. There was no The 1979 constitution the 1979 constitution; ministers were personally
uniformity in local provided for a uniform responsible to the president.
government system. local government system. VI. In the 1963 constitution, there was no uniform local
7. The 1963 constitution The 1979 constitution government system while the 1979 constitution
provided for bicameral made provision for provided for a uniform local government system.
legislature in the unicameralism in the VII. The 1963 constitution provided for bicameral
states. state. legislature in the states while 1979 constitution made
provision for unicameralism in the states.
8. The 1963 constitution In the 1979 constitution,
VIII. The 1963 constitution had no fixed number of terms for
had no fixed number the president was limited the office of the president and prime minister (a term
of terms for the office to two terms of four years was five years) but in the 1979 constitution, the
of the president and each. president was limited to two terms of four years each.
prime minister (a term
was for five years) THE REPUBLIC CONSTITUTION OF 1989
9. There was The Constitution was After General Muhammadu Buhari took over government on
parliamentary supreme in the 1979 31 July, 1983, some sections of the 1979 constitution of the
supremacy constitution. Second Republic, under which the civilian regime operated
10. The 1963 constitution The 1979 constitution were suspended. Political activities were banned and the
provided for the provided that the constitution remained suspended. This situation was also
removal of the prime president could be obtained under the military government of General Ibrahim
minister through a removed through Babangida who himself seized power from General
vote of no confidence impeachment. Muhammadu Buhari in a military coup on 27 August, 1985
known as the palace coup. It was under Babangida’s
government transition to civil rule programme, that the 1989
constitution was formulated in a process involving a Political
Bureau, Constitution Review Committee (CRC) and the
Constituent Assembly.
410
The political bureau was established on 13 July, 1986 with Merits of the 1989 Constitution
seventeen members. It collated the views of Nigerians on 1. The two–party system made the choice of the
the nation’s political future and wrote a report on this for electorate more focused with reduced confusion as in
the CRC. The CRC was inaugurated on 7th September, the multi-party system.
1987 with forty-six members to use the recommendations 2. Minimum qualifications of age and education for
of the political bureau in reviewing the 1963 and 1979 candidates eliminated immature and ignorant people
republican constitutions. from participating in governance.
3. The greater prominences of local governments made
The CRC produced a constitution which was deliberated room for more rapid development at the local and
upon by a 452–member Constituent Assembly (CA), rural areas.
established on 11 July, 1988. This CA submitted its report 4. Voters have the opportunity of making quick or better
to the Armed Forces Ruling Party (AFRC), the highest decision since two–party system was involved.
governing body under Babangida administration, which 5. The process of recall of law makers by the people was
after amending portions promulgated the 1989 constitution meant to promote hard work on the part of the
of Nigeria into a decree. legislatures.
6. Fundamental human right was entrenched in the
Features of the 1989 Constitution constitution.
1. Presidential System of Government: The
constitution retained a presidential system of Demerits of the 1989 Constitution
government as in the 1979 constitution. 1. Number of senators: The number of senators elected
2. Two-party System: A two–party system was into the Senate by each state was five in the 1979
entrenched in the constitution. constitution. It was reduced to three in the 1989
3. Adoption of School Certificate: The minimum constitution. This could affect the quality of the
qualification to occupy state and national position contributions of the senators. It limited the
such as president, governor and legislatures was the participation of qualified persons in the Senate
secondary school certificate. Minimum wages for deliberations.
each were also specified. 2. Election tribunals: The constitution allowed for the
4. Legislatures to be regarded as part time workers: establishment of election tribunals both at the federal
Legislatures were to be regarded as part–time workers and state levels. The tribunals were mandated to hear
who were all to receive only sitting allowances. and determine petitions relating to elections. The
5. Process of Recall: The constitution provided for the decisions of these tribunals could not be challenged
recall of a member of the Senate, House of in any Court of Law in the country. This is a bad
Representatives, State House of Assembly, a local provision. The tribunal erodes the power of the
government councilor or chairman who has lost the Supreme Court of Nigeria as having the final in all
confidence of the members of his constituency. This matters in the country. Secondly, the citizens are
provision would make office holders to know that denied the right to appeal. This is against the right to
they should perform or be thrown out. The use of the fair hearing, which the constitution permitted.
recall validates the statement that power belongs to 3. Political parties: The constitution emphatically stated
the people. that only two political parties should exist. This
6. Federal Capital: The federal capital territory, Abuja categorical statement is wrong in the sense that every
would not be regarded as a state. political system or the number of political parties in a
7. Local government: The constitution accorded society is usually a product of history. For example,
greater prominence to the autonomy and France from time immemorial is used to multi-
democratization of the local government. For partism and so cannot easily cope with anything short
example, there was an increase in the number of local of that. The same applies to Nigeria. In the first and
governments, direct election of the chairman and the second republics, multi-party system was
councilors and direct allocation of revenue to local adopted. The idea of limiting Nigerians to the
governments. formation of only two political parties is
8. Citizenship: It defined the three forms of Nigerian undemocratic in nature.
citizenship, viz, citizenship by birth, citizenship by 4. Much powers for executive: The Chief Executive at
registration and citizenship by naturalization. the federal and the state levels had much powers. This
9. Independence of Judiciary: There were provisions could create friction between him and other organs of
for an independent judiciary and a range of government. We all know that power intoxicates and
fundamental human rights for Nigerian citizens. absolute power intoxicates absolute. This is one of the
10. Compilation of election results: To avert the ‘two– reasons behind the executive and the legislative face-
thirds’ controversy of the 1979 presidential election, off in Nigeria at the federal level.
the constitution made provision for fractions arising 5. Cost of administration: The presidential system of
from the computation of votes to be rounded up to the government is very expensive. A lot of money and
next whole number. personnel are needed to run it.

411
SIMILARITIES AND DIFFERENCES BETWEEN all the members of the House in question was present. In
THE 1979 AND 1989 CONSTITUTION OF NIGERIA 1989 constitution, the quorum of Senate or the House of
Similarities between the 1979 and 1989 Constitutions Representative one-half of all the members of the
1. Federal and republic: The two constitutions were legislative house concerned. The same applied to state
federal and republican in nature. There was eth assemblies.
division of legislative powers between the central and 3. Recall: This was reflected in the 1989 constitution. It
state governments. Nigeria is a sovereign state and its stated the step-by-step approach in recalling legislators
Head of State was elected. Equally elected were other that have lost the confidence of their people. This peculiar
office holders. provision was lacking in the 1979 constitution.
4. Duties of citizens: The 1989 constitution assigned a
2. Fundamental objectives: The fundamental objectives
number of duties to the citizens of the state. These were
and directive principles of state policy in the two
lacking in the 1979 constitution.
constitutions were the same. These contained the 5. Electoral tribunals: Electoral tribunals existed under the
political, economic, social, educational and foreign 1989 constitution but they did not exist in the 1979
policy objectives of the country. They also contained constitution.
the obligations of the mass media and national ethics. 6. Number of political parties: The 1979 constitution
3. Military inputs: The two constitutions had the inputs allowed for multi-partism while the 1989 constitution
of the military in them. The 1979 constitution was stated that only two political parties should be allowed to
introduced by the Federal Military Government exist.
headed by General Olusegun Obasanjo while that of 7. Federal executive bodies: The 1979 constitution
1989 was produced during the regime of General allowed for the establishment of nine federal
Ibrahim Babangida. commissions and councils. The 1989 constitution
4. Citizenship: They identified the various ways provided for the establishment of fourteen commissions
citizenship could be acquired. and councils.
5. Human rights: The two constitutions highlighted the
fundamental human rights of Nigerians. They also 1998/33 UTME
stated the conditions or circumstances that could lead During the period 1960 to 1963, Nigeria was governed under
to denial of human rights. the
6. The National Assembly: The constitutions provided A. presidential system of government
for the composition and staffing, procedure for B. Westminster system of government
summoning and dissolution of the National Assembly. C. confederal system of government
They provided the qualifications for membership and D. unitary system of government
right of attendance by the president of the country and Answer
During the period 1960 to 1966, Nigeria was governed under
other executive members. They also provided for
the Westminster system of government (B)
elections to the assembly, the powers and functions of
the assembly. 1998/45 UTME
7. Federal and state executive: The constitutions At independence in 1960, the permission to establish a
provided for the establishment of the office of the diplomatic mission in Nigeria was not granted to
president and governor and their deputies. Equally A. the United States of America
provided were their election method, tenure of office, B. Japan C. the United Kingdom
removal process, appointment of aides and the D. the Union of Soviet Socialist Republic
establishment of certain executive bodies. Answer
8. Federal and state courts: The constitutions allowed At independence in 1960, the permission to establish a
for the establishment of various courts at the federal diplomatic mission in Nigeria was not granted to the union of
and state levels. The highest court in Nigeria was the Soviet Socialist Republic (D)
Supreme Court while the lowest was the
Sharia/Customary Court. The areas of jurisdiction and 2018/2019/100 (UNIZIK, AWKA)
the limitations of these courts were also stated. Under the independent constitution, the head of government
9. Federal capital territory: The provisions included was the
the ownership of the land, status, powers and A. governor-general B. president C. prime minister
composition of the territory. The two constitutions D. premier
discussed these issues very well. Answer
Under the independent constitution, the head of government
was the prime minister (C)
Difference between the 1979 and 1989 Constitutions
1. Traditional Council: The 1989 constitution provided
for the establishment of a traditional council in every 1983/45 UTME
The independence constitution
local government area. It also conferred nine functions
A. provided for a republican status for the country
to the council. The 1979 constitution did not provide B. created a unitary state
for the existence of a traditional council at all. C. was negotiated by Nigerians
2. Quorum at national and state assemblies: The D. was imposed on Nigerians by the British
number of legislators that must be present before the E. introduced the military into Nigerian politics
business of the house would commence each day Answer
differed so much in the two constitutions. In the 1979 The independence constitution was imposed on Nigerians by
constitution, a quorum was formed when one-third of the British colonial masters (D)
412
1987/36 UTME
Nigeria attained independence in 1960 through 1989/21
A. negotiation between the British government and Nigerian The emergency powers conferred on the federal
nationalists government under the independence constitution was first
B. armed struggle by Nigerian nationalists and traditional rulers
exercised in the
C. negotiation between the British government and the United A. Western Region B . Mid – Western Region
Nations C. Eastern – Region D. Northern Region
D. negotiation between the British government and traditional E. Federal Territory of Lagos
rulers
Answer
Answer
In the 1960 constitution, the federal government was given
Nigeria attained independence in 1960 through negotiation
the power to declare a state of emergency in any part of the
between the British government and Nigerian nationalists
(A) country, if there were crises of war. However, resolution
would be passed by the House of Representatives with a two
2012/24 (OAU,IFE) – third majority supporting it. Chief Akintola was expelled
Nigeria observed the principle of collective responsibility from the party because he was too rebellious to their party
between leaders and the party. The tension and confusion in the
A. 1960 and 1966 B. 1979 and 1983 Western region lead to the declaration of the state of
C. 1985 and 1993 D. 1999 and 2003 emergency for the first time in Nigeria. (A)
Answer
Between 1960 and 1966 Nigeria observed the principle of 2001/27 UTME
collective responsibility which is also called parliamentary Under the 1963 constitution, items not listed in the
system of government (A) exclusive and concurrent lists were within the exclusive
competence of the
2011/5 (OAU, IFE) A. executive B. federal parliament C. regional
Between 1960 and 1966, Nigeria was governed under the legislatures
A. presidential system of government D. judiciary
B. Westminster system of government Answer
C. confederal system of government Regional legislatures was not listed in the exclusive and
D. unitary system of government concurrent lists of 1963 constitution (C)
Answer
Westminster system of government was used to govern
2007/2008/100 (UNIZIK, AWKA)
Nigerians between 1960 – 1966 (D)
Under what constitution did the Supreme Court become
the highest court of Appeal in Nigeria?
1988/37
Residual powers under the Nigerian independence A. Macpherson’s constitution B. Clifford’s constitution
constitution were the powers exercised by C. Richard’s constitution D. the 1963 constitution
A. the federal government B. the regional governments E. the 1979 constitution
C. the local governments Answer
D. both the federal and regional government In 1963 constitution appeals to the judicial committee of
E. both the local and regional governments the Privy Council were abolished and the supreme court of
Answer Nigeria became the highest and final court in the federation
Residual powers under the Nigerian independence constitution (D)
were the powers exercised by the Regional Governments. (B)
1985/46 UTME
1989/15 Nigeria adopted a republican constitution on
Which of the following is not written into the independence A. October 1, 1960 B. October 1, 1963
constitution of 1960? C. October 1, 1966 D. January 15, 1967
A. fundamental human rights B. executive powers E. December 31, 1983
C. concurrent lists D. role of political parties Answer
E. legislative powers Nigeria adopted a republican constitution on October 1,
Answer 1963 (B)
The roles of political parties were not included into the
independence constitution of 1960. (D)
1988/38 UTME
Under the 1963 constitution, federal judges were appointed
1989/19
The Head of state under the independence constitution of by the
Nigeria was A. president on the advice of the prime minister
A. an absolute monarch B. a constitutional monarch B. Chief Justice of the federation
C. imposed by the British C. Prime Minister
D. invested with executive power E. popularly elected D. Judicial Service Commission
Answer Answer
The constitution established, the office of the Head of State. Under the 1963 constitution Judicial Service Commission
The Governor–General was the ceremonial Head of State was abolished. Appointment of judges were to be made by
under the independence constitution of Nigeria was a the president on the advice of the prime minister (A)
constitutional monarch. (B)
413
1989/39 UTME
The 1963 constitution of Nigeria was 2001/29 UTME
A. written and flexible B. written and rigid Before Nigeria became a republic, the highest body
C. flexible and unwritten D. unitary and rigid charged with administration of justice was the
Answer A. Privy Council B. High Court C. Supreme Court
The 1963 constitution of Nigeria was written and rigid in D. Court of Appeal
nature (B) Answer
Appeals to the judicial committee of the Privy Council was
1995/28 UTME the highest body charged with administration of Justice in
Under the 1963 constitution, a bill could only become law Nigeria before the First Republic (A)
if it was accented to by the
A. prime minister B. president C. Queen 2008/36 UTME
D. Governor-general Prior to 1966, the system of local government in Western
Answer region was based on the three-tier structure of
Under the 1963 constitution, a bill could only become law A. native authority, division and district councils
if it was accented to by president (B) B. district, local and area councils
C. division, district and local councils
2011/32 UTME D. province, district and local councils
Under the 1963 Republican constitution, the power of Answer
judicial review was vested in the Prior to 1966, the system of local government in Western
A. Supreme Court B. parliament C. president region was based on the three-tier structure of Division,
D. the Chief Justice of the federation district and local councils. In Western Nigeria, there was
Answer the 1952 ordinance which established the three tier system.
Under the 1963 Republican constitution, the power of (C)
judicial review was vested in the Supreme Court (A)
1989/37 UTME
2006/5 (OAU, IFE) The Queen of England ceased to be the Head of State of
Which of the following courts served as the highest judicial Nigeria at
organ for Nigeria up till 1963? A. independence in October 1960
A. Supreme Court B. Federal Court of Appeal B. the attainment of self-government by the regions
C. Appellate Court D. The Privy Council C. the adoption of the Republican constitution in October
Answer 1963
The Privy Council served as the highest judicial organ for D. the inception of the presidential system in October 1979
Nigeria up till 1963 when Appeals to the Judicial Committee Answer
of the Privy Council was abolished and Supreme Court The Queen of England ceased to be the Head of State of
established as the highest court in Nigeria (D) Nigeria at the adoption of the Republican constitution in
October 1963 (C)
2016/46 UTME
In Nigeria’s First Republic, the Prime Minister was both 1993/31 UTME
the Before the collapse of Nigeria’s First Republic in year
A. Head of state and commander-in-chief of the armed 1966, the Prime Minister was both
forces A. the head of government and a law maker
B. commander-in-chief of the armed forces and party B. the head of state and commander-in-chief of the armed
leader forces
C. Head of state and party leader C. commander-in-chief of the armed forces and party
D. Head of government and a lawmaker leader
Answer D. head of state and party leader
In the First Republic of Nigeria, the prime minister was Answer
both the head of government and a law maker. Before the collapse of Nigeria’s First Republic in 1966, the
Parliamentary system was also used in Nigeria. The prime minister was both the head of government and a law
executive and the legislature were both fused in their maker because Nigeria system of government then was
functions (D) parliamentary system with collective responsibilities (A)

1992/47 UTME 2008/34 UTME

In the first republic, Nigeria was very reluctant to have Adjudication of conflict between the federal and regional
meaningful interaction with governments in the First Republic was reserved for
A. Italy B. the Soviet Union A. National Industrial Court B. Supreme Court
C. the United State of America D. Germany C. Federal Court of Appeal D. Federal High Court
Answer Answer
The United State of America refuse to license the sales of Supreme Court was reserved for adjudication of conflict
arms to the federal government, as a result, Nigerians were between the federal and regional governments in the First
reluctant to interact with the USA and turned to the Soviet Republican in Nigeria (B)
Union who supplied the federal government arms. (C).
414
1994/39 2013/29 UTME
The major innovation of the Republican constitution of 1963 Under the 1979 constitution, statutory allocation of
was that revenue to local government councils is the responsibility
A. the prime minister ceased to be Head of State of the
B. the Governor–General’s office as the representative of the A. Houses of Assembly B. National Economic Council
Queen was abolished C. Federal legislature D. Council of State
C. the cabinet was no longer responsible to the legislature Answer
D. it introduced the executive presidential system Statutory allocation of revenue to local government
E. the prime minister was nominated by the executive council council is the responsibility of the Houses of Assembly
Answer (A)
The major feature of the Republican constitution of 1963 was
that the Governor–General’s office as the representative of
2013/30 UTME
the Queen was abolished. The president replaces the Head of
State as the ceremonial head and the president of Nigeria was
Under Nigeria’s Second Republic, the Senate was under
to be indirectly elected through secret election. (B) the leadership of
A. J. S. Tarks B. Joseph Wayas C. Godwin Ume-Ezeoke
2014/2015 (UI, IBADAN) D. John Wash Parn
Which of the following statements is true about the 1963 and Answer
1979 constitutions? Joseph Wayas was the Nigerian Second Republic Senate
A. both had provisions for the office of the president President (B)
B. both had provisions for the office of a constitutional
president 1984/46 UTME
C. both provided for the offices of prime minister and To be elected president of Nigerian, the 1979 constitution
president states that one must have attained the age of
D. both had provisions for the office of an executive president A. 21 years B. 35 years C. 50 years D. 60 years
Answer Answer
The 1963 and 1979 constitutions both had provisions for the To be elected president of Nigeria, the 1979 constitution
office of a constitutional president (B) states that one must have attained the age of 35 years (B)
1998/34 UTME 1984/36 UTME
Which of the following was not established under the 1979 Which of the following was not established by the 1979
Nigeria constitution Nigerian constitution?
A. National Council on Education A. Police Service Commission
B. National Economic Council
B. National Universities Commission
C. National Security Council
C. Federal Electoral Commission
D. National Defence Council
D. National Population Commission
Answer
National Defence Council was not established under the 1979 E. National Economic Council
Nigeria constitution. The National Defence council was Answer
provided in the 1999 constitution with the president as the National Universities Commission was not established by
Chairman (D) the 1979 Nigeria constitution (B)

2004/17 UTME 1982/39 UTME

A distinguishing feature of the 1979 constitution was the In which of the following institutions does the 1979
A. introduction of a federal structure constitution of Nigeria provide for the representation of
B. introduction of unicameralism into Nigeria traditional rulers?
C. departure from the parliamentary to the presidential system A. The Senate B. National House of Chiefs
D. preservation and entrenchment of republicanism C. The Population Bureau D. Council of States
Answer E. National Economic Council
The unique feature of the 1979 constitution was the departure Answer
from the parliamentary to the presidential system of The Council of States was an institution which the 1979
government (C) constitution provided for the representation of traditional
rulers (D)
1992/34 UTME
Under the 1979 constitution, the functions of the civil 1982/42 UTME
service commission include the Under the 1979 Nigerian constitution, state electoral
A. appointment of civil service commissioners commission are to conduct
B. appointment promotion and discipline of civil servants A. gubernatorial decisions
C. fixing the salaries of civil servants B. elections into state House of Assembly
D. negotiating better conditions of service for civil servants C. local government elections
Answer E. presidential elections
The 1979 constitution, the functions of the civil service Answer
commission include appointment of civil service Under the 1979 Nigerian constitution, state electoral
commissioners commission are to conduct local government elections (C)
(A)
415
1983/36 UTME 1994/27 UTME
Which public commission was not established by the 1979 A major feature which differentiated the 1963 and 1979
Nigerian constitution? constitutions was that in the former
A. Udoji Commission B. Federal Electoral Commission A. ministers were appointed from the National Assembly
C. Public Service Commission B. ministers were appointed from outside the National
D. Public Complaints Commission Assembly
E. National Population Commission C. the prime minister was elected by the whole country
Answer D. the National Assembly comprised the senate and the
Udoji Commission was not established by the 1979 House of Assembly
Nigerian constitution (A) Answer
The man characteristics which differentiated the 1963 and
1983/44 UTME 1979 constitution was that 1963 constitution which was the
Under the 1979 Nigerian constitution, each state is allowed first republic was parliamentary system were the ministers
to elect were appointed from the National Assembly while the
A. two senators B. five senators 1979 Second republican constitution was a real federal
C. as many senators as the state can finance system (A)
D. from two or five senators depending on the population
of the state
E. ten senators 1994/30 UTME
Answer Which organ was enshrined in the 1979 constitution to
The senate under the 1979 constitution comprised of 96 protect public servants from political interference and
members with five elected from each state of the federation arbitrary dismissal?
and one from the Federal Capital Territory, Abuja. A. Public Complaints Commission
Moreover, a candidate for election to the senate must be at B. code of conduct Bureau
least 30 years old (B) C. Federal Judicial Service Commission
D. Federal Civil Service Commission
1985/28 UTME Answer
Under the 1979 Nigerian constitution, the Supreme Court The Second Republican constitution of 1979 established
judges were appointed by the the Public Complaints Commission to which grievances
A. Judicial Service Commission against public officers could be made. These provisions
B. President C. Honourable Chief Justice were designed to minimize possibilities of conflict of
D. Senate E. National Assembly interest, greed and corruption in the public service (A)
Answer
The 1979 Nigerian constitution, the Supreme Court Judges 1994/32 UTME
were appointed by the President. The Supreme Court Apart from discussing the draft of the 1979 constitution,
which consisted of the Chief Justice and 15 other Justices what was the major pre-occupation of the constituent
(B) assembly in 1978?
A. revenue allocation B. Sharia law
1988/42 UTME C. formation of political parties
Under the 1979 constitution of Nigeria, the president of the D. election of a president
federal republic could only be removed from office by Answer
A. the National Assembly B. the Senate The major pre-occupation of the constituent assembly in
C. The House of Representatives 1978 apart from the draft was Sharia law. (B)
D. a motion approved by at least two thirds of all the state
houses of assembly 1997/30 UTME
Answer Under the 1979 constitution in Nigeria, each state of the
Under the 1979 constitution of Nigeria, the president of the federation
federal republic could only be removed from office by the A. had a bicameral legislature
National Assembly through impeachment procedure (A) B. had equal legislators in the House of Representatives
C. had an equal number of Senators
1988/37 UTME D. was provided with a presidential liaison officer
A common provision in the 1963 and 1979 constitution is Answer
the The 1979 constitution in Nigeria, each state of the
A. registration of political parties by FEDECO federation had an equal number of senators (C)
B. financing of local governments by the federal
government 2014/28 UTME
C. Judicial Service Commission The division of powers between the federal and regional
D. bicameral legislature for the central government governments into exclusive, concurrent and residual lists
Answer A. 1979 constitution B. 1999 constitution
There was a common feature in the 1963 and 1970 C. independence constitution D. Republican constitution
constitution which was the bicameral legislature for the Answer
central government (D) The 1979 constitution entrenched the division of powers
between the federal, regional and local government (A)
416
1990/26 UTME 1999/30 UTME
During the second republic, some local government A feature common to the 1963, 1979 and 1989 constitution of
councils were created by Nigeria was that they provided for a
A. state governments B. the federal government A. republican system B. prime minister
C. the National Assembly D the judiciary C. ceremonial head of state
Answer D. president as head of government
During the second republic, some local government Answer
councils were created by the state governments (A) The common feature of the 1963, 1979 and 1989 Nigeria
constitution was the provision of the Republican system of
government (A)
1990/41 UTME
In which of the following states was the governor
1994/27 UTME
impeached during the second republic? A major feature which differentiated the 1963 and 1979
A. Borno B. Bendel C. Kaduna D. Anambra constitutions was that in the former
Answer A. ministers were appointed from the National Assembly
Kaduna state elected governor Abdulkadir Balarabe Musa B. ministers were appointed from outside the National
was impeached from the office on 23, June 1981 (C) Assembly
C. the prime ministers was elected by the whole country
1982/33 UTME D. the National Assembly comprised the senate and the house
The Nigerian 1979 constitution gives the right to vote to of assembly
A. every resident alien in Nigeria Answer
B. every Nigerian child A major feature which differentiated the 1963 and 1979
C. all secondary school children constitutions was that in the former, ministers were appointed
D. all Nigerians below the age of seventeen from the National Assembly (A)
E. all Nigerians of eighteen years and above
Answer 2015/18 UTME
The 1979 second republic constitution gives the right to A major innovation of the 1979 constitution was the
vote for all Nigerians of eighteen years and above (E) A. increase in constitutional power of elected officials
B. creation of more states
2009/4 UTME C. prohibition of cross carpeting
In the second republic, the total membership of each state D. introduction of presidential system
Answer
House of Assembly was determined by
The main innovation of the 1979 constitution was the
A. electoral commission B. political parties
introduction of presidential system (D)
C. constitution D. electorate
Answer 2002/34
The total membership of each House of Assembly was The first Nigerian constitution to provide for the fundamental
determined by the constitution during the second Republic objective and directive principles of state policy was the
(C) A. 1999 constitution B. 1989 constitution
C. 1960 constitution D 1979 constitution
1998/25 UTME Answer
In 1879, four Britain companies were merged to form the The 1979 second republic Nigerian constitution was the first
United African company by Nigerian constitution to provide for the fundamental objective
A. Frederick Lugard B. John Beecraft and directive principles of state policy (D)
C. Tubman Goldies D. Macgregor Laird
Answer 1991/31
In 1979, four Britain companies were merged to form the The state legislatures of the Second Republic in Nigeria had
united African company by Tubman Goldies (C) the following except a
A. speaker B. senate leader C. deputy speaker
1992/29 UTME D. clerk of the house
The constituent Assembly of 1978 had the primary Answer
responsibility of The second republic in Nigeria, the state legislatures does not
A. drafting a constitution for the second republic have senate leader. But the state legislatures have speaker,
deputy speaker and clerk of the house (B)
B. deliberating on, debating and amending the draft
constitution
2014/2015/61 (NDU, BAYELSA)
C. passing the constitution into law The state legislature in the Second Republic of Nigeria was
D. conducting a referendum on the draft constitution called the
Answer A. National Assembly B. legislative council
The 1978 constituent Assembly had the primary functions C. traditional council D. House of Assembly
of deliberating, debating and amending the drafted E. House of Representative
constitution (B) Answer
The State legislature in the Second Republic of Nigeria was
called the House of Assembly (D)

417
1992/8 B. State two ways by which the president could be removed
Highlight the functions of the president in the 1979 from office according to the constitution.
constitution of Nigeria. 1. By impeachment: The president could be removed
Answer from office if the motion of impeachment is duly
1. He signs (assents) bills passed by the National passed by the two–Houses and supported by two–
Assembly. third majority of the two Houses.
2. He receives representatives of other countries to 2. Permanent incapacity of president: The president
Nigeria. may cease to be the Head of State if the two – third
3. The president acts as the official representative of majority of executive support his medical report of
incapability to discharge his responsibilities.
Nigeria at international conferences.
3. By death.
4. He appoints ministers subject to the confirmation of
the National Assembly.
1987/34 UTME
5. The president also appoints permanent secretaries, The fundamental objectives and directive principles of state
ambassadors, high commissioners, service chief, etc. policy in the 1979 constitution do not include
6. The president addresses the joint meeting of the A. democracy and social justice
National Assembly. B. federal character and inequality
7. He prepares the annual budget. C. concentration of wealth and provision of maximum
8. He initiates moves on revenue allocation. welfare
9. He is the commander–in–chief of the Nigerian Armed D. indiscipline
Forces. Answer
10. He can declare a state of emergency when the country The fundamental objectives and directive principles of state
is at war or appears to be in imminent danger or policy in the 1979 constitution do not include federal
invasion or involvement in war, etc. character and inequality (B)
11. The president initiates and executes policies.
12. He maintains law and order. 1996/50 UTME
13. The exercise of prerogative of mercy, i.e. he pardons In the 1979 constitution of Nigeria, the National Assembly
any citizen charged and convicted of crime and was made up of
undergoing punishment. A. the local council and the federal legislators
B. elected and unelected representatives
2011/8 Neco C. the two Houses of Assembly
A. Highlight four features of the 1979 Republican D. both the state and federal Houses of Assembly
E. the House of Chiefs and elected representatives
constitution.
Answer
Answer
The 1979 constitution of Nigeria established a bicameral
1. It introduced a presidential system of legislative House of Representatives and 450 members and
government. the senate, as members. (C)
2. The president was elected with the vice
president by the whole nation. 1990/49 Nov
3. The constitution was the supreme law of the The 1979 constitution of Nigeria
land. A. provided for a head government
4. Bicameral legislature was introduced and it was B. introduced the participation of women in politics
made up of House of Representatives and the C. provided for a head of state who is also the head of
Senate. government
5. Unicameral legislature operated in the states. D. provided for House of Chiefs
6. The principle of separation of powers and E. made all men equal before the law
checks and balance was enshrined in the Answer
constitution. The 1979 constitution adopted an executive presidential
7. The method of amendment of the constitution system that is the president is both Head of State and Head of
was rigid. government. (C)
8. It made provisions for the entrenchment of
fundamental human rights. 1988/22
9. The constitution listed the local government The following independence of Nigeria was in 1945 with the
areas and their functions. coming to power in British of
A. conservative party B. Tory party C. liberal party D.
10. The constitution explicitly addressed itself to
labour party E. democratic party
political parties, their functions and
Answer – D
administrations. An important factor that facilitated the growth of African
11. The Chief Justice, Supreme Court judges and nationalism, was the role of the labour Party in Britain after
High Court Judges were appointed by the 1945. The Second World War led to the death, destruction of
president with the approval of the senate. buildings and other property. As a result, the conservative
12. The president and governors were to hold office party of Winston Churchill was replaced by the Labour Party
for a fixed term of four years to a maximum of led by Clement Atlee. The Labour Party was determined to
two tenures. grant independence to British colonies, hence the rise of
13. It provided for the acquisition of citizenship. African Nationalism.

418
1991/26 10. Who had the right to impeach the governor under the
By the 1979 constitution, the president has all the 1999 constitution of Nigeria? The
following powers except A. Chief Executive of the state
A. signing of bills into law B. control the civil service B. Speaker of the House
C. preparation and presentation of annual budget C. State House of Assembly
D. swearing in of a new president D. State Court of Appeal E. Clerk of the House
E. proclamation of a state of emergency 11. In 1959 elections, the NPC political party won, how
Answer many seats
The 1979 constitution, the president has all the following A. 203 B. 105 C. 142 D. 109 E. 390
powers except swearing in of a new president. (D) 12. Which constitution was amended for independence
constitution in Nigeria?
1990/17 Nov A. Richard constitution B. Lyttleton constitution
Under the 1979 Nigerian constitution, each state is allowed C. Macpherson constitution
to elect D. Republican constitution E. Clifford constitution
A. two senators B. five senators 13. The first opposition leader in the parliament was
C. as many senators as the state could finance A. Nnamdi Azikiwe B. Sarduna of Sokoto
D. from two to five senators, depending on the population C. Aminu Kano D. Obafemi Awolowo
of the state E. Tafawa Balewa
E. ten senators 14. Who was the first Nigerian that headed the country?
Answer A. Ernest Shonekan B. Olusegun Obasanjo
Every state elects five senators to represent their state in C. Obafemi Awolowo D. Nnamdi Azikiwe
National Assembly, which was stipulated by 1979 E. Tafawa Balewa
constitution. (B) 15. The premier was the
A. head of government B. head of region
REVISION EXERCISES C. head of village D. head of states
1. The predominant influence of Northern Nigeria in the E. president
first Republic violated the federal principle of 16. The Queen of England was the _____ in Nigeria after
A. effective cooperation among the constituent units independence.
B. geographical contiguity C. unity A. head of government B. head of state
D. absence of marked equalities among the C. head of ministries D. president
component units E. local autonomy E. head of regions
2. The declaration of a state of emergency in Western 17. Who was the military Head of state in Nigeria in
Nigeria was protected by the constitution of 1979?
A. 1954 B. 1951 C. 1960 D. 1963 E. 1948 A. Rotimi Williams B. Ibrahim Babangida
3. The state legislature in the second Republic of Nigeria C. Sani Abacha D. Olusegun Obasanjo
was called the E. Abdusallam Abubakar
A. National Assembly B. legislative council 18. The military took over government on 31st July, 1983
C. Traditional council D. House of Assembly from civilian president called
E. House of Representatives A. Shehu Shagari B. Shonekan Ernest
4. The number of the elected members of the 1988 C. Goodluck Jonathan D. Umaru Yar’Adua
constituent assembly was E. Muhammadu Buhari
A. 201 B. 280 C. 425 D. 450 E. 560 19. Highlight five functions of the president in the 1989
5. Nigeria became a federation of four regions in constitution of Nigeria.
A. 1954 B. 1960 C. 1963 D. 1967 E. 1975 20. Explain the background of independence constitution
6. Under the Nigerian constitution of 1979 of 1960.
representation in the lower house was based on 21. Discuss Republic constitution of 1989.
A. equality of states 22. State five demerits of second Republic constitution.
B. the geographical size of each state 23. Enumerate six features of 1989 constitution in Nigeria.
C. the population of each state 24. Explain the weakness of third Republic constitution
D. number of local government in each state in of 1989.
7. The Republican constitution of 1963 came into force 25. Discuss the background of 1989 constitution in Nigeria.
on 26. Mention seven features of independence constitution.
A. January 1st B. July 29th 27. By comparison, give the similarities and differences
C. October 1st D. December 31st between the 1960 and 1963 constitution.
8. Who was the head of state of Nigeria at independence 28. State five differences between 1963 and 1979
in 1960? constitution.
A. The Queen of England B. Dr. Nnamdi Azikiwe 29. Enumerate eight political instability in Nigeria after
C. Alhaji Abubakar Tafawa Balewa independence.
D. Chief Obafemi Awolowo
9. The commission that looked into the agitations of the
minority ethnic groups was headed by
A. Louis Chicks B. Sir Henry Willink
C. Jeremy Raisman D. Chief Obafemi Awolowo
419
3. Amendment of the Constitution: The National
Chapter Thirty One Assembly could alter a section or sections of the
constitution after fulfilling certain conditions.
4. The executive president: The executive president in
1999 CONSTITUTION OF NIGERIA
the fourth republican constitution of Nigeria 1999,
presidential system of government was adopted. The
THE FOURTH REPUBLIC OF 1999 executive president has fused functions of the Head of
The latest constitution of Nigeria that was created to rule State and government.
our country was accepted in 1999. This document became a. Term of Office: The president has four years of a term.
the fourth in Nigerian history to appear in the law field. He can only stay in the office for only two terms or
However, the 1999 constitution is largely a re-creation of tenures, amounting to eight years in office, if he
the second Republic constitution of 1979 with the features successfully wins both terms (tenure) of each 4 years.
of an American presidential system. b. Requirements: The office of the president needs the
following requirements:
In 1994, the military administration of General Sani i. The person must be at least 35 years of age.
Abacha set up and inaugurated a constitutional conference. ii. The person must be a citizen of Nigeria by birth.
The members of the constitutional conference were given 5. Vice President: The vice president office is the second
the duty of producing a constitution for Nigeria. The draft in command in the country.
that was produced in 1995 was not adopted because of one 6. Sovereign Immunity: The president and his vice has
reason or the other. It was the sudden death of the Head of immunity of office according to section 308 of the 1999
State General Sani Abacha on 8th June, 1998 that probably constitution.
had the greatest effect and form of the 1999 constitution. 7. Commander–in–chief of Armed forces: The president
is the commander – in – chief of Armed forces of the
As a result of the death of General Abacha, a new military
Federal Republic of Nigeria. The constitution also made
government headed by General Abdusalami Abubakar was
provision for the Nigerian Armed forces.
immediately sworn in as Head of State in mid 1998.
8. Bicameral Legislature at the Centre: A bicameral
legislature was established in 1999 constitution with two
General Abdulsalami Abubakar saw the need for a new Houses: House of Representatives with 360 members
constitution. The new constitution would help in the and Senate 109. The both houses are called the National
transfer of power from the military to civilians. As a result, Assembly (NASS). The states have a unicameral
General Abubakar set up the Constitution Debate Co- legislature each.
ordinating Committee (CDCC) to look into the 1995 draft a. Senate: The senate is headed by an elected president
constitution. The committee was led by Justice Niki Tobi. and deputy president among the senators in the senate.
The committee was given two months to turn in its report. b. Representatives: The house of Representatives has an
The committee divided the country into zones and called elected speaker and Deputy Speaker as the head of the
for memoranda. It organized debates, had special hearings Honourables.
and travelled to selected places to listen to views of people. c. The National Assembly has four years and could be re –
The committee, after all these, produced a draft which the elected as members of senate and house of
military administration approved after making some Representatives as many time as possible.
amendments. 9. Executive Governors of Each State: The Elected
Through Decree No 24 of May 5, 1999, the administration Governor for each state has a term of four years and can
of General Abubakar introduced the constitution. The be re-elected for another four years that’s eight years in
constitution became known as the constitution of the office, given a maximum of two terms. The Governor
Federal Republic of Nigeria, 1999. has a Deputy Governor that assists him in day to day
administrative running of the state.
10. Impeachment: Based on the 1999 constitution, the
Features of the Fourth Republic Constitution of 1999
elected political leaders that can be impeached are
1. Preamble: The constitution contains an introduction.
president, vice-president, governors and their deputy’s
The introduction stated the reasons why the etc. The National Assembly can impeach the president
constitution was introduced. The following reasons and vice-president while the State House of Assembly
were given: can impeach the Governor and his Deputy. This
i. To live in unity and harmony as a sovereign happens when they are guilty of gross constitutional
country under God. misconduct in the performance of their functions.
ii. To promote inter-African solidarity, world peace, 11. The Court: The constitution allows for the existence of
international co-operation and understanding. federal and state courts. The federal courts are the
iii. To promote good government and welfare of all Supreme Court; the Supreme Court is the highest court
persons in the country on the issues of freedom, in Nigeria. This can be found in chapter VII of the 1999
equality and justice. constitution of the Federal Republic of Nigeria. Also, we
iv. To consolidate the unity of Nigerians. have the Court of Appeal of Abuja and the Sharia and
2. Supremacy of the Constitution: This constitution is Customary Court of Appeal of Abuja. At the state level,
the most important set of laws in the country. It is we have the High Court of the State, Sharia Court of
stated that both the rulers and the ruled must act Appeal, Customary Court of Appeal, Magistrate Court,
according to the provisions of this constitution Customary and Sharia Courts. The powers and
functions, appointment and removal of judicial staff are
also stated.

420
12. Council of State: The council of state is an organ of the Powers of the National Assembly in the 1999
Nigeria government. Constitution
13. Freedom of Religion: The 1999 constitution guarantees
freedom of religion. The constitution also recognizes
two religion – Christianity and Islam.
14. Ministers’ Nomination and Appointment: The
president nominates ministers while the National
Assembly approves it.
15. Fundamental human right: Fundamental human right
was entrenched in the constitution.
16. Federal character: Federal character was also
introduced in political appointment of officers in the
country, so that there would be no restriction to a
specific ethnic group. The federal character spread
round political opportunities to all citizens (minorities).
17. Legislative Powers: The constitution shares legislative
powers between the state and local government. The Nigerian National Assembly
18. Fundamental Objectives and Directives Principles: It
is the duty of every organ of government to observe and 1. Law Making: The national assembly is constitutional
apply the provisions of the constitution. There are given the mandate to make laws for the peace and good
political, economic, social, educational, foreign policy government of the country. They make the laws
and environmental objectives of the government. The
through the passage of bills. Bills could originate from
government was mandated to protect, preserve and
either the Senate or the House of Representatives.
promote Nigerian cultures.
19. Citizenship: It states the various ways, a person could When they are passed in each of these houses, they are
become a citizen of Nigeria. These are by birth, by assented to by the president of the Federal Republic of
registration and by naturalization. The constitution did Nigeria. The bills assented to are called Acts of the
not approve of dual citizenship. National Assembly.
20. Duties of citizens: The constitution identifies the 2. Constitutional amendment: The National Assembly
various duties of the citizens. These were: has the authority of altering or amending the
- Prompt declaration of income and payment of taxes. constitution of the country.
- To assist lawful agencies in the maintenance of law 3. Power to investigate: It has power to conduct
and order. investigation on any person, government department
- To abide by the constitution, respect its ideals, its or ministry to ascertain how funds approved by the
institutions and national symbols. National Assembly are spent. This is done so as to
- To enhance the power, prestige and good name of expose corruption, inefficiency or waste of the
Nigeria, defend Nigeria and render national service execution or administration of laws.
when required. 4. State of emergency: The National Assembly approves
- To respect the dignity and right of other citizens. a state of emergency declared by the President. The
- To make positive and useful contribution to the President can only do so when the federation is at war,
advancement, progress and well-being of the when the country is being invaded by another country
community where the citizens reside. or when there is actual breakdown of law and order in
21. Renunciation of Citizenship: The citizens were the country or any state of the federation.
given the rights to renounce their citizenship of 5. Raising and spending of money: The National
Nigeria. Assembly controls public funds. It decides how the
22. Separation of Power: The constitution of 1999 also President raises and spends public money.
stipulated the provision of separation of powers 6. State creation: When the procedures for state creation
among the three organs of government – executive, have been fulfilled, the members of the Senate and the
legislative and judiciary. House of Representative will approve the demand. The
23. Democratic rule: The constitution restores approval is made when two-thirds majority of the
democratic rule in Nigeria. Senate and House of Representative vote in favour of
24. States Creation: The procedures for states creation the demand.
were identified. The request for state creation must be 7. Revenue allocation: It make laws on a system of
supported through a referendum by at least two-thirds revenue allocation between the federation and the
majority of the people of the area where the demand states, among the states, between the states and local
for state creation is from. Secondly, more than a half government councils. It also determines the system of
of the 36 states of the federation must support the revenue allocation among the local government
referendum of the people. Thirdly, local government councils in the states.
councils in the area must approve the proposal. 8. Important appointments: The National Assembly
Finally, two-thirds majority of members of the Senate approves important appointments made by the
and the House of Representatives must approve of the president. Some of the people appointed by the
demand. president are the Secretary to the government of the
Federation and all members of Federal Executive
bodies.
421
9. Approves treaties: A treaty is an agreement entered Assembly. The person must be convicted by a Judicial
into by the government of a state and those of other Commission of inquiry, and Administrative panel of
states. Nigerian government has entered into many inquiry or a tribunal set up according to the laws of the
treaties with many governments of the world. These country for the purposes.
treaties must be approved by the National Assembly
before the president could implement them. Factors that disqualify a person from contesting for
10. Check on government organs: The National Presidency
Assembly checks, supervises and controls the 1. Two previous elections: When a person has been
executive and the judiciary. When this duty of the elected president of the Federal Republic of Nigeria in
National Assembly is effectively done, human rights two previous elections, he cannot contest again. For
and the rule of law are guaranteed. example, Chief Olusegun Obasanjo was elected
11. Impeachment: The National Assembly has the power president 1999 and 2003. As a result, he cannot contest
to remove the president or vice president before his again for the same post.
tenure ends. This happens when the president or Vice 2. Lunatic: When a person is a lunatic or declared to be
president is guilty of gross constitutional misconduct of unsound mind, he cannot contest for an elective
in the performance of the functions of his office. post.
12. Approval of policies: Government policies must be 3. Death Sentence: when a death sentence is imposed on
approved by the National Assembly. A good example a person by a law court or tribunal in Nigeria, he
of such policies is the increase of the value added tax cannot be allowed to contest for presidency. When a
(VAT). The proposal must be approved by the person is imprisoned or fined for any offence involving
members of the Senate and House of Representative. dishonesty or fraud he/she is disqualified to contest for
the post of president in the country.
Factors that can lead to the disqualification from the 4. Code of Conduct: There is a code of conduct for
membership of National Assembly public officers in the country. When the person who
1. Membership of another country: Any citizen of wants to contest for the office of president is convicted
Nigeria who has voluntarily acquired the citizenship of and sentenced to prison because of dishonesty by the
another country is not qualified to be member of either code of conduct Tribunal is not qualified to contest.
the Senate or the House of Representatives. This also The conviction must be within a period of less than ten
applies to a citizen of Nigeria who declares allegiance years before the date of that election.
to another country. He or she cannot be allowed to be 5. Bankrupt person: A person who is declared bankrupt
a member of the National Assembly even if he wins an by a law court in Nigeria cannot stand for election for
election. the post of president.
2. Lunatic person: A lunatic citizen (a mad person) is 6. Inability to resign: A public or civil servant within the
not qualified to be a member of the National Assembly country is expected to resign from his post at least 30
even if such a person wins an election. This is so days before the date of the election. If he fails to do so,
because he/she has an unsound mind. He cannot he cannot contest for any elective post in the country.
understand issues at stake and cannot reason very well. 7. Secret society: People are not allowed by the
3. Sentence to death: A citizen that has death sentence constitution to become members of secret societies.
imposed on him by a court of law or tribunal in Nigeria When this happens, such people are not allowed to
cannot contest for an election. A person that is contest for elective posts in the country.
imprisoned or fined for an offence involving 8. Indicted for fraud: When a person embezzles money
dishonesty or fraud by a court is not qualified to be in or commits a crime by deceiving people in order to
the legislature. gain something such as money, he cannot contest for
4. Undischarged bankrupt: A person is bankrupt when election. Before, this is done, he must be found guilty
he does not have enough money to pay for what he by a law court or a tribunal.
owes. He has to be declared bankrupt by a law court. 9. Forged certificate: When a candidate for an election
Such a person is not qualified to contest for election presents a forged certificate to the independent
into the Nigerian legislature. National Electoral Commission and it is discovered to
5. Non resignation: A person who works in the civil be so. That candidate cannot be allowed to contest for
service or public corporation in the country but fails to the election.
resign, withdraw or retire from such employment thirty
days before the date of election is not qualified to SIMILARITIES AND DIFFERENCES OF THE 1989
contest. Even if he contests and wins, he cannot be AND 1999 CONSTITUTION
allowed to be a member of the National Assembly. Similarities of the 1989 and 1999 Constitutions of
6. Member of secret society: Members of secret Nigeria
societies are not qualified to be members of the 1. Made by Military: The two constitutions were
National Assembly. A secret society is an organization introduced into the country by the military
in which its membership and activities are not open to government. The 1989 constitution was produced by
the general public. Such an organization is banned by General Ibrahim Babangida’s administration. The
the government. 1999 constitution was produced by General
7. Convicted of fraud: A person that is convicted of Abdusalam Abubakar’s administration.
embezzlement of funds or has committed a financial
fraud is not qualified to be a member of the national
422
2. Supremacy of constitution: The two constitutions Representatives. In the 1999 constitution, the
were supreme. They were the most important laws in minimum ages for these posts differed. For example,
the country. They were superior to any law made by that of the president is forty years, governors and
the National Assembly and the State houses of senators is thirty-five years while that of a member of
Assembly. Every person and group of persons must the House of Representatives is thirty years.
operate according to the provisions of these 3. Composition of House of Representatives: The 1989
constitutions. Any law made by the National constitution stated that the House of Representatives
Assembly, state houses of Assembly and local should consist of four hundred and fifty three
government councils that went against any provision members. In the 1999 constitution, the House of
of these constitutions was declared null and void by the Representatives had three hundred and sixty members
law court. that represent constituencies.
3. Fundamental Objectives: The constitutions 4. Membership of Political Parties: The 1999
contained fundamental objectives and directive constitution clearly states that for a person to be
principles of state policy. qualified for election to the office of president or
4. Citizenship: They all contain the various types of governor, he must be a member of a political party. He
citizenship. These are by birth, by registration, and by must also be sponsored by that political party. This
naturalization. The constitutions frown at dual provision does not exist in the 1989 constitution of the
citizenship. Federal Republic of Nigeria.
5. Human Rights: Chapter 4 of the two constitutions 5. Attorney-General: The 1989 constitution clearly
contained fundamental human rights. indicated that a person who would perform the
6. The legislature: The two constitutions recognized the functions of the Attorney General of the federation
National Assembly as the highest law making body in must be a legal practitioner in Nigeria for a period of
the country. The National Assembly is made up of the not less than fifteen years. It is ten years in the 1999
Senate (Upper House) and the House of constitution.
Representatives (Lower House). The composition, 6. Electoral Commission: The 1999 constitution made
functions, powers and limitations are also stated. provision for the existence of a state Independent
7. The Executive: The federal executive was headed by Electoral Commission. The commission is charged
an executive president. At the state level, an executive with the duty of conducting elections into the local
governor headed the state executive. The qualification government councils of the state. This provision is
for election, tenure of office, removal process, powers missing in the 1989 constitution.
and functions were identified in these constitutions. 7. Justices of Supreme Court: The 1989 constitution of
8. The Judiciary: The establishment, powers and the Federal Republic of Nigeria stated that the number of
functions of the courts at both the federal and state justices of the Supreme Court shall not be more than
levels were highlighted in these constitutions. The fifteen. The Federal Court of Appeal has the same
highest court in the country is the Supreme Court. The number of justices. The constitution also stated that three
various types of courts and their functions in the of these justices must be learned in Islamic law and
country are also listed. another three learned in customary law. This provision
9. Recall: Recall is provided for in these constitutions. A differed greatly from that of the 1999 constitution. The
member of the Senate, House of Representatives or the number of justices provided for the Supreme Court is
twenty-one and forty-nine for the Federal Court of
State House of Assembly may be recalled by the
Appeal.
chairman of the electoral commission of the country.
8. Status of Abuja: Abuja is the federal capital territory. In
This could be due to a petition signed by more than the 1989 constitution, Abuja would be headed by a
one-half of registered voters in that member’s mayor. The territory had four area councils. The 1999
constituency. The reason for the recall must be stated constitution stated that the territory would be headed by
by the petitioners. The recall processes are listed out in a minister. The territory would comprise six area
these constitutions. councils.
10. Executive bodies: Executive bodies are identified at 9. Number of states: The 1989 constitution identified
the federal and state levels in the two constitutions. twenty-one states while that of 1999 listed out thirty-six
states.
Differences between the 1989 and 1999 Constitutions of 10. Number of Local Governments: The 1989 constitution
Nigeria stated that Nigeria would have four hundred and forty-
1. Environmental objectives: The 1989 constitution did nine local government areas. The 1999 constitution listed
not contain the environmental objectives of the out seven hundred and seventy-four local government
country. These were clearly stated in the 1999 areas.
constitution. The provision states that the state shall
protect and improve the environment. This is the first Merits of the 1999 Constitution
time this objective is contained in the constitution of 1. Supremacy of the Constitution: The constitution
the federal republic of Nigeria. made the supremacy of the constitution to be
2. Age for holding office: The two constitutions have respected by all Nigerians.
different minimum ages for holding public offices. In 2. Supreme Court: Supreme Court retained the power
the 1989 constitution, it is thirty-five for the post of the of judicial review, that’s the power to check the
president, thirty years for the post of the governor and excesses of unconstitutional activities of other arms
senator. It is twenty-five for a member of the House of of government.
423
3. Separation of powers: Separation of powers was 2022/21 Neco
also introduced in the constitution with well-defined The officer who keeps the minutes of proceedings in the
functions of each organ with no interference from House of Representative is the
other organs of government. A. Chief Whip B. Clerk C. Majority leader D. Minority
4. Popularly Elected: Direct election of the executive leader E. Speaker
president, governors of states by the people. These Answer
successful candidates are the choice of the people The Clerk is the officer who keeps the minutes of
hence they are popularly elected. proceedings in the House of Representative (B)
5. Fixed term of Office: Fixed term or tenure of office
was also introduced in the constitution. 2002/36 UTME
6. Fundamental Human Rights: The Fundamental Under the 1999 constitution of Nigeria, the power to create
human rights entrenched into the constitution were local governments is vested in the
respected and guaranteed A. office of the deputy governor B. national assembly
7. Federal character: The Federal character C. presidency D. state assembly
commission was also established for the appointment Answer
of political offices to ensure even representatives The 1999 constitution of Nigeria made provision and
from different states hence curtailing any form of vested power of creation of local government in the hands
marginalization. of the state assembly (D)

2006/11 Neco 2004/21 UTME

A. Explain the meaning of federal character in Nigeria? Under the 1999 constitution, the power to declare war is
Federal character refers to distribution of amenities vested in the
and resources/appointment based on quota system to A. National Security Council B. legislature
be applied in the three tiers of government in the C. Executive D. National Council of States
country e.g. political appointment, location of unity Answer
secondary schools, board, admission into tertiary The executive was vested with power to declare war under
institutions, and location of iron/steel mills. the 1999 constitution (C)
B. State three factors responsible for the introduction of
the concept of federal character in Nigeria. 2003/29 UTME
1. Appointment to promote unity, ensure stability The most important challenge facing the fourth republic is
and sense of belonging. A. the need to develop Nigeria culturally
2. There is disparity in education political and B. the successful conduct of the 2003 elections
economic development in Nigeria. C. how to develop Nigeria’s social institutions
3. There is discrimination on the basis of education, D. how to deal with the military
religion, ethnic affinity. Answer
4. Unhealthy struggle for a lion’s share of the The most important challenge/problem facing the fourth
national cake. republic was the successful conduct of the 2003 elections
5. Fear of domination of minority groups. (B)
6. Diversity of religion, ethnic size, ethnic values,
education, economic, resources, etc. 2022/16 Neco
The Nigerian Senate is currently undergoing its ____
DEMERITS OF THE 1999 CONSTITUTION session.
1. Expensive to Operate: The constitution operates a A. 5th B. 6th C. 7th D. 8th E. 9th
presidential system of government with Answer
comprehensive duplication of political functions, The Nigerian Senate is currently undergoing its 9th
thereby making it too expensive and costly to run. session. The 9th assembly was inaugurated on June 11,
2. Impeachment: The impeachment process is always 2019 and it will run its course until June 11, 2023. It has
abused by the law-makers. They can use it to 109 members and the Senate president is Sen. Ahmed
victimize a political opponent. Ibrahim Lawan with his deputy being Sen. Ovie Omo–
3. Bottlenecks: Separation of powers could result to Agege.
delay in the implementation or carrying out of
government programmes. REVISION EXERCISES
4. Immunity Clause: The executive can refuse to 1. Explain the Fourth Republic constitution of 1999 in
honour the judgment of the Supreme Court because Nigeria.
of the sovereign immunity it has. 2. State five merits and demerits of the 1999 constitution
5. Power Concentration: The constitution fused in Nigeria.
powers the executive president, as both the head of
state and government, made the president to have too
much power and authority.

424
The foundation of Nigerian federalism could be traced to the
Chapter Thirty Two Richards Constitution of 1946 which divided the country into
three regions of North, West and East. The regions were made
dependent upon the colonial authorities for martial law,
FEDERALISM IN NIGERIA
manpower and management of resources. This was why Sir
Arthur Richards was regarded as the father of regionalism in
THE ORIGIN OF FEDERALISM Nigeria.
Nigeria is a federation comprising thirty-six (36) states.
Nigeria adopted federalism as a political arrangement of The Macpherson Constitution of 1957 was a blend of unitary
sharing powers amongst the various levels of government. and confederal features. It made provisions for a quasi-federal
Professor K.C. Wheare was the exponent of federalism. system of government. It improved on the Richard’s
Federalism is a political arrangement in which there is constitution by creating state House of Representatives with
division of power between two major levels of government the powers to make laws for the regions. Federalism is
in a state, that is, the central government and its coordinate identified with power sharing among the federal (centre) and
units (state/regional governments). Sovereignty is component units (regional). Macpherson constitution of 1951
therefore shared between the central government (federal was in-lined with the ideas of federalism. It was the Lyttleton
government, in the case of Nigeria) and the component Constitution of 1954 that established a true federal form of
states. The central government and its coordinate units are government in Nigeria by clearly sharing legislative powers
legally supreme within their spheres of jurisdiction and between the central and the regional government in Nigeria.
competence. The philosophy of federalism is unity in It was as a result of the 1953 London constitutional
diversity. It is usually adopted in large states with cultural conference where it was decided that Nigeria should be made
and ethnic diversities. a federal state. In 1954, Nigeria practiced only two tiers of
government, the federal (centre) and the component states
(regional). The two tiers of government had their powers
shared by the constitution through legislative lists, the
exclusive legislative list is for federal (centre), the concurrent
for the federal and regional while the residual legislative list
functions went to the regions. Nigerians such as Herbert
Macaulay, Ernest Ikoli, Sir Ahmadu Bello, Tafawa Balewa,
Chief Obafemi Awolowo, Dr. Nnamdi Azikiwe, etc. took part
in the various constitutional conferences both at home and
abroad to determine the structure of government that was best
for the Nigerian society.

Factors that aided the Formation of Nigerian

Federalism
The evolution of Nigerian federalism could be traced to the
following factors:
1. British colonial Policy: The Nigerian federal
arrangement emerged out of her colonization by Britain.
The Nigerian Map showing each states
Britain imposed the federal system in order to maintain a
neo-colonial control of the country even after
The Nigerian federalism was the brainchild of colonial British
independence. It was a deliberate decision by the British
government. At the beginning, Britain administered Nigeria
to keep the federating units as apart as possible so as to
through the indirect rule policy by dividing the country into
meddle in the internal affairs of Nigeria to the economic
two parts: Northern and Southern Nigeria. In 1914, British
and political benefit of Britain. It is the desire of Britain
colonial government, under the leadership of Frederick Lord
as a former colonial master to continue to maintain a post-
Lugard, amalgamated the two parts under one single
colonial influence on Nigeria.
administration. The amalgamation was purely an act of
2. Similarity in political experience: The bond of unity
economic and administrative convenience for the colonial
among the diverse ethnic groups was the common system
masters. It was not intended for nation building. However, in
of government. Britain governed Nigeria for many years
1922, the colonial administration decided to set up a
before the regions combined to form a true federation in
legislative council which only functioned for the Southern
1954. The regions had a common experience of the
province. It was in 1939 that Bernard Bourdillion, the then
indirect rule policy introduced by Sir Lord Lugard. In
Governor-General, initiated the foundation of federalism in
1946, the British Colonial Administration created a
Nigeria by creating three provinces of North, West and East.
quasi-federal system with the introduction of Richards
The unified departments included medicine, education, police
Constitution. The Constitution established three regions:
and prisons. Each of the West and East provinces was under
North, West and East, and each had a regional legislative
a Chief Commissioner with headquarters in Ibadan and
council. The Macpherson Constriction further reinforced
Enugu respectively. The Northern Province was under the
the policy of federalism. At Independence, Nigeria
control of a Governor. The legislative Acts were only
adopted a federal system of government. The 1960
applicable to the Southern part, while the Northern Nigeria
Constitution provided for division of powers between the
was ruled through proclamations made by the Northern
central (federal) government and the regional
Governor. The Governor-General, Lord Lugard, was the only
governments on the basis of exclusive, concurrent and
bond.
residual powers.

425
3. The role of nationalist leaders: Nationalists like Dr. 1995/36
Nnamdi Azikiwe and Chief Obafemi Awolowo The 1954 constitution of Nigeria made the country a true
advocated federalism at various constitutional federation because it provided for
conferences. The 1957 and 1958 constitutional A. the abolition of representation of the white officials
conferences sanctioned a federal structure with a B. the election of all the members of parliament
bicameral legislature both at the central and regional C. a division of functions between the centre and the
levels. regions
4. Geographical expanse of Nigeria: A federation must D. the post of a prime minister at the centre
be a country that is geographically big in size. Nigeria E. the separation of Lagos from the Western region
is too large and diverse to be ruled effectively from one Answer
centre without regional governments. Nigeria occupies The 1954 constitution of Nigeria made a stipulation of the
an acre of 913,072.64 sq. km which suits a federal division of functions between the centre and the regions
union. through legislative lists functions. The division of
5. Cultural diversity: Nigeria is not a homogenous functions made the country a true federation. (C)
society. Nigeria composes of totally independent
kingdoms, empires and autonomous communities. It is 1994/41
too culturally diverse to be administered from one Nigeria became a federation as a result of the promulgation
centre. There are over 250 ethnic nationalities in of the constitution of
Nigeria. The major ethnic groups are the Yoruba, A. 1922 B. 1946 C. 1951 D. 1954 E. 1963
Hausa/Fulani and Igbo, and there are other smaller Answer - (D)
ethnic groups. Federalism was therefore adopted to
allay the fear of domination by the major ethnic 1994/42
groups. The existence of the exclusive, residual and concurrent
6. Geographical contiguity: The component regions are legislative lists means that the Nigerian state is
geographically close to one another. It is a necessity A. presidential B. military C. unitary D. parliamentary
for the component units to be close to form a federal E. federal
union for easy access and administrative Answer
conveniences. Federalism is a system of government in which
7. Fear of domination: Fear being expressed by the governmental powers that exists in a country are shared
various minorities over majority domination between central (federal) government and component
influenced the adoption of a federal system of regions. The existence of the exclusive, residual and
government. concurrent legislative lists means that Nigeria state is
8. Need for common defence and security: A powerful federal. (E)
federal state is capable of defending her territory 2000/9 Neco
against external enemies. It has the resources to wage Trace the evolution of federalism in Nigeria from 1914 to
war against external attacks. A federal state will be 1954.
able to preserve her sovereignty and independence Answer
from neighbouring countries. 1. By 1914 Lord Lugard amalgamated the colony,
9. Bringing government to the grassroots: Federalism protectorates of Southern and Northern Nigeria which
makes the people to be involved in governance and was done mainly for economic reasons.
also be involved in the policy making of their country. 2. By 1922 a constitution was promulgated named as the
10. A hope for economic advantage: A hope for Clifford constitution. The constitution provided for
economic advantage influenced the adoption of legislative council for the colony and southern
federalism in Nigeria. Nigeria is endowed with a lot of protectorate of Nigeria. The Northern protectorate was
natural resources through which the country can excluded from the council. The elective principle
generate funds to provide services for her people. The introduced paved way for political consciousness and
economic endowment encourages the pooling of all the formation of political parties only in the south.
the resources together. Nigeria has abundant 3. By 1946 another constitution named after Arthur
agricultural produce like cocoa in the West, cotton and Richards was promulgated. The constitution introduced
groundnut in the North and petroleum resources in the regionalism under which the country was divided into
three regions: North, West and East. There was
South and East. Nigeria also has many mineral
however, no constitution.
resources in different parts of the country. The
4. Division of powers of the Regional Assemblies had no
resources are available to run a federal union. legislative power.
11. Large population: Another requirement for a federal 5. In 1951 Macpherson constitution introduced Quasi
state is a large population. At the time of federal system which gave legislative power on specific
independence, Nigeria had a population of 45.21 issue to the regional governments but subject to the
million. It was no wonder that Nigeria decided to adopt ratification of central government.
a federal system of government. 6. The 1954 Lyttleton constitution formally established an
improved Quasi federal system which divided
legislative power into exclusive, concurrent and residual
lists.
7. Premiers were appointed to head the three regions

426
2018/7a NABTEB 2001/37 Nov Exercise 32.2
Explain five reasons for the adoption of federalism in An issue over which both the centre and the state can
Nigeria. exercise authority in a federal system is
Answer A. shared B. split C. exclusive D. concurrent
1. The plural nature of Nigeria: Nigeria is a plural
society of over 250 tongues and tribes. Besides the
big three – Igbo, Hausa and Yoruba, there are other Major Constitutional Conference that precipitated the
macro and micro minorities in the country. establishment of Federalism in Nigeria.
Federalism was favoured among other systems of Some of the constitutional conferences that led to the
government in a bid to averting both fancied and real adoption of federalism in Nigeria were.
fear of domination among the minorities. 1. Ibadan constitutional conference of 1950
2. The size of Nigeria: This is another reason for the 2. The London constitutional conference of 1953
adoption of federalism in Nigeria. With the total area of 3. The Lagos conference of 1954.
923.768km2, Nigeria cannot justifiably be administered
by a lone “levitation” from the top. Such arrangement These major constitutional conferences led to the
would interalia breed neglect, frustration and establishment of federalism in Nigeria today.
aggression, no thanks to the red – tap inherent in
unitarism. Federalism shares power between the central Ibadan constitutional Conference of 1950
and regional governments; thus promoting efficiency in This was the first constitutional conference held in the
service delivery and governance. political history of Nigeria. It took place in Ibadan in
3. Geographical contiguity: The proximity of the January 9, 1950. Delegates from the Northern, Eastern and
tongues and tribes in Nigeria made it possible for the Western regions of Nigeria convened in Ibadan to discuss
adoption of federalism in the country. There are the provisions of the Macpherson constitution.
Benin and Togo in between Ghana and Nigeria. Two The conference was held as a part of Sir Macpherson’s
of the former British African colonies. Nigeria and effort to have a home-made and acceptable constitution
Ghana cannot easily form a country chiefly because unlike the earlier ones. Sir Gerald Howe, the then
they are not geographically contiguous. Attorney-General, was the chairman of the conference.
4. Economic factor: Just as we have diversity among Several issues were discussed at the conference concerning
the people, so do we have diversity in economic the political administration of Nigeria, the system of
endowment of the states of the federation. Some government to be adopted as well as revenue allocation.
states have abundant natural resources while some
others have little resources. Through the federal The conference recommended the following:
system of government all the states within the i. A federal system of government was to be adopted for
federation enjoy the revenue accruing from all the Nigeria with three regions namely the Northern,
resources for even development of the states. Eastern and Western regions.
5. Historical colonial experience: The north, east, west ii. Both Western and Northern regions were to have a
and southern parts of Nigeria has all gone through the bicameral legislature each with the Eastern region
same colonial administration of Britain. On maintaining a unicameral legislature.
attainment of independence it became easy to iii. There should be the existence of the Federal
continue to be together. Federalism is the only way Government Territory that will monitor the affairs of
through which this desire could be achieved. the three regions. Lagos was suggested.
6. Population of the country: Another reason why iv. Nigerians should start participating in their own
federalism is adopted by any country is that of its governance.
population. As at the time of independence, the
population of Nigeria was estimated at 45.21million. London Constitutional Conference of 1953
This was many times more than the population of Due to the defects of the Macpherson Constitution and the
most African countries then. And even now we can political crisis caused by the motion of self-government
see the population of Nigeria compared to other moved by Anthony Enahoro in the central legislative
countries in Africa. It was believed by many that this council in 1953 couple with the Kano riot of 1953, the
was one of the reasons why Nigeria adopted a British government in London, through the secretary of
federalist system. state for the colonies, invited Nigerian leaders to a
7. The leaders wanted a federal system of government: constitutional conference in London on May 21, 1953 to
Prior to independence, it is believed that the British redraft the constitution. A team of nineteen (19) delegates,
adopted federalism because it favoured their interest. which comprised six (6) representative from Cameroon,
There is a general opinion that Nigeria was formed were sent to London.
because of the interest of the British and they had to
govern the country under a federation system. The conference was held between July 30 and August 22,
1953 and was presided over by Mr. Oliver Lyttleton. The
1988/32 Exercise 32.1 conference came up with the following recommendations:
In a federal system, powers that are allocated to both i. It recommended the adoption of a federal system of
central and state governments are called government.
A. exclusive B. concurrent C. arbitrary D. residual ii. Power should be given to each region (state) to
legislate for its own jurisdiction.
427
iii. Lagos be detached from Western region and become a for the country, the constitution was actually the bedrock
federal territory. of Nigerian federalism. This was as a result of the
iv. The federal government be given exclusive power. constitutional conference that was held in London in 1953;
v. It provided for concurrent legislative powers. (1953 London constitutional conference) where it was
vi. The regional government should be given residual decided that Nigeria should become a federal state.
powers. Federalism is a system of government whereby power is
vii. The conference to be held in Lagos in 1954 should constitutionally shared between the central government and
ratify a separate regional administration in the other component units but in 1954 there were only the central
Cameroons if the people of the territory expressed their and regional government in Nigeria. Their powers and
desire through a referendum. functions were shared to them by the constitutions through
viii. The Region Lieutenants-Government should be called the legislative lists: exclusive, concurrent and residual
Governor while the Governor of Nigeria should be legislative list. The central government had authority over
called Governor-General. exclusive legislative matters, the central government and the
regional government exercised authority over concurrent
legislative matters and the regional government exercised
The Lagos Conference of 1954
power alone over residual legislative matters. In case of any
The Lagos conference was held to settle some unresolved
conflict, federal law would prevail on any matter contained in
political problems at the 1953 London Conference. The the concurrent legislative list. The central legislature had no
Lagos Conference was held in January 1954, under the power to abrogate or override regional laws. The 1954
chairmanship of the Secretary of the State for the colonies. constitution further provided for regional public service,
It was at this conference that federalism was finally regional judiciary and regional marketing boards. The title of
adopted on October 1, 1954. Lieutenant Governor in each region was changed to Governor
Other decisions made included the following: to boost the autonomy of the regions.
i. Regionalization of the judiciary.
ii. Regionalization of the civil service. 1988/56
iii. Accept in principle the proposals put forward by theIn the federation, the purpose of enumerating the powers of
fiscal commission on the allocation of financial the central government is to
resources to the federal and regional governments. A. ensure efficient administration
iv. The people of South Cameroon were given semi- B. ensure greater unity
autonomous status by the conference. C. reduce the financial burden of the units
D. limits its powers against those of the units
THE STRUCTURE OF NIGERIAN FEDERALISM E. reduce corruption in the government of the units
The structure of federalism in Nigeria will be discussed Answer
based on the following: The main purposes of enumerating the powers of the central
I. Federalism before independence. government is to limit its powers against those of the
II. 1960 – 1966. component units. (D)
III. 1967 – 1975.
1996/53
IV. 1976 – Date.
In the federal system of government, the component units
A. have equal powers with the central authority
Federalism before Independence B. derive their powers form the constitution
The structure of Nigerian federalism could be traced to the C. are subordinate to one another
1914 amalgamation of the Northern and Southern D. maintain separate currencies
protectorates through the unitary form of government. E. formulate foreign policies
Governmental powers were shared between the central Answer
government headed by the Governor-General and the In the federal system of government, the constitution through
governments of the Northern and Southern protectorates the legislative lists, spelt out the functions of the federal, state
headed by the lieutenant governors. It could be asserted and local government. (B)
that the administrative system then had a resemblance of
federalism due to the existence and recognition of two
autonomous parts of Northern and Southern provinces. Federation between 1960 and 1966
The division of Nigeria into three regions by Sir Arthur After independence, the Nigerian constitutions continued to
Richards in 1946 after the recommendation of Governor retain the federal system introduced in 1954 by Lyttleton
constitution, but with some modifications. The 1960
Bernard Bourdillon (1935–1943) who divided the country
Independence Constitution made adjustments to British
into three provinces in 1939 (Northern, Western and
colonial government. Power over the regions were given to
Eastern provinces) gave more support to the emergence of Nigerian-born citizens and regional legislatures were put in
Nigeria as a federal state. place.
It was the idea of the Richard’s constitution that brought in The sharing formula for power was retained between the
a federal structure but which it didn’t accomplish to the central and regional governments under concurrent legislative
end. However, in 1951, Governor Macpherson’s list, the constitution stipulated that, if there is any
constitution improved on that of Richard’s by creating disagreement or conflict in the concurrent legislative list, that
House of Representatives which were empowered to make the central government decisions would overrule any decision
laws for the country and Regional Houses of Assemblies of the states (region).
to make laws for their regions. Later in 1954, the Lyttleton
constitution came in with a federal system of government
428
In 1963, the mid–west region was created out of the (Jos), Kano, Kwara, North–Eastern–Borno and North–
Western region. The mid–west region was a division of Western–Sokoto state. Western region was divided into
Nigeria from 1963 to 1991, it was formed from Benin and Ogun, Ondo and Oyo.
Delta provinces of the Western Region, and its capital was
Benin City. It was renamed a province in 1966 bringing to It was this action that forced Ojukwu to announce the
four numbers of regions in Nigeria. succession of the Eastern region on May 30th, 1967. This
led to the civil war which started on July 6th 1967. There
1995/29 was no well-defined power sharing in a military
Which constitution, stipulated the function of concurrent administration, because of its centralization or
legislative list? concentration of power at the centre. Although in theory,
A. Lyttleton constitution B. Richard’s constitution Nigeria remained a federal structure under every military
C. Bourdillon constitution D. Macpherson constitution setting.
E. first republican constitution
Answer 2004/44 Neco
Lyttleton constitution of 1954 stipulated the sharing Which of the following factors necessitates the adoption of
formula for power was retained between the central and federalism in a state?
regional government under concurrent legislative list. The A. fear of one ethnic group dominating the others
constitution emphasized that whenever there is any B. adoption of a written constitution
disagreement or conflicts in the process of discharging C. availability of natural resources
concurrent legislative functions, the decision of the federal D. encouragement of secession
supersede that of the state (region). (A) Answer
Fear of one ethnic group dominating the others is a factor that
2017/2018/29 (UNIZIK, AWKA) necessitates the adoption of federalism in a state. (A)
Where is the capital of the mid – west region?
Exercise 32.6
A. Lagos B. Kaduna C. Enugu D. Benin
When did Ojukwu announced the secession of the Eastern
E. Ibadan
region in Nigeria?
Answer
A. 26th May, 1962 B. 30th May, 1967 C. 26th Feb, 1967
The mid – west region was a division of Nigeria from 1963
D. 16th June, 1961 E. 31 Jan, 1970
to 1991, it was formed from Benin and Delta provinces of
the Western region and its capital was Benin City. (D)
Exercise 32.7
Lt. Colonel Yakubu Gowon retained ____ regions in
1993/34 Exercise 32.3
Nigeria.
Nigeria became a federation of four regions in
A. 4 B. 2 C. 1 D. 3 E. 6
A. 1954 B. 1960 C. 1963 D. 1967 E. 1975
Exercise 32.8
2004/28 (OAU,IFE) Exercise 32.4 Who among the following divided Nigeria into 12 states?
When was mid – west region created in the western region? A. Olusegun Obasanjo B. Ibrahim Babangida
A. 1963 B. 1922 C. 1949 D. 1968 E. 1970 C. Abdulsalam Abubakar D. Yakubu Gowon
E. Aguiyi Ironsi
Exercise 32.5
Mid – west region was renamed what? Exercise 32.9
A. protectorate B. state C. local government State the twelve (12) states created by Lt. Colonel Gowon
D. province E. country Yakubu

FEDERALISM BETWEEN 1967 AND 1975 FEDERALISM FROM 1976 TO DATE

This period was the era of the military government, in the Major–General Murtala Muhammed, who came to power
political system. The military limited the growth of in 1975, created more states out of the existing 12 states,
political culture in Nigeria, it also destroyed all democratic making the total of 19 states. In 1976, six years after the
foundation, political institutions and other feature of end of the civil war, the states were further recognized by
federalism in Nigeria. February 3rd, 1976.

After the first coup and under the short – lived military I. Benue–Plateau state was divided into Benue
government of Aguiyi–Ironsi, the country was recognized (Markudi) and Plateau states.
under a central government, which was known as unitary II. East–central state was also divided into Anambra and
system of government with the promulgation of decree No. Imo (Owerri) state.
34. After the assassination of Aguiyi–Ironsi, Nigeria was III. Federal Capital Territory (Abuja) from parts of Niger
recognized again as a federal country by Lt. Colonel Yakubu and Plateau state.
Gowon. He retained three regions but divided into newer IV. North – Eastern state divided into Bauchi, Borno and
entitles known as states in May 27th, 1967, 12 states were Gongola (Adamawa) state.
created out of the three regions in Nigeria. Eastern region was V. Niger (Minna) state splited from Sokoto.
divided into East–central–Enugu, Rivers and south–eastern– VI. Western states divided into Ogun, Ondo, and Oyo
Calabar, northern region was divided into Benue – Plateau state.
429
In 1979, the military left the political circle for a while and 2015/6 (OAU, IFE)
a democratically elected government was constituted, An important advantage in creating more constituent units
(second Republic). The 1979 constitution was introduced in a federal state is to
by Second Republic presidential system of government A. curb the powers of the federal government
with the recognition of the executive president as both B. enable ambitious politicians get political powers
Head of state and government. The Nigeria system of C. make the state gain more power
government also maintained the three tiers of government D. enhance the people’s participation in government
(central, state and local government) with their powers and Answer
authorities derived from the constitution. The central Enhancement of people’s participation in government was
government was operating on executive list, both the the main reason why constituent units or states were
central and state operates on concurrent legislative list and created in a federal system (D)
residual power was given to the local government
according to the constitution. 2013/36 UTME
Nigeria became a federation of thirty six states during the
There was separation of powers among the three organs of era of
government stipulated in Nigeria constitution. The federal A. Ibrahim Babangida B. Sani Abacha
system of government in Nigeria operates the system of C. Abdulsalami Abubakar D. Yakubu Gowon
checks and balances to control and check the excesses of Answer
some organs of government. The Abacha regime created six (6) additional states on 1st
October, 1996 to bring the total number of states to thirty-
However, the Buhari/Idiagbon’s military regime did not six (36). (B)
allow the elected civilian government in place to complete
its second tenure in office. General Ibrahim Babangida’s
administration that came in 1985, created Akwa Ibom and 1987/28 UTME
Katsina states on the 23rd September, 1987 and before he When did Nigeria adopt the nineteen – state structure?
stepped aside in 1993, Babangida succeeded in creating A. 1960 B. 1966 C. 1976 D. 1979
nine additional states (including Edo and Delta) in August, Answer
1991. This brought the total number of states in the country Nigeria adopted the nineteen-states structure in 1976 when
to 30 states and Abuja, the Federal Capital Territory (FCT) General Murtala Muhammed regime created seven (7) new
has its own minister. states on 3rd February, 1976, making the states of the
federation nineteen (C)
General Sani Abacha came into power in November, 1993.
He created six more states on the 1st October, 1996, 1987/35 UTME
bringing the present number of states in the country to 36 Nigerian federalism before 1966 was bedeviled by
states. Today, Nigerian federation has been grouped into A. amendment clauses of the constitution
six (6) geopolitical zones. The basic objective is to ensure B. large number of the local government areas
geographical spread and balance in the distribution of C. lack of uniformity of the civil service
political offices and amenities as well as to allay the fear D. uneven sizes of the constituent regions
of marginalization of the minorities. Answer
Nigerian federalism before 1966 was bedeviled by uneven
The six (6) geopolitical zones are: sizes of the constituent regions, the northern region is the
Zone States biggest of others which made the country uneven in sizes
1. North-Central Benue, Kogi, Kwarra, (D)
Nasarawa, Niger, Plateau
2. North-east Adamawa, bauchi, Borno, 2001/38 UTME Exercise 32.10
Gombe, Taraba, Yobe The Murtala/Obasanjo regime in Nigeria increased the
3. North-west Jigawa, Kaduna, Kano, number of states from
Katsina, Kebbi, Sokoto, A. 4 to 12 B. 12 to 19 C. 19 to 21 D. 30 to 36
Zamfara
4. South-east Abia, Anambra, Ebonyi,
Enugu, Imo 2001/34 UTME Exercise 32.11
5. South-south Akwa-Ibom, Bayelsa, Cross The first restructuring of the Nigerian federation took place
River, Delta, Edo, Rivers with the
6. South-west Ekiti, Lagos, Ogun, Ondo, A. creation of the mid-west region in 1963
Osun, Oyo B. abolition of federalism in 1966
C. military counter coup of 1966
D. creation of states in 1967

430
Main Features of the Nigerian Federalism 1995/44
The basic features of Nigerian federalism are: Which of the following is not true of a federal system of
i. Constitutional division of powers between the federal government? The
and state governments into three legislative lists: A. there are three legislative lists
exclusive, concurrent and residual. Each level of B. powers are not constitutionally shared
government is coordinate and independent. C. there are component units
ii. Division of the country into unequal states in terms of D. the constitution is written and rigid
population and size. E. both the federal and regional governments are
iii. Constitution is legally supreme. Every level of independent and coordinate
government derives its powers and functions from the Answer
constitution. In a true federalism system of government, there are three
iv. Federal government is stronger than the states. legislative lists, there are three component units, the
v. Existence of separation of power with the principle of constitution of the federal system is written and rigid in
checks and balances to ensure the rule of law. nature, both the federal and regional governments are
vi. Existence of a bicameral legislature known as the independent and coordinate. When powers are not
National Assembly, comprising the Senate and the constitutionally shared, then the system is not practicing
House of Representatives at the centres, and the true federalism. (B)
unicameral legislature called the State Assembly at the
state level. 2018/7b NABTEB
vii. Existence of a supreme court which has the final Describe five features of Nigerian federalism.
authority to resolve constitutional issues and the Answer
interpretation of the condition. 1. Powers are constitutionally shared between the
viii. No provision for secession of any state. central authority and other component units.
ix. Existence of federal character in the distribution of 2. The constitution of Nigerian is written and rigid.
political and administrative positions. 3. The three tiers of government derived their powers
x. Federal allocation favours the federal government as form the constitution through legislative lists of
against other coordinate units. functions.
xi. Existence of dual public services, that is, the federal 4. The constitution of Nigerian federalism is supreme.
public service and state public services. 5. There was bicameral legislative system in Nigeria.
6. The functions of Nigerian federalism were highly
Prospects of Federalism in Nigeria duplicated in every department.
The prospects or chances of success of Nigerian federalism 7. There were uneven regions in federal system in
are: Nigeria.
i. Economic stability: A true federalism will bring 8. Supreme court had the power of judicial review and
about economic stability in Nigeria. Nigeria will interpretation of cases.
experience economic development and will establish 9. The constitution separated functions and personnel
an effective administration. This will eliminate any among the three organs of government.
form of crisis which can emanate from ethnic rivalry.
1998/37
ii. Political stability: The motive behind federalism is to Every unit of the Nigerian federalism has all the following
promote unity and to bring the government closer to characteristics of a nation state except
the people. This will ensure peaceful coexistence A. territory B. government C. sovereignty D. people
among citizens and stability of the country. E. boundary
Answer
iii. National integration: Federalism promotes Every unit of the Nigerian federating units has its territory,
integration in a diverse society. National integration government (Governor), the people and boundary. The
will eliminate the issue of secession, ethnic rivalry and federating units are under one sovereign which is called
the fear of domination of the minorities by the Nigeria. ©
majority, since component units are allowed to
develop at their own pace. 2006/10 Neco Exercise 32.12
Highlight four features of the Nigerian federalism.
iv. Removal of uneven distribution of government
allocations: It is hoped that the various regions/states 1993/47 Nov Exercise 32.13
will have a fair share of the resources of the country One characteristics of the constitution of the Federal
for their own development. Republic of Nigeria is that it
For Nigeria to take advantage of the prospects of A. promotes unity in diversity
federalism, Nigerians must work and coexist in peace B. allows for the dominance of the minority ethnic groups
in order to create a new Nigeria of their dream. C. concentrates governmental powers at one level of
government
D. advances the interest of the rich
E. ensures the dominance of one political party

431
REVENUE ALLOCATION percentage of the federal revenue is set aside for the
Revenue allocation is a controversial issue in Nigeria provision of infrastructure in such areas for public
political system. Over the years there have been no interest. This enhances national unity and prestige.
acceptable criteria for sharing the nation’s wealth among vii. Geographical peculiarities: This has to do with
the federal, state and local governments. economic problems and environmental pollution of
some parts of the country. It is necessary to ensure a
Revenue allocation is the distribution or division of total healthy living environment for the people.
income, or revenue in a business, corporate or government viii. Absorptive capacity: This refers to the capability of a
structure. It involves a complex process that entails how component state to positively utilize funds for eth
and where to allocate revenue in order to ensure viability promotion of technological and economic
of departments and maintain the operating structure of the development. The state which requests more funds
organization. would be given on that basis.
ix. Independent revenue: The principle is based on the
Edward David (1989) defined revenue allocation federal government’s discretion in allocating revenue
programme as a federal government fund to the state and to states and local governments. Experts say this
local government without specifying the use to which the principle is not fair and just in revenue sharing in a
fund must be put. Revenue allocation involves one federation.
government sharing its revenue allocation with component x. Minimum responsibility and continuity of
units. Revenue sharing makes a turning point in federal, government services: In Nigeria, the principles being
state and local council respectively. adopted from 1967 to date are equality of states,
derivation and population.
This idea of revenue allocation came up with the creation
of regions in 1946 and with the introduction of federalism 1997/48
in Nigeria in 1954, by the Lyttleton constitution. Different The principle for sharing the wealth of the nation among
commissions were set up to look into the acceptable the different levels of government is called
revenue allocation in Nigeria. A. delegated legislation B. revenue allocation
C. bicameralism D. checks and balances E. taxation
The following are the principles commonly used in Answer
revenue sharing. These are: Revenue allocation is the distribution or sharing of total
i. Principle of derivation: Derivation is based on sharing of income of the nation among the different levels of
revenue on the basis of each state’s contribution to the government. (B)
total wealth of the country. A state with large contribution
gets a larger proportion from the national wealth. In 1992/9
Nigeria, derivation means the sharing of federal revenue Discuss the principles considered in the allocation of
with the various levels of government on the basis of revenue in Nigeria.
contribution to the distributable pool account. It is called Answer
Federation Account in Nigeria. It makes rich states richer. 1. Principle of derivation: The principle of derivation
ii. Population: Revenue is shared on the basis of the states that a share of resources should be allocated to
population of the component states; states with high areas (states) where they are derived from.
population will earn more than those with low 2. Equality of units: Equal revenue should be allocated
population. to states.
iii. Even development: This principle is based on the need
3. The principle of uniform development: More
to develop every state ensure progress and give a sense
resources should be given to areas considered
of belonging to every part of the federation. It requires
setting a certain proportion of the revenue to allow
underdeveloped to level up with more developed
uniform development of the component states. The poor areas.
states are assisted in order to catch up, while the 4. Population: This principle advocates for more
developed areas are not put in a disadvantaged position. revenue to be given to those areas (regions) with high
iv. Equality of Units: This principle requires the sharing of population.
some percentage of the national wealth on equal basis 5. The principle of needs: Revenue should be
among component states. This has resulted in continuous distributed according to the needs of an area.
demand for the creation of more states in order to have 6. National interest: The allocation of revenue should
national resources spread across those areas. be guided by the interest of the nation.
v. Minimum national standard/need: The principle 7. The principle of minimum national standards:
requires all components of the federation to have the Revenue should be allocated to all states or regions so
financial resources to provide certain services to meet a that a minimum national standard should be set in the
national minimum standard already set by the performance of some vital functions in areas of health
government. This is to ensure that all states attain equal and education.
standard in the provision of certain social services, for 8. Other principles considered are social development,
example, education and health facilities, in order to internal revenue generation effort, access to
enhance the general welfare of the masses. development opportunities, fiscal efficiency, fiscal
vi. National interest: The principle believes that some parts autonomy, etc.
of the country demand special focus because of their
importance. Lagos and Abuja are examples. A certain

432
2001/31 Neco iii. Chicks Commission of 1953: It provided that the
The three main contesting issues about revenue allocation central revenue be shared on the principles of fiscal
in Nigeria area autonomy and derivation.
A. oil, cocoa and groundnut iv. Raisman Commission of 1958: The commission
B. ethnicity, corruption and nepotism created the Distributable Pool Account (DPA) for the
C. oil, minority and majority federal government account. It recommended the
D. derivation, population and even development principles of derivation, fiscal autonomy, population
Answer and even development. The formula was as follows:
Ethnicity, corruption and nepotism (B) North 40%
East 31%
Needs for Revenue Allocation in a Federal System West 24%
The following are some needs of revenue allocation in a Southern Cameroon 5%
federal system. v. Binn’s Commission of 1964: The Commission was
1. To makes the component units feel the presence of the set up due to the influence of oil on the economy. The
federal government. commission recommended that the DPA be 35%
2. To enhance equal development in the states and local instead of 30% of general import revenue and revenue
government. from mining, rents and royalties. It provided for the
3. To help the states and local government settle their civil principles of derivation, fiscal autonomy, unified
servants salaries. national policy and financial comparability. It was
4. To help the component units and the federal government used for federal finance till 1967. The regions share
to settle their loans.
was as follows:
5. To make the exclusive, concurrent and residual
North 42%
legislative lists a reality.
6. To help in the development of social amenities and East 30%
infrastructures. West 20%
7. To help make the component units autonomous. Mid-west 8%
vi. Dina Commission of 1968: The commission
Exercise 32.14 recommended the principles of derivation, need and
Highlight any seven needs for Revenue Allocation in a federal balanced development (i.e. national integration) and
system. tax efforts. But government rejected the report.
Instead, Decree 6 of 1975 stated that the revenues to
Exercise 32.15 be shared by the states had to pass through the
The following are agencies that remit funds into the distributable pool account excepting the 20% of on –
federation account in Nigeria, except shore mining rent and royalty which went to the state
A. NNPC B. FIRS C. NUT of origin.
D. Nigerian customs service vii. Aboyade Technical Committee of 1977: The
committee allocated 60% for federal government, 30%
for state governments and 10% for local governments.
REVENUE ALLOCATION COMMISSIONS AND The principles advocated were continuity of service,
THEIR RECOMMENDATIONS equality of access, efficiency and maintenance of
Over the years, various governments have set up revenue minimum standard national integration (22%),
allocation commissions to fashion out acceptable formula absorptive capacity (20%), independent revenue and
for sharing the national wealth in Nigeria. They are: tax efforts (18%), fiscal efficiency (15%) and equal
i. Phillipson Commission of 1946: This was the first fiscal access to development opportunities (25%). The
allocation commission in Nigeria. It was the outcome of recommendation was rejected by the regime of
the Richards Constitution of 1946. Revenue sharing was President Shehu Shagari. It was viewed as too
necessary among the regions to enable them perform technical and complex to operate.
functions assigned to them by the constitution. The viii. Okigbo’s Presidential Commission 1980: The
central government was very strong in fiscal matters. The leadership of Nigeria was under Alhaji Shehu Shagari
regions retained their internal revenues and shared the of the NPN, the governors of UPN, GNNP and PRP
central revenue on the principles of derivation and even
states in 1980 demanded an increase in the proportion
development. The commission’s formula worked
of revenue allocated to states in order to be able to
between 1948 and 1952. The formula was as follows:
East 38% fulfill their promises to the electorate. The federal
North 36% government therefore appointed the Okigbo’s
West 26% Commission to undertake a review of allocation of
ii. Hicks Phillipson’s Commission of 1951: The revenue and make appropriate recommendations. The
commission emerged from introduction of the commission recommended the federal government
Macpherson Constitution which introduced a quasi- 58.5%, state governments 31.5% and local
federal system of government. It recommended that the government 10%. Of the 31.5% to the state
regions should keep their revenue and also share central governments, 2% was for the mineral producing states
revenue on the principles of derivation, independent and 3% for states having ecological problems, while
revenue need and national interest. The formula was used the remaining 26.5%was for the state governments.
between 1952 and 1954. Bendel State government challenged the formula in the
court and won. The government therefore rejected the
433
whole report. Consequently, between 1967 – 1979 4. The problem of state creation: Almost every
revenue allocation in Nigeria was based mainly on interest group in the country wants a state. This may
adhoc arrangements. The power to allocate revenue not be possible in a country with over 250 different
was centralized in the hands of the federal government. ethnic groups.
In 1982, a new revenue allocation formula gave 55 5. The problem of federal characters: Appointments
percent to the federal government, 35 percent to states into federal establishments in the country are not
and 10% to local governments. always based on merit because the issue of federal
ix. Danjuma’s Commission of 1988: It recommended character has to be addressed.
50% for federal government, 30% for the state 6. Fear of secession: A unit or segment may threaten
governments, 15% for local government and 5% set to break away from the federation e.g. the North
aside as special fund. The Babangida’s government threatened to secede after the 1953 self –
accepted the formula, but it became operational as government motion while the Eastern region
from January 1, 1990. seceded in 1967, resulting in the civil war.
x. Revenue Allocation under the 4th Republic of 7. The military in the Nigerian politics: The military
Olusegun Obasanjo Regime: The principles adopted has continued to dominate the politics of this
for revenue sharing were equality of states, derivation, country, a total deviation from its constitutional role,
population and special allocations for oil producing which is to defend the country from external
states. Until the Supreme Court’s judgment of April, aggression. Usually, the military is a highly
2002 abrogated offshore-onshore oil dichotomy, the centralized institution, whereas Nigeria is a
revenue was shared in this proportion. federation.
Federal Government 48% 8. Ethnic disharmony: There is distrust among the
States 24% various ethnic groups in the country. This can affect
Local Governments 20% the unity and the very corporate existence of the
Special funds 7.5% country.
9. Corruption, favouritism and nepotism: These are
A 13% derivation fund was set aside for the oil major problems of the Nigerian federalism.
producing states. The Revenue Mobilization and 10. Boundary disputes: Boundary disputes has been a
Fiscal Commission is now in charge of revenue continuous problem between states or local
allocation in Nigeria. governments and have the capacity to threaten the
corporate existence of the nation state.
1995/37 11. Power sharing: The sharing of power among the
The chicks commission in Nigeria was set – up to look into component units poses a problem to the Nigerian
the issue of federalism because it is not always properly defined.
A. revenue allocation B. minority groups 12. Census: There is problem of conducting reliable and
C. state creation D. constitutional amendment acceptable census in the country.
E. police brutality
Answer
The Chick commission of 1953 was set up in Nigeria to 1998/9 Exercise 32.16
look into revenue allocation formula. The commission Highlight any three features and any three problems of
recommended the principle of derivation. The principle of Nigerian federalism.
derivation in revenue allocation formula means, the need
to return a large proportion of resources to the area from
which they were obtained (region or state). (A) 2011/33
Nigeria federalism before 1966 was bedeviled by
PROBLEMS OF THE NIGERIAN FEDERALISM A. amendment clauses of the constitution
1. Revenue allocation has been a major problem of B. lack of uniformity of the civil service
federalism in Nigeria: Government has set up C. large number of local government areas
different commissions to look into the issue of D. small number of the constituent regions
revenue allocation formula in Nigeria. E. uneven sizes of the constituent regions
2. The problem of minorities is another main problem Answer
of federation in Nigeria: The fear of domination has Nigeria federalism before 1966 was bedeviled by uneven
always been there on the part of the minorities and sizes of the constituent regions. (E)
of not be fairly treated within the federation. This led
to the setting up of the Willink’s commission of 2012/9 Neco
1957, to look into the problems of the minorities and Discuss five (5) challenges of federalism in Nigeria.
recommend measures for handling it. Answer
3. Regional political parties led to the rivalry and 1. The problem of minorities in Nigeria, there are
problems of federalism in Nigeria: Northern majority groups and minority groups. The fears of
People’s Congress (NPC) was the Northerners, domination have always been there on the part of the
Action Group (A.G) for the Westerners and NCNC minorities and also of not being fairly treated within
for the Easterners could be traced to the colonial the federation. This was the reason that led to
period. Willinks commission of 1957 to look into the
problems of minorities.
434
2. Revenue allocation has been a problem in Nigeria. 2003/23 UTME
Government at different periods, have set up A problem of Nigerian federalism that was resolved by the
commissions to advice on the acceptable revenue Supreme Court between the federal government and the
sharing formula, especially, as its affects the three littoral states centered on resource
tiers of government. A. maximization B. generation C. derivation
3. Regional political parties: The problems of regional D. control
based political parties in Nigeria NPC for the north, Answer
A.G. for the west and NCNC for the Easterner could The main problem of Nigerian federalism that was
be traced to the colonial period. Such arrangement resolved by the Supreme Court between the federal
could not bring about a truly national political parties. government and the states centered on resources control
4. The problem of state creation, almost every interest (D)
group in the country wants a state. This may not be
possible in a country with over 250 different ethnic 1986/8 UTME
groups. The principle of two levels of government in a country is
5. The problem of federal character through the called
appointment and establishment. A. the parliamentary system B. dictatorship
6. Fear of succession. A unit or pregnancy threatened C. nationalism D. federalism
e.g. north threatened to succession after the 1993. Answer
7. Military associating to the Nigerian federal. In 1954, we had two tiers of government, the center and
8. There is indispute among the various ethnic groups in regions, both had their powers defined and shared by the
the country. This can affect the unitary and the very constitution. Exclusive legislative functions went to the
corporate existence in the country. central government; concurrent legislative functions went
9. Corruption, favouritism and nepotism. to both the central and regional government while residual
legislative functions went to the regions. (D)

1990/32 2009/2010/38 (UNIZIK, AWKA)

The major problems of the Nigerian federal structure in the All federal systems of government have
first republic was A. flexible constitution B. industrialized economies
A. ethnicity B. politicization of the military C. written constitution D. four layers of government
C. lopsided size of the component units Answer
D. rigging of elections All federal systems of government from origin have
Answer written constitutions which is rigid in nature (C)
The major problem of the Nigerian federal structure in the
first republic was ethnicity. An ethic group or ethnicity is 2015/8 (OAU, IFE)
a grouping of people who identify with each other on the One of the foremost theorists of federalism was
basis of shared attributes that distinguish them from other A. A.V. Dicey B. K. C. Wheare C. Karl Marx
groups such as a common set of traditions, ancestry, D. Baron de Montesquieu
language, history, society, culture, nation, religion or Answer
social treatment within their residing area. (A) K. C. Wheare was one of the foremost theorists of
federalism. Sir Kenneth Clinton Wheare was an Australian
2019/86 UTME Exercise 32.17 academic, who spent most of his career at Oxford
The recurrent problem of Nigeria federalism is University in England. He was an expert on constitutional
A. national consciousness B. national unity matters (B)
C. dual citizenship D. acculturation
2017/2018/34 (UNIZIK, AWKA)
2016/34 UTME Federalism was introduced in Nigeria by the
One of the major problems of Nigerian federalism is A. Lyttleton constitution B. Clifford constitution
C. Macpherson constitution D. 1999 constitution
A. pre-colonial administrative structure among the units of
federalism Answer
B. imbalance in the structure and sizes of units of Federalism was introduced in Nigeria by the Lyttleton
federation constitution of 1954 (A)
C. lack of revenue to cater for the demands of the 1991/30
federation The problem of the minority groups in Nigeria was first
D. inadequate manpower to fill vacancies raised in the
Answer A. 1953/54 constitutional conference
One of the main problem of Nigeria federalism is B. 1957/58 constitutional conference
imbalance in the structure and sizes of units of the C. 1960 constitution D. 1963 constitution
federation (B) E. 1979 constitutional
Answer
2009/2 UTME Exercise 32.18 Willink’s commission of inquiry was set up in 1957 to look
A major problem associated with the Nigeria federalism is into the grievances of minority groups and their agitations
A. ethnic conflicts B. environmental pollution for separate states and make recommendations. (B)
C. boundary disputes D. fiscal allocation
435
2001/35 UTME too culturally diverse to be administered from one
The land use Decree of 1978 vested the ownership of land centre. There are over 250 ethnic nationalities in
in Nigeria in the Nigeria. The major ethnic groups are the Yoruba,
A. local chiefs B. local governments Hausa/Fulani and Igbo, and there are other smaller
C. stage governments D. federal government ethnic groups. Federalism was therefore adopted to
Answer allay the fear of domination by the major ethnic
The land use Decree of 1978 vested the ownership of land groups.
in Nigeria in the federal government (D) 4. Geographical contiguity: The component regions are
geographically close to one another. It is a necessity
2002/31 UTME for the component units to be close to form a federal
Nigeria formally became a federation in union for easy access and administrative
A. 1963 B. 1960 C. 1946 D. 1914 conveniences.
Answer 5. Large population: Another requirement for a federal
Nigeria formally became a federation in 1946. It should be state is a large population. At the time of
noted that the 1946 constitution only laid foundation for independence, Nigeria had a population of 45.21
federalism. The constitution charged the provinces to three million. It was no wonder that Nigeria decided to adopt
regions of North, East, West regional assemblies without a federal system of government. As of 2022, Nigeria’s
legislative power. population is estimated at around 216.7 million

In 1951, the Macpherson constitution gave legislative (7b) Five basic features of Nigerian federalism are:
powers on specific issues to the regional governments. The i. Constitutional division of powers between the federal
true federation was then established in 1954 by the Oliver and state governments into three legislative lists:
Lyttleton constitution with the division lists between the exclusive, concurrent and residual. Each level of
central and the regional government (D) government is coordinate and independent.
ii. Division of the country into unequal states in terms of
1993/5 UTME population and size.
Federalism is a constitutional arrangement in which iii. Existence of separation of power with the principle of
A. the national and regional governments derive their checks and balances to ensure the rule of law.
powers from the constitution iv. Existence of a bicameral legislature known as the
B. the national government acts only through the regional National Assembly, comprising the Senate and the
governments House of Representatives at the centres, and the
C. regional and local authorities exist at the pleasure of unicameral legislature called the State Assembly at the
national government state level.
D. the national government does not reach individual v. Existence of a supreme court which has the final
citizens directly authority to resolve constitutional issues and the
Answer interpretation of the condition.
Federalism is a constitutional arrangement in which the
national and regional governments derive their powers
from the constitution (A) REVISION EXERCISES
1. Nigeria became a federation of 19 states in
2018/7 NABTEB A. 1875 B. 1976 C. 1967 D. 1978
a. Explain five reasons for the adoption of federalism E. 1979
in Nigeria. 2. Which of the following is the basic factor in the
b. Describe five features of Nigerian federalism formation of a federation? The
Answer A. presence of a common enemy
(7a) The adoption of Nigerian federalism could be traced B. willingness to remain dependent
to the following reasons: C. existence of single large ethnic groups
1. The role of nationalist leaders: Nationalists like Dr. D. presence of an ambitious ruling class
Nnamadi Azikiwe and Chief Obafemi Awolowo E. desire for union
advocated federalism at various constitutional 3. Between 1960 and 1980, Nigeria experienced all the
conferences. The 1957 and 1958 constitutional following systems of government except
conferences sanctioned a federal structure with a A. unitary B. federal C. confederal
bicameral legislature both at the central and regional D. parliamentary E. presidential
levels. 4. The first Head of State and Head of government in
2. Geographical expanse of Nigeria: A federation must Nigeria was
be a country that is geographically big in size. Nigeria A. Lord Frederick Lugard
is too large and diverse to be ruled effectively from one B. Alhaji Abubakar Tafawa Balewa
centre without regional governments. Nigeria occupies C. Major Kaduna Nzeogwu
an acre of 913,072.64 sq. km which suits a federal D. Gen J. J. U. Aguiyi Ironsi
union. E. Alhaji Shehu Shagari
3. Cultural diversity: Nigeria is not a homogenous 5. Revenue is the government
society. Nigeria composes of totally independent A. income B. resources C. debit D. account
kingdoms, empires and autonomous communities. It is E. state
436
6. Who defined revenue allocation programme as a 24. Explain the origin of federalism in Nigeria.
federal government fund to the state and local 25. Discuss the structure of Nigerian federalism in
government without specifying the use to which the i. 1960 – 1966.
fund must be put ii. 1967 – 1975.
A. Philips carter B. Gold smith C. Edward David 26. Explain federalism before independence in Nigeria.
D. David James 27. Enumerate seven features of Nigerian federalism.
7. The following are the principles of revenue allocation 28. List five needs for revenue allocation in a federal
except system.
A. derivation B. equality of states C. population 29. Explain revenue allocation formula in Nigeria.
D. even development E. independence 30. State five commissions and their recommendations
8. Bourdillon constitution was represented as on revenue allocation formulae in Nigeria.
A. Macpherson constitution B. Lyttleton constitution 31. Explain any three problems of the Nigerian
C. Richard’s constitution federalism.
D. James constitution E. Republican constitution 32. Which of the following military regimes in Nigeria
9. In 1954 constitution, federalism had played a prominent role in the liberation of colonized
A. three tiers B. six tiers C. two tiers D. five tiers African states?
10. Which of the following is a reason why federalism A. Aguiyi Ironsi B. Murtala/Obasanjo
was adopted C. Muhammadu Buhari D. Ibrahim Babangida
A. geographical factor B. constitutional issues 33. Immediately after the Nigerian civil war, Gowon’s
C. nature of government D. marketing regime embarked on
11. Mid – west region was created A. rejuvenation, resettlement and reconstruction
A. 1963 B. 1961 C. 1964 D. 1968 E. 1970 B. reconciliation, rehabilitation and reconstruction
12. Who was the first military Nigerian Army General C. rebuilding, rejuvenation and rehabilitation
that was assassinated? D. rehabilitation, renaissance and repression
A. Aguiyi Ironsi B. Ibrahim Babangida 34. The Nigerian civil war was fought during the regime
C. Olusegun Obasanjo D. Abdulsalam Abubakar of General
E. Sani Abacha A. Aguiyi Ironsi B. Yakubu Gowon
13. Who divided the three regions into twelve (12) states? C. Murtala Muhammed D. Olusegun Obasanjo
A. M.K.O Abiola B. Goodluck Jonathan 35. All the following are sources of revenue of a political
C. Yakubu Gowon D. Shehu Shagari party except?
14. Who announced the secession of the Eastern region? A. payment of dues B. donations
A. Peter rights B. Emeka Ojukwu C. custom duties D. fund raising
C. Kalu Anyanwu D. Nnamdi Azikiwe
E. Amadi Emeka
15. Federal capital territory was created
A. 1972 B. 1978 C. 1976 D. 1974 E. 1975
16. General Sani Abacha came into power as the Head of
state in
A. 1993 B. 1996 C. 1994 D. 1995 E. 1997
17. 36 states were created in Nigeria, in
A. 2001 B. 2012 C. 2015 D. 1996 E. 1995
18. General Ibrahim Babangida’s administration started in
A. 1985 B. 1982 C. 1984 D. 1988 E. 1989
19. Akwa Ibom state was created by
A. Abacha B. Buhari C. Idiagbon
D. Abdulsalam E. Babangida
20. General Ibrahim Babangida stepped aside in
A. 1993 B. 1992 C. 1995 D. 1996 E. 1991
21. Which of the following was not among the revenue
allocation commission in Nigeria?
A. Phillipso commission (1946)
B. Chicks commission (1953)
C. The Dian’s commission (1968)
D. Richard’s commission (1972)
E. The Okigbo commission (1980)
22. The problems of the Nigerian federalism includes the
following, except
A. the minorities problems
B. regional political parties
C. the problem of state creation
D. the engagement problem
E. the problem of federal character
23.
437
Exercise 33.1
Chapter Thirty Three Explain the challenges of ethnic rivalry in Nigeria.

MINORITY ISSUES AND THE ORIGIN AND THREATS OF SECESSION IN

NIGERIA
CREATION OF STATES Ethnic rivalry is manifested in the calls for secession in
Nigeria. Secession is the desire of a smaller unit of a
INTER ETHNIC RIVALRY AND ISSUES OF country to break away from the larger political entity. It is
SECESSION aimed at overthrowing the legitimate central authority for
Nigeria is a diverse society which comprises three major purpose of establishing a new sovereign state. Federating
ethnic groups of Yoruba, Hausa/Fulani, Igbo and several states often face threats of secession, especially in a highly
other minor ethnic groups with different peculiarities in heterogeneous society like Nigeria. Secession is often due
terms of history, language, culture and religion/traditions. to unhealthy competition for survival and resource control.
It is a known fact that rivalry exists among the
Hausa/Fulani, Yoruba and Igbo over time. It is the quest The root of secession in Nigeria can be traced to the Ibadan
for power at the centre and sharing of resources which are Constitutional Conference of 1950. The conference was
the main causes of ethnic conflicts in Nigeria. Nigerian mandated to work out a new constitution for Nigeria due
leaders are not willing to concede defeat for the sake of to the defects in the Richard’s constitution. At the
national peace and unity. Rather, they promote ethnic conference, the emirs of Zaria and Katsina demanded equal
sentiments and bigotry which often threaten national representation for the North in the proposed central or
security and undermine national development. Ethnic separation of the North from the rest of the country. The
rivalry has led to several calls for secession. It has its root threat of secession was also witnessed over the motion on
during the colonial administration as Nigeria was self-government moved in 1953 by Chief Anthony
administered along ethnic lines which promoted ethnic Enahoro of the Action Group (AG) in ‘1956’ for Nigeria.
tensions. This prevented a Nigerian nationalist spirit and The North was opposed to the motion and therefore drafted
encouraged ethnic nationalism and regional politics. the eight points programme, which if implemented, would
Ethnicity has therefore been detrimental to national unity have led to secession of the North from the rest of the
and socio-economic well-being of the Nigerian state. country the eight points programme favoured a confederal
system of government. The northern delegates therefore
Ethnic conflicts are provoked by factors such as: replaced the phrase ‘in 1956’ with ‘as soon as practicable’.
1. Quest for political power at the centre The southern delegates were greatly annoyed and called
2. colonialism northern delegates ‘imperial stooges’.
3. Tribalism.
4. Favoritism. Another threat of secession was the Kano Riot of May,
5. Corruption of our leaders. 1953. A delegation of Action Group members went to the
6. Resources control. North to enlighten the Talakawa (commoners) on the need
7. Marginalization of some ethnic groups in the country, for self-determination. Unfortunately, majority of the
usually the minorities. delegates were massacred in the Kano riot as a revenge for
8. Constitutional reform. the insult meted out on their leaders in Lagos. The northern
9. Religious intolerance. delegates vowed never to come to the South for any
10. Introduction of Sharia criminal legal system in the legislative debate, asserting that the greatest mistake by
Northern part of Nigeria. Lord Lugard was the 1914 amalgamation of the Northern
11. Herdsmen attack. and Southern protectorates.
12. Disputes over ownership of land
13. Long military rule in government. The threat of secession was also witnessed by making
14. Poverty, etc. Lagos a federal capital territory in 1953. The Yoruba
threatened secession from Nigeria by separating Lagos
In particular, the colonial division of Nigeria into three from Western region. The threat of Chief Obafemi
major groups gave rise to ethnic conflicts from the pre- Awolowo was rebuffed by the Secretary of State for the
independence era till date. The divide and rule policy of Colonies, Oliver Lyttleton. The secretary asserted that the
the British Colonial Administration laid the foundation for British government would use force to bring any region
ethnic rivalry among the ethnic groups. Likewise, the that rebelled against the Nigerian government back into the
distribution of economic resources was often skewed to union.
favour the part of the country in power; thus, pushing
marginalized groups to use ethnicity to mobilise people for The outcome of the 1962 – 63 census gave rise to threats
equality and fairness in sharing of political positions and by the Igbo to break away from Nigeria. The Igbo
resources. Today, our leaders are using the medium of maintained that the population figure was not a true
ethnicity to pull resources, wealth and power to themselves reflection of their population. It was only the Igbo who
and to the members of their cultural and religious groups eventually carried out the threat of secession with the
at the expense of other ethnic group and all across Nigeria declaration of Biafran Republic which culminated into the
there have been an ever–lengthening trend of ethnic Civil War in 1967.
violence: Ife/Modakeke, Ogoni and Andonis, Sagamu,
Kano, Zango–Ktaf, Jukuns/Tivs, etc.
438
THE NIGERIAN CIVIL WAR Gowon disagreed with this interpretation of the Aburi
The Nigerian Civil War of July 6, 1967 to January 15, 1970 decision. Gowon affirmed that the accord upheld a federal
was a war fought to counter the secession of Biafra from structure for Nigeria and was vehemently opposed to a
Nigerian federation. Biafra represented the interest of the confederal system.
Igbo people. The Igbo people felt they could no longer
Due to the breakdown of the Aburi Accord, Ojukwu began
coexist with the northern dominated federated government.
to prepare for secession. Gowon took a decisive political
The remote causes could be traced to political, economic,
action to erode the political structure and image of Ojukwu
ethnic, cultural and religious tensions from 1960 to 1963.
by creating twelve (12) states on May 27, 1967. The
However, the immediate causes of the war in 1966
Eastern region was carved into three (3) states. A civilian
included a military coup, a counter coup and persecution
administrator, Ukpabi Asika was appointed for the East
of Igbo indigenous living in northern Nigeria. In particular,
Central State. On May 30, 1967, Ojukwu proclaimed the
the control over oil production in the Niger Delta played a
Independent Republic of Biafra, claiming the easterners
major cause. The Igbo people decided to secede to form
‘can no longer be protected by any government based
Biafra Republic for fear of political domination and unfair
outside Eastern Nigeria’. In response, Gowon declared a
sharing of the wealth of the nation. Lieutenant Colonel
state of emergency throughout the federation, and ordered
Ojukwu, the then Military Governor of the Eastern Region,
a police action to stop the rebellion. In return, Ojukwu
declared the Republic of Biafra.
declared a total war against the Nigerian authority.
Eventually, hostilities broke out on July 6, 1967. It was the
Biafran army that first opened fire on the federal troops. In
retaliation, the federal troops stopped the ‘police action’
and also declared a total war on Biafra, and coined the
slogan ‘Go On With One Nigeria” from Gowon’s name on
August 9, 1967.
The conflict was discussed at various international
summits and conferences. Britain and the Soviet Union
were the main backers of a federal government, while
France and some independent elements supported Biafra.
France and Israel provided weapons to both combatants.
The United States declared neutrality as Nigeria was an era
under British influence. The African Union (former
Organisation of African Unity) subscribed to continuous
existence of one Nigeria. Only four African states
recognizes Biafra, namely Tanzania, Zambia, Ivory Coast
(now Cote d’Ivoire) and Gabon. The 5th non-African
country that recognizes Biafra was Haiti. The international
organization such as the UN and Commonwealth
supported a peaceful resolution of the conflict.
The feeral government intensified efforts to win the war. It
embarked on an economic blockade to stop the supply of
food to the Biafran troops. The secessionist’s troops found
it difficult to withstand the fire power of the federal troops.
As a result, Ojukwu fled to Ivory Coast (now Cote
d’Ivoire) on January 10, 1970. The civil war came to an
end on January 12, 1970 when the Biafran army under the
Chief Chukwuemeka Odumegwu Ojukwu (1933 – 2011) leadership of Major General Philip Effiong surrendered in
‘good faith’ to the Nigerian federal government. Gowon
The civil war centred around Lieutenant Colonel Gowon made a declaration of “no victor, no vanquished” in the
and Lieutenant Colonel Ojukwu. Ojukwu refused to spirit of national unity. Gowon’s administration began the
recognize Gowon as the Head of State. He was also tasks of reconciliation rehabilitation and reconstruction of
unhappy about the killing of Igbo officers and thousands Igboland to bring them into the mainstream of the Nigerian
of Igbo in the counter coup of July 29, 1966. Ojukwu federation.
therefore demanded a confederation as a solution to the
political impasse. Frantic efforts were made by prominent The civil war resulted in loss of lives and property on both
Nigerians like Chief Obafemi Awolowo and Justice sides. It cost the Igbo people a great deal of loss in terms
Adetokunbo Ademola to reconcile the two actors, but to no of lives, money and infrastructure. It was estimated that
avail. A meeting was held by both sides at Aburi in Ghana about three to four million people might have died due to
under General Ankrah on January 4 – 5, 1967 to resolve the conflict, hunger and disease. The food blockade led to
the conflict. They agreed on some terms, but the Aburi the death of many people. The federal army was also
Accord collapsed due to conflicting interpretations by the accused of the deliberate bombing of civilians, mass
two main actors. Ojukwu claimed that they had agreed to slaughter with machine guns and rape. Likewise, the
move slightly apart by adopting a confederation, but federal government incurred a great loss in military men,
money and other facilities for the prosecution of the war.
439
THREAT OF SECESSION BY MILITARY GROUPS in Maiduguri, Borno State, by Ustaz Muhammed Yusuf.
At various times, militants in the Niger Delta and Eastern Boko Haram emerged with an ideology that rejects
states have called for secession from Nigeria. Such groups modernity and western education, with the basic objective
include the Movement for the Emancipation of the Niger of establishing sharia law and Islamic Caliphate in Nigeria.
Delta (MEND), Indigenous People of Biafra (IPOB), Niger Between 2009 and 2017, thousands of people were killed,
Delta Avengers (NDA), Movement for the Actualisation of property worth millions of Naira destroyed and thousands
the Sovereign State of Biafra (MASSOB), etc. of people internally and externally displaced within and
outside Nigeria. The north-eastern states of Borno,
The various militant groups have a common sense of Adamawa and Yobe were badly affected by the notorious
neglect of the Niger Delta region in terms of development attacks of the Boko Haram movement. However, the
and political leadership in the country. The Niger Delta Nigerian military successfully defeated Boko Haram,
Avengers in the oil heartland of the Niger Delta threatened while rehabilitation of displaced persons, reconstruction of
secession from Nigeria. The attacks on oil and gas infrastructure like houses, schools, hospitals, etc. were
pipelines deplete Nigeria’s revenue. The NDA complained undertaken by the states of Borno, Adamawa and Yobe,
that the benefits of the region’s vast oil resources have not the federal government of Nigeria, international bodies
been equally distributed among its citizens and therefore like UN, Red Cross, civil societies, philanthropic
called for greater autonomy for the Niger Delta. The group organisation and individuals. Nigeria won the war against
threatened to seek secession from Nigeria if resource Boko Haram. The capacity of Boko Haram insurgents to
control was not properly addressed by the federal launch attacks has already been severely degraded by the
government. The pro-Biafra activists expressed solidarity Nigerian military force.
with the NDA’s cause. The NDA further called for the
release of Nnamdi Kanu, a prominent pro-Biafra leader Problems of Secession in Nigeria
who was detained on October, 2015 on charges of Ethnic rivalry resulting in threats of secession have caused
treasonable felony which he denied and claimed of being a lot of problems for the survival, progress and growth of
tried in the law court unjustly by the federal government. the Nigerian federation. Such problems are stated below:
1. Loss of lives and property.
The NDA declared war on Nigeria’s oil infrastructure by 2. National security by the secessionists and militants.
bombing oil installations belonging to the Nigerian 3. Mutual suspicion, hatred and fear of other tongues
National Petroleum Corporation (NNPC) and other and tribes.
international oil companies. The major attacks on oil and 4. Guns and dangerous instruments are beginning to rule
gas pipelines through dangerous explosive devices and ruin the country.
affected national reserves. Production level reduced 5. Kidnapping of oil workers.
drastically to 806 barrels per day from 1.4 million barrels 6. Crippling of the nation’s economy by bombing oil
per day. and gas pipelines.
7. Politics of do – or die to control the political
Militants that threaten the corporate existence of Nigeria machinery of the country.
are: 8. Disharmony among the various nationalities in the
(i) Niger Delta Vigilante (NDV). country.
(ii) Niger Delta People’s Volunteer Force (NDPVF). 9. Destruction of national assets and other public
(iii) Movement for the Emancipation of the Niger Delta facilities.
(MEND). 10. Destruction of towns and villages by herdsmen and
(iv) Niger Delta Avengers (NDA). killing of innocent people.
(v) Niger Delta Liberation Front (NDLF).
(vi) Movement for the Survival of the Ogoni People Measures (Solutions) to Avoid Secession in Nigeria
(MOSOP). It is highly desirable for Nigeria to continue to exist as a
(vii) Bakassi Boys. federation. It is therefore necessary to take into
(viii) Boko Haram. consideration the following measures:
1. Hosting of a national stakeholders forum
Other ethnic militants are: (CONFAB): To forge a binding bond of unity from
(i) Movement for the Actualisation of the Sovereign our diversity in tribes and tongues.
State of Biafra (MASSOB). 2. Re-educating the elite: Our elite must be more
(ii) Odua People’s Congress (OPC). positive in their attitude to national issues. Those
(iii) Egbesu Boys. who often mislead the people for short term personal
(iv) Arewa People’s Congress (APC). gains and benefits must know they are doing a great
(v) Indigenous People of Biafra (IPOB) led by Nnamdi harm to our collective interests.
Kanu. 3. Adopting a true fiscal federation: To be in place is
true federalism, where states will have the power to
BOKO HARAM resource control.
Another criminal group which threatened the corporate 4. Empowering the economic power: The Economic
existence of Nigerian federation is the Boko Haram which power of the poor can be empowered through gainful
termed education as a “sin”. The group has killed and employment and granting of loans and credit
murdered Christians and Muslims alike, particularly in facilities for the establishment of small businesses.
north-eastern Nigeria. Boko Haram was founded in 2002
440
5. Embarking on a positive orientation of all 1994/43
Nigerians by the press particularly, the youth to The 1953 motion that Nigeria should attain self-government
demonstrate allegiance towards national interest: in 1956 was moved by
The press must see itself as a responsible and critical A. Dr. Nnamdi Azikiwe B. Chief Obafemi Awolowo
agent of national stability and brotherhood among C. Chief Anthony Enahoro D. Sir Ahmadu Bello
the various tribes in the country. It must not engage E. Mallam Aminu Kano
in fake, inciting and insulting publications, but in Answer
constructive ideas that will ensure a peaceful, united Chief Anthony Enahoro. In 1953, Anthony Enahoro initiated
and progressive Nigerian state. the self government motion in the Western House of
Assembly, which eventually led to Nigerian independence on
6. Formatting an all-inclusive governance at the
the 1st day of October, 1960. (C)
centre whereby all parts of the country are
represented in critical positions: The best brains, Exercise 33.2
irrespective of political parties must be placed in 1. Which one is not the cause of ethnic conflict in Nigeria?
positions of authority. A. tribalism B. love C. favouritism
7. Sharing of wealth of the nation equally amongst D. resource control
the various component states: This will ensure
economic justice and equity. In addition, there is
need to devolve power over resource distribution and MINORITY ISSUES AND THE CREATION OF
development from all-powerful central government STATES
to local constituencies. This will make the central The 1960 constitution under which Nigeria gained political
political power less attractive over national political independence expressingly forbids any discrimination against
offices. a particular community, tribe, place of origin, religion or
8. Promotion national integration and stability: political opinion. An ethnic group in Nigeria is usually a
Integration is very important in nation building, combination of a number of factors: a shared language or
particularly in a federal state. It ensures that there is related dialects, myth of common origin, shared religious or
cohesion among the people. This will in turn foster spiritual universe.
stability and unity among the citizens.
9. Appointing a leader who possesses a national It was generally agreed that the ethnic groups be broadly
outlook and high sense of integrity: He must serve divided into ethnic “majorities and minorities”. These
as a father figure for all Nigerians and must not be classification has its own history. The numerically and
ethnically or religiously biased in dealing with politically major ethnic groups are the Hausas, Yorubas and
national values. Igbos. These three main ethnic groups are popularly referred
10. Removing the indigene and non-indigene to by the generic term as “WAZOBIA”. All the rest constitute
dichotomy: Government need to remove indigene different degrees of minority status. There are large minorities
and non-indigene dichotomy from the constitution to with millions of members, such as the Ijaws, Kanuri, Fulani,
foster unity, brotherhood and national integration. A Edo, Ibibio, Nupe and the Tivs.
new constitution that defines rights and privileges of
The estimated population of Nigeria in 2001 was
citizenship in terms of residency rather than
126.6million, making the country the most populous in
nativism, ancestry and religion needs to be Africa. Population of speakers of the 12 largest language
entrenched. groups in Nigeria; Hausa, Yoruba, Igbo, Fulani, Kanuri,
11. Upholding the value of fair play: Government Ibibio, Tiv, Ijaw, Edo, Nupe, Urhobo and Igala. There are
should embrace fairness in the distribution of more than 372 Nigerian tribes, it was note worthy that Hausa,
resources, positions and wealth among component Yoruba and Igbos made up about 70 percents of the
regions in order to eliminate the malaise of population of Nigerians. Nigeria has 774 local government
favouritism in Nigeria. Government should not areas.
always resort to the use of violence to settle
conflicts. Instead, it should embrace dialogue. These Nigerian tribes have different cultures carried on by
their people, thereby contributing to the immense cultural
Author’s Question diversity seen in the country. Hausa is the largest tribe in
From the lesson above, kindly state some of the causes that Nigeria population. They live in the Northern part of Nigeria
led to the agitation of secession in Nigeria. including Kano, Kaduna, Biram, Jos, Lafia, Katsina, Abuja,
1. The North part of Nigeria threatened to secede or Sokoto, Bauchi, Kebbi, Damaturu, Dutse, Gombe, Suleja,
break away when Chief Anthony Enahoro presented Gusau, Jalingo, Jebba, Jos, Maiduguri, Markurdi, Yola, Zaria,
his motion on self-government. etc.
2. The north also wanted to secede, in 1960, when they
agitated for half of the seat of the federal parliament. The Yoruba tribe constitutes almost 21% of the population of
3. In May 1967, the Igbo’s in the Eastern region of Nigeria and this translates to about 40 million people. They
inhabit the south western part of Nigeria. The Yoruba’s are
Nigeria declared secession which led to Biafra war.
well educated and were involved in arts, they have made a
4. The Yoruba’s, in the Western region also agitated for
long history of poetry, they made impressive bronze
secession, when they saw that the federalism in sculptures, most of which were made to represent the head of
Nigeria was truncating. gods or rulers. They also made a lot of beadwork, metal work,
weaving and mask making.

441
The Igbo tribe is one of the major tribes in Nigeria with 4. What is the percentage of Hausa’s in Nigeria
appreciate number of 17 percent of Nigeria population. population?
Historically, the Igbos was from Nri Kingdom which A. 29% B. 16% C. 21% D. 25% E. 28%
happens to be the oldest kingdom in Nigeria. The Igbos are Answer
industrious and made bronze ceremonial vessels as part of Hausa’s are the largest tribe in Nigeria making up about
the culture and heritage dated back to the Stone Age. 29% of Nigeria population. They live in the northern
Geographically, the Igbo land occupied most of the South part of the country including: Kano, Kaduna, Biram, Jos,
Eastern Nigeria and some of the major cities includes: Lafia, Katsina, Abuja, Sokoto, Bauchi, Kebbbi,
Enugu, Onitsha, Owerri, Asaba, Awka, Abakaliki, Abia, Damaturu, Dutse, Gombe, Suleja, Gusau, Jalingo,
Jebba, Maiduguri, Makurdi, Yola, Zaria, etc. (A)
Orua, etc..
5. Which of the following tribe have 17 percent of the
Nigeria population?
The minority ethnic groups can be found in Benue State – A. Kanuri B. Fulani C. Yoruba D. Hausa
Tiv, Idoma, Igede. Kogi State – Igala, Ebira and Kaba. E. Igbo
Delta State – Ijaw, Itsekiri, Urhobo, Isoko, etc. Cross River Answer
State – Efik; Akwa Ibom State – Ibibio; Edo State – Bini, The Igbo tribe is one of the major tribes in Nigeria with
Esan, etc. appreciate number of 17 percent of Nigeria population.
Nigeria is one of the ethnically diversed nations of the Historically, the Igbo’s were from Nri kingdom which
world. The term minority as used in U.N human rights happens to be the oldest kingdom in Nigeria. (E)
system usually refers to national or ethnic religious and
linguistics minorities, pursuant to the U.N minorities’ Exercise 33.3
declaration. All states have one or more minority groups What was the estimated population of Nigeria in 2001
within their national territories, characterized by their own census?
national, ethnic, linguistic or religious identity, which A. 131.32million B. 141.24million
differs from that of the majority population. C. 139.20 million D. 126.6 million
Similarly, it is important to keep in mind that in many E. 152.3million
countries, minorities are often found to be among the most
marginalized groups in the society and severely affected by Exercise 33.4
pandemic diseases due to poor access to general health care How many tribes do we have in Nigeria?
services. A. 372 B. 374 C. 378 D. 376 E. 371

Exercise 33.5
Author’s Question
How many local government areas, do we have in Nigeria?
1. Which of the following are the three major languages
A. 781 B. 770 C. 774 D. 775 E. 777
in Nigeria?
A. English, Hausa and Yoruba B. Hausa, Jukun and Exercise 33.6
Ogoni C. Hausa, Yoruba and Igbo Mention the twelve largest languages in Nigeria.
D. TIV, Yoruba and Igbo
E. Fulani, Kanuri and Yoruba Exercise 33.7
Answer Explain briefly the Yoruba population and culture in Nigeria.
Hausa, Yoruba and Igbo, the three major languages
are predominantly spoken and used as a means of
communication in the regions where they are THE SIX ZONES OF NIGERIA
localized. (C) In 2003, Nigeria was divided into six zones, from the 36
2. The three main ethnic groups are popularly referred states of the federation.
to by the generic term as
A. OWAMBE B. WAZOBIA C. KBANO North West
D. KILOSELE 1. Sokoto state.
Answer 2. Kebbi state.
Hausa, Igbo and Yoruba languages only and tagged it 3. Zamfara state.
“WAZOBIA” meaning “Wa” (come) in Yoruba 4. Katsina state.
language, “Zo” (come) in Hausa language and “Bia” 5. Kano state.
which also meant (come) in Igbo language 6. Jigawa state.
respectively. Wazobia was a name given by the late 7. Kaduna state.
talented musician – Roy Chicago.
3. There are two degrees of minority status in Nigeria North Central
A. large and small B. big and few 1. Kwara state.
C. little and large D. bigger and biggest 2. Niger state.
E. plenty and nothing 3. Kogi state.
Answer 4. Benue state.
In Nigeria, we have two degrees of minority status 5. Nasarawa state.
meaning we have to categorize of minority large and 6. Plateau state.
small. (A)

442
North East The agitation for the creation of states is always based on one
1. Yobe state. of the following reasons:
2. Borno state. 1. Structural imbalance problems: The need to address
3. Gombe state. structural imbalance in the sharing of political power
4. Bauchi state. among component units. The need to redress the
5. Adamawa state. structural imbalance in the number of states between the
6. Taraba state. North and South.
2. Participatory government: The need for government to
be nearer to the people at the grassroots level so they
South West
will be actively involved.
1. Oyo state.
3. Creation of new minorities: The paradox of the whole
2. Osun state.
exercise is that each new state which satisfies the
3. Ekiti state. aspiration of a nationality creates new minorities which
4. Ondo state. breeds new agitations.
5. Ogun state. 4. Denial of employment: Members of the nationality
6. Lagos state. (minority) are denied employment.
5. No promotion opportunities: The minority groups were
South – South equally denied promotion opportunities.
1. Edo state. 6. No development projects: Developmental projects were
2. Delta state. not sited in their areas.
3. Bayelsa state. 7. Expulsion of nationals (minority): These allegations
4. Rivers state. usually breed antagonism and the successful cases are
5. Akwa-Ibom state. usually accompanied by expulsion of nationals of the
6. Cross River state. nationality from the public service of the state from
which the new state is being carved out.
South – East 8. The use of physical force: By political party which was
1. Enugu state. becoming a feature of Nigerian politics and was seen by
2. Anambra state. Willink’s commission as a threat to democracy.
3. Ebonyi state. 9. Diversity: The need for national unity and stability in an
4. Abia state. ethnically diverse society. Federalism is based on the
5. Imo state. principle of unity in diversity.
10. Fear of domination: The need to minimize fears of
domination and prevent oppression.
11. Socio-economic development: The need to accelerate
REASONS FOR THE DEMAND FOR MORE socio-economic development across the federation. It
STATES ensures a hope of economic progress for the different
Nigeria as a federation is regionally and ethnically based parts of the country. The economic potentials of every
and this creates fear of marginalization in the minds of the component unit will be tapped for the benefit of the
minorities in different parts of the country. The desire for people.
state creation was rooted in mistrust and fear of minorities;
hence, it has become a recurring issue in the Nigerian COMPLEXITY AND ENDLESS NATURE OF
political system. Minor ethnic groups always express fears STATE CREATION.
of domination by the major ethnic groups. Towards this Nigeria is a federated political entity with thirty-six (36)
end, the British colonial administrations set up Minorities states and the Federal Capital Territory (FCT) Abuja. The
Commissions headed by Sir Henry Willink’s in 1957 to timeline of state creation is as follows:
look into the fears of the minorities. (i) 1960–1963 – Three (3) regions: North, West and East.
(ii) 1963–1967 – Four (4) Regions: North, West, Mid-
From the 1940s, the agitation assumed a new proportion as West (carved out of Western region in 1963) and East.
more Nigerians participated in the affairs of the country. (iii) 1967–1976 – General Yakubu Gowon’s
To allay the fears of these minorities, the Willink administration created twelve (12) states on May 27,
Commission opposed the entrenchment of state creation 1967.
clause in future constitutions. It was the 1960 constitution (iv) 1976 – 1987 – General Murtala Muhammed’s regime
that first expressly provided for the creation of more states. created seven (7) states on February 3, 1976, making
Nigeria has been subdivided into smaller geopolitical units Nigerian federation nineteen (19) states.
eight times as in 1914, 1939, 1963, 1967, 1970, 1987, 1991 (v) 1987 – 1991 – General Ibrahim Babangida’s
and 1996. It was the minorities in the Mid-west that first administration created nine (9) and two (2) states
got their own region in August, 1963. Other minorities respectively in 1987 and 1991 (21 states on
were catered for in the 1967, 1987 and 1996 states creation September 23, 1987 and thirty (30) states on August
exercises. 29, 1991). The FCT was also created in 1991.
(vi) 1991–1996 – General Sani Abacha’s administration
created six (6) states in 1996, making thirty – six (36)
states in Nigeria and FCT, Abuja.

443
The struggle and agitation for the creation of more states 5. Willink’s commission recommend existing boundary
in Nigeria came up again at the national conference between Western and Northern regions. Suggested
organized by the Goodluck Jonathan administration which that if any, let it come through plebiscite.
took place at the Federal Capital Territory, Abuja between 6. There should be annual reports for the minority in the
March 14 and August 17, 2014. The agitation for more House of Representatives and other appropriate
state became one of the prominent issues to be addressed Regional Houses.
by the conference led by Justice Idris Kutigi. Eventually, 7. Regional governments are to monitor the minority
the conference recommended that eighteen (18) additional areas with special council for both Calabar and mid–
states be created to cut across the six geo-political zones in west.
Nigeria. In its final report, the national conference 8. There should be special development boards for
recommended that the following eighteen (18) additional Niger–Delta areas to be established.
states be created to bring the number of states in the 9. Financial and other responsibilities to be shared
country to fifty – four (54). The proposed/recommended equally by the federal and regional governments.
states are: Niger–Delta should be declared a special area.
(i) Apa from Benue State.
(ii) Edu from Niger State. The leader of the minority groups were dissatisfied with
(iii) Kainji from Kebbi State. Willink’s recommendations. The Mid-west State
(iv) Katagum from Bauchi State. Movement continued to press for the creation of a state of
(v) Savannah from Borno State. the Mid-west. The leaders of the movement were Chief
(vi) Amana from Adamawa State. Enahoro, Chief Akpata and Chief Dennis Osadebay. This
(vii) Gurara from Kaduna State. agitation prepared the ground for the creation of Mid-west
(viii) Ghari from Kano State. Region in 1963 out of the Western Region.
(ix) Etiki from South East.
(x) Aba from Abia State. Solutions to Minority Problems in Nigeria
(xi) Njaba from Anambra and Imo State. 1. The rule of law should be respected and adherence to
(xii) Adada from Enugu State. the laws of the land. The law should be supreme and
(xiii) Oil River from River State. above all irrespective of one’s political or economic
(xiv) Anioma from Delta State. status.
(xv) Ogoja from Cross River State. 2. The structure and principles of federalism should be
(xvi) Ijebu from Ogun State. sustained.
(xvii) Ose from Edo State. 3. The judiciary should remain independent and
(xviii) New Oyo from the present Oyo State. impartial in its interpretation of the constitution.
4. United Nations minorities in its article 1 provides that
state (country) should protect their existence.
RECOMMENDATION OF WILLINK’S 5. The entrenchment of fundamental human rights of
COMMISSION man in the constitution to protect and safeguard
The Willink’s Commission was set up in 1957 to look into minority interests.
the fears of domination of minorities by the major ethnic 6. The major ethnic groups in Nigeria, the Yoruba,
groups. It was headed by Sir Henry Willink. For example, Hausa/Fulani and the Igbos should not dominate the
the Edo and the Itsekiri feared the Yorubas; the Middle political terrain of the country, the minorities groups
Belt of the Northern region had fears of Hausa/Fulani should be given equal opportunities via power shift.
domination; while Calabar, Ogoja and the Niger Delta of
the Eastern region feared the Igbos. These areas agitated 1994/10
for separate regions to take care of their local peculiarities A. Why was the Willink’s commission of enquiry set up?
and interests. The commission opposed the creation of Answer
more states in Nigeria. It asserted that such new regions The commission was set up to look into the
would not be viable and that the new regions would only grievances of minority groups and their agitations for
create new minority problems. The report of the separate states and make recommendations.
commission showed that the fears expressed by the B. Give an account of its major recommendations.
minorities were genuine, but did not feel the fears could be 1. Problems cannot be solved by creation of more
removed by mere creation of more states. It therefore states.
recommended the following 2. Entrench fundamental human rights in the
constitution to safeguard the interest of the
1. The creation of more states cannot solve the problems minorities.
of minorities in the country. 3. Police to be under federal control.
2. Police force was also recommended under federal 4. Minority areas with special council for both Calabar
authority. and mid–west to monitor regional government.
3. Fundamental human rights to be entrenched into the 5. Special Development Boards for Niger Delta
constitution to protect and safeguard the interests of areas.
the minorities. 6. Plebiscite for Northern minorities.
4. Muslim laws should be used for only Muslim citizens 7. Majority parties would have to win the support of
and non – Muslim should be given an option facing minorities.
trial.
444
1991/30
The problem of the minority groups in Nigeria was first
raised in the
A. 1953/54 constitutional conference
B. 1957/58 constitutional conference
C. 1960 constitutional conference
D. 1963 constitutional conference
E. 1979 constitutional conference
Answer
The problem of the minority groups in Nigeria was first
raised in the 1957/58 constitutional conference and that
was why Willink’s commission was set up to look into the
grievances of the minority groups in Nigeria. (B)

REVISION EXERCISES
1. Katsina and Akwa Ibom states were created in
A. 1967 B. 1976 C. 1986 D. 1987 E. 1988
2. The twelve states structures was created in Nigeria in
A. 1965 B. 1966 C. 1967 D. 1974 E. 1975
3. Zamfara state is under which zone
A. North-west B. North central C. North east
D. South west E. South – south
4. The following are the south – west except
A. Oyo B. Osun C. Ogun D. Ekiti E. Edo
5. Which of the following is under the South – south?
A. Bauchi B. Niger C. Edo D. Imo
E. Lagos
6. Discuss the inter–ethnic rivalry in Nigeria.
7. Define secession.
8. Enumerate five causes of ethnic conflicts in Nigeria.
9. Explain three problems of secession in Nigeria.
10. State six minor ethnic groups in Nigeria.
11. Mention five states under the North Central.
12. Explain five reasons why they demand for more
states.
13. Enumerate six recommendations of Willink’s
commission.
14. Enumerate the six zones of Nigeria.
15. State the north east states.
16. Highlight five reasons for the demand for more
states.
17. Highlight the states under south – south zone in
Nigeria.

445
6. The party fostered political consciousness of people of
Chapter Thirty Four Lagos.
7. The party played significant role in the restoration of
DEVELOPMENT OF POLITICAL the Eleko who was deposed and deported by the
British colonial administration.
PARTIES IN NIGERIA 8. NNDP has a laudable objective of establishing
History of political parties in Nigeria will never be branches in other parts of the country.
complete, if the first republic political parties were not 9. The party provided a platform for testing true
mentioned in the history of this country. The first set of representatives in Nigeria.
political party to be formed in Nigeria was in 1923 before 10. The NNDP foreshadowed the militant political parties
Nigerian gained her independence from Britain. The in the post world war era in Nigeria.
Nigerian National Democratic Party (NNDP) and Nigerian
Youth Movement (NYM) were formed as political parties 2018/2 UTME
after the introduction of the Clifford constitution. They Which of the following was the first political party in
could not be said to be national parties. Their activities Nigeria?
were mainly restricted to Lagos. However, at the end of the A. the Action Group
Second World War, new political parties emerged and B. Northern People’s Congress (NPC)
replaced the NNDP and NYM. Some were major while C. National Council of Nigeria and the Cameroons
others minor. (NCNC)
D. Nigerian National Democratic Party (NNDP)
NIGERIAN NATIONAL DEMOCRATIC PARTY Answer
(NNDP) Nigerian National Democratic (NNDP) was the first
The Nigerian National Democratic Party (NNDP) was political party in Nigeria (D)
Nigeria first political party, formed in 1923 by Herbert
Macaulay to take advantage of the new Clifford 2004/16 UTME
constitution. Herbert Macaulay was popularly referred to A common feature of the earlier political parties in Nigeria
as “Father of Nigerian nationalism. The Nigerian National was that they
Democratic Party (NNDP) successfully organized various A. were formed by the government
Lagos interest groups into a single group that was able to B. started as socio-cultural organizations
compete politically. The party won all the three seats in C. were backed by the colonialists
Lagos into the legislative council in the elections of 1923, D. association of Fulanis
1928 and 1931. Answer
The common characteristics of the earlier political parties
The party major function was to put candidates into the in Nigeria was that they started as socio-cultural
legislative council, the party also promoted democracy in organizations (B)
Nigeria, it increases higher Nigerian participation in the
social, economic and educational development of Nigeria. 1992/35 UTME
The Nigeria National Democratic Party (NNDP) also The primary factor which led to the formation of political
founded Lagos Daily News. This was a newspaper formed parties in colonial Nigeria was
by this party. It was an arm of the party which helped to A. introduction of the elective principle and representative
encourage political activities especially in Lagos. The party institutions
was mainly based in Lagos and did not have a national B. increased wealth of the indigenous elites
outlook, the financing of the party was done by party C. granting of self-government by the colonial
members. administration
D. call by black people all over the world for a final assault
However, the political history of Lagos in the twenties and on colonialism
thirties was essentially the history of Herbert Macaulay’s Answer
political activities. He always identified himself with the The introduction of the elective principle and
people. representative institutions led to the formation of political
parties in colonial Nigeria (A)
Achievements of the NNDP
1. The NNDP dominated Lagos politics and won all the 1988/54
seats of honourable on the legislative council in three The first political party in Nigeria was
elections that took place in 1923, 1928 and 1933. A. National Council of Nigeria Citizens (NCNC)
2. The party also won the elective seats in the Lagos B. Nigerian National Democratic Party (NNDP)
Town council between 1923 and 1938. C. Action Group (A.G)
3. The party was a populist party which gave it a massive D. Northern People’s Congress (NPC)
support. E. Dynamic Party (DP)
4. NNDP was the most organized political party between Answer
the period of 1923 and 1938. Nigerian National Democratic Party (NNDP) was
5. The electoral success of the NNDP was very Nigeria’s first political party, formed in 1923 by Herbert
significant in the Nigerian political history. Macaulay. (B)

446
1998/44 B. Achievements of the NNDP
Who among the following nationalists founded the first 1. The NNDP dominated Lagos politics and won all
political party in Nigeria? the seats of honourable on the legislative council
A. Nnamdi Azikiwe B. Obafemi Awolowo in three elections that took place in 1923, 1928
C. Samuel Akinsanya D. Herbert Macaulay and 1933.
E. Tafawa Balewaa 2. The party also won the elective seats in the Lagos
Answer Town council between 1923 and 1938.
Sir Herbert Macaulay was the founder of Nigerian National 3. The party was a populist party which gave it a
Democratic Party (NNDP). (D) massive support.
4. NNDP was the most organized political party
2005/9 between the period of 1923 and 1938.
In what ways did the Nigerian National Democratic party 5. The electoral success of the NNDP was very
(NNDP) contribute to the political development of significant in the Nigerian political history.
Nigeria? 6. The party fostered political consciousness of
i. It was responsible for the upgrading of Lagos Town people of Lagos.
council. 7. The party played significant role in the
ii. Contributed to competitive political activities. restoration of the Eleko who was deposed and
iii. It was the first political party to be formed in Nigeria deported by the British colonial administration.
under the leadership of Herbert Macaulay. 8. NNDP has a laudable objective of establishing
iv. It motivated the establishment of other political branches in other parts of the country.
parties e.g. Lagos Youth Movement. 9. The party provided a platform for testing true
v. It was responsible for returning the three elected representatives in Nigeria.
candidates to the elective seat allocated to Lagos 10. The NNDP foreshadowed the militant political
during the election into the legislative council 1923, parties in the post world war era in Nigeria.
1928 and 1933.
vi. It actualized the elective principle as the party 1998/45
contested elections in 1923, 1928 and 1933. A major problem of political parties in Nigeria during the
vii. It socialized and educated the electorate on political, first Republic is that all
economic and other vital issues affecting the country. A. were frantically handicapped B. had poor leadership
viii. It provided machinery for the recruitment/training of C. were tribally based D. failed to contest elections
political leaders. E. were not organized
ix. The party was directly instrumental to the restoration Answer
of the Eleko who had been deposed and deported by The main problem of political parties in Nigeria during the
the British colonial administration. First Republic is that all were tribally based. The northern
x. The party serves as a link between the people and people’s congress was dominated by the Hausa’s and
colonial government. Fulani’s. The Action Group by the Yoruba’s whiles the
NCNC by the Igbos. (C)
1993/8
A. Discuss the objectives and achievements of the 1985/40 UTME
Nigerian National Democratic Party (NNDP) The Nigerian National Democratic Party (NNDP) of the
founded in 1923. pre-independence era
Answer A. dominated the political scene in Lagos
1. To secure self government for Nigeria from B. was formed to replace the Action Group as the ruling
Britain. party in the Western region
2. To elect members to the Lagos legislative C. had branches all over the country
council. D. was warmly supported by traditional rulers
3. To secure municipal status and local self– E. was not opposed to indirect rule
government for Lagos. Answer
4. To provide facilities for higher education in The activities of the Nigerian National Democratic party
Nigeria. (NNDP) of the pre-independence era were mainly
5. To establish branches in other parts of the restricted to Lagos (A)
country.
6. To cooperate with and work hand in hand with 2017/2018/92 (DELSU, ABRAKA)
the National Congress for British West Africa The main global aim of the NNDP was to
(NCBWA). A. agitate for Nigeria’s independence
7. To work and secure Africanization of the civil B. achieve franchise for Nigerians
service. C. secure limited autonomy for the nations
D. secure independence for Nigeria
Answer
The main global aim and objective of the Nigerian
National Democratic Party was to agitate for Nigeria
independence (A)

447
1983/40 UTME The movement acquired national outlook and became a
The first political party in Nigeria was formed after the strong national movement when Nnamdi Azikiwe and H.O.
introduction of the Davies returned to Nigeria in 1937 and 1938 respectively
A. Richards constitution B. Clifford constitution and consequently joined the movement. Nigerian Youth
C. Macpherson constitution D. Lyttleton constitution Movement (NYM) became the first authentic Nigerian
Answer nationalist organization to be formed, Obafemi Awolowo
The first political party in Nigeria was formed after the and Samuel Akintola were other prominent members of the
introduction of the Clifford constitution (B) movement which membership was open to all Nigerians
especially those resident in Lagos. Today All Nigerian
2014/23 (OAU, IFE) UTME Youths needs to stand up and defend our beloved Country
Federalism became a feature of Nigeria’s political system Nigeria by choosing the right President, Senators,
following the introduction of the Governors, Assembly members both in federal and states,
A. republican constitution B. Lyttleton constitution including Chairmen and councilors in various LGAs across
C. Richards constitution D. Macpherson constitution the Federal Republic of Nigeria.
Answer
Federalism became a feature of Nigeria’s political system Aims and Objectives of Nigerian Youth Movement
following the introduction of the Lyttleton constitution 1. To work towards the unity of Nigeria.
(B) 2. To work towards the attainment of self-rule.
3. To pressurize the government to award scholarship to
2007/45 Exercise 34.1 the youths to study abroad.
The main goal of the NNDP was to 4. To demand establishment of a new legislative council
A. agitate for Nigeria’s independence built on the principle of an unofficial majority.
B. achieve franchise for Nigerians 5. To demand for equal economic opportunities for
C. secure limited autonomy for the natives Nigerians with those enjoyed by foreigners.
D. secure independence for Nigeria 6. To demand better pay for Africans in the civil service.
7. To demand for higher executive appointments for
1995/45 Exercise 34.2 Africans within the civil service.
The main criticism against pre-independence political parties 8. To see that more use are being made of Africans in
in Nigeria was that they
the administrative branch of the public service.
A. were not national in outlook B. had no manifestoes
9. To cooperate with all bodies whose aims and
C. did not contribute to political development
D. did not educate the electorate
aspirations are similar to its own.
E. did not establish constituency party officers 10. To struggle for the complete control of the township
council by Nigerians.
1990/31 Exercise 34.3 11. To work for political emancipation of Nigerians with
The first political party in Nigeria was the the aim of achieving complete autonomy within the
A. Nigerian National Democratic Party Britain Empire.
B. Nigerian Youth Movement
C. Action Group Contributions/achievements of Nigerian Youth Movement
D. National Council of Nigeria and the Cameroons 1. The movement won all the three legislative seats
allocated to Lagos in 1983.
1982/38 Exercise 34.4 2. It led the struggle for national unity and political
Which of the parties listed below was founded by Herbert independence.
Macaulay in 1923? 3. It helped to put pressure on the colonial government to
A. The Nigerian Youth Movement speed up the constitutional development and
B. the Action Group independence of Nigeria.
C. The Northern People’s Congress 4. The movement established a newspaper called Daily
D. The Nigerian National Democratic Party service to create political awareness among the people
E. The National Council of Nigerian Citizens of Nigeria.
5. It fought for equality of opportunities for all Nigerians.
6. It fought for the introduction of universal adult
NIGERIAN YOUTH MOVEMENT suffrage in Nigeria.
The Nigerian Youth Movement (NYM) was Nigeria’s first 7. It was the first multi-ethnic political party that brought
genuine nationalist organization, founded in Lagos in 1934
together people of different ethnic groups in Nigeria.
with Professor Eyo Ita Esua as the founding father and many
8. The movement nurtured early Nigeria nationalists who
others including Samuel Akinsanya, Ernest Ikoli, the first
editor of the Daily Times of Nigeria, which was launched in helped in the struggle for independence.
June 1926, was another founding member. The president of 9. It fought against economic exploitation by European
the organization was Dr. Kofo Abayomi, Ernest Ikoli was firms.
Vice President and H. O. Davies was the Secretary. It was the 10. Nigerian Youth Movement brought modern
first multi-ethnic organization in Nigeria and its programme nationalism to Nigerians.
was to foster political advancement of the country and
enhance the socio-economic status of the Nigerian citizens.
Adeyemo Alakija later became president of the NYM.

448
2019/43 NABTEB 2001/33 UTME
Which of the following was not among the four Nigerian who The Nigerian Youth Movement collapsed as a result of
founded the Nigerian Youth Movement (NYM)? A. its failure to win elections
A. Ernest Ikoli B. Samuel Akinsanya B. shortage of funds to run its affairs
C. J. C. Vanghen D. Chief Obafemi Awolowo C. the harassment of its leadership by government
Answer D. the break up of its leadership
Chief Obafemi Awolowo was not among the four Nigerians Answer
who founded Nigerian Youth Movement (NYM). The four The Nigerian Youth Movement collapsed as a result of the
Nigerians were Professor Eyo Ita Esua, Samuel Akinsanya, breakup of its leadership. Although the movement was
Ernest Ikoli and J. C. Vaughen. (D)
founded on the basis of equal racial participation, the
2019/8a Neco demise of the NYM eventually came from a combination
List three key members of the Nigerian Youth Movement? of ethnic tension and political infighting between Azikiwe
i. H. O. Davies. and Igbo nationalist and the Yorubas (D)
ii. Ernest Ikoli.
iii. J. C. Vaughan. 1997/27 UTME
iv. Samuel Akinsanya. The nationalist organization formed in Nigeria in the late
v. Kofo Abayomi. 1930’s was the
vi. Akinola Maja. A. National Council of Nigeria and the Cameroons
vii. Nnamdi Azikiwe. B. Nigerian Youth Movement
viii. Mobolaji Bank Anthony. C. Nigerian National Democratic Party
ix. Jubril Martins. D. Action Group
x. Obafemi Awolowo. Answer
xi. Duro Emmanuel. The nationalist organization formed in Nigeria in the late
xii. S. O. Shonibare. 1930s was the Nigerian Youth Movement. In the 1930s the
xiii. Eyo Ita Esua. political movement challenged the NNDP domination of
xiv. S. L. Akintola. Lagos politics in the 1930s (B)
2003/7a Neco 1981/22 UTME Exercise 34.5
Describe the organizational structure of the Nigerian Youth
The Nigerian Youth Movement was founded in
Movement (NYM).
A. 1920 B. 1922 C. 1936 D. 1945
Answer
i. The NYM congress/convention. 1997/50 Exercise 34.6
ii. NYM had a national executive headed by a president. Which of the following is a pre-independence political
iii. It had branches established in some urban areas party in Nigeria?
throughout Nigeria.
A. Nigeria Youth Movement (NYM)
iv. It utilized adhoc committees for example the party
B. Unity Party of Nigeria (UPN)
formed an executive committee of twelve to prepare for
the 1938 elections.
C. Northern Elements Progress Union (NEPU)
v. Its national headquarters was in Lagos. D. United Middle Belt Congress (UMBC)
E. United Progressive Union (UPGA)
1994/44
Which of the following was not a political party in Nigeria 1996/51 Nov Exercise 34.7
between 1960 and 1966? One of the founders of the Nigerian Youth was
A. the Northern Peoples Congress A. Chief H. O. Davies B. Dr. Nwafor Orizu
B. National Council of Nigeria Citizens C. Chief Anthony Enahoro D. Dr. K. O. Mbadiwe
C. United Middle Belt Congress E. Chief Dennis Osadebey
D. Northern Elements Progressive Union
E. Nigerian Youth Movement 2019/8b Neco Exercise 34.8
Answer Highlight four achievements of the Nigerian Youth
Nigerian Youth Movement was formed in 1934, in the 1960 Movement (NYM) in the political development of Nigeria.
to 1966, the party was not in existence again. (E)
1987/32 UTME THE NATIONAL COUNCIL OF NIGERIA AND
The Nigerian Youth Movement was formed to THE CAMEROONS (NCNC)
A. fight for greater participation of Nigerians in colonial The NCNC was formed in August, 1944. It was first named
politics National Council of Nigeria and the Cameroons and later
B. enable the educated elite seize power from the chiefs re-named the National Convention of Nigerian Citizens in
C. establish more schools throughout the country 1960, when the Cameroons broke away from Nigeria. The
D. fight for the free movement of youths NCNC was the first Nigerian political party to be organized
Answer to seek total independence for Nigeria. Herbert Macaulay
The Nigerian Youth Movement was the first nationalist organization
was the first leader and president of NCNC and Dr. Nnamdi
in Nigeria. It was founded in 1934, on the basis of national unity and
Azikiwe the General Secretary. Dr. Azikiwe became the
equal racial participation. The organization was based in Lagos, but
membership was open to all Nigerians. The main aim of the Nigerian president of the party after the death of Macaulay in 1946.
Youth Movement was to fight for greater participation of Nigerians National Council of Nigeria and the Cameroons (NCNC)
in colonial politics (A) immediately succeeded the Nigerian Youth Movement.

449
AIMS AND OBJECTIVES OF NCNC 2001/9 Neco
1. To achieve self – government for Nigeria. Outline the objectives of the National Council of Nigeria
2. To spread political education to the people. and the Cameroons (NCNC).
3. To arouse the political consciousness of the masses. Answer
1. To arouse mass interest and obtain overwhelming
4. It established a platform as a medium of expression in
national support for political reforms.
order to achieve social equality, economic security, 2. To achieve political independence by giving political
religious tolerance, etc. education to the people of Nigeria.
5. It creates a medium to advance the interest of the 3. To provide the members with medium of expression
people of Nigeria and the Cameroons under the in order to secure freedom, economic security, social
British mandate. equality and religious tolerance.
6. NCNC helps to organize and collaborate with all its 4. To advance the interest of the people of Nigeria under
the British mandate.
branches throughout the country.
5. To organize and collaborate effectively with its entire
7. NCNC extends democratic principles to the people of branch throughout the country.
Nigeria.

1998/46 1999/43 Exercise 34.9

Which of the following political parties immediately The party that emerged from the Nigerian Youth
succeeded the Nigerian Youth Movement? Movement (NYM) was the
A. National Council of Nigeria and the Cameroons (NCNC) A. Northern Elements Progressive Union (NEPU)
B. Northern People’s Congress (NPC) B. National Council for Nigeria and the Cameroons (NCNC)
C. Nigerian National Democratic Party (NNDP) C. Nigerian National Democratic Party (NNDP)
D. Action Group (AG) D. Northern People’s Congress (NPC)
E. United Middle Belt Congress (UMBC)
Answer 2006/9a Neco Exercise 34.10
National council of Nigeria and the Cameroon (NCNC) State two objectives of the National Council of Nigeria and
immediately succeeded the Nigerian Youth Movement. (A) the Cameroons (NCNC)

1989/7b Nov 1990/35 Nov Exercise 34.11

Give an account of the development of the National The first president of the National Council for Nigeria and
Council of Nigeria and Cameroons (NCNC). the Cameroons (NCNC) was
Answer A. Dr. Nnamdi Azikiwe B. Dr. Michael Okpara
This party was formed in August 1944 and the first C. Herbert Macaulay D. Ernest Ikoli
president was Herbert Macaulay while Dr. Nnamdi E. Chief Dennis Osadebey
Azikiwe was the Secretary General. The National Council
of Nigeria and the Cameroon (NCNC) had the name 1995/7 Exercise 34.12
changed to National Congress or Convention of Nigeria Highlight the aims and objectives of the National Council
citizens. This was because in 1960 Cameroon left Nigeria. for Nigeria and the Cameroons (NCNC).
This party was more of a national party, based on the
composition and the organization. One of its major aims
was for a total decolonization of Nigeria. THE CONTRIBUTIONS OF THE NCNC
1. The NCNC and its organ in West African pilot lent its
1993/37 political muscle to the general strike of 1945.
Which of the following is not true of Herbert Macaulay? 2. The party played the role of uniting the Nigerian
He was the nationalists in the fight for self–governments for
A. co-founder of the National Council of Nigeria and the Nigeria.
Cameroon (NCNC) 3. Its political education helped to raise the political
B. founder of the Lagos Daily news consciousness of the people of Nigeria.
C. founder of the National Congress of British West Africa 4. The party mounted vigorous protest campaigns against
D. Founder of the Nigerian National Democratic Party the deficiencies of the Richard constitution of 1946.
(NNDP) 5. The NCNC raised the funds which were used in
E. First Nigerian to found a political party sending protest delegation against 1946 constitution
Answer to London.
Sir Herbert Macaulay was not the founder of the National 6. The party played significant roles at the constitutional
Congress of British West Africa. He was a great nationalist. conferences that led to the independence of Nigeria.
He contributed greatly to Nigeria independence through 7. The NCNC formed the first regional government of
NCNC. (C) Eastern Region and contributed greatly to its
development.
8. The significant contributions of the NCNC made it to
be tagged party of the masses.
9. It formed coalition governments with the NPC in
1960 and produced the first president.
450
10. The NCNC political party controlled the government of 1995/46 Nov
Eastern Nigeria in the first Republic (1963 -1966). The first truly national political party was formed in
11. The party introduced and published the West African Nigeria in
pilot which served as a powerful platform for A. 1916 B. 1923 C. 1944 D. 1946 E. 1951
opposing colonial rule. Answer
12. The NCNC worked in agreement with NPC in The first true national political party in Nigeria was formed
creating mid-western region in 1963. in 1944 (National Council of Nigerian citizens) the party
has a national outlook for all Nigerians. (C)
Development of the National Council of Nigerian and
the Cameroons (NCNC) 2019/2020/12 (UI,IBADAN)
1. The first development was as a result of the split in the Who succeeded Herbert Macaulay as the president of the
Nigerian Youth Movement (NYM) over representation NCNC after Macaulay’s death?
of the party in the vacant legislative council seat in 1941. A. Nnamdi Azikiwe B. Obafemi Awolowo
2. Tribal sentiments, the Ibo union in Lagos prevailed on C. Anthony Enahoro D. none0 of the above
Nnamdi Azikiwe to form a new party and this was what Answer
led to the formation of NCNC. Leadership of the National Council of Nigeria and the
3. Nnamdi Azikiwe took over the leadership of NCNC as Cameroun (NCNC) was handed over to Dr. Nnamdi
a result of the death of Herbert Macaulay in 1946. Azikiwe as a result of the death of Herbert Macaulay in
4. Reactivation of the party was a bold step taken by 1946 (A)
Nnamdi Azikiwe to make the party more effective.
5. NCNC was formed in 1944, and was seen as having a
national base as its membership spread all over the
country, irrespective of tribe and religion. 2010/14 (OAU, IFE)
6. National and international involvement issues were Herbert Macaulay was the first President of
discussed in the party. For example, the 1945 workers A. NCNC B. AG C. UMBC D. NEPU
strike. The party was represented at different Answer
constitutional conferences, e.g. 1953 London The National Council of Nigeria and the Cameroon
constitutional conference. (NCNC) was formed in 1944. The first president was
7. The leadership of the party attracted more support from Herbert Macaulay and the first general secretary was Dr.
the Eastern region of Nigeria where it formed the Nnamdi Azikiwe (A)
government. There was an official opposition in the
West which was in a coalition with NPC in the federal 2006/9 Neco
legislature. Describe four achievements of the NCNC.
8. The name of the party was changed to the National Answer
Council of Nigerian citizens, when Cameroon ceased to 1. It gave political education which helped to raise the
be part of Nigeria. people consciousness of the people.
9. NCNC was part of the United Progressive Grand 2. The party played the role of uniting the Nigerian
Alliance (U.P.G.A) in 1964. nationalists in the fight for self–government for Nigeria.
10. The party started to decline from 1964, after the general
3. The party played significant roles at the constitutional
elections and ceased to exist when the military came into conference that led to the independence of Nigeria.
power on 15th January, 1966. 4. The party formed the first regional governments of
Eastern Region and later Mid-Western region in
2019/45 NABTEB 1963.
Which political party produced Nigeria’s first executive 5. The party won seats in the Western Region election
president? in 1953 and formed the opposition party.
A. National Party of Nigeria (NPN) 6. The party won seats into the federal parliament in
B. National Council of Nigeria Citizens (NCNC) 1959 and 1964.
C. Unity Party of Nigeria (UPN) 7. The party produced the first indigenous Governor –
D. Nigeria Advanced Party (NAP) General in 1960, and the first ceremonial president of
Answer Nigeria in 1963.
The National Council of Nigerian citizens (NCNC) formed 8. It formed a coalition government with the Northern
coalition with Northern People’s Congress (NPC) in 1960 and People’s congress in 1959 at the national level.
produced the first Nigeria president. (B)
2014/2015/70 (NDU,BAYELSA) Exercise 34.13
2019/44 NABTEB The first President of the National Council for Nigeria and
The greatest achievement of the National Council of Nigeria
Cameroun (NCNC) was
Citizens (NCNC) was that it
A. Dr. Nnamdi Azikiwe B. Dr. Michael Okpara
A. was the first opposition party in Nigeria
B. produced Nigeria’s first president
C. Herbert Macaulay D. Ernest Shonekan
C. was the first political party in Nigeria E. Chief Dennis Osadebey
D. formed the first regional government in Nigeria
Answer
The National Council of Nigeria Citizens (NCNC) was the first
political party that formed regional governments in Nigeria. (D)

451
2000/8 Nov Exercise 34.14 1991/26 UTME
Account for the development of the National Council of The Northern Peoples Congress stand during the
Nigeria and the coalition of Nigeria and the Cameroons nationalist struggle for Nigeria’s independence was for
(NCNC) as a political party. A. immediate independence for Nigeria
B. gradual evolution towards independence
NORTHERN PEOPLE’S CONGRESS (NPC) C. the continuation of British rule
The Northern People’s Congress was formed in October D. independence in 1956
1951 and it was formally called the Jamiyyar Mutanem Answer
Arewa (cultural organization) founded in December 1949. The Northern People’s Congress stand during the
The northern people’s congress was mainly dominated by nationalist struggle for Nigeria’s independence was for
Hausa/Fulanis stock and based on Islamic religious belief. gradual evolution towards independence (B)
The leader was the late Alhaji Bello, the Sarduna of
Sokoto. He was seen as both religious and traditional 2016/36 UTME
leader. The NPC, as a party, was firmly established and the The NCNC and NPC facilitated the creation of the
support it had from the people was because Islam demands A. Eastern region B. North region C. Western region
obedience to constituted authority and NPC was firmly D. Mid-West region
established on Islamic principles. Answer
Sir Abubakar Tafawa Balewa was Deputy. The party The NCNC and NPC facilitated the creation of the Mid-
produced the first prime minister of Nigeria. West Region (D)

AIMS AND OBJECTIVES OF NPC 2015/33 UTME

1. Development of the North was the main motive of the The party that formed a coalition with the NPC in the First
NPC both politically and economically. Republic was
2. NPC worked towards making the North autonomous. A. AG B. NPC C. NEPU D. NCNC
3. The party creates an atmosphere for common Answer
understanding among the people of the North. NPC formed a coalition with the NCNC in the First
4. The NPC helped in educating the Northerners on their Republic in Nigeria (D)
political rights through political education.
2009/18 (OAU,IFE)
THE CONTRIBUTIONS OF NPC The leader of the Northern People’s Congress was
1. It controlled and ruled northern Nigeria for a number of A. Yakubu Maitama Sule B. Abubakar Tafawa Balewa
years. C. Aminu Kano D. Ahmadu Bello
2. The first prime of Nigeria who ruled through out the first Answer
Republic was produced by NPC. The leader of the Northern People’s Congress was Sir
3. The party created the atmosphere for common Ahmadu Bello (D)
understanding among the people of the North.
4. NPC as a party was involved in most of the constitutional 2015/4 UTME
conferences, both within and outside Nigeria, eg. The The political party that originated from Jamiyyar Mutanem
1953 London Constitutional Conference. Arewa was
5. It helped in educating the people on their political rights.
A. UMBC B. BYMC C. NEPU D. NPC
6. It helped increase the political awareness of the people of Answer
the North. Northern People’s Congress (NPC) was formed in 1951. It
started as a cultural organization, Jamiyyar Mutanem
1989/7c Nov Arewa. The party was dominated by the Hausa/Fulanis,
Give an account of the development of the Northern and Islam was the main focus (D)
People’s congress (NPC).
Answer 2010/12 (OAU,IFE) Exercise 34.15
The Northern People’s Congress was formed in October In the First Republic, politics in the Northern region was
1951 and it was formally called the Jamiyyar Mutanem dominated by the
Arewa (cultural organization) founded in December 1949. A. NEPU B. UMBC C. NCNC D. NPC
The northern people’s congress was mainly dominated by
Hausa/Fulanis stock and based on Islamic religious belief.
The leader was the late Alhaji Bello, the Sarduna of Sokoto. 1996/46 Exercise 34.16
He was seen as both religious and traditional leader. The The political party that transformed from a
NPC, as a party, was firmly established and the support it cultural/organization known as the Jamiyyar Mutanem Arewa
had from the people was because Islam demands obedience was the
to constituted authority and NPC was firmly established on A. NEPU B. NCNC C. NPC D. AG E. NNDP
Islamic principles.
1996/44 Exercise 34.17
Which of the following political parties produced four ministers
in the National Government of 1957 in Nigeria? The
A. AG B. NCNC C. NPC D. NEPU E. UMBC

452
2011/24 Exercise 34.18 2005/25 UTME
Which of the following political parties produced the first In the first Republic, the official opposition party was the
Nigerian prime ministers? A. Northern People’s Congress
A. Action Group (AG) B. Northern Elements Progressive Union
B. National Council of Nigerian Citizen (NCNC) C National Council of Nigeria and the Camerouns
C. Northern People’s Congress (NPC) D. Action Group
D. Northern Element Progressive Union (NEPU) Answer
E. United National Independent Party (UNIP) Action Group was the first political party that was officially signed as
the opposition party in the first Republic of Nigeria (D)

2012/2013/70 (NDU,BAYELSA)
THE ACTION GROUP (AG)
Who was the political leader of the Action Group?
Action Group (AG) was formed in 1951 as the political A. Yemi Osinbajo B. Ahmed Tinubu
wing of the Egbe Omo Oduduwa (a Yoruba cultural C. Ayodele Opeyemi D. Funsho Olowoniyi
organization). Its leader was Obafemi Awolowo. It E. Obafemi Awolowo
dominated the Western region political scene for eleven Answer
years (1951–1962). Other political figures in this party Chief Obafemi Awolowo was the political leader of the
were S.L. Akintola, Bode Thomas, Chief Shonibare, etc.. Action Group in Nigeria. (E)
Action Group, as its launch was declared a regional party,
and it worked towards bringing together all the nationalists
1989/7a Nov
in the region. Give an account of the development of the Action Group.
Answer
Aims and Objectives of Action Group The Action Group (AG) was formerly formed in March 1951
1. It advocated for a federal form of government. through the conversion of the Egbe Omo Oduduwa–a Yoruba
2. To bring all nationalists in Western region under one cultural organization founded in 1945 in London by some
umbrella. Yoruba students studying there. Late Obafemi Awolowo was
3. To awaken the political consciousness in the lives of the founder and leader of A.G. Other prominent members of
the people. the party were Chief Bode Thomas, S. L. Akintola, Rewane,
4. To work towards the growth and development of the Chief Shonibare, Yoruba Traditional rulers including the late
West. Ooni of Ife, Sir Adesonji Aderemi.
5. To contest and win elections and control western
region. 1989/27 UTME
Which of the following pre-independence organizations were
6. To challenge the political dominance of the NCNC.
formed in London in 1945?
7. To cooperate and work with other nationalists towards
A. the Jamiyyar Mutanem Arewa
the achievement of immediate self government for B. the Igbo state union
Nigeria. C. The Egbe Omo Oduduwa
8. To cooperate and strengthen all tribal organizations in D. Urhobo Progressive Union
the western region. Answer
The Egbe Omo Oduduwa (a Yoruba cultural organization)
The Contributions of the Action Group was formed in London in 1945 (C)
1. It dominated Western Nigeria’s political scene for
about 11 years. 2008/11 (OAU,BAYELSA)
2. It formed the opposition party in federal parliament The Action Group crisis was in which year?
before and during the first Republic. A. 1966 B. 1962 C. 1963 D. 1965
3. The AG joined the NCNC and NPC in Nigeria’s Answer
political struggle for independence. In 1962, the Action Group (AG), which appeared to have
4. It advocated for free education and successfully established an unshakeable hold in Western Nigeria, fell into
introduced the Universal free primary education in warring factions. Clashes in the Western House of
Western Nigeria in 1955. Assembly led the federal government to declare a state of
5. It was involved in most of the constitutional emergency and to take over the administration of the region.
conferences, e.g. 1953 London constitutional An inquiry was then held into the whole record of the AG,
conference. while the restrictions imposed on its leaders and organizers
6. The motion for self–government was moved by Chief and deepening schisms rendered the party virtually impotent
(B)
Anthony Enahoro in 1953. He was a member of
Action Group.
1992/19
“Egbe Omo Oduduwa” was
1995/20
A. the first political party in Western state
The Egbe Omo Oduduwa was latterly called B. a political association that fought the British
A. Group of Yoruba’s B. Osunwa C. Action Group C. the first name of Action Group
D. NCNC E. NPP D. an association that teamed up with NYM to fight the NCNC
Answer E. a cultural association that sought the unity of the Yorubas
The Egbe Omo Oduduwa was a political wing of Action Answer
Group which was formed in 1951. (C) Egbe Omo Oduduwa was a cultural association that sought the
unity of the Yorubas. (E)
453
Exercise 34.19 Again, the 1959 independence election did not produce an
Action Group dominated the Western region political scene overwhelming majority winner. So, the NPC and NCNC
for agreed to form a coalition government and AG, the
A. 12 years B. 3 years C. 8years D. 11years opposition party. Infact, the pre-independence and post-
E. 10years independence governments were based on coalition
government in Nigeria. It however, showed the spirit of
Exercise 34.20 cooperation and oneness and even the love for the country
Who among the following was not a political figure of the as exhibited by some of these political parties.
Action Group?
A. Olufunsho Ekundayo B. Bode Thomas The 1964 general elections witnessed the coming together
C. Chief Shonibare D. Obafemi Awolowo of both big and small parties in alliances. The AG, NCNC,
NEPU and UMBC joined together to form the United
Exercise 34.21 Progressive Grand Alliance (UPGA), while the NPC,
Highlight the aims and objectives of Action Group. NNDP, the Mid-West Democratic Front (MDF), the Niger
Delta Congress in Eastern Nigeria (NDC) and the Dynamic
Party formed the Nigerian National Alliance (NNA) in
Problems of the Pre-Independence Political Parties in August 1964. The 1964 elections, therefore, witnessed the
Nigeria emergence of two political parties, from different alliances.
1. The political parties were without national outlook.
They had regional support and ethnic loyalty. UPGA leader was Dr. M. Okpara and NNA leader was the
2. The political parties placed much emphasis on Late Sir Ahmadu Bello. However, the outcome of the result
personalities rather than issues. The parties were was in favour of the NNA, though, protests and boycott by
formed by few ethnic leaders. UPGA members, characterized the 1964 general elections.
3. Intra-party and inter-party conflicts in most cases
polarized the political parties and splitting them into 2017/13 UTME
factions. The three major political parties of the first Republic can
4. Carpet-crossing is a phenomenon that has weakened be said to have had
or led to the collapse of the political parties. A. national outlook B. regional and ethnic undertone
5. The political parties were unable to provide C. government funding D. religious and sectional appeals
qualitative education because, in their campaigns, Answer
they emphasized personalities rather than issues. The three major political parties of the first Republic can
be said to have had regional and ethnic undertone (B)

MINOR POLITICAL PARTIES 1989/40 UTME

The minor political parties were either splinter or The major political parties in Nigeria during the first
breakaway political parties from the major political parties, Republic was
e.g. the Northern Elements Progressive Union (NEPU), led A. NPC, NCNC, AG B. UMBC, AG, NEPU
by the late Mallam Aminu Kano, broke away from NPC. It C. NNDP, NEPU, NPC D. NPC, AG, NNDP
saw NPC as a conservative and unprogressive party. The Answer
United Middle Belt Congress (UMBC) led by the late J. The following were the political parties of the first
Tarka and Bornu Youth Movement (BYM) were local Republican of Nigeria
parties, formed primarily to achieve the creation of the - Northern People’s Congress – NPC.
Middle belt and North East states respectively. The - Action Group – AG.
Dynamic Party (DP) led by Chika Obi, had national - National Council of Nigerians and Camerouns – NCNC.
ideology, but it was a small party and could not make any - National Democratic Party – NNDP.
appreciable impact on the populace. The party had to form - Nigerian Youth Movement – NYM.
an alliance with NPC, Chief S.L. Akintola left A.G. and Hence:
formed United Progress Party (UPP). UPP entered into a The Northern People’s Congress, National Council of
working alliance with some members of NCNC and they Nigeria and the Camerouns and Action Group were the
formed the Nigerian National Democratic Party (NNDP) three dominant political parties during the First Republic
etc. of Nigeria (A)

Political Parties Coalition/Alliance System of the First 1986/39 UTME

Republic The head of state in the First Republic of Nigeria was
In 1957, a prime minister was appointed from the party A. an executive president B. a nominal president
already controlling the majority of the House of C. a party leader D. a nominee of the whole country
Representatives. This was the outcome of the 1957 London Answer
constitutional conference that recommends the creation of A nominal president was the system used for the head of state
the office of a prime minister. So, Abubakar Tafawa in the first republic of Nigeria because the Electoral College
Balewa invited Action Group to join the NPC/NCNC elected the president, parliamentary system of government
coalition government and it was accepted. A national was used. In reality, the power is exercised by the council of
government was then constituted at this time. ministers and it is headed by the Prime Minister. The
president is the first citizen of the country (B)
454
1984/39 UTME THE SECOND REPUBLIC POLITICAL PARTIES
The two parties which formed the coalition government in IN NIGERIA.
1959 were the The Second Republic political parties in Nigeria
A. NCNC and AG B. NPC and NCNC C. NPC and commenced in 1979. The association of Nigeria military
AG Head of State, General Murtala Muhammed in 1976, his
D. PRP and UPGA E. NPC and NNA successor General Olusegun Obasanjo initiated the
Answer transition process to terminate military rule in 1979. A new
NPC and NCNC were the two parties which formed the constitution was drafted, the new constitution mandated
coalition government in 1959 (B) that political parties and cabinet positions reflect the
“federal character” of the nation. Political parties were
1998/3 Nov required to be registered in at least two–thirds of the states,
Explain the coalition of major and minor political parties in and each state was required to produce at least one cabinet
1964 general elections. member. As a result of the new constitution drafted, the
Answer American style presidential system in Nigeria, was given
The 1964 general elections witnessed the coming together birth to.
of both big and small parties in alliances. The AG, NCNC,
NEPU and the UMBC joined together to form the United A constituent assembly was elected in 1977 to draft a new
Progressive Grand Alliance (UPGA), while the NPC, constitution, this lifted the ban on political activity. In
NNDP, the Mid-West Democratic Front (MDF) and the 1979, six political parties competed in a series of elections
Dynamic Party formed the Nigerian National Alliance in which Alhaji Shehu Shagari of the NPN was elected as
(NNA) in August 1964 elections. The election therefore, the president, General Olusegun Obasanjo, peacefully
witnessed the emergence of two political parties from transferred power to President Shagari. The following are
different alliances. the second republic political parties.
1. Greater Nigerian People’s Party (GNPP).
2017/2018/28 (UNIZIK, AWKA) Exercise 34.22 2. National Party of Nigeria (NPN).
Which of the following political parties in Nigeria formed 3. Nigeria Advance Party (NAP).
the opposition in the House of Representatives during the 4. Nigerian People’s Party (NPP).
first Republic? 5. People’s Redemption Party (PRP).
A. NCNC and AG B. NCNC and UMBC 6. Unity Party of Nigeria (UPN).
C. NPC and AG D. AG and UMBC
All the six political parties won representations in the
1979/35 UTME Exercise 34.23 National Assembly, at the Senate and House of
The three largest political parties in Nigeria between 1951 Representatives. Federal electoral commission (FEDECO)
and the 1966 were was the name of the electoral body that conducted 1979
A. Northern People’s Congress (NPC), Action Group (AG) elections under the Chairmanship of Mr. Michael Ani. The
and Northern Elements Progressive Union (NEPU) total registered voter of 1979 elections was 48,499,091.
B. United National Independence Party (UNIP), National
Council of Nigerian Citizens (NCNC) and Northern People 2011/46
Congress (NNPC) Which of the following political parties was not in
C. Northern People’s Congress (NPC), National Council existence during the second republic?
of Nigerian Citizens (NCNC) and Action Group (AG) A. Great Nigerian People’s Party (GNPP)
D. Nigeria Union of Teachers (NUT), Action Group (AG) B. National Party of Nigeria (NPN)
and Northern Elements Progressive Union (NEPU) C. Unity Party of Nigeria (UPN)
E. United Middle Belt Congress (UMBC), Northern D. National Republican Convention (NRC)
People’s Congress and National Council of Nigerian E. People’s Redemption Party ((PRP)
Citizens (NCNC) Answer
National Republican Convention (NRC) was not in
1979/47 UTME Exercise 34.24 existence during the second republic. (D)
The government of Nigeria from 1960 to 1964 was formed
by the NATIONAL PARTY OF NIGERIA (NPN)
A. NCNC (National Council of Nigeria Citizens) National Party of Nigeria (NPN) was formed on the 20th
B. NPC (Northern People’s Congress) Sept., 1978. It was headed by Makama Bida an old
C. Action Group Northern People’s Congress member. The party adopted
D. NCNC/NEPU (Northern Elements Progressive Union) zoning to elect party officials, then the party elected a new
alliance Chairman, Augustus Akinloye with Alhaji Shehu Aliyu
E. B and D above Usman Shagari as their presidential candidate. The NPN
Answer dominated in the Second Republic election, Shagari won
The government of Nigeria from 1960 to 1964 was formed the presidency, defeating Azikiwe in a close controversial
by the NPC, NCNC and NEPU (E) vote. NPN also won 36 of 95 senate seats, 165 of 443
House of Representatives seat and won control of seven
states (Sokoto, Borno, Bauchi, Benue, Cross River, Kwara
and Rivers). National Party of Nigeria had the majority in
the Senate and Representatives.
455
Author’s Question 2. The following are the aims and objectives of the NPN
1. The political party that controlled the federal except
government during the Second Republic in Nigeria was A. provision for housing scheme
A. Nigerian Advance Party (NAP) B. supremacy of the constitution
B. Unity Party of Nigeria (UPN) C. to encourage tribalism and nepotism
C. Great Nigeria People’s Party D. to achieve self – reliance in the area of agriculture
D. National Party of Nigeria (NPN) 1998/51 Answer
Answer The aims and objectives include all the following
The National Party of Nigeria (NPN) controlled the federal except option C to encourage tribalism and nepotism
government during the Second Republic in Nigeria. Alhaji was not an aim and objective of NPN. (C)
Shehu Aliyu Usman Shagari was the president. (E)
Contributions of the NPN
2. When was National Party of Nigeria formed? 1. The party was more of a national party. The
A. 1972 B. 1978 C. 1975 D. 1977 membership spread to almost all parts of the country.
Answer 2. The party won the 1979 and 1983 Second Republic
National Party of Nigeria (NPN) was formed on the 20th Presidential election.
Sept, 1978. (B) 3. The party also produced the first executive president
for the country. The president was both the Head of
3. Who was the head of National Party of Nigeria (NPN)? state and government.
A. Aminu Kano B. Sultan of Sokoto C. Makama Bida 4. It also won the governorship election in seven states
D. Tafawa Balewa of the federation.
Answer 5. The party introduced Housing and Agricultural
National Party of Nigeria (NPN) was headed by Makama programme.
Bida an old Northern People’s Congress members. (C) 6. It helped in educating the members and public on
their political rights.
4. Who was the presidential candidate of National Party of 7. The party recruits leaders in political offices in
Nigeria (NPN)? government and within the parties.
A. Augustus Akinloye B. Shehu Aliyu Shagari 8. Establishment of steel rolling mills, e.g. Katsina,
C. Obafemi Awolowo D. Nnamdi Azikiwe Osogbo and Itape.
Answer
Alhaji Shehu Aliyu Usman Shagari was their presidential 2010/10 Neco
candidate and he won the presidency seat. (B) Describe six achievements of the National Party of Nigeria
(NPN) between 1979 and 1983
5. National Party of Nigeria (NPN) won the country of how Answer
many states in Nigeria? 1. The party won the presidential elections in 1979 and
A. seven B. five C. eight D. one 1983.
Answer 2. The party won more seats than any other political
The National Party of Nigeria (NPN) won the control of party into the House of Representatives.
seven states; Sokoto, Bauchi, Borno, Benue, Cross River, 3. Establishment of steel rolling mills, e.g. Katsina,
Kwara and Rivers. The National Party of Nigeria had the Osogbo and Itape.
majority in the senate and Representatives. (A) 4. The party won the majority seats into the senate.
5. The party built a number of housing estates in each
Aims and objectives of the NPN state of the federation.
1. To develop an enviable housing scheme for all, at 6. The party established more federal secondary schools
both urban and rural settings. throughout Nigeria.
2. To achieve self – reliance in the agricultural sector 7. The party controlled seven states out of 19 states of
and to develop a strong industrial base, with equal the federation.
opportunities for all Nigerians. 8. The party won at least a seat in all the states
3. To show respect to the provisions of the constitution. Assemblies except Ogun and Lagos.

Author’s Question Author’s Question

1. Enumerate the three aims and objectives of the Which political party in Nigeria won the presidential seats
National Party of Nigeria. in 1979 and 1983?
I. It show respect to the provisions of the A. NPN B. AG C. NCNC D. UPN
constitution. Answer
II. To achieve self – reliance in the agricultural The National Party of Nigeria won the 1979 and 1983
factor. Second Republic presidential elections. (A)
III. It develops an enviable housing scheme for all,
at both urban and rural setting.
IV. To develop strong industrial base in Nigeria e.g.
Ajaokuta Steel Company.

456
UNITY PARTY OF NIGERIA (UPN) 4. The party made provisions for gainful employment of
Chief Obafemi Awolowo was the founder and leader of the youth and rural integrated programmes were
UPN. Other founding members were Chief Ajasin, Chief introduced and implemented.
Bola Ige, Professor Ambrose Alli, Chief M.C.K. 5. The party had political programmes, symposia and
Ajuluchukwu, Alhaji Lateef Jakande, etc.. Chief Obafemi rallies to educate their party members and public on
Awolowo, was the presidential candidate for the party. The their political right to participate in politics.
party won governorship election in five states. 6. It helped to recruit leaders to political offices in the
government as well as within the parties.
Aims and Objectives of UPN
1. The party introduced free education at all levels. 2007/9b Neco
Universal Primary Education (UPE) started from that Outline four achievements of the party.
party. Answer
2. The party pursues free medical services for all. 1. It won the gubernatorial election in Kwara state in 1983.
3. The party also made provision for employment for the 2. The party won governorship election in five states in
people. 1979, namely, Lagos, Ondo, Bendel, Oyo and Ogun
4. The party pursues rural integrated programmes. States.
3. The party provided free education in the states it
1998/50 controlled.
4. It implemented free medical facilities in all the states
Who founded the Unity Party of Nigeria in the Second
controlled by it.
Republic?
5. The party acted as a strong opposition to the ruling
A. Dr. Nnamdi Azikiwe B. Chief Michael Ajasin party, NPN in 1979 and in 1983.
C. Chief Obafemi Awolowo D. Alhaji Shagari 6. The party promoted fiscal discipline in all the states it
E. Alhaji Waziri Ibrahim controlled.
Answer 7. The party increased political consciousness through its
Chief Obafemi Awolowo was the founding father of the programmes and campaigns.
Unity Party of Nigeria in the Second Republic. (C) 8. It was the first party to announce its existence after the
lifting of ban on political activities in 1978.
2007/9a Neco
State the aims and objectives of the Unity Party of Nigeria NIGERIAN PEOPLE’S PARTY (NPP)
(UPN). The leader was Alhaji Ibrahim Waziri and other members
Answer were Chief Adeniran Ogunsanya (chairman of the party), Dr.
1. Free education at all levels for all citizens of Nigeria Obi Wali, Chief J. Nwobodo, Chief Sam Mbakwe, both won
with effect from October 1st, 1979. the governorship election for Anambra and Imo states
2. Integrated rural development. respectively. Dr. Nnamdi Azikiwe, who later joined the party
3. Provision of health facilities for all the citizens. was nominated as the presidential candidate. However, the
4. Full and gainful employment for all citizens. leader, Alhaji Waziri, later left the party, because of the
quarrel over the presidential candidate and the post of the
Author’s Question chairman.
1. State the founding members of Unity Part of Nigeria
Aims and Objectives of Nigerian People’s Party (NPP)
(UPN).
1. To promote unity among Nigerians.
Answer
2. To promote the rights of individuals, the obligations of
Chief Obafemi Awolowo was the founder and leader. citizens and enhances the rule of law for equal justice.
The other founding members were Chief Ajasin, Chief 3. The party wants to better the lives of the citizens by
Bola Ige, Ambrose Alli, Chief M.C.K Ajuluchukwu, providing them with two basic needs, food and shelter.
Alhaji Lateef Jakande, etc. 4. For a self–reliant economy with equitable distribution of
2. Who was the presidential candidate of Unity Party of the gains of economic development within the political
Nigeria (UPN)? system.
A. Professor Ambrose Ali
B. Chief M.C.K Ajuluchukwu Author’s Question
C. Chief Obafemi Awolowo 1. Who was the leader of Nigerian People’s Party (NPP)?
D. Chief Bola Ige A. Dr. Obi Wali B. Chief Adeniran Ogunsanya
Answer C. Alhaji Ibrahim Waziri D. Chief Joseph Nwobodo
Chief Obafemi Awolowo, was the presidential Answer
candidate for the party. (C) The leader of Nigerian People’s Party (NPP) was Alhaji
Ibrahim Waziri. (C)
Contributions of UPN
1. The party won governorship election in five states of 2. Who later joined the NPP party and was nominated as the
the federation. presidential candidate?
2. The party contributed to the establishment of free A. Chief Obafemi Awolowo B. Dr. Nnamdi Azikiwe
medical service e.g. the establishment of General C. Alhaji Ibrahim Waziri D. Chief Sam Mbakwe
Answer
hospitals, primary health care centres.
Dr. Nnamdi Azikiwe, who later joined the party was
3. Free education was introduced in all the states where
nominated as the presidential candidate. (B)
UPN won – Ondo, Ogun, Oyo, Lagos and Bendel.
457
3. Who was the first Chairman of Nigerian People’s Party GREAT NIGERIA PEOPLE’S PARTY (GNPP)
(NPP)? Great Nigeria People’s Party (GNPP) was one of the six
A. Chief J. Nwobodo B. Alhaji Aminu Kano major political parties in Nigeria in the Second Republic
C. Alhaji Shehu Shagari D. Chief Adeniran Ogunsanya led by Waziri Ibrahim from Borno state, the party was
Answer formed by group of individuals that broke out from the
Chief Adeniran Ogunsanya was the first chairman of Nigerian People’s Congress (NPP). The party managed to
Nigerian People’s Party (NPP). (D) win two seats, Borno and Gongola now Adamawa. Eight
senate seats and forty three House of Representatives seats
2016/9a Neco were won.
A. Outline three aims and objectives of the Nigerian
People’s Party (NPP). 1. Who led the Great Nigeria People’s Party (GNPP)?
i. To promote unity in the country. A. Alhaji Ibrahim Waziri B. Alhaji Tafawa Balewa
ii. To provide equal opportunity for all Nigerians. C. Dr. Nnamdi Azikiwe D. Chief Obafemi Awolowo
iii. Provision for employment opportunities for all. Answer
iv. Preservation of the Nation’s resources. Great Nigeria People’s Party (GNPP) was led by Alhaji
v. To work for a secular state that favours Ibrahim Waziri in the Second Republic. (A)
democracy and rule of law.
vi. To fight against poverty, diseases, and ignorance. 2. Great Nigeria People’s Party (GNPP) won how many
vii. To work towards high quality education at all seats in senate.
levels. A. one B. two C. three D. four
viii. To preserve the constitution of Nigeria, promote Answer
and sustain its unity. The Great Nigeria People’s Party (GNPP) won two seats in
ix. To re-order the national economic priorities of senate (Borno and Gongola now Adamawa). (B)
Nigeria.
B. Highlight two sources of finance of Nigerian People’s 3. Great Nigeria People’s Party (GNPP) broke out of
Party (NPP). A. UPN B. NPC C. NPP D. GUP
i. They raised fund within the political system Answer
(member). The party was formed by group of individuals that broke
ii. Through federal government/FEDECO grants for out from the National People’s Party (NPP). (C)
political parties.
PEOPLE’S REDEMPTION PARTY (PRP)
iii. Donations from within and outside the country.
iv. Money. People’s Redemption Party (PRP) was a political party
v. Membership dues. believed to be the Second Republic incarnation of the
vi. Funding raising/launching. Northern Elements Progressive Union created by Mallam
Aminu Kano after withdrawal from the National Party of
Contributions of NPP Nigeria. The PRP was highly regarded as a central political
1. The party cooperated and worked with the ruling party, maybe it was due to the caliber of people it
party in government (NPN). harboured.
2. The party won three states in the gubernatorial
elections – Imo, Anambra and Plateau. Governor Abubakar Rimi, Balarabe Musa, Dr. Edward
3. Members and public were educated about their Ikem Okeke, Bala Usman, Abdullahi Aliyu Sumaila and
political rights. Chinua Achebe, Mallam Aminu Kano was the leader. The
4. The party serves as a link between the government PRP which was the most radical of the parties, won Kano
and the people. and Kaduna in Governorship election, the party also had
5. It helped the government to recruits leaders into seven senators and forty nine members in the House of
political offices. Representatives.

1997/52 2011/22
Which of the following political parties entered into accord at In the second republic, late Aminu Kano was the leader of
the centre after the 1979 General election in Nigeria? A. NCNC B. NEPU C. NPC D. PRP E. UMBC
A. NPN and NPP B. NPP and UPN Answer
C. GNPP and NPN D. NPN and UPN Mallam Aminu Kano was the leader of People’s
E. UPE and PRP Redemption Party (PRP). (D)
Answer
The party cooperated and worked with the ruling party Exercise 34.25
NPN at the centre after the 1979 General election in The People’s Redemption Party (PRP) was highly regarded
Nigeria. (A) as a
A. central political party B. Northern political party
C. southern political party D. Western political party

458
NIGERIA ADVANCED PARTY (NAP) elects, Moshood Kashimawo Olawale Abiola, declared
Nigerian Advance Party (NAP) was launched on the 13th himself as president and went into hiding. The Abacha’s
October, 1978 in Ibadan. Tunji Braithwaite was the administration hunted him (Abiola) down and arrested him
founder, a lawyer and prominent Lagosian who claimed on charges of treason. Abiola remained in prison until he
that Nigerian potentials could be achieved by reforms died in 1998.
especially through the eradication of deep–rooted
corruption. In December, 1978, three political parties 2022/36 Neco
groups joined the party. They were the Nigerian Tenants The Shonekan-led Interim National Government was
and Labour Congress, headed by I. H. Igali, the Nigeria overthrown on ______ 1993
Social Democratic Congress led by Balali Dauda, and the A. June 8 B. June 12 C. August 27
Youth Force Alliance, led by Olayinka Olabiwonu. D. November 17 E. November 27
However, the party contested in the Nigerian presidential Answer
elections of 1938, as Dr. Tunji Braithwaite was their Shonekan’s caretaker (interim) government was quietly
presidential candidate. removed from office by Minister of Defence, General Sani
Abacha on 17th November, 1993.
1994/45
The Nigerian Advance Party (NAP) of the Second Exercise 34.26
Republic was led by The constitution of the Third Republic was drafted in
A. Adisa Akinloye B. Adeniran Ogunsanya A. 1990 B. 1988 C. 1989 D. 1982 E. 1987
C. Tunji Braithwaite D. Waziri Ibrahim
E. Obafemi Awolowo Exercise 34.27
Answer Ibrahim Babangida promised to end the military rule in
Dr. Tunji Braithwaite was the founder, a lawyer and Nigeria, by?
prominent Lagosian who claimed that Nigerian potentials A. 1992 B. 1990 C. 1994 D. 1993 E. 1998
could be achieved by reforms especially through the Exercise 34.28
eradication of deep–rooted corruption. (C) Who lifted the ban on political activity of 1983?
A. Shehu Shagari B. M.K.O Abiola
C. Sani Abacha D. Ibrahim Babangida
POLITICAL PARTIES IN THE THIRD REPUBLIC Waziri Ibrahim
The constitution of the Third Republic was drafted in 1989.
General Ibrahim Babangida (IBB), promised to end Exercise 34.29
military rule by 1990. This date was pushed back to 1993. What are the two parties of the Third Republic?
IBB lifted the ban on political activity which had been in A. NAP and NPP B. SDP and NRC
place since the coup of 1983. C. GNPP and NRC D. NPC and AG
Two political party systems were introduced, SDP and NNDP
1. Social Democratic Party (SDP) and
2. National Republican Convention (NRC). Exercise 34.30
The two parties were drawn with national interest. Gubernatorial and state legislative elections were
conducted in
Gubernatorial and state legislative elections were conducted A. June, 1991 B. February, 1991
in December, 1991. The civilian governors elected in the C. September, 1991 D. December, 1991
balloting, took office in January 1992. The presidential E. August, 1991
election was postponed to 12th June, 1993 due to political
unrest. M.K.O Abiola, a wealthy Yoruba businessman won a Exercise 34.31
decisive victory in the presidential election on the SDP Who was the presidential candidate of NRC?
platform, defeating Bashir Tofa of the NRC. Abiola won in A. Adeniran Ogunsanya B. Funsho Olowoniyi
the nation’s capital Abuja. He won over two–thirds of Nigeria C. Aminu Kano D. Bashir Tofa
states. The international observers congratulated him on New Moshood Abiola
York Times and Britain also responded. In Nigeria, the
presidential result was not announced. Exercise 34.32
Ibrahim Badamosi Babangida resigned from office on
Ibrahim Bademoji Babanginda (IBB) eventually bowed to A. 23rd August, 1993 B. 23rd March, 1993
rd
pressure from his inner circle and resigned from office on C. 23 June, 1993 D. 23rd October, 1993
rd rd
23 August, 1993. IBB handed the country over to Ernest 23 December, 1993.
Shonekan, a Yoruba businessman, the Chairman of former
UAC in the 80’s. He resumed the office of the presidency Exercise 34.33
as the head of the interim national government. However, Who headed the interim national government in 1993?
Shonekan was unable to manage the political problems of A. Obafemi Awolowo B. Tunji Braithwaite
Nigeria. C. Adisa Akintoye D. Shehu Shagari
E. Ernest Shonekan
Shonekan’s caretaker government was quietly removed
from office by Minister of Defence, General Sani Abacha
on 17th November, 1993. On 11th June, 1994, president
459
Exercise 34.34 Summary of the Nigeria Republic
Who took over from the interim national government? S/N Republic Dates
A. Bashir Tofo B. Abiola Moshood 1. Nigeria First Republic 1963 – 1966
C. Ibrahim Babangida D. Sani Abacha 2. Nigeria Second Republic 1979 – 1983
E. Balali Dauda 3. Nigeria Third Republic 1993 – 1999
4. Nigeria Fourth Republic 1999 – date
Exercise 34.35
Chief Moshood Kashimawo Olawale Abiola died in After the general elections held between December, 1998
A. 1996 B. 1998 C. 1991 D. 1990 E. 1993 and April 1999.
PDP – controlled 21 states
POLITICAL PARTIES IN THE FOURTH ANPP – controlled 9 states.
REPUBLIC IN NIGERIA. AD – controlled six states.
The Fourth republic is the republican government of
Nigeria. Since 1999, it has governed the country according The general elections held between April and May, 2003,
to the fourth republican constitution. 30 political parties were registered by INEC.
PDP – controlled 27 states.
After the death of the military dictator and defacto ruler of ANPP – controlled 7 states.
Nigeria, General Sani Abacha in 1998, his successor AD – controlled 1 state.
General Abdulsalam Abubakar initiated the transition APGA – controlled 1 state.
which returned the democracy rule and pride to Nigeria in
1999. The ban on political activities was lifted and political In 2007, general elections, INEC registered 50 political
prisoners were released from detentions. Three political parties. The election held in April 14th, 2007 was for
parties were formed and participated in the 1999 general Governorship and States Houses of Assembly. April 21st,
elections. 2007 was for the presidential, Senate and House of
1. People’s Democratic Party (PDP). Representatives elections. Some of the registered political
2. All Nigeria People’s Party (ANPP). parties did not even have presidential and gubernatorial
3. Alliance for Democracy (AD). candidates. Umar Yar’Adua of the ruling People’s
The elections were set for April, 1999, it was widely Democratic Party (PDP) won the highly controversial
monitored, and former Military ruler, Olusegun Obasanjo presidential election, and was sworn on 29 May, 2007.
was elected on the PDP platform on the 29th May, 1999.
Obasanjo was sworn in as president and commander-in- In 2011, Presidential election were held in Nigeria on 16th
chief of Federal Republic of Nigeria. President Obasanjo April, 2011, postponed from 9th April, 2011. Immediately
enjoyed two tenures that were eight (8) years. In the same after the election, widespread violence erupted in the
Fourth republic, there was controversial general election northern, Muslim parts of the country. Jonathan was
on 21st April, 2007. Umar Yar’Adua of the PDP was declared the winner on 19th April, 2011.
elected as president. Following the death of Umar
Yar’Adua on 5th May, 2010, the Vice President, Dr. General elections were held in Nigeria on 28th and 29th
Goodluck Jonathan became the third president (interim) March, 2015, the fifth quadrennial election to be held since
and later won the election of the following year, which was the end of military rule in 1999. Opposition candidate,
largely accredited freer and fairer than all the previous Muhammadu Buhari won the presidential election by more
election of the Fourth Republic. than 2.5million votes.

Muhammadu Buhari then won the general election on 28th In 2019 elections, a total of 91 political parties are
March, 2015. He was sworn in 29th May, 2015 under the participating in general elections. General elections were
platform of APC. He was re-elected in 2019 for his second held in Nigeria on 23rd February, 2019 to elect the
tenure. PDP ruled for sixteen years (1999-2015) under the President, Vice President, House of Representatives and
Fourth Republic. the Senate. Incumbent President Muhammadu Buhari won
his re-election bid, defeating his closest rival Atiku
The following are the summary of presidential Abubakar by over 3million votes.
inauguration during the Nigerian Fourth Republic.
S/N President Term Party Exercise 34.36
1. President Olusegun 29th May, 1999-29th PDP The fourth republican government started in
Obasanjo May, 2007 A. 1981 B. 1993 C. 1999 D. 1996 E. 2000
2. Umar yar’Adua 29th May, 2007 – 5th PDP
May, 2010. Exercise 34.37
3. Goodluck Jonathan 6th May, 2010 – PDP Who was the military dictator (Head of state) that died in
2011 (interim) office (1998) in Nigeria?
4. Muhammadu Buhari 29th May, 2015 – APC A. Ibrahim Babangida B. Olusegun Obasanjo
2023 C. Yakubu Gowon D. Sani Abacha
Abdulsalami Abubakar

460
Exercise 34.38 Exercise 34.48
Who initiated the transition and return of democracy in How many political parties registered in 2003 general
Nigeria? elections?
A. Onyabor Azubuike Ihejirika A. 40 B. 32 C. 30 D. 38 E. 33
B. Abdulrahman Bello Dambazau
C. Kenneth Minimah Exercise 34.49
D. Abdulsalami Abubakar E. Tukur Yusuf Baratai ANPP controlled how many states in 2003 general
elections?
Exercise 34.39 A. 7 B. 4 C. 1 D. 5 E. 3
The ban on political activities were lifted in the Fourth
Republic by Aims and Objectives of People’s Democratic Party
A. Abdulsalam Abubakar B. Ibrahim Babangida 1. Supremacy of the constitution.
C. Olusegun Obasanjo D. Tukur Baratai 2. Sanctify of human dignity.
Aguiyi Ironsi 3. Democracy and good governance.
4. Freedom and human rights in the constitution should
Exercise 34.40 be maintained.
Which of the following were the three political parties who 5. Sustainable development through the creation of
participated in 1999 general elections? friendly environment.
A. GNPP, NPC and PDP B. NPP, NPC and NNDP 6. Promote and nurture democratic ideas and traditions.
C. PDP, ANPP and AD D. NAP, UPN and NCNC 7. The principles of accountability and transparency in
NYM, UMBC and AG order to restore confidence in the institutions of
government, discipline and leadership. The
Exercise 34.41 improvement in the well-being of Nigerians.
Who was the presidential candidate of 1999 election under 8. Fostering the spirit of oneness among our people by
the umbrella of Alliance for Democracy? treating all Nigerians fairly and equitably, regardless of
A. Olusegun Obasanjo B. Samuel Olufalea their social, political or economic status.
C. Julius Olowoniyi D. Paul Ariyo Funsho 9. The preservation of Nigeria as a multi–religious state.
Ayobami Oluwadarami 10. To eradicate illiteracy and promote learning.

Exercise 34.42 Exercise 34.50

Who succeeded General Sani Abacha? Highlight seven aims and objectives of the People’s
A. Ibrahim Babangida B. Goodluck Jonathan Democratic Party.
C. Umaru Yar’Adua D. Abdulsalam Abubakar
Ernest Shonekan Achievement of People’s Democratic Party
1. Restores genuine democracy.
Exercise 34.43 2. National unity and stability.
Who was the interim president of 2010, after the death of 3. Enlarged the political space we all enjoy today.
Umaru Yar’Adua? 4. Operation of the rule of law.
A. Ernest Ikoli B. Samuel Akinsanya 5. Railway reconstruction.
C. Obafemi Awolowo D. Goodluck Jonathan 6. Obasanjo Olusegun settled some foreign debts
Yemi Osinbajo accumulated by the previous administration.
7. Administrations in economy.
Exercise 34.44 8. The party made provision for agricultural facilities.
The presidential candidate that won the 2015 election was 9. Provision for health care centres in all our localities.
A. Yemi Alade B. Abbar Ejoor 10. It worked very hard in sanitizing the health sector in
C. Muhammadu Buhari D. Mohammed Buhari the country.
11. The introduction of global system of mobile
Exercise 34.45 communication (GSM) in Nigeria.
Which election was declared the most freer and fairer in 12. It won presidential election of 1999, 2003, 2007 and
the Fourth Republic? 2011 respectively.
A. 1999 B. 2003 C. 2007 D. 2011 E. 2015 13. Different programmes were set up to reduce the rate
of unemployment, poverty, etc..
Exercise 34.46
The Nigeria First Republic was between ______ Aims and Objectives of APP
A. 1963-1966 B. 1999-2013 C. 1960-1964 1. To promote development of science and technology.
D. 1993-1999 E. 1979–1983 2. To come up with an economic policy based on public
participation even with control in the areas of
Exercise 34.47 production, distribution, exchange of goods and
In 1999, People’s Democratic Party (PDP) controlled services.
A. 36 states B. 9 states C. 21 states D. 15 states 3. To cooperate with other political organized bodies that
25 states have similar mandate outline with them.
4. To promote and foster unity, political stability, and to
evolve in people with value for national consciousness.
461
5. To promote and pursue economic, social and political 9. To promote and provide the basic necessities of life:
freedom as well as enhancing a better standard of i.e. food, water, free education, primary health care,
living for the people of the country. security, etc., for the people of this country.
6. To promote unity and work for the political stability of 10. To embark on an integrated rural development aimed
the country. at improving the quality of life at the rural setting.
7. To promote the doctrine of democratic principles, 11. To put in place conditions and structures that will
constitutions and legitimate means of acquiring guarantee social justice and equality for all, as well as
political power. to promote economic, social and political freedom for
8. To defend the constitution of the Federal Republic of all.
Nigeria. 12. To pursue the development of science and
9. To embark on the development of commerce and technology.
industry as well as agriculture.
10. To eliminate poverty, ignorance and want in every Achievements of Alliance of Democracy
aspect of the people’s life. 1. It won and controlled six states of the South West
11. To stand against exploitation and discrimination of zone by winning the Governorship elections in 1999
different shades in the society. General elections and in 2003 it won and retained
12. To provide full employment for Nigerians that have only Lagos state.
the ability to work. 2. It took part in 1999 and 2003 general elections
13. To promote and provide the basic necessities of life i.e. throughout the country and won some seats in the
housing, food, water, free education, primary health National Assembly, State Assemblies and Local
care, security, etc.. for all the people of this country. Government election.
14. To embark on integrated rural development by 3. Through the promotion of integrated rural
improving the quality of life at the rural settlements. development programme, the quality of life of those
15. To put in place conditions and structures that will in rural areas has improved considerably.
guarantees social justice and equality for all, as well as 4. It provided free primary and secondary education and
to promote economic, social and political freedom for free primary health care especially in the states
all. controlled by AD.
16. To pursue the development of science and technology. 5. It promoted unity and supported every effort toward
the political stability of the country.
Achievements of APP
1. It contested elections into all elective posts at all Contributions of Political Parties towards the
levels of government during the 1999 and 2003 Constitutional Development of Nigeria
general elections. 1. Provided the leadership for constitutional
2. It worked towards the promotion of political stability development: Members of political parties
and national unity among Nigerians. spearheaded agitations for constitutional reforms e.g.
3. The party won 9 (nine) Governorship elections in the 1946 Richard constitution.
middle-belt zones and North West during the 1999 2. Popular opposition: Opposition was initiated by
general elections. It also won some seats at the parties against colonial government e.g. Richard
National Assembly and local government councils. constitution of 1946. The constitution was seen by the
4. The interest of farmers was highly protected party leaders as containing “Obnoxious laws” which
especially in the APP states. was subsequently removed in the 1951 constitution.
5. It worked in alliance with A.D to present a credible 3. Political education: Political education in Nigeria
candidate during the last presidential elections. was provided through rallies and newspapers e.g.
West Africa Pilot, Lagos Weakly Record, Nigeria
Aims and Objectives of Alliance of Democracy Tribune etc., owned by some Nigerian nationalists,
1. To promote unity and work for the political stability these enlightenment exposed the masses to some of
of the country. the deficiencies of colonial constitutions.
2. To promote the doctrine of democractic principles, 4. Formation of government: Government were formed
constitutional and legitimate means of acquiring by various parties in their various regions under the
political power. 1951 constitution. The development formed the basis
3. To defend the constitution of the Federal Republic of for self–government in 1957, 1959 and independence
Nigeria. in 1960.
4. To defend the sovereignty of the people of Nigeria 5. Constitutional conferences: Leaders were selected
and allow the evolution of democratic process in the by the political parties to attend constitutional
political structure of the party. conference e.g. the Ibadan conference of 1951, 1953
5. To embark on the development of commerce and and 1957. London conference for the attainment of
industry as well as Agriculture. political independence in 1953.
6. To provide full and gainful employment for Nigerians
that have the ability to work.
7. To eliminate poverty, ignorance and want in all aspect
of the people’s life.
8. To stand against exploitation and discrimination of
different shades in the society.
462
2004/32 UTME 2005/34 UTME
In the Second Republic, the ruling National party of Nigeria During the Second Republic, the Great Nigeria People’s
formed an alliance with the Party won the governorship election in
A. Great Nigeria People’s Party B. Nigeria Advance Party A. Borno and Kaduna states B. Gongola and Sokoto
C. Unity Party of Nigeria D. Unity Party of Nigeria states
Answer C. Borno and Gongola states D. Sokoto and Bauchi states
The National Party of Nigeria formed an alliance with the Answer
Nigeria People’s Party in the second Republic of Nigeria (D) The Great Nigeria People’s Party in the second Republic
of Nigeria won the governorship election in Borno and
2011/35 UTME Gongola states (C)
Which of the following political parties was the first to be
formed when the ban on politics was lifted in 1978?
1999/38 UTME
A. NPN B. UPN C. NPP D. PRP
In 1979, the Unity Party of Nigeria contested and won
Answer
UPN was the first to be formed when the ban on politics was gubernatorial elections in
lifted in 1978. On September 31, 1978, General Olusegun A. Lagos, Ogun, Imo, Oyo and Bendel
Obasanjo lifted ban on partisan politics after 12 years of B. Lagos, Kwara, Oyo, Ogun and Benue
military rule. Unity Party of Nigeria was then formed on C. Lagos, Ogun, Oyo Ondo and Bendel
September 22, 1978 by Chief Obafemi Awolowo (B) D. Lagos, Kwara Ogun, Oyo and Ondo
Answer
2019/2020/24) (UI, IBADAN) In 1979, during the second Republic of Nigeria. The Unity
The six registered political parties in Nigeria in 1983 were Party of Nigeria contested and won gubernatorial elections
A. UPN, NPN, PPA, PTP, NPP and NAP in Lagos, Ogun, Oyo, Ondo and Bendel States (C)
B. NPN, UPN, NPP, PRP, PPP and NNDP
C. PPA, NCNC, GNPP, NPN, UPN and PPO 2018/2019/90 (UNIZIK,AWKA)
D. UPN, GNPP, NAP, PRP, NPP and NPN Who founded the Unity Party of Nigeria in the second
E. NPP, GNPP, PRP, UPN, NPP and PPA Republic?
Answer A. Nnamdi Azikiwe B. Michael Ajasin
The following were the registered six political parties in C. Obafemi Awolowo D. Shehu Shagari
Nigeria in 1983; Unity Party of Nigeria (UPN), Greater Answer
Nigerian People’s Party (GNPP), Nigeria Advance Party The Unity Party of Nigeria (UPN) was a Nigerian political
(NAP), People’s Redemption Party (PRP), Nigerian People’s party that was dominant in Western Nigeria during the
Party (NPP) and National Party of Nigeria (NPN) (D)
Second Republic (1978-1983). The party revolved around
the political leadership of Obafemi Awolowo, a sometimes
2000/23 UTME polemical political but effective administrator (C)
The political party with the widest spread of members in
Nigeria during the Second Republic was the
2007/43 UTME
A. GNPP B. NPP C. NPN D. UPN
The major objectives of the manifesto of the People’s
Answer Redemption Party in the Second Republic was
National Party of Nigeria (NPN) was the widest spread
A. housing for all B. welfare of the nation
political party in the second Republic in Nigeria (C)
C. emancipation of the masses
D. free education
2009/16 UTME
Answer
The party that did not control any state in the second
The main objective of the manifesto of the People’s
republic was
Redemption Party in the Second Republic was
A. NAP B. PRP C. NPP D. GNPP
emancipation of the masses (C)
Answer
Nigeria Advance Party did not win or control any state in
1997/37 UTME
the second Republic in Nigeria (A)
Four pre-independence political parties in Nigeria includes
the
2017/2018/18 (UI,IBADAN) A. AG, NCNC, NNDP and NYM
Which of the following was not a registered political party
B. NNDP, NCNC, NPC and AG
in Nigeria between 1979 and 1983?
C. NNDP, NCNC, NPC and UMBC
A. UPN B. NEPU C. PRP D. NPP
D. NYM, NCNC, NPC and NNDP
Answer E. NYM, NCNC, NPC and NNDP
NEPU was not a registered political party in Nigeria
Answer
between 1979 and 1983. The political party Northern
NNDP, NCNC, NPC and AG were the four pre-
Elements Progressive Union was founded in Kano 8
independence political parties in Nigeria (B)
August, 1960, it became the main opposition party in
Northern Nigeria (B)

463
1989/29 UTME 2005/24 UTME
In the 1950s, the Northern Elements Progressive Union The political party formed in 1923 by Herbert Macaulay
was notable in Nigeria politics because it was
A. opposed Northern traditional rulers A. National Council of Nigeria and the Cameroons
B. agitated for the formation of a unitary form of B. Nigerian National Democratic Party
government C. Nigerian Youth Movement
C. allied with the Northern People’s Congress to form the D. United National Independent Party
regional government Answer
D. won the election to the Northern House of Assembly Nigerian National Democratic Party (NNDP) was a
Answer political party formed in 1923 by Herbert Macaulay (B)
In the 1950s, the Northern Elements Progressive Union
was notable in Nigerian politics because it opposed 2014/27 UTME
Northern traditional rulers (A) Which of the following nationalists was the founder of
Nigeria’s first political party?
A. Herbert Macaulay B. Abubakar Tafawa Balewa
2011/31 UTME C. Ahmadu Bello D. Nnamdi Azikiwe
The Action Group crisis of 1963 led to the formation of Answer
A. NPC B. NCNC C. UPP D. NEPU Herbert Macaulay was the founder of the Nigeria’s first
Answer political party, Nigerian National Democratic Party
After the collapse of Action Group, UPP was formed to (NNDP) (A)
represent the western region (C)
1984/39 UTME
1986/38 UTME The two parties which formed the coalition government in
Who was appointed by the federal government of Nigeria 1959 were the
as the administrator of Western Region in 1962? A. NCNC and the AG B. NPC and the NCNC
A. Dr. M. A. Majekodunmi C. NPC and AG D. PRP and the UPGA
B. Chief Odeleye Fadahunis E. NPC and the NNA
C. Chief S. L. Akintola Answer
D. Chief Remi Fani Kayode NPC and the NCNC were the two political parties that
Answer formed the coalition government in 1959 (B)
Dr. M. A. Majekodunmi was appointed by the federal
government of Nigeria as administrator of Western region 2012/2013/47 (UNIZIK, AWKA)
in 1962 (A) The first national political party in post-world war of
Nigeria was
1986/40 UTME A. NEPU B. NCNC C. AG D. UMBC
Which of the following parties formed the opposition in D. NPC
the House of Representatives during Nigerian First Answer
Republic? The National Council of Nigeria and the Cameroon
A. NCNC and NEPU B. AG and UMBC (NCNC) was formed in 1944. In August 19444, the NCNC
C. NPC and NNDP D. NCNC and MDF changed its name to National Council for Nigerian citizens
Answer when Southern Cameron left Nigeria (B)
AG and UMBC formed the opposition in the House of
Representatives during Nigeria First Republic (B) 1994/31 UTME
The political party that replaced NNDP before
1999/28 UTME independence was
The Nigerian National Alliance of the First Republic was A. NYM B. NCNC C. UNDP D. AG
made up of Answer
A. NCNC and NAP B. NPC and AG NCNC was the political party that replaced NNDP before
C. NPC and NNDP D. NCNC and AG independence in Nigeria (B)
Answer
NPC and NNDP formed an alliance in the First Republic REVISION EXERCISES
known as the Nigerian National Alliance (C) 1. There was general election in Nigeria during the
fourth Republican.
2004/18 UTME A. 1999, 2003, 2007, 2011, 2015 and 2019
The Native Authority system was most effective and B. 1992, 1996, 2000, 2004, 2008 and 2019
successful in C. 1999, 2004, 2008, 2012, 2016 and 2020
A. Eastern Nigeria B. Northern Nigeria D. 2011, 2013, 2015, 2017, 2019 and 2021
C. Mid-Western Nigeria D. Western Nigeria E. 1998, 2004, 2008, 2012, 2016 and 2020
Answer 2. Nigerian Youth Movement was later joined by the
The Native Authority system was most effective and following except
successful in Northern Nigeria because of their political A. Samuel Akintola B. Nnamdi Azikiwe
system which placed the traditional ruler next to God (B) C. H. O. Davies D. Obafemi Awolowo
E. Goodluck Jonathan
464
3. Alliance of Democracy emerged from 17. The headquarters of registered political parties in
A. APP B. ANPP C. CPC D. AG Nigeria must be located in
E. NNDP A. Local government headquarters B. state capital
4. Which of the following fourth republican political C. Federal Capital Territory
party emphasized on free education and primary D. northern and Southern part of Nigeria
health care? 18. The first political party to be formed in Nigeria was
A. PDP B. AD C. APP D. ANPP E. CPC A. National Council of Nigeria and the Cameroons
5. Which of the fourth republic political party (NCNC)
reconstitutes railway transport? B. Action Group (AG)
A. PDP B. AG C. APP D. AD E. ANPP C. Nigerian National Democratic Party (NNDP)
6. The political party that settled some foreign debts D. United Middle Belt Congress (UMBC)
accumulated by previous administration. E. Northern People’s Congress (NPC)
A. APP B. AD C. APP D. PDP E. NDP 19. What are the contributions of political parties towards
7. APGA political party won how many states in 2003 the constitutional development in Nigeria?
general election. 20. Enumerate seven (7) achievements of the Alliance for
A. 2 B. 20 C. 12 D. 10 E. 1 Democracy.
8. The Third Republic was between 21. Write brief histories of the second republic political
A. 1993 – 1999 B. 1963 – 1966 C. 1979 – 1983 parties.
D. 1992 – 1996 E. 2012-2020 22. State the summary of presidential inauguration during
9. Social Democratic Party (SDP) presidential candidate the Nigeria fourth republic.
of 1993 general election was 23. Discuss the fourth republic political parties.
A. Bashir Tofa B. Olusegun Adewale 24. Outline five aims and achievements of Unity Party of
C. Bashir Yahaya D. Moshood Abiola Nigeria (UPN).
E. Olusegun Obasanjo 25. Highlight seven contributions of Sir Herbert
10. How many political parties were registered in the Macaulay in Nigeria political and independence
second republic? pursued.
A. 6 B. 5 C. 4 D. 3 E. 2 26. The political parties that were established in West
11. What was the name of the body that conducted 1979 Africa between 1945 and 1965 fought for
elections in Nigeria? A. national conferences B. political independence
A. Federal Electoral commission C. supremacy among themselves
B. Independent Electoral Commission D. regional integration 2007/44 Neco
C. Right Electoral Commission 27. Which of the following was a nationalist
D. Private Electoral Commission organization? 2008/40 Neco
E. International Electoral Commission A. People’s Redemption Organisation (PRO)
12. Dynamic Party (DP) which was later changed B. National Congress of British West Africa
A. Greater Nigerian Party (GNP) (NCBWA)
B. Nigerian National Alliance (NNA) C. West African People’s League (WFPR)
C. Mid-West Democratic Front (MDF) D. National Council of African People (NCFP)
D. Niger-Delta Congress (NDC) 28. The Northern Element Progressive Union (NEPU) of
E. People’s Democracy Party (PDP) Nigeria was founded by
13. Who is the president of Nigeria now (2021)? A. Aminu Kano B. Waziri Ibrahim
A. Olusegun Obasanjo B. Umaru Yar’Adua C. Tafawa Balewa D. Joseph Tarka
C. Muhammadu Buhari D. Goodluck Jonathan 29. A. What were the sources of finance of the National
E. Yemi Osinbajo Council of Nigeria and the Cameroons?
14. The NCNC sent delegation to London in 1947 to B. Explain the achievements of the National Council
protest against the of Nigeria and the Cameroons (NCNC).
A. Clifford constitution B. Republican constitution 30. A. Describe the formation of the Nigeria National
C. Richard constitution D. Lyttleton constitution Alliance (NNA) of 1964.
E. Macpherson constitution B. Highlight three achievements of the Alliance.
15. The political parties which formed a coalition 31. Highlight five contributions of Herbert Macaulay to
government at the centre after the 1954 general the political development of Nigeria.
elections in Nigeria were the 32. Identify four contributions of Nnamdi Azikiwe to the
A. NEPU and AG B. NCNC and NEPU nationalist struggle of Nigeria.
C. NPC and NEPU D. AG and NPC
E. NPC and NCNC
16. Which of the following political parties did not
present any presidential candidate for the 1979
presidential election?
A. Great Nigeria People’s Party (GNPP)
B. Nigeria Advance Party (NAP)
C. Nigeria People’s Party (NPP)
D. People’s Redemption Party (PRP)
E. Unity Party of Nigeria (UPN)
465
1. That each region shall have complete legislative and
Chapter Thirty Five Executive Autonomy with respect to all matters
except: External Affairs, Defence, Customs and West
MAJOR POLITICAL CRISIS IN NIGERIA African Research Institution.

THE KANO RIOT OF 1953 2. That there should be no Central Legislative body and
On March 16, 1953, a member of Action Group (AG) in no Central Executive or Policy making body for the
the House of Representatives, Chief Anthony Enahoro, whole of Nigeria.
moved a motion that Nigeria should be granted self– 3. That there shall be Central Agency for all regions
government in 1956. The leader of Northern People’s which will be responsible for matters mentioned in
Congress (NPC), Sir Ahmadu Bello moved a counter Paragraph (1) and other matters delegated to it by a
motion to Enahoro motion, that we are not mature enough region.
to govern ourselves, that we need to be nurtured more by
our European masters. 4. That the Central Agency shall be a neutral place
preferably Lagos.
5. That the composition and responsibility of the Central
Agency shall be defined by the Order – in – Council
establishing the constitutional arrangements. The
agency shall be a non – political body.

6. That the services of railway, air, posts and telegraph,

electricity and coal mining, shall be organized on an
inter – regional basis and shall be administered by
public corporation. These corporations shall be
independent and covered by statutes under which they
are created by the board of experts with a minority
representation of the regional governments.

Riot Scene in Nigeria 7. All revenues shall be levied and collected by the
regional government except Customs revenue at the
This statement led to the disagreement between AG/NCNC port of discharge by the Central Agency and paid to
and NPC, the NPC have the majority in the house, the other its treasury.
two parties walked out of the meeting and it was adjourned
to 31st March, 1953. The Northern members of the House 8. The administration of the Customs shall be organised
of Representatives came out of the senate building and met so as to assure that goods consigned to the region are
crowd outside the building, calling them names and separately cleared and charged to duty. Each region
throwing at them different things. The Northern leaders shall have a separate public service.
were not happy they left Lagos under police protection.
Political implications of the Kano Riot
The Action Group members agreed to have a tour in the The riot left behind great effects which include:
Northern region of Nigeria to educate and enlighten them 1. The Kano riot worsened the relationship between
about self government, that as a nation we are going to Northern leaders and Southern leaders.
work towards 1956 having our independence. The Action 2. Federal system of government was the only system
Group was led by Chief S. L. Akintola. The Northerners that allowed regional development at their own pace
viewed the tour as an invasion of another man’s territory. could hold Nigeria together.
It was when Akintola and his group were in Kano for the 3. The riot ushered in the London constitutional
meeting from May 16–19, that violence broke out in the conference of 1953 and also brought about the 1954
city of Kano. The Colonial government by May 18, constitution.
declared a State of Emergency in Northern Nigeria and 4. The riot also brought about a temporary working
troops were deployed in the city. However, the violence alliance between the NCNC and the Action Group
was only within Kano. Between 36–52 people lost their against the Northern People’s Congress thus bridging
lives and many were left wounded of up to about 200, with relationships.
a lot of properties that worth so much destroyed. After the 5. It led to the removal of power of intervention by the
crisis, the NPC members issued an “eight point centre in all residual matters and also the granting of
programmes” to the colonial government, that their request greater regional autonomy to the three regions.
must be granted favourable consideration before they 6. Sir Oliver Lyttleton, the Secretary of State for the
return to the House in Lagos. Colonies, announced that it is impossible for the
regions to work together, and therefore
It may be necessary here to reproduce this programme so representatives from each region will be invited to
we can properly situate when “Nigeria unity is not discuss a new Nigerian Constitution.
negotiable” mantra became a sing – song. The North asked 7. It led to the adoption of a federal system of
for the following: government.
466
1990/36 Nov II. The booing and jeering of Northern delegates in
The Kano riots of 1953 is significant because Lagos.
A. it involved rioting between Igbos and Hausas III. The retaliatory move by Northerners to counter
B. it was the first outbreak of violence between the major the booing and jeering of Northern leaders in
political parties Lagos.
C. many innocent lives were lost IV. The tour of the Northern Region by Action Group
D. violence broke out when the Emir was on an official (AG) led by Chief S. L. Akintola aimed at
tour of Sabon Gari, the scene of the violence campaigning for self – government.
E. the police could not arrest the rioters, thus nobody was B. Political implications of the 1953 Kano riot in
charged to court Nigeria.
Answer I. The riot worsened the relationship between the
Kano riots of 1953 were significant because it was the first Northern leaders and southern leaders.
outbreak of violence between the major political parties. II. The riot also showed that only a federal system of
(B) government where regions are allowed to develop
at their own pace can serve as a means of holding
1996/47 Nigeria together.
The immediate cause of Kano riot of 1953 was the III. It ushered in the London constitutional
A. NCNC tour of Northern Nigeria led by Dr. Azikiwe conference of 1953 and consequently brought
B. Action Group tour of Northern led by Chief S. L. about the 1954 constitution.
Akintola IV. The riot also brought about a temporary working
C. mobbing of Northern leaders at Lagos alliance between the NCNC and Action Group.
D. issue of the administrative positive of Lagos
E. motion by Chief Anthony Enahoro for self–government 2011/8
Answer The motion for self government in 1953 for Nigeria was
The immediate cause of Kano riot of 1953 was the Action opposed by the North because the
Group tour of Northern Nigeria led by Chief S. L. Akintola A. British told them to oppose it
in Kano. (B) B. North was not ready for self–rule
C. northern leaders were jeered by a Lagos crowd
2019/7 NABTEB D. NPC leader wanted to rule Nigeria
A. Give a brief account of the Kano riot of 1953. E. Southerners killed some northern politicians
Answer Answer
th
On the 16 of March, 1953, there was a disagreement The motion for self government of 1953 in Nigeria was
between the Action Group and Northern People’s opposed by the Northern leaders because they were not
Congress parties in the House of Representatives in ready for self-rule. (B)
Lagos. Chief Anthony Enahoro raised a motion on
self – government of Nigeria. The Northern leaders of 1992/45 Exercise 35.1
(NPC) reacted to that motion that they were not ready The immediate cause of the 1953 Kano riot was the
for it. They need the European masters to still govern A. existence of regularly–based political parties
them a little, so that we can handle the administration B. weakness of 1946 Richard constitution
of the country. C. failure of Macpherson’s constitution to provide for the
post of prime minister
The Northern members of the House of D. humiliation of Northern legislatures in Lagos
Representatives came out of the senate building and E. ambition of some politicians to secure independence
met supporters of the Action Group outside, they from British by force
were calling the NPC members names and throwing
things at them. The Northerners were not happy with 2019/7 NABTEB Exercise 35.2
the actions of the westerners. The Action Group Mention five implications of the Kano riot.
members planned a tour to the northern part of
Nigeria to educate and enlighten them on self–
government in Nigeria led by Chief S. L. Akintola. THE EASTERN REGIONAL CRISIS OF 1953
The northerners reacted to their visit in their arena and This started on January 30, 1953 and ended on May 6,
it led to Kano riot. 1953. The National Council of Nigerian and Cameroon
(NCNC) majority turned itself into opposition and as such
killed the bills that were brought to it including the
1997/7 appropriate bill.
Outline the causes and implications of the 1953 Kano riot
in Nigeria. The government had to use his reserve powers to decree
A. Causes of the Kano riot of 1953 in Nigeria. appropriation for the running of the government. The crisis
I. Disagreement over the 1953 motion for self arose because of the internal split and power struggle
government in 1956. This led to a strained within NCNC. In the first place, the party members from
relationship between the Northern and Southern Lagos failed to elect their party leader, Dr. Nnamdi
leaders. Azikiwe into the House of Representatives in Lagos.

467
In the second place, the party leaders did not agree on 1999/56
whether or not they should continue to support the The main cause of the 1962/63 census crisis with that
MacPherson Constitution. The party members who were A. army was involved in the head count
holding ministerial positions supported it while others did B. inexperienced officials were used in the enumeration
not. Later, the party central ministers were expelled. But C. the police prevented enumerators from doing their work
some regional ministers did not support the expulsion and D. there was no fund to provide enough materials for the head
there were moved to reshuffle the posts of the regional count
ministers with a view to replacing the six expelled E. there was widespread inflation of the census results in
ministers at the center. many regions
Answer
THE CENSUS CRISIS OF 1962/63 The major problem that led to 1962/63 census crisis was
The first organized population census was conducted in widespread inflation of the census results in the Northern
Nigeria in 1962. The evaluation of the census claimed that, region especially. (E)
there was high rigging and it should be cancelled. The
government agreed to the claim and cancelled the 1962 ACTION GROUP CRISIS OF 1962
census and proposed 1963 for another population census. One of the factors which contributed to the Action Group
crisis of 1962 was personality clash between Chief
A census board was set up under the authority of the Prime Obafemi Awolowo the party leader, and Chief Akintola his
Minister Nnamdi Azikiwe, to supervise the population deputy party leader. Chief Awolowo saw Chief S. L.
census of 1963 and the result released in February, 1964, Akintola as an over ambitious and egocentric individual
the outcome of Nigerian figures were released as that wanted to supplant him as the leader of the party. This
55,653,821. The following breakdown gave the regions made Chief Awolowo to view his Deputy, Chief Akintola
their figures. Northern regions was the most populated as a traitor and perfidy personified who must be removed
region in Nigeria based on the census with 29,777,968, from the party. Differences of opinion contributed
Eastern region with 12,388,646, western region with immensely to the crisis that broke out in the Action Group
10,278,500, mid – west region with 2,533,337 and Lagos in 1962.
with 675,352.
The introduction or adoption of a new ideology democratic
Every Nigerian from Eastern, Lagos and mid-west rejected socialization means a mixed economy, the combination of
the figure outrightly claiming that the figures were inflated. national economic plan. Akintola’s supporters rejected this
The Eastern region went to the Supreme Court challenging new ideology. The Action Group was divided into two
the federal government of their invalid results of census. factions’ democratic socialism (Awolowo) and
The Eastern Region does not have evidence to stand for the conservative’s capitalists (Akintola). The Akintola’s
case, the federal government accepted the results of 1963 faction supported NPC to control federal government, the
population census. These figures therefore, remained the Chief Awolowo group did not want to have anything to do
official figures used as base figures for projects for all with the NPC, instead preferred a progressive alliance with
developmental matters, constituency delimitations, the NCNC in order to root out NPC from power. This
allocation of seats to the parliament, boundary rancorous issue caused a split in the Action group. The
adjustments, etc. allegation that Chief Awolowo who was the leader of
opposition in the Federal House of Representatives wanted
The Prime Minister, Sir Abubakar Tafawa Balewa, to be consulted as the party leader before any important
declared the results as satisfactory. The Eastern Region policy decisions were to be taken by Western Region
government contested the results at the Supreme Court, government headed by Chief Akintola was another major
asking for its nullification, an action which was dismissed, cause of the crisis in Action Group. Chief Akintola and
leaving the 1963 census figures the reference point for other officials of Western Regional Government saw Chief
some three decades afterwards. Awolowo as a political usurper. At the party’s annual
congress held in Jos in February, 1962, a decision was
1998/57 reached to abolish the post of Deputy leader, dismiss Chief
Which of the following was a result of the Nigeria census Ayo Rosiji from the office of Federal party Secretary and
crisis of 1962/63? to remove Chief Akintola from office as both the Secretary
A. weakened relationship between the North and the South Deputy leader of the party and as premier. Chief Akintola
B. the suspension of the independence constitution was found guilty of the charges of antiparty,
C. dissolution of the federal parliament maladministration, disloyalty and gross indiscipline.
D. formation of the northern people’s congress and
national council of Nigeria citizens A letter signed by a majority of the party members in the
E. dismissal of the prime minister by the Governor-General Regional House of Assembly expressing lack of
answer confidence in the premier was presented to the Governor.
The 1962/63 controversial census, paralysed the federal The Governor (Sir Adesoji Aderemi) dismissed Chief
parliament for three days and the country was in danger of Akintola from office as premier and appointed Alhaji D. S.
collapse. (C) Adegbenro, the parliamentary leader of the House in his
place. After the expulsion of Chief S. L. Akintola, tension
and confusion in the region continued to grow wider and
wider. The police were called severally to stop the attempt
468
by Akintola’s supporters to disrupt the proceedings of the 9. The crisis enlightens the people about the weakness of
House. As a result of disorder and confusion, the the constitution e.g. the Governors were unable to
legislative chamber was locked by the police on the orders remove the premiers.
of the Prime Minister. After a while, there was an attempt 10. The crisis of the Action group awakens the power of the
to hold a meeting of the House, but Akintola’s supporters opposition group at the federal House of
disrupt the proceeding at the present of the police officers Representatives.
in the house.
1998/49
The Federal government decided to invoke its The dominant actors in the Action Group crisis of 1962
constitutional power and declared a state of emergency in were
the Western Region and appointed Senator Dr. M. A. A. Dauda Adegbenro and Adesoji Aderemi
Majekodunmi, the Federal Minister of Health as B. Obafemi Awolowo and Ladoke Akintola
Administrator of the Region. Chief S. L. Akintola was C. Anthony Enahoro and Bode Thomas
reinstated as premier at the end of the emergency which D. Adetokumbo Ademola and Fani Kayode
lasted for 6 (six) months. On November 2nd 1962, Chief E. Richard Akinjide and Adeniran Ogunsanya
Awolowo and thirty others were charged with plotting to Answer
overthrow the Federal Government and at the end of the The dominant actors of the Action Group crisis was between
trial, Chief Awolowo was sentenced to ten (10) years Chief Obafemi Awolowo the party leader and his deputy
imprisonment. Akintola formed a new party known as Ladoke Akintola, there were personality clashes between
United Progressive Party (UPP) with some members of them that led to the collapse of Action Group. (B)
NCNC; a new government was formed in January, 1963.
Later the United Progressive Party (UPP) and some 1999/46 Neco
members of the NCNC formed the Nigerian National Who among the following was dismissed from the Action
Democratic Party (NNDP). The federal government set up Group at the Jos congress of February, 1962?
a commission of inquiry headed by Justice G.B.A. Coker A. Anthony Enahoro B. Ladoke Akintola
to investigate the allegation of mismanagement of public C. Dauda Adegbenro D. Adesoji Aderemi
funds in certain statutory corporations in the Western Answer
region. The commission discovered many irregularities, The party had a conference at Jos, it was decided by other
maladministration and misappropriation of public funds leaders of the party that Chief S. L. Akintola should be
for party purposes but Chief Akintola was not found guilty. expelled from the party because he was too rebellious to
The final outcome of the crisis in the Action Group was the their party leader and the party. (B)
carving out of the mid-west Region from Western region
which Action Group had consistently opposed. 1994/48
The major cause of the Action Group crisis of 1962 was
The consequences of the Action Group crisis of 1962 in the
Nigeria. A. personal hatred of Chief S. L. Akintola, the then premier
1. A state of emergency was declared. This means of Western region
dissolution of the Western House of Chiefs and House B. in–fighting between Chief S. L. Akintola and Sir
of Assembly. Adesoji Aderemi the then governor of Western region C.
2. A temporary administration under a sole Administrator, poor performance of the Action group in the 1959 general
Dr. M. Majekoduunmi, the Federal Minister of Health, elections
was constituted. D. proposals to change the party’s ideology towards a
3. Chief Obafemi Awolowo and some of his supporters socialist orientation
were charged with plotting to overthrow the federal E. dwindling finances of the party
government and were sentenced to various terms of Answer
imprisonment. Chief Obafemi Awolowo introduced a new ideology of
4. In January, 1963, Chief S. L. Akintola, Deputy Leader democratic socialism which was the major cause of the
of the Action Group, and some members of NCNC Action Group crisis of 1962. This ideology divided the
formed the United Progressive Party which later party into two factions –Awolowo – democratic socialism
became Nigerian National Democratic Party (NNDP) while Akintola faction conservative capitalists. (D)
and formed the government in the Western Region.
5. Creation of the mid-western region in 1963. This was
2019/46 NABTEB
possible because the Action Group was out of power in
Who was the first sole administrator of the western region
the Western region at this period.
6. The Action Group crisis led to the military take–over of in 1962 when a state of emergency was declared on it?
government in January, 1966. A. H. O. Davies B. M. A. Majekodunmi
7. The Action Group crisis led to the formation of two C. S. L. Akintola D. Obafemi Awolowo
coalition political parties – NNA and UPGA – to contest Answer
the 1964 federal elections. The federal government of Nigeria declared state of
8. The dismissal of Chief S. L. Akintola as Deputy leader emergency in the Western Region and appointed Dr. M. A.
of Action Group, and subsequently a premier of western Majekodunmi, as the administrator of the region. (B)
region led to anarchy on the floor of the Western Region
House of Assembly in Ibadan.

469
1996/8 Nov THE FEDERAL ELECTION CRISIS OF 1964
Highlight the consequences of the Action Group (AG) The federal election witnessed the formation of alliance by
crisis of 1962 in Nigeria. both the major and minor political parties e.g. A.G, NCNC
Answer and NPF formed NEPU. Northern Elements Progressive
1. Dismissal of the deputy leader of the Action Group later joined and formed another party called (UPGA). The
(AG) was the cause of the crisis of 1962 in Nigeria. Northern People’s Congress (NPC), NNDP, the mid–west
2. The state of emergency was declared in the Western Democratic Front, the Niger Delta Congress in Eastern
region. Nigeria (NNA) in August, 1964.
3. The federal government appointed a sole administrator
in the Western Region, Dr. M. A. Majekodunmi. The alliances of all the political parties produced two major
4. There was formation of a new party by the dismissed parties United Progressive Grand Alliance (UPGA) and
deputy leader of Action Group. Nigeria National Alliance (NNA), which had to contest for
5. There was also coalition of government between the election at the Federal State and Local Government levels.
United Progress party (UPP) and National Council of UPGA leader was Chief Michael Okpara and NNA was Sir
Nigeria Citizens (NCNC). Ahmadu Bello.
6. The collapse of the coalition government led to the
formation of new party (NNDP). Allocation of the parliamentary seat was not equally given to
7. The crises of the AG awaken the power of the all the regions. Northern region was given 167, Eastern
Region–70 seats, Western region–57 seats, mid-west region
opposition group at the Federal House of
14 seats and Lagos 4 seats. The total of three hundred and
Representatives.
twelve (312) seats. UPGA candidates complained of their
8. The crisis led to two major alliances to contest in 196, at inability to file nomination papers in the Northern regions
federal election, Nigerian National Alliance (NNA) and controlled by the northerners. UPGA was reported not to have
United Progressive Grand Alliance (UPGA). electoral officers during and after the election because they
9. The Action Group crisis led to the military take-over were not given nomination paper to file their candidates.
of government in January, 1966.
10. The crisis enlightens the people about the weakness The delegation of UPGA met the president, Dr. Nnamdi
of the constitution. Azikiwe and told him their grievances, that if the situation
was not redressed, they would boycott the election, the
2001/33 Nov president requested that the election should be postponed so
The United Progressive Grand Alliance (UPGA) was that the right process for election can be made. The Prime
formed to contest the Nigerian Minister Sir Abubakar Tafawa Balewa rejected the request
A. 1959 general elections B. 1964 general elections and the election proceeded.
C. 1976 local government elections
D. 1983 general elections The election took place on the 30th December, 1964. Members
Answer of UPGA in some parts of the country boycotted the election.
The crisis of the Action Group also led to formation of the Elections took place in the Northern and Western region, some
two major alliances to contest in 1964, at Federal election parts of mid-west and Lagos, but there was no election at all in
– Nigerian National Alliance (NNA) and United the Eastern region.
Progressive Grand Alliance. (B)
The outcome of the election was favourable to NNA. The
president could not exercise his constitutional rights by calling
Exercise 35.3
the party that won the election to form the government. Later, Sir
What was the name of the political party later formed by
Abubakar Tafawa Balewa was called to form the government
S. L. Akintola? known as National Government. Most of the political parties
A. UPP B. GNPP C. NPP D. UPC E. PRP were not ready to cooperate with them, some parties were invited
and others were not.

Exercise 35.4 1994/47

The final outcome of the crisis in the Action Group The constitutional crisis resulting from the 1964 general
A. mismanagement of funds elections in Nigeria was resolved through the
B. the carving out of the mid-west region A. agreement between Dr. Azikiwe and Sir Abubakar Tafawa
C. Lagos as federal capital territory Balewa
D. introduction of new policies B. boycott of the election by UPGA and its supporters
E. the new leaders were successful C. intervention of eminent Nigerian judges
D. all–party constitutional review conference on the conduct of
Exercise 35.5 elections
The federal government set–up a commission of inquiry to Answer
investigate the allegation of mismanagement of public funds The president, Dr. Azikiwe called Sir Abubakar Tafawa
in 1963, the commission was headed Balewa the prime minister to form a government known as
A. Justice A. T. Abubakar National Government. The creation of new government
B. Justice M. O. Olutimehin called National Government calmed down the situation a little
C. Justice J. A. Olowoniyi because most of the political parties were not ready to
cooperate with them, some parties were invited and others
D. Justice G.B.A. Cokerto
were not. (A)
E. Justice D. A. Ejoor
470
2001/43 Neco Furthermore, it was the 1964 general election that led and
During the 1964 federal elections in Nigeria, there was brought about military democracy which has become a
total boycott of voting in recurring decimal and a monotonous alternative
A. Lagos B. the Northern Region phenomenon in Nigeria’s body polity. The 1964 general
C. the Eastern Region D. Mid-western region election also brought about loss of confidence in the
Answer legitimacy of elected government in Nigeria. This massive
The election took place on the 30th December, 1964. rigging, intimidation, thuggery and kidnapping that took
Members of UPGA in some parts of the country boycotted place during the 1964 general election are still fresh in the
the election. Elections took place in the Northern and mind of Nigerians.
Western Region, some parts of Mid-West and Lagos, but
there was no election at all in the Eastern Region. (C)
WESTERN NIGERIA ELECTION OF 1965
2007/9 Neco The Western Nigeria election of 1965 was between two
A government that is constituted by several parties after a dominant parties through coalition, United Progressive
general election is referred to as Grand Alliance (UPGA) and the Nigerian National
A. elite government B. fascist government Alliance (NNA). The AG represents (UPGA) and the
C. illegitimate government D. national government NNDP (NNA). The rivalry between the two major parties
Answer shifted based from the national levels to western region.
A government that is constituted by several parties after a
general election is referred to as national government. (D) The two parties saw the election as important that would
launch them into their next level. The NNA was the party
1996/54 Nov in power in the Western region, so the NNA imposed a
The impasse that arose from the General electoral crisis of curfew and some measures to cripple the effort of the
1964 in Nigeria was settled by the UPGA members in some parts of the region. After the
A. Association of Governors wives dissolution of the Western House of Assembly, the
B. Association of Nigerian Judges preparation for the election was at the top gear, the
C. Zik/Balewa pact D. Aburi accord irregularities that were observed in the federal election of
E. constituent assembly 1964 manifested. The UPGA candidates were not
Answer privileged or opportuned to collect nomination forms and
Zik/Balewa pact settled the crisis of Nigeria general in most cases, the electoral officers were absent at their
election of 1964. (C) duty posts. Most of the UPGA candidates were not
registered. The NNA had an upper hand in the Western
1999/42 Neco region election of 1965. Even during the campaign it was
The first President of the Nigerian Republic was bloody, not lively and unconducive to the electorates. The
A. Obafemi Awolowo B. Nnamdi Azikiwe climax of it all, the leader of (UPGA), Chief D. S.
C. Ahmadu Bello D. Emeka Anyaoku Adegbenro petitioned the governor, Sir Odeleye Fadahunsi
Answer over the allegation of malpractices, but nothing came out
The first president of the Nigerian Republic was Dr. of the allegations.
Nnamdi Azikiwe (zik). (B)
In October 11, 1965 the election took place, there was a
1993/9 widespread result of malpractice as in burning of the ballot
How did the general election of 1964 affected political boxes, abnormal of voters’ card, killing of electoral
development in Nigeria? officers, etc. The election ended with NNA having 88 seats
Answer out of 98 seats, while the UPGA leader and his officials
The crisis that arose from the general election of 1964 went out to count the voters cards with their records, it was
shook the foundation of Nigeria. The election which noted that UPGA won 68 seats. The UPGA leader declared
started on December 30, 1964 led to a deadlock and for himself as the Premier of the Western region at a press
three days there was no government in all the federal level conference in Ibadan, he appointed eight ministers. The
of Nigeria. federal government declared the UPGA premier and
ministers invalid; the atmosphere became charged and
The 1964 general election also brought about the formation unconducive because there was demonstration, riots, etc.
of alliances and coalitions in the history of Nigerian in the region.
politics. In readiness for the election, all the political
parties in the country polarized into two gigantic alliances– Chief S. L. Akintola was sworn in as the Premier and
the United Progressive Grand Alliance (UPGA) and the Adegbenro was arrested. His arrest sparked off violent
Nigerian National Alliance (NNA). Also, all sorts of crude demonstration by the supporters of Adegbenro in the
and obnoxious methods of electioneering that are western region. Thousands of lives were lost in the wake
manifested in Nigeria body polity today reared their ugly of the disturbances that followed Adegbenro’s arrest, and
heads first during the 1964 general election. The 1964 many houses were burnt down. This election crisis led to
general election influenced the 1965 Western region military coup of January 15th, 1966.
election which was characterized by political thuggery,
arson and violence.

471
Author’s Questions 3. The Nigeria People’s Party (NPP) with Dr. Nnamdi
1. Who was sworn in as the premier of Western Region Azikiwe as the presidential candidate.
in 1965? 4. The Great Nigeria People’s Party (GNPP) with Alhaji
A. Chief S. L. Akintola Ibrahim Waziri as the presidential candidate.
B. Chief Willians Adegbenro 5. The People’s Redemption Party (PRP) having
C. Chief Obafemi Awolowo Mallam Aminu Kano as the presidential candidate.
D. Chief Moshood Abiola
E. Chief Michael Michael Majekodunmi These are the five political parties that contested in the
Answer 1979 general elections.
Chief S. L. Akintola was sworn in as the premier of
the Western region of Nigeria. (A) 1993/42 Nov
2. Who declared himself as the premier of western Which of the following political parties contested in the
region and appointed eight ministers as his cabinet 1979 general elections in Nigeria?
members? A. NPN, NPP, NAP, GNPP and UPN
A. Chief Yemi Osinbajo B. Chief Ernest Shonekan B. NPP, NPN, PRP, NPC and UPN
C. Olusegun Obasanjo D. Chief D. S. Adegbenro C. NPN, UPN, NPP, NPC and GNPP
E. Chief S. L. Akintola D. UPN, NPN, NPP, GNPP and NEPU
Answer E. PRP, NPN, UPN, NPP and GNPP
The UPGA leader, Chief S. L. Adegbenro declared Answer
himself as the premier of the region at a press These are the five political parties that registered for 1979
conference in Ibadan, he also appointed eight general elections. The National Party of Nigeria (NPN),
ministers as his cabinet members. (D) the Unity Party of Nigeria (UPN), the Nigeria People’s
3. The two dominant parties in Western region during Party (NPP), the Great Nigeria People’s Party (GNPP) and
the 1965 general election. the People’s Redemption Party (PRP). (E)
A. GNPP and CPC B. NNA and UPGA
C. NNA and NPP D. UPGA and PDP 1994/46
E. NPC and UPGA The total number of parties registered for the 1979
Answer elections in Nigeria was
The western Nigeria election of 1965 was between A. ten B. six C. five D. four E. two
two dominant parties through coalition, United Answer
Progressive Grand Alliance (UPGA) and Nigerian There are five political parties that registered for the 1979
National Alliance (NNA). The A.G. represents election in Nigeria. (C)
(UPGA) and the NNDP (NNA). (B)
4. The 1965 election of the Western region took place 1995/39
on Which of the following was not required of a presidential
A. 11th October, 1965 B. 16th November, 1965 candidate for the 1979 election in Nigeria? He must
C. 28th October, 1965 D. 22nd April, 1965 A. be a Nigerian citizen by birth
E. 8th February, 1965 B. be an indigene of the northern states
Answer C. be sponsored by a registered political party
On October 11th, 1965 the election of the Western D. having paid his income tax for three–years as and when
region took place. (A) due
5. Which political party won the 1965 election at the E. be at least thirty–five (35) years of age
Western region? Answer
A. NNA B. UPGA C. NPP D. SDP E. NPC The president of Nigeria must not be an indigene of the
Answer northern state, before he can be elected or allowed to
Nigerian National Alliance won the 1965 election at contest for an election. (B)
the western region. (A)
1988/51
GENERAL ELECTIONS OF 1979 SECOND The controversy over the 1979 presidential election result was
REPUBLIC A. over the dispute on the conduction of the election
The presidential system of government practiced in the B. because educated Nigerians did not approve who
Second Republic of Nigeria (1979-1983) favoured the received the number of votes
existence of a multi–party system. The then electoral C. due to the interpretation of ¼ of the vote cast in ½ of all
commission of Nigeria, the Federal Electoral Commission the states in the federation
(FEDECO), registered five political parties out of about 52 D. because the winning candidate did not pay his taxes as
parties that showed up for the 1979 general elections which and when due in the past three years
was to usher in the second republic in Nigeria. The five E. because one of the candidates was declared elected
political parties registered for the 1979 general elections when the result for one of the states had not been received
were: Answer
1. The National Party of Nigeria (NPN) with Alhaji The 1979 general elections was controversial due to the
Shehu Shagari as the presidential candidate. interpretation of ¼ of the vote cast in ½ of all the states in
2. The Unity Party of Nigeria (UPN) having Chief the federation. (C)
Obafemi Awolowo as the presidential candidate.
472
1997/8 Nov Presidential election followed by Governorship,
A. Name the political parties that participated in the 1979 Senatorial, House of Representatives and finally state
General elections in Nigeria. legislative assemblies. The election was argued in some
The names include: quarters that this new arrangement was favour to the party
I. The National Party of Nigeria (NPN). in power.
II. The Unity Party of Nigeria (UPN).
III. The Nigeria People’s Party (NPP). 2001/34 Nov
IV. The Great Nigeria People’s Party (GNPP) The political parties recognized by the Nigerian Federal
V. The People’s Redemption Party (PRP). Electoral Commission for the 1983 election were
B. Describe five objectives performed by any one of A. NPP, PRP, GNPP, NPC, APC and NEPU
these parties B. GNPP, PRP, UPN, NPP, NRC and NAP
The objective performed by GNPP: C. PRP, UPN, SDP, GNPP and NPP
I. To promote and sustain national unity. D. NPN, UPN, NPP, PRP, GNPP and NAP
II. To foster a dynamic foreign policy. Answer
III. To provide a dynamic and vibrant economy. The following were six political parties registered in 1983
IV. To provide an equitable distribution of national general elections in Nigeria. (D)
wealth for the development of all parts of the I. National Party of Nigeria (NPN).
country. II. Unity Party of Nigeria (UPN).
V. To win elections at federal, state and even local III. People’s Redemption Party (PRP).
government. IV. Nigeria People’s Party (NPP).
V. Greater Nigeria People’s Party (GNPP).
1995/48 Exercise 35.6 VI. Nigeria Advance party (NAP).
Which of the following was not an election issue in Nigeria
during the Second Republic?
A. creation of more states GENERAL ELECTIONS OF 1993
B. creation of more local government The 1993 Nigerian presidential election was held on June
C. provision of free education 12, 1993 in the Nigerian Third Republic, the first since the
D. provision of more houses 1983 military coup ended the country’s Second Republic.
E. change of the colour of the naira The elections were the outcome of a transitional process to
civilian rule spearheaded by the military ruler, Ibrahim
1999/51 Exercise 35.7 Badamosi Babangida (IBB). The unofficial result of the
Who won the presidential seat in 1979 elections? election, though not declared by the National Electoral
A. Obafemi Awolowo B. Shehu Shagari Commission (NEC) indicated a victory for Moshood
C. Nnamdi Azikiwe D. Aminu Kano Kashimawo Olawale Abiola of the Social Democratic
E. Waziri Ibrahim Party (SDP), who defeated Bashir Tofa of the National
Republican Convention (NRC). The winner of the election
GENERAL ELECTIONS OF 1983 was thus never declared as the elections were annulled by
Presidential elections were held in Nigeria on 6th August, IBB, citing electoral irregularities. The annulment led to
1983. The result was a victory for incumbent Shehu protests and political unrest, including the resignation of
Shagari, who won 47.5% of the vote. His national party of IBB and a weak interim civilian government, and
Nigeria had won the parliamentary elections held later in culminated in the continuation to power as the military
August. head of state via a bloodless coup later in the year.

The six political parties that registered for 1983 general There were only two registered political parties:
elections were: 1. Social Democratic Party (SDP).
1. National Party of Nigeria (NPN) with presidential 2. National Republican Convention.
candidate – Alhaji Shehu Shagari.
2. Unity Party of Nigeria (UPN) presidential candidate
was Chief Obafemi Awolowo. 2019/8 NABTEB
3. Nigeria People’s Party (NPP) presidential candidate Explain briefly the controversy over the June 12th of 1993,
Dr. Nnamdi Azikiwe. presidential election.
4. People’s Redemption Party (PRP) presidential Answer
candidate Alhaji Hassan Yusuf. Presidential election were held in Nigeria on June 12,
5. Greater Nigeria People’s Party (GNPP) presidential 1993, the first since the 1983 military coup which ended
candidate Alhaji Waziri Ibrahim. the country’s second republic. The elections were the
6. Nigeria Advance Party (NAP) presidential candidate outcome of a transitional process to civilian rule
Dr. Tunji Braithwaite. spearheaded by the military ruler, Ibrahim Badamasi
Babangida (IBB). The unofficial result of the election,
The election commission (FEDECO) was in charge of the though not declared by the National Electoral Commission
general election of 1983, Hassan Yusuf replaced Mallam (NEC) indicated a victory for Moshood Kashimawo
Aminu Kano after his death as the presidential aspirant. Olawale (MKO) Abiola of the Social Democratic Party
The head of (FEDECO) that’s known as Chairman was (SDP), who defeated Bashir Tofa of the National
Justice Ovie Whisky. The general election started with the Republican Convention (NRC). The winner of the election
473
was thus not declared as the election were annulled by IBB, THE NIGERIAN CIVIL WAR HISTORICAL
citing electoral irregularities. The annulment led to a PERSPECTIVE
protests and political unrest, which forced the resignation The Nigerian civil war commonly known as the Biafra war
of IBB and handed power to Ernest Shonekan on August that started in July 6th, 1967 and ended on 15th January,
27, 1993, as the head of an interim National Government. 1970. It was a civil war fought between the government of
Weeks after, General Sani Abacha staged a bloodless coup Nigeria and the Republic of Biafra, a secessionist state
that usurped the interim government to return Nigeria to which had declared its independence from Nigeria in 1967.
military rule. Nigeria was led by General Yakubu Gowon, while Biafra
was led by Lt. Colonel Odumegwu Ojukwu. Biafra
KADUNA STATE EXECUTIVE/ LEGISLATIVE presented the nationalist aspirations of the Igbo ethnic
CRISIS OF 1981 group, whose leadership felt they could no longer co-exist
1. Kaduna state had an NPN controlled legislature but with the federal government dominated by the interests of
Alhaji Balarabe Musa won the governorship election the Muslim Hausa-Fulanis of Northern Nigeria. The
in 1979 under the platform of the PRP. conflict resulted from political, economic, ethnic, cultural
2. PRP as a party did not have the majority seats in the and religious tensions which precedent Britain’s formal
state assembly. decolonization of Nigeria from 1960 to 1963.
3. The NPN was in the majority and it produced both the
speaker and the majority leader, (NPN) was more 2/3
in the House of Assembly.
4. In accordance with the provisions of the constitution,
the governor of the state had the power to present
nominated candidates as commissioners to the state
House of Assembly for approval.
5. The Assembly rejected the nominated candidates
after the presentation of the list to them for three
consecutive times and so the governor decided to rule
Kaduna state between 1979 and 1981 without
commissioners.
6. In the interim, the relationship between the executive
and the legislature got worse and so problems set in. Lt. Colonel Odumegwu Ojukwu and his Biafran Soldiers
7. The NPN controlled legislature was bent on removing
the governor through the process known as Immediate causes of the war in 1966 included ethno-
impeachment. Impeachment is a constitutional means religious violence and anti-Igbo pogroms in Northern
of removing a public officer in a presidential system Nigeria, a military coup, a counter coup and persecution of
of government. Igbo living in Northern Nigeria. Control over the lucrative
8. Different charges and accusations of different oil production in the Niger Delta also played a strategic
proportions were leveled against the governor, so as to role.
create enough reasons for his impeachment or removal.
9. Some state assemblies in the country came into
mediate but all to no avail. The legislators were
determined to remove the governor.
10. The report of the committee set up to investigate the
allegations was deposited and the speaker of the
House, Alhaji Mamman Dan Musa served the
impeachment notice on the governor. He was
subsequently removed as the governor of Kaduna
state.

1998/53
The Kaduna state executive/legislative crisis of 1981 led to
the
A. impeachment of the governor Nigerian Army during the Civil War Era
B. removal of the party whip
C. indictment of the speaker 1994/49
D. suspension of the Chief Judge The Nigerian civil war was fought in order to
E. dismissal of the police commissioner A. test Nigeria’s military strength
Answer B. preserves the unity of the country
The Kaduna state executive/legislative crisis of 1981 led to C. expel mercenary forces
the removal or impeachment of the governor. (A) D. prevent the emergence of a dictator
E. protect Nigeria from external invasion
Answer
The war was fought to reunite the country together. (B)

474
Biafra war started on the 1995/49 Nov
A. 7th July, 1967 B. 6th July, 1967 C. 10th July, 1967 The immediate cause of the civil war was the
nd th
D. 22 July, 1967 E. 30 July, 1967 A. declaration of the Republic of Biafra
Answer B. non–implementation of the Aburi accord
The Biafra war started on July 6th, 1967. (B) C. massacre of southerners in the north
D. counter coup of July 1966
E. coup d’état of January, 1966
CAUSES OF THE CIVIL WAR Answer
There are two main causes of Nigeria civil war. The failure of General Gowon to implement his own side
1. Immediate causes. of the agreement reached with Ojukwu at Aburi, Ghana,
2. Remote causes. was another cause of the civil war that started on July 6,
1967. This meeting was at the instance of the Ghanaian
Immediate Causes Head of State, General Ankrah, held between January 4th
1. The mass killings of the Igbos in the North were seen and 5th 1967. (B)
as a reaction to the January 15, 1966 coup where some
of the Northern leaders were killed e.g. Sir Abubakar Exercise
Tafawa Balewa and Sir Ahmadu Bello. The premier 1. Highlight five immediate cause of Nigeria civil war.
of the western Nigerian region was also killed. The I. Mass killing of the Igbos in the North.
governor of Eastern Region, Lt. Colonel Odumegwu II. Secession declaration of the Eastern region.
Ojukwu asked non–Easterners living in the East to III. Aburi declaration.
leave and at the same time, asked all the Igbos living IV. War as the only justifiable means.
in other parts of the country to return home. This was V. A counter coup led by Gowon.
a prelude to civil war. VI. Creation of twelve (12) states on the 27th May, 1967.
2. Lt. Col. Emeka Ojukwu and Yakubu Gowon saw civil
war as the only solution to resolve the problem Remote Causes
between the federal government and Biafra country. 1. There was politicisation of the army. The army was
3. Creation of twelve states on the 27th may, 1967. The politicized, ethnic sentiment took over and promotion
decree of the creation of state carved out three states was based on that line and not on seniority.
from the Eastern region South Eastern Region, River 2. The killing of civilian political leaders by the 1966
State and East Central State. Now the Igbo’s coup plotters and General Aguiyi Ironsi’s refusal to
concentrated in the east central state, would lose try them. The killing of some of them e.g. Tafawa
control over most of the petroleum located in the Balewa, Ahmadu Bello, S. L. Akintola, etc., was seen
other two areas. as tribal. They argued that none of those killed was an
4. Head of state, Lt. Col. Yakubu Gowon took over as Igbo person.
the Head of State instead of Brigadier Ogundipe the 3. General Aguiyi Ironsi came to power and introduced
most senior military officer, Lt. Col. Emeka Ojukwu unitary form of government in place of federal.
saw this as unjustifiable because Gowon was not the 4. The fear of one tribe dominating the army was
most senior, so Emeka Ojukwu refused to take another remote cause. They saw the Igbos as
instructions from him. dominating the army, they staged the coup, the Head
5. Persecution of Igbo’s living in the Northern part of of State was an Igbo man and none of the civilian
Nigeria: After the killing of the Northern leaders, the politicians killed was an Igbo man. The counter coup
Northerners reacted by killing the Igbo’s in the of July 29, 1966 by the Northern army officers was
Northern part of Nigeria. pointer to that fact.
6. Lt. Col. Emeka Ojukwu declared the Eastern Region
as the Republic of Biafra on May 30, 1967 and POSITIVE AND NEGATIVE CONSEQUENCES OF
wanted a secession out of the Federal Republic of THE CIVIL WAR
Nigeria. Positive consequences
7. The failure of General Gowon to implement his own 1. Consolidation of Nigeria’s territorial integrity: One
side of the agreement reached with Ojukwu at Aburi, of the positive sides of the Nigerian civil war was that
Ghana, was another cause of the civil war that started it helped the Nigerian government to strengthen the
on July 6, 1967. This meeting was at the instance of territorial integrity of the nation. By the time the war
the Ghanian Head of State, General Ankrah, held ended, the entire geographical land mass of the nation
between January 4th and 5th 1967. Ojukwu scored an of Nigeria was remained intact. This could not have
intellectual diplomatic victory which could have been achieved if the central government had not put
made the regions very strong at the expense of the its foot on the ground.
federal Government. On coming back Gowon was 2. Secession: Another of the positive sides of the
advised to denounce the agreement. Negotiation Nigerian civil war is that a clear signal was sent to
hence gave way to exchange of fire which consumed every section of the Nigerian populace that no
millions of Nigeria. secession from the federation would ever be
countenanced. It is also apparent that any such
attempt in the future would be brutally crashed. This
has reduced drastically the chances of any such
attempt.
475
3. Consolidation of federal authority: Another positive 5. Economic standstill: Economic activities in the county
effect of the Nigerian civil war was the way it were almost at a standstill. Many factories and industries
strengthened the authority of the federal government stopped production because of the war.
as against that of the federating units. No unit of the 6. Nigeria’s image abroad dented: The image of the
federation can ever be stronger than the federation country was adversely affected because of the war
itself. propaganda. Some foreign countries regarded the war
4. Unification of the nation: The civil war also brought as one between Christians and Muslims.
the nation together. The Biafran soldiers had to 7. Increased crime wave: There was increased crime
contend with the entire Nigerian army who were wave in the country as discharged soldiers were not
solidly supported by the rest of Nigeria to stop the fully demobilized.
secessionists from plunging the nation into a danger. 8. Growth of urban areas: There was mass Exodus of
5. Creation of more states: The federal government in people from the rural setting to towns and cities in
the course of the civil war, created twelve more states search of jobs and other means of livelihood. This had
which was carved out of the existing ones. This more given rise to growth of towns and cities in Nigeria.
reduced the size of the individual federating units. The result also was an increase in crime wave.
This may have been an administrative move to make
the administration of the country more manageable POLITICAL DEVELOPMENT IN NIGERIA FROM
than it used to be but it could also have been a ploy to 1966 TO 1979
further reduce the chances of a section of the country 1. January, 15 1966 – There was a bloody military coup
seceding, based purely on its mere size. d’état in Nigeria during which some politicians and
6. Technological development: The war, which had some senior military officers were assassinated.
devastated economic system affected imports of 2. January 16, 1966 – The President of the Senate Dr.
finished goods from outside and machinery to Nwafor Orizu, handed over the government of Nigeria
produce locally. This had compelled the people to to the Nigerian Armed Forces through the General
look inward to satisfy their needs for goods and Officer Commanding (GOC) the Nigerian Army
services. After the war therefore, many Nigerians Major-General J. T. U. Aguiyi Ironsi.
now have the penchant to create things locally. 3. A supreme military Council was formed and headed
by General J. T. U. Aguiyi Ironsi.
1999/8a 4. The Government had to suspend the 1963
Highlight six positive consequences of the Nigerian civil constitution and banned all political parties.
war (1967–1970). 5. The military government appointed some military
Answer personnel to govern the regions.
1. The territorial integrity and unity of Nigerians was 6. January, 1966 – The Legislative House of the
maintained. federation and those of the regions were dissolved.
2. The civil war reduced the possibility of secession by Decrees and Edicts replaced Acts of Parliament at
any ethnic group of states. federal and regional levels respectively.
3. The conflict enabled the central government to 7. May 24, 1966 – A change from the federal
become more powerful, thereby making states of the system/structure to unitary system of government in
federation to depend upon the central government for Nigeria by the Military government
survival. 8. July 29, 1966 – A bloody counter – coup took place
4. The war enables the federal government to create which overthrew Aguiyi Ironsi and brought in Lt. Col
more states in the country. Yakubu Gowon as the new Head of State.
5. The war enhanced the confidence of the federal 9. The federal system/structure was restored by the
government in the O.A.U as there were only four administration of Yakubu Gowon.
countries that recognized the secessionist’s regime 10. May 27, 1967 – Nigeria was divided into twelve states
(Biafra). structure.
6. It enabled Nigerians to look inwards technologically. 11. May 30, 1967 – The Eastern Region seceded from
Nigeria and declared itself the ‘Republic of Biafra’
Negative consequences which led to a civil war.
1. Cost: The war costs the nation a lot of money.
Property investments and an unestimated number of 2022/10 Neco
lives were lost. Explain six consequences of the Nigerian civil war.
2. Displacement of families: Families were displaced
and innocent citizens suffered untold hardship. 1997/8b
3. Currency policy: The currency policy of the federal What are the negative consequences of the Nigerian civil
government made some sections of the country war (1967–1970)?
poorer. Answer
4. Disruption in the educational sector: There was a 1. The war cost the nation a lot of money, property,
disruption in the education of students in some parts investments and an unestimated number of lives were
of the country. Many institutions of learning were lost.
destroyed while others were closed. The war caused 2. Many families were displaced and innocent citizens
an academic setback in the country. suffered untold hardship.

476
3. There were disruptions in the education of students in 1984/30 UTME
some parts of the country. Many institutions of The main cause of the 1962/63 census crisis was that
learning were destroyed while others were closed. A. army was involved in the head count
The war caused academic setbacks in the country. B. inexperienced officials were used in the enumeration
4. Economic activities in the country were almost at a C. the police prevented enumerators from doing their work
standstill. Many factories and industries stopped D. there was no fund to provide enough material for head
production because of the war. count
5. Nigerian image abroad was adversely affected E. there was widespread inflation of the census result in many
because of the war propaganda. Some foreign regions
Answer
countries regarded the war as one between Christians
The main cause of the 1962/63 census crisis was that there
and Muslims.
was widespread inflation of the census result in many regions
6. There was increase in crime wave as discharged (E)
soldiers were fully demobilized.
7. The war reduced the population of Nigerian soldiers. 2008/11 (OAU,IFE)
The Action Group was in the year?
A. 1966 B. 1962 C. 1963 D. 1965
1984/40 UTME Answer
The 1953 motion that Nigeria should become independent in The Action Group crisis was in the year 1962 which broke out
1956 was moved by as a result of serious conflicts within the party members (B)
A. Chief Anthony Enahoro B. Sir Ahmadu Bello
C. Chief Obafemi Awolowo D. Dr. Nnamdi Azikiwe 2022/19 Neco
E. Sir James Robertson Which of the following events was attributed to the creation
Answer of mid-western region?
Chief Anthony Enahoro moved a motion in 1953 that Nigeria A. Action Group crisis of 1962
should become independent in 1956 (A) B. Federal election crisis of 1964
C. Kano riot of 1953
1989/32 UTME D. military coup d’état of 1966
The motion by Anthony Enahoro demanding independent for E. Nigeria civil war of 1967
Nigeria was moved in
A. 1951 B. 1953 C. 1956 D. 1957 2021/8 NABTEB
Answer 8a. Discuss the Kano riot of 1953
In 1953, Chief Anthony Enahoro demanding for the b. State five implications of the crisis.
independence of Nigeria (B) Answer
(8a) The Kano riots of 1953 followed a tense period created
1999/34 UTME by a stream of political events relating to a bill for self-
The motion for self-government in Nigeria was proposed by government. On March 16, 1953, a member of Action Group
Chief Anthony Enahoro in (AG) in the House of Representatives, Chief Anthony
A. 1950 B. 1953 C. 1956 D. 1958 Enahoro, moved a motion that Nigeria should be granted self–
Answer government in 1956. The leader of Northern People’s
In 1953, the motion for self-government in Nigeria was Congress (NPC), Sir Ahmadu Bello moved a counter motion
proposed by Chief Anthony Enahoro (B) to Enahoro motion, that we are not mature enough to govern
ourselves, that we need to be nurtured more by our European
1992/37 UTME masters.
The results of the 1962 census in Nigeria were rejected The Northern members of the House of Representatives came
because out of the senate building and met crowd outside the building,
A. the figures were unacceptable to the UN calling them names and throwing at them different things.
B. the figures were controversial The Northern leaders were not happy they left Lagos under
C. Nigerians were contented with the existing population police protection. The Action Group members agreed to have
figure a tour in the Northern region of Nigeria to educate and
D. there were preparations for a fresh census enlighten them about self–government, that as a nation we are
Answer going to work towards 1956 having our independence. The
The results of the 1962 census in Nigeria were rejected Action Group was led by Chief S. L. Akintola, the
because the figures were controversial (B) Northerners then viewed the tour as an invasion of another
man’s territory. It was when Akintola and his group were in
2008/41 UTME Kano, the Kano riot broke out, between 36–52 people were
Problems arising from population census in Nigeria are killed and over 200 people were injured in the fracas.
mainly caused by
A. public opinions of the people (8b) The following are the implications of the Kano riot of
B. unreliable census figures 1953:
C. political manipulation by the elite 1. The Kano riot worsened the relationship between
D. the registration of the under-aged people Northern leaders and Southern leaders.
Answer 2. The riot ushered in the London constitutional
The main problems arising from population census in Nigeria conference of 1953 and also brought about the 1954
are mainly caused by unreliable census figures (B) constitution.

477
3. The riot also brought about a temporary working 10. One of the prominent West African nationalist leaders
alliance between the NCNC and the Action Group. was
4. Sir Oliver Lyttleton, the Secretary of State for the A. Kwame Nkrumah B. Jomo Kenyatta
Colonies, announced that it is impossible for the regions C. S. L. Akintola D. Sekou Toure
to work together, and therefore representatives from 11. The major problem that arose from the 1979 election
each region will be invited to discuss a new Nigerian centered around the
Constitution. A. inability of many voters to find their names on the
5. It led to the adoption of a federal system of government. voter’s registrar
B. cancellation of election results in many
constituencies because of alleged irregularities
C. inability of some dissatisfied candidates to seek
REVISION EXERCISES redress in the court of law
1. The major policy of General Gowon’s administration D. controversy over the presidential election result E.
immediately after the Nigerian civil war was widespread complaint that too many elections were
A. restructuring, reoccurrence and reconciliation scheduled too close together
B. national economic restricting 12. The controversy over the 1979 presidential election
C. reconstruction, reconciliation and rehabilitation result was
D. structural adjustment programme A. over the dispute on the conduct of the election
E. referendum, recovery and reoccurrence B. because educated Nigerians did not approve who
2. Immediately after the Nigerian civil war, Gowon’s received the number of votes
regime embarked on C. due to the interpretation of 1/4 of the vote cast 2/3 of
A. rejuvenation, resettlement and reconstruction all the states in the federation
B. reconciliation, rehabilitation and reconstruction D. because the winning candidate did not pay his taxes
C. rebuilding, rejuvenation and rehabilitation as and when due in the past three years
D. rehabilitation, renaissance and repression E. because one of the candidates was declared elected
3. After the 1959 elections in Nigeria, a coalition when the results for one of the states had not been
government was formed at the centre by the received.
A. Northern People’s Congress and Northern Elements 13. Which of the following did not formally recognize
Progressive Union Biafra as an independent state?
B. National Council of Nigeria Citizens and Action Group A. Sierra Leone B. Tanzania C. Gabon
C. Action Group and Northern Elements Progressive D. Ivory Coast E. Zambia
Union 14. The first elected executive president of Nigeria was
D. National Council of Nigeria Citizens and Northern A. Dr. Nnamdi Azikiwe B. Alhaji Shehu Shagari
Elements Progressive Union C. Alhaji Abubakar Tafawa Balewa
4. One of the eight point demands by the Northern Nigeria D. Alhaji Aminu Kano E. Dr. Joseph Wayas
politicians after the 1953 Kano riots was that each 15. Relationship between Nigeria and British became
region should have its own somehow strained during the civil war mainly because
A. currency B. public service C. army D. railways A. British was reluctant to supply Nigeria with the arms
5. Which of the following did not generate political crisis she needed to prosecute the war
in Nigeria? The B. Britain accorded diplomatic recognition to Biafra
A. motion for self government in 1956 by Enahoro C. the Soviet Union supplied arms to Nigeria
B. 1965 election in the Western region D. British granted political asylum to some fugitives
C. head count of 1962 D. 1964 general elections E. some British mercenaries were fighting on the
E. adoption of Abuja as the new Federal Capital Biafran side
6. Under the independence constitution of Nigeria the 16. The unification decree that turned Nigeria to a unitary
Head of state was state was promulgated during the regime of General
A. the Queen of England A. Muhammadu Buhari B. Aguiyi Ironsi
B. the British prime minister C. Olusegun Obasanjo D. Murtala Muhammed
C. Alhaji Abubakar Tafawa Balewa E. Ibrahim Babangida
D. Sir James Robertson E. Oliver Lyttleton 17. The Queen of England ceased to be the Head of State of
7. The successor of Margaret Thatcher as the British prime Nigeria on 12 October
Minister is A. 1960 B. 1963 C. 1965 D. 1979
A. Geoffrey Howe B. John Mayor C. Lan Smith 18. Explain Kaduna state executive/legislative crisis of
D. Prince Charles E. Queen Elizabeth 1981.
8. The West African stateman who advocated that the 19. Describe the presidential election of 1993.
independence of his country would be meaningless 20. Discuss the positive consequences of civil war in Nigeria.
without Africa unity is 21. State the two political parties in 1993.
A. Dr. Kwame Krumah B. Dr. Nnamdi Azikiwe 22. Explain briefly the general elections of 1979 second
C. Edward Wilmen Blyden D. Sir Milton Margai republic.
23. Discuss the western region election of 1965.
E. Sir Dauda Jawara
24. Explain five consequences of the action group crisis of
9. Many African leaders adopted the single party system of
1962 in Nigeria.
government after independence in order to promote 25. Explain the census crisis of 1962/63.
A. fundamental human rights 26. State the major political crisis in Nigeria.
B. constitutional government 27. a. Give a brief account of the Kano riot of 1953.
C. national unity D. competitive politics b. Mention five implications of the Kano riot.

478
2016/42 UTME
Chapter Thirty Six Laws made by military governors are called
A. acts B. bye-laws C. edicts D. decrees
Answer – D
MILITARY RULE IN NIGERIA
Decree were the laws made by the military government. A
Military rule is a form of unconstitutional administration decree is an official order or decision, especially one made by
of a country by members of the armed forces based on the ruler of a country. The military uses decree not
martial law. It is the using of decreees and edicts to rule constitution.
after successfully overthrowing the constitutional
government usually by a coup d’état. 1990/35 Nov
Military regimes are regarded as an abnormally because they
Coup d’état can be defined as a forceful way of taking A. are unnecessarily harsh on the people
power by the military which in most cases are usually B. lack legitimacy C. have the knowledge of politics
bloody. For example, the 1966 coup d’état led by Major D. are always corrupt
General Chukwuma Nzeogwu was very bloody. E. appoint only military men as ministers
Answer
NB: The military is the armed forces responsible for The military regimes are known as abnormal because they lack
securing and defending a country. Military rule is a legitimacy of the office and support of the people. (B)
dictatorship style of government in which the military
exerts complete or substantial control over political 2006/45
authority, and the dictator is often a high–ranked military A coup d’état is regarded as
officer who rules by decrees and not by the constitution. A. a source of political legitimacy
Military government in this era is not legitimate; they take B. a manipulation of the constitution
over government by coup d’état. The government is highly C. a constitutional way of changing the government
D. an unconstitutional way of changing the government
centralised.
Answer
A coup or coup d’état is the removal of an existing government
from power through non–legal, often coercive means typically,
it is an illegal, unconstitutional seizure of power by a political
fraction, the military, or a dictator. (D)

2015/9
Ai. Explain the term military.
Answer
The military is the armed forces responsible for securing and
defending a country. It comprises of the Army (land troops),
the Navy (sea troops) and the Air force (air troops).

2004/11 Neco
What is military rule?
Answer
Military rule is a form of unconstitutional administration of a
state or country by members of the armed forces based on
martial laws. Martial laws are laws where military authority
takes over normal administration of law.

2015/46
Which of the following cannot be altered by a military coup
The Nigerian Army during the Military era
d’état? The
A. constitution B. legal system C. legislature
Militaries are hierarchical organizations that specialize in D. state
the deployment of violence, so it is often assumed that Answer
militaries rules by force. However, military rule often In a military coup or coup d’état only the state retains its
involves complicated attempts to secure some measures of sovereignty. (D)
consent from the governed. Some military regimes, for
example, have permitted elections to national and 2012/45
subnational representative bodies. Others have used A military coup d’état is followed by
judiciaries, of varying degrees of independence, to A. enforcement of fundamental human rights
approximate or simulate the rule of law. Still others have B. suspension of the constitution
promulgated and sometimes actually adhered to C. breaking of diplomatic relations with foreign countries
constitutions. Even so the application of military law to D. mass importation of fire arms
civilians and the threat or use of extrajudicial repression Answer
(such as torture, disappearances, and killings) by the state’s The military coup is followed by suspension of the
security forces underscores the military regimes. constitution because military uses decrees not constitution.
(B)

479
2000/41 Nov Exercise 36.1
Military governments are usually
A. representative B. regionalized C. centralized
D. democratic
2000/36 Nov Exercise 36.2
Military governments usually lack
A. management B. leadership C. organization
D. legitimacy
2005/46 Neco Exercise 36.3
Military governments are likely to be
A. democratic B. civilized C. dictatorial General Aguiyi Ironsi (The first Military Head of State of Nigeria)
D. accountable
The coup plotters went on to elect Lt Colonel Yakubu
2008/45 Neco Exercise 36.4 Gowon as the new head of State. Prior to this coup, many
Military government rule by of the high ranking officials in the military felt that the
A. laws B. proclamations C. decrees D. bye-laws coup had been carried out to favour the Igbo people.
Particularly, due to the fact that many of the leaders and
2015/47 Exercise 36.5 military officers murdered during that coup were
Laws promulgated by a military government are called northerners. Coincidentally, many Igbo were promoted
A. bills B. acts C. decrees D. proclamations soon after the coup which furthered confirmed these
speculations. This led to the counter coup led by Murtala
Muhammed. After this coup, Lt Colonel Yakubu Gowon
BRIEF HISTORY OF MILITARY RULE IN NIGERIA was sworn into power. As a way of forestalling any coup,
Military rule in Nigeria first started on January 15, 1966, he quickly established Supreme Military council which
when a group of army officers overthrew the NPC – NNDP was to manage affairs of the country.
government and killed many of the country’s political
rulers. The military history of Nigeria since the colonial
rule began precisely on the 1st October, 1960. The country
was at its infantile stage and was still trying to adopt to its
new state of independence. However, this process was
shortlived by the military folks and less than 6 years after
independence, Sir Ahmadu Bello; the post-independence
leader of the country was overthrown. This happened on
the 15th of January 1966 and that marked the beginning of
military rule in the country. The first ever coup was quite
bloody and 11 senior Nigerian politicians and 2 soldiers
were kidnapped in the course of the coup. The coup
plotters attacked Ibadan, Lagos and Kaduna within a
period of 2 days. However, these plotters were eventually
subdued. It was Major Chukwuma Nzeogwu that officially
announced the successful coup on Radio Nigeria in
Kaduna. The whole of Nigeria was interrupted with his
speech on the radio when he began by saying:

‘In the name of the Supreme Council of the Revolution of the

Nigerian Armed Forces, I declare martial law over the Northern
Provinces of Nigeria. The constitution is suspended and the
regional government and elected assemblies are hereby Lt. Colonel Yakubu Gowon
dissolved…’
Many of the prominent military men were a part of this
However, the coup led to greater problems in the country. council however; his stay in power didn’t last up to a year,
One of the Senior Army officers at that time, General just 200 days, as another coup although bloodless led to his
Aguiyi Ironsi had used the coup as an opportunity and he ouster. This coup was also masterminded by Murtala
was able to annex power to become the first military head Muhammed and he thereafter assumed power. These quick
of state. But the manner with which Aguiyi Ironsi took successions of coup would later serve as the foundation for
over meant that his stay in power wouldn’t last for long. the civil war.
Also, there had been growing unrest among the ranks in
military due to some reasons which will be mentioned Gowon was succeeded by Murtala Muhammed but his
later. This led to a counter coup six months later on July administration was also short-lived and in February 1976,
29, 1966 which resulted in the death of Aguiyi Ironsi and General Murtala Muhammed was assassinated by Buka
Adekunle Fajuyi who was hosting the Military Head at his Saka Dimka in a violent coup attempt.
residence.
480
General Muhammadu Buhari

However, the Buhari Government was in power for jut 20

months as Major General Ibrahim Babangida would later
stage a coup on the 27th of August 1985 leading to the
ouster of the Buhari – led Government.

General Murtala Muhammed

The coup plotters were later arrested and duly executed.

Altogether 38 soldiers and 1 civilian were executed by
firing squad as a result of their involvement in this coup.
One of the survivors of the coup, Olusegun Obasanjo,
succeeded Murtala Muhammed and he promptly set up
civilian government and the state of affairs was maintained
until 1983. So there was a break from military rule between
1976 and 1983.
Major General Ibrahim Babangida

After this coup, the Military Government maintained its

place over the next decade but this rule was not without
some drama. There were several failed coups. The first one
was in 1986, just a year after Ibrahim Babangida was
sworn into power, Major Mammam Vatsa had led a coup
to overthrow the government of President Babangida but
this coup failed. This led to the execution of Mamman
Vatsa and 10 other military officers that same year.
In 1990, another coup was staged to unseat the Military
Head. This coup was led by Major General Gideon Orkah
but it failed again. There were 9 casualties as a result of
this attempt. Subsequently, 69 soldiers of different ranks
were accused of treason and were subsequently executed
by firing squad. After these failed coups, there was an
alleged coup attempt but it seemed the government of
Babangida at this point had decided to concede to the
pressure of handover. This led to June 12 elections in 1993
but the result of this election was cancelled.

General Olusegun Obasanjo Nonetheless, Ibrahim Babangida handed over to a civilian

government which was headed by Chief Ernest Shonekan
Obasanjo had successfully handed over to Alhaji Shehu on the 26th of August, 1993 after he ruled Nigeria for eight
Shagari in 1979 but he was overthrown in the 31st years. But on the 17th of November, 1993, General Sani
December 1983 by the General Muhammadu Buhari. Abacha staged a coup that overthrew the Ernest Shonekan
Shehu Shagari wasn’t killed but this coup led to the death administration. Interestingly, the Ernest Shonekan led
of a loyal officer to the government in the person of administration had been set up as an interim government
Brigadier Ibrahim Bako. due to pressures on the Babangida led administration from
both international and local quarters. There was a coup
attempt during the Abacha led administration in 1995 and
481
this led to the arrest and imprisonment of the likes of 1988/49
General Obasanjo, Major General Shehu Musa Yaradua Military governors were members of the Supreme Military
and some other prominent soldiers. Also, some of the Council under the
civilians that spoke against these imprisonments were also A. Murtala Mohammed regime
imprisoned; prominent among them was Beko Ransome- B. Yakubu Gowon regime C. Ibrahim Babangida D.
Kuti. Olusegun Obasanjo regime
E. Muhammadu Buhari regime
Answer
The Supreme Military Council consisted of the Regional
Military Governors and the Military Administrator of the
Federal Territory, the Heads of the Nigerian Army, Navy
and Air Force, the Chief of Staff of the Armed Forces and
the Inspector – General of police or his deputy. In Yakubu
Gowon’s Military region, the Supreme Military council
was established to manage the affairs of the country. (B)

1990/47
The first military government in Nigeria was headed by
General
General Sani Abacha A. Yakubu Gowon B. Aguiyi Ironsi
C. Murtala Mohammed C. Olusegun Obasanjo
Finally in 1998, General Sani Abacha died in power as a E. Hassan Katsina
result of a heart attack and this eventually signaled the end Answer
of military rule. Nigeria held a successful democratic General Johnson Thomas Umunnakwe Aguiyi – Ironsi (3
election in 1999 which led to the election of Olusegun March 1924–29 July, 1966) was a Nigerian Army General
Obasanjo as the President on the 29th of May, 1999. The who was the first military Head of State of Nigeria. He
first coup d’état in West Africa was staged in Togo on 13 seized power amidst the ensuing chaos following the 15
January, 1963. January, 1966 military coup, decapitating the country’s
leadership. (B)
The following is the list of the military presidents that ruled
Nigeria in the past. 1988/33
I. Major General J. T. U. Aguiyi Ironsi (January 16, The first military President of Nigeria is
1966 – July, 29, 1966). A. Lt. General Olusegun Obasanjo
II. General Yakubu Gowon (August 2, 1966 – July 29, B. Major General J. T. U Aguiyi Ironsi
1975). C. Major General Ibrahim Babangida
III. General Olusegun Obasanjo (February 14, 1976 – D. General Murtala Mohammed
September 30, 1979). E. General Yakubu Gowon
IV. Major General Muhammadu Buhari (December 31, Answer
1983 – August 27, 1985). General Ibrahim Badamasi Babangida popularly known as
V. General Ibrahim Babangida (August 27, 1985 – IBB, is a Nigerian General and stateman who served as
August 26, 1993). military president of Nigeria from 1985 until his
VI. General Sani Abacha (November 16, 1993 – June 8, resignation in 1993. On August 27, 1985, he seized control
1998). of Nigeria in a bloodless coup d’état that ousted Major
VII. General Abdulsalami Abubakar (June 9, 1998 – May General Mohammed Buhari from office. Instead of placing
29, 1999). someone else at Nigeria’s helm as he had during past coups
he was involved in, he made himself president, thereby
1988/29 becoming the first military president of Nigeria. He also
The Armed Forces Ruling Council came into existence served as the Chief of Army Staff from January, 1984 to
under August 1985. (C)
A. Buhari administration B. Gowon administration
C. Ironsi administration D. Obasanjo administration 1990/19
E. Babangida administration The second military coup d’état in Nigeria took place on
Answer A. July 29, 1966 B. July 29, 1975 C. Feb 13, 1976
Nigeria’s Armed Forces Ruling Council was established D. October 1, 1966 E. January 15, 1966
by Ibrahim Babangida following the 1985 Nigerian coup Answer
d’état that overthrew Muhammadu Buhari. (E) The second military coup d’état in Nigeria took place on July
29, 1966. It was masterminded by Lt. Colonel Murtala
Mohammed and many northern military officers. The coup
began as a mutiny at roughly midnight on July 28, 1966 and
was a reaction to the killings of Northern politicians by mostly
Igbo soldiers on January 15, 1966. (A)

482
2005/37 UTME 2017/2018/83 (DELSU, ABRAKA) Exercise 36.6
The first successful disengagement of the military from The second military coup d’état in Nigeria took place on
politics in Nigeria was carried out by the government of A. January 15, 1966 B. October 1, 1966 C. July 29, 1966
A. Murtala/Obasanjo B. Buhari/Idiagbon D. July 29, 1975 E. February 13, 1976
C. Ibrahim Babangida D. Abdul Salmi Abubakar
Answer – A
Murtala/Obasanjo was the first successful military 2002/37 UTME Exercise 36.7
disengagement from Nigeria politics in Nigeria. The two military coups that toppled civilian regimes in
Nigeria were those of
2008/33 UTME A. January 1966 and July 1975
The first military coup in Nigeria toppled the government B. February 1976 and December 1983
of C. January 1966 and December 1983
A. General Yakubu Gowon B. Dr. Nnamdi Azikiwe D. July 1966 and August 1985
C. Alhaji Abubakar Tafawa Balewa
D. Major General Guiyi Ironsi
Answer – C 2009/8 UTME Exercise 36.8
The first military coup in Nigeria toppled the government The immediate cause of the 1966 military coup d’état in
of Alhaji Abubakar Tafwa Balewa in January, 1966. Nigeria was
A. nepotism B. political instability C. military
1992/47
The coup d’état of July 29, 1966 in Nigeria ousted from
government 1995/50 Nov Exercise 36.9
A. Major Nzeogwu B. Major General Aguiyi Ironsi The leader of the 1966 military coup in Nigeria was
C. General Yakubu Gowon A. Major Chukwuma Nzeogwu
D. General Murtala Mohammed B. General Murtala Mohammed
Answer C. Major General Muhammadu Buhari
July 29, 1966 counter coup resulted in the murder of D. Major General Tunde Idiagbon
Nigeria’s first military Head of State, General Johnson E. General Yakubu Gowon
Aguiyi Ironsi. (B)
1990/44 Nov Exercise 36.10
The military handed over power to civilians in Nigeria in
2019/47 NABTEB A. 1966 B. 1975 C. 1979 D. 1980 E. 1983
Who was the last military head of state in Nigeria?
A. General Sani Abacha 2000/39 Exercise 36.11
B. General Abdulsalami Abubakar Which of the following military regimes in Nigeria played
C. General Ibrahim Badamasi Babangida a prominent role in the liberation of colonized African
D. General Muhammadu Buhari states?
Answer A. Aguiyi Ironsi B. Murtala/Obasanjo
General Abdulsalami Abubakar, Nigerian military leader, C. Muhammadu Buhari D. Ibrahim Babangida
who served as the last military head of state in Nigeria
(1998-99). (B) 2014/25/69 (NDU, BAYELSA) Exercise 36.12
The first military government in Nigeria was headed by
2007/5 Neco A. General Yakubu Gowon B. General Aguiyi Ironsi
The first military coup d’état in West Africa was staged in C. General M. Mohammed D. General O. Obasanjo
A. Niger B. Guinea C. Togo D. Ghana E. General Hassan Kastina
Answer
The 1963 Togolese coup d’état was a military coup that 1985/45 UTME Exercise 36.13
occurred in the West African country of Togo on 13 The first military coup d’état in Nigeria occurred on
January, 1963. Togo country was the first to experience A. October 1, 1960 B. October 1, 1963 C. January 15, 1966
coup in West Africa. (C) D. January 15, 1967 E. December 31, 1983

1996/52
The second Nigerian military leader to be assassinated in Characteristics of Military Rule
military coup d’état was 1. Imposition of military laws: One of the major
A. General Aguiyi Ironsi characteristics of military rule is the imposition of
B. Major General Mamman Vatsa military laws (Decrees and Edicts) on the country. This
C. Col. B. S. Dimka D. General Murtala Mohammed is usually so because the military controls every
E. Major Chukwuma Nzeogwu institution of the state when they are power. Most
Answer times, when the military takes over power, the
General Murtala Mohammed was assassinated by group of Supreme law or constitution of the country will be
soldiers in an abortive coup led by Buka Dimka on suspended, then a new law will be introduced so that
February 13, 1976. (D) the military can smoothly control everything.

483
2. Absence of democracy: In a military government, there 2022/10
is usually no democracy. This is because the basic Identify five ways in which democracy was stalled any
features of democracy are not in line with dictatorship or time the military took over the administration of Nigeria
imposition of laws, which is usually the cause in a Answer
military government. By way of the following actions by the military
3. Absence of rule of law or rule of right: Since the military government, democracy was stalled:
can suspend or modify all the laws of the country at any 1. Imposition of military laws: The Supreme law or
time and at its convenience, there is no rule of law. The constitution of the country is usually suspended during
head of the military government have the power and military take–over, then a new law in the form decrees
capacity to make any law or amend any law at any time.
and edicts will be introduced so that the military can
Conversely, there is no rule of law in a military
smoothly control everything. By this actions,
government.
4. Restriction of fundamental human rights: Fundamental democracy is stalled.
human rights, as you know, are those rights given to a 2. Dictatorship: In military administration or
person because he/she is a human being. Nonetheless, government, all rules and decisions are dictated to the
during military rule, the fundamental human rights of people. All the administrations are done by decrees;
citizens are usually limited to a very large extent. military government is undemocratic in nature as the
5. Rule by decrees and edicts: The military make new laws. rule give rise to dictatorship.
Those new laws made by the federal and state 3. Absence of rule of law: Since the military can suspend
government are called decrees and edicts. or modify all the laws of the country at any time and at
6. Absence of separation of power: In military rule, there is its convenience, there is no rule of law. This goes
always the absence of separation of powers because the against democracy.
military combines the powers of the Legislature and the 4. Abuse of human right: The abuse of human
Executive together. Thus, they have the power to make fundamental human rights is common with military
laws and execute them at the same time. This can be done regime. Brutality, torture and abuse of rights are one
without any hindrance because even the judiciary cannot of the characteristics of military rule. The army is
review or check the activity of the military government. known by use of force and operation obey the last
7. Practice of a unitary system of government: In trying to order, to handle the civilian population. This is
lead the whole country from the center, the military absolutely against democratic principles.
usually adopt a system that is more unitary in nature. 5. No periodic election: Unlike the democratic
8. No periodic election: In military rule, there is usually no government, the military government, does not
periodic election in the country because even the law that
entertain any form of periodic election in the country
provides for periodic elections is also suspended by the
because even the law that provides for periodic
military. In light of this, the head of any military
government has the power to remain in his positions as
elections is also suspended by the military. In light of
long as he wants except when there is another military this, the head of any military government has the
body that comes and take over the power forcefully. power to remain in his positions as long as he wants
9. Intolerance to criticism: Military regimes are intolerant except when there is another military body that comes
to opposition or criticism. They see everybody as a and take over the power forcefully.
potential enemy and any constructive criticism is seen as
an opposition to the regime. Those who hold contrary 1991/33
views to that of the regime are arrested and detained. Military disengagement from politics involves all the
following except
1991/9 A. drafting a new constitution
Account for the frequent military coups in Nigeria. B. drafting the bans on politics C. conduct of a census
Answer D. conducts of elections
The first military coup took place in January, 1966, it was led E. official handing over to an elected government
by Major Emmanuel Ifeajuna and Major Nzeogwu. The Answer
second military coup happened on July 1966. It was a so Census can be conduct in the military era. (C)
called “counter coup” headed by Major General Gowon. In
1975, General Yakubu Gowon brought Murtala Mohammed 1993/49
to power and in 1976, Lt. General Olusegun Obasanjo came Which of the following is not true of military regime? It
to power during another military coup. In 1983, Major- A. rules by decree B. is undemocratic C. is autocratic
General Buhari came to power after a military coup and yet
D. is transitory E. is benevolent
another coup was witnessed in 1985, which was led by
Answer
General Ibrahim Babangida. Nonetheless, Ibrahim Babangida
handed over to a civilian government which was headed by
Benevolent is not true of the military regime. The military
Chief Ernest Shonekan on the 26th of August, 1993 after he government rule with decrees, dictatorial in nature, highly
ruled Nigeria for eight years. But on the 17th of November, centralized and the use of coercion in the implementation
1993, General Sani Abacha staged another coup that of policies. (E)
overthrew the Ernest Shonekan administration.
Finally in 1998, General Sani Abacha died in power as a result
of a heart attack and this eventually signaled the end of
military rule. Nigeria held a successful democratic election in
1999 which led to the election of Olusegun Obasanjo as the
President on the 29th of May, 1999.
484
2000/36 Nov 5. Regional differences: Regional differences are
Military regimes in West Africa have always made use of always provided as the reason for military
civilians in their administrations because intervention in the political affairs of Latin America.
A. their rule is constitutional Nigeria also has some problems existing between
B. they need the experience of civilians in government some states. Nigeria is a country where more than 410
C. the soldiers are democratic tribes co-exist peacefully. The political climate could
D. the soldiers want to offer jobs to retired public servants change, Nigerian tribes may carryout actions that will
Answer cause political instability in the country and increase
The military regimes in West Africa always involved the the likelihood of military coups.
civilians in their administrations because they need the 6. Politicization of the army: The army or military of
experience of the civilians in government. (B) the first Republic maintained her status quo and
thereafter became politicized. Appointments and
2017/46 promotions were based on tribal and political
In a military regime, the arms of government that are sentiments, not on seniority or merits.
usually fused are 7. Dispute over the census results: Another reason for
A. executive and judiciary military involvement in politics in Nigeria was
B. legislature and local council because of the 1962 and 1963 census results. The first
C. legislature and executive D. judiciary and the press in 1962 & second rejected as many claimed the results
Answer were falsified and that the figures were inflated.
The arms of government that are fused in a military regime 8. General election crisis of 1964: The election was
are legislature and executive because of the decrees used. held in 1964 but the result was seriously disputed. The
(C) election witnessed party alliances, major and minor
political parties merging to contest for seats in the
2016/45 Exercise 36.14 House of Representatives. The A.G, NCNC, NEPU
Outline three basic features of military rule. and UMBC joined to form the United Progressive
Grand Alliance (UPGA) while the NPC, NNDP, the
Reasons for military intervention in Nigeria. Mid-West Democratic Front, Niger Delta Congress in
1. Socio-Economic Development: According to this Eastern Nigeria; the Dynamic Party formed the
theory, a military intervention can happen as a result Nigerian National Alliance (NNA). So, the election
of disbelief in the socio-economic development of the was between UPGA and NNA. There was alleged
country. Socially and economically stable countries massive rigging in the election. Nigeria was on the
are less prone to military coups. Military verge of anarchy and reign of terror and so the army
interventions usually take place in countries with had to come in to forestall such.
low–income status. Nigeria experienced this problem 9. The Action Group crisis of 1962: The crisis came as
during the military coups up to the beginning of the a result of serious conflict within the party and
1990s. differences of opinion and personality clash between
2. Corruption and political development: Another great Chief Obafemi Awolowo, the party leader and his
reason for military intervention in politics is political deputy, Chief S. L. Akintola. Later, two factions
crisis in a country; like in the case of military developed, one led by Awolowo and the other,
interventions during the cold war because the Akintola. At the Jos Congress, members of A.G
communistic regimes failed against capitalism and decided that, Akintola should be expelled from the
democracy. Corruption always weakens the party and also be removed as the premier. Alhaji D.
government and results in high chances of military S. Adegbenro was appointed in his place as premier.
coups. The situation was so serious that, the federal had to
3. The centrality of the military: This theory provides intervene by declaring a state of emergency in the
the idea that the greater the resources and power the region. Dr. Majekodunmi was appointed as the
military has, the greater the chances of a military administrator while the emergency period lasted for
coup. A weak civilian institution may provoke strong six month.
military forces to take over the country that is why the 10. Western Nigeria election crisis of the 1965: This was
actions of the military forces must be monitored. another election crisis that drew the attention of the
4. Conflicts based on issues in the society: These military into the political process. It was the election into
conflicts may include religious and ethnic problems, the western Nigeria House of Assembly where two
this happen in Nigeria during the first rise of Biafra. party rivals were contesting – NNDP led by Chief S.L.
Nonetheless, it can still happen as Boko Haram and Akintola and UPGA led by Chief Adegbenro. There
other terrorist organizations are a threat to the was rigging in the elections. UPGA accused NNDP of
democratic regime. Nigeria is multi-cultural with open rigging. Both leaders decided to form government
various religious beliefs. The extremist religious in the Western region. When Chief Adegbenro was
groups may become a real threat and destroy the arrested, his supporters reacted violently and there was
government in Nigeria. 1515 is the most obvious looting, Arson, burning of houses and property, murder
example of how religious fanatics can destroy a etc. The military were the ones that returned sanity to
country. the region.
11.

485
12. Absence of honest and reliable leadership: This had 2010/10 Neco
eluded the country even since independence. Many of What was the cause of the 1975 military coup d’état in
the rulers were dishonest and not reliable. They have Nigeria?
actually refused to move the country forward. Answer
13. Mismanagement of public funds: The extent at 1. The government was corrupt and encouraged corrupt
which money meant for development is diverted into practices.
other projects and even into private accounts are 2. The government was not able to arrive at the definite
enough reasons for military intervention. Politicians figure for 1973 census.
of the first and second Republic and even some 3. There was a change in the proposed date for return to
military leaders have displayed this arrogance in the civil rule.
highest proportion. 4. There was scarcity of essential commodities due to
part congestion.
2006/46 5. There was mismanagement of public funds.
The military intervenes in West African politics mainly 6. The government disregarded public opinion on major
because national issues.
A. politicians play the game accordingly
B. law and order are maintained 2017/47
C. they are better rulers A military intervention into the politics of a state involved
D. of election malpractices A. an overthrow of a legitimate government by pressure
Answer groups
The military intervenes in West African politics mainly B. the seizure of power from a legitimate government by
because of election malpractices especially in Nigeria the armed forces
during the general election of 1964 that led to crisis and C. violent overthrow of a democratic government by the
western Nigeria election crisis of 1965. The intervention of police
the military returned sanity to the nation and the western D. the legitimate seizures of power by the police and
region in Nigeria. (D) civilians
Answer
2010/45 The military intervention into the politics of a state
One of the reasons for military takeover in West Africa is involved the seizure of power from a legitimate
A. smooth administration B. political stability government by the armed forces. This process of taking
C. corruption among political leaders over of military is called coup d’état. (B)
D. good governance
Answer 2019/16 Exercise
Corruption among our political leaders in West Africa led The following are the reasons widely espoused for military
to the military intervention in Nigeria. Many were involved intervention and rule in West Africa except
in spending of the public fund. (C) A. tribalism and nepotism
B. inordinate ambition of soldiers
2014/40 C. maladministration D. religion
The recurrent coups in West African countries resulted in Answer – D
A. dictatorship B. political instability C. nepotism Religion was not a reason for military intervention in
D. poor conditions in the army Nigeria.
Answer
Political instability led to the recurrent coups or intervention 1994/51 Exercise 36.15
in West African countries by the military. (B) All the following are reasons for the frequent military
1996/55 Nov takeover of power in Nigeria, except
Which of the following is not a factor leading to military A. election malpractice
intervention in Nigerian politics? B. corruption among top government functionaries
A. bribery and corruption C. check on communist penetration of government
B. lack of consensus among political leaders D. embezzlement of public funds
C. political ambition of the military E. tribalism and nepotism
D. electoral malpractices
E. excessive control of public enterprises
Answer 1996/51 Exercise 36.16
Excessive control of public enterprises was not a factor that The following are reasons for military intervention in
led to military intervention in Nigerian politics. (E) politics except
A. corrupt practices by civilian administrations
B. tribalism and nepotism C. election malpractices
D. hailing economic situations
E. regular promotion of military officers

2005/10b Exercise 36.17

Give five reasons for military interventions in politics in
West Africa.
486
THE STRUCTURE OF MILITARY GOVERNMENT military officers, Inspector-General of Police, the
IN NIGERIA Attorney–General of the federation with the president
The military government of Nigeria is mainly divided into of Nigeria, as Chairman. This was the supreme council
two levels of the Federal Military Government and the involved in both policy making and legislative
State Military Government with the following organs of functions at the same time.
structures. 2. The council of ministers: The President of the country
1. The Head of State/President: The Head of State was the Chairman while the Vice President and
sometimes called the President is also the Ministers (some were civilians and others military
Commander-in-Chief of the Nigeria Armed Forces. As men) made up this council. It was involved in
the Head of State he presides over the meetings of the executive functions.
AFRC, the Council of States and the Council of 3. The national council of state: Members were the
Ministers. It is his duty to appoint and dismiss Head of State, Chief of General Staff, Minister of
Ministers, Ambassadors, High Commissioners, Chief Defence, Service Chiefs of the Navy, Army and that of
Justice, Judges of the Supreme Court, High Court the Air Force, the Inspector General of Police, the
Judges, etc. all subject to the approval by the AFRC. military governors and the Attorney-General of the
2. Supreme Military Council (S.M.C.)/Armed Forces federation. Former Heads of States also formed part of
Ruling Council (A.F.R.C.): The Supreme Military council. They were responsible for the coordination
Council (SMC) with the new nomenclature of the and harmonization of the work of the state
Armed Forces Ruling Council (AFRC) is the highest governments.
legislative organ of the military government in 4. The judiciary: It maintained the same status as in the
Nigeria. It is composed of the head of State/the civilian period. The Chief Justice of the federation was
President and the commander-in-chief or General the head of the judiciary. Part of the judiciary was the
Staff, the Chief of Defence Staff and Chairman Joint different tribunals set–up. Judges and military officers
Chiefs of Staff, the heads of the Army, Navy and the were appointed into the tribunals to handle cases.
Air Force popularly called the Service Chiefs, the 5. The civil service: The head of the civil service was the
Inspector General of Police, Justice Minister, secretary to the military government. With the 1988
Secretary to the Federal Military Government and the Civil Service Reforms, Permanent Secretaries were
high ranking military officers. replaced by Directors–General.
3. The Council of States: This organ advises the Head
of State/president on important national issues. It is ACHIEVEMENTS OF MILITARY RULE IN NIGERIA
made up of the Head of State/President as the 1. Keeping the country together: The first major
chairman, the chief of general staff, former Heads of achievement of military rule in Nigeria was keeping
State and all State Military Governors. the country together as one geographical entity. The
4. National council of Ministers: This is the organ that thirty-month fratricidal war, fought by soldiers in
implements the decisions and policies made by the Nigeria, was aimed at keeping the country together.
2. Provision of infrastructure: Greater part of the
AFRC. It is headed by the Head of State/President and
assisted by the Chief of General Staff with all federalinfrastructure like good roads, sea and airports, fly-
ministers as members. over bridges especially in Lagos, etc. we have in
5. The State Military Governor: A State Military Nigeria were built under the military rule. Gowon’s
Governor is the Chief Executive and the Head of the administration has the greatest credit in the area of
State Military Government and the representative of provision of infrastructure.
3. Creation of states: Nigeria was divided into 12 states
the Head of State in the state. He is responsible to the
Head of the Federal Military Government and the on May 27, 1967 and 19 states on February 3, 1976 by
Commander-in-Chief of the Armed Forces. The Gowon and Murtala Muhammed administrations
governor performs both the executive and legislative respectively. These states have contributed immensely
functions. He is the chairman of the State Executive to bringing the government and development nearer to
Council. He appoints the state commissioners and the people.
other state officials. 4. Maintenance of Peace: Since the end of the civil war,
6. The State Executive Council: This organ is the reign of the military in Nigeria has been that of
responsible for the formulation and executive of the peace and unity, which have created fertile ground for
State Military Government’s decisions and policies, national development, rather than dissipation of
maintenance of law and order in the state. It is headedenergy on political rivalry, vain propaganda and
by the military governor with the commander of the fanning of embers of tribalism as was the case during
the dancing days of politics in the first and second
army unit in the state, the state commissioner of police,
the secretary to the State Military Government, state republics.
commissioners, etc., as members. 5. Encouragement of regional cooperation: It is on
record in West Africa that our former military Head of
THE STRUCTURE OF MILITARY RULE IN State General Gowon was one of the founding fathers
NIGERIA UNDER THE BABANGIDA of Economic Community of West African States
ADMINISTRATION UP TO 1990 (ECOWAS).
1. The Armed Forces Ruling Council: This was the 6. Large scale rehabilitation: The military embarked on
supreme body which performed legislative functions. large scale rehabilitation programmes at the end of the
This was composed of the service chiefs, top ranking Nigerian civil war. As a result of the devastation and
487
ravages caused by the civil war, the then Federal 15. Provision of a new constitution: The military rule in
Military Government under the then General Yakubu Nigeria under the administration of Murtala/Obasanjo
Gowon embarked on the three Rs - Rehabilitation, fashioned a new constitution. That constitution
Reconciliation and Reconstruction. This programme introduced the presidential democratic system of
was aimed at bringing the country together again, re- government in Nigeria and ushered in the second
settling the war victims and repairing and replacing Republic in Nigeria.
what were damaged during the civil war. 16. Return to civil rule: The military inspite of the
7. Dynamic foreign policy: The Nigeria military juntas benefits derived from government and absence of
scored a great meaningful success in the area of foreign opposition successfully returned Nigeria to a
policy. The Nigerian foreign policy under Late democratic government in 1979 after thirteen years of
General Murtala Muhammed was second to none in military interregnum. What led to the collapse of that
Nigeria sine the country gained independence in 1960. democratic government and thereby bringing the
Our foreign policy at that period contributed military juntas back again to the political arena is left
immensely to the independence of Angola and to poster to take care of.
Zimbabwe. 17. Establishment of new capital: It was under the
8. Reorganisation of the army: When the war ended, the administration of Murtala/Obasanjo that the capital of
military regime at that time, tried to put the Nigerian Nigeria was re-located from Lagos to Abuja. It is
army in a better condition by flushing out unqualified argued that Abuja is centrally located to be the
and illiterate soldiers i.e. “the win the war soldiers’ country’s capital.
who were recruited during the civil war as a result of 18. Local Government Reform: The Nigeria military
the urgency of their services. As a result of the juntas scored another success through the local
reorganization, the Nigerian Army Forces were made government reform of 1976. The reform introduced a
combat ready, ready to ward off any external one – tier local government structure which
aggression. Today, the Nigeria armed forces are a contributed in strengthening local government
force to reckon with in Africa, any the world. administration in Nigeria.
9. Change in the pattern of driving: The successful 19. Higher Education: Advanced Education took a giant
change from driving on the left hand side to the right stride during the military rule in Nigeria. Many federal
hand side was another achievement of the military rule and state universities, polytechnics etc.. were set up.
in Nigeria. This exercise was carried out on April 2, 20. Miscellaneous Achievements: Other areas in which
1972, in order to conform to the driving pattern in other the military in Nigeria recorded some achievements,
parts of the world. included; the establishment of iron and steel industries,
10. Introduction of new currency: The Nigerian currency building of oil refineries at Warri and Kaduna and
was changed by the military in 1973 from Pound, Shilling abolition of geographical state names etc.
and Pence to Naira and Kobo. The old currency of pound
sterling was introduced during the colonial period of 1990/55 Exercise 36.18
British colonial rulers. Changing the currency was one of All the following achievements are credited to the military
the ways of shaking off colonial legacies. intervention in Nigeria except the
11. Introduction of N.Y.S.C: The National Youth Service A. creation of states
Corps (N.Y.S.C) programme was established in 1973 B. adoption of the indigenization policy
during the administration of General Gowon, at a time C. establishment of National Youth Service Corps
when people of Nigeria at the end of the civil war were
D. Inauguration of the Operation Feed the Nation
afraid to go, live and work in other parts of the country
E. Introduction of the Green Revolution
other than theirs. N.Y.S.C among other aims and
objectives was meant to encourage mobility of labour in
the country, foster common ties among Nigerian youths
and thereby promote national unity. 2019/28 Exercise 36.19
12. Launching of U.P.E: The military rule in Nigeria Military might is a major determinant of a country’s
equally achieved success in the field of education by A. independence B. democracy C. foreign policy
launching a free education scheme – Universal Primary D. wealth
Education (U.P.E). The scheme was aimed at educating
Nigerians free of charge, thereby, eradicating illiteracy.
From the day of the launching of the U.P.E., education in 2022/6 Neco Exercise 36.20
the primary schools became free, until the political Describe six structures of military rule in Nigeria.
adventures of the second republic came to power on
October 1, 1979. 1997/9 Exercise 36.21
13. Launching of O.F.N: In order to provide food in large Highlight the achievements of the military government in
quantities to feed the teeming population of Nigeria, the Nigeria.
military in 1976, launched the Operation Feed the Nation
which turned yellow in the second republic.
14. Promulgation of indigenization decree: The decree
which was promulgated in 1972 was principally aimed at
enabling Nigerians to have exclusive domain in small
scale industries and also 50% equity share in other
industries.
488
WEAKNESS OF MILITARY REGIME IN NIGERIA 13. Authoritarianism: The military boys use autocratic and
1. Corruption: There was wide–spread of corruption despotic means to compel citizens to submit blindly to
among those in the corridors of military during the their authority.
military era. They amassed ill-gotten wealth, no 14. No form of opposition: Military administration, as a
wonder all retired army officers seem to be wealthy. totalitarian form of government, has only one supreme
2. The Nigeria civil war: The civil war which took place authority which controls everything and there is no form
in Nigeria between 1967–1970 in which millions of of opposition.
Nigerians and property worth millions of naira were 15. Failure to conduct reliable and acceptable population
destroyed can be attributed to the military. That war census: The military in spite of their long period rule in
Nigeria, have failed to conduct an acceptable population
could have been averted if the military had displayed
census.
good diplomacy and sound political maturity.
16. Draconian laws: The military rulers derive joy in passing
3. Absence of democracy: Military rule is undemocratic harsh laws some of which take retro-active effects. An
and as a result, members of the administration are not example is the draconian law passed by Buhari regime
elected. The administration is not accountable to the which put to death sentence on drug pushing and which
people, does not listen to public opinion and they pass as a result of retro-active effects sent three youths to their
their laws through decrees without regard to people’s unexpected grave.
feelings. 17. Personality conflicts and sectional rivalry: The military
4. Tribalism: The military rule in Nigeria is not safe from rule in Nigeria is also confronted by personality conflicts
tribal jingoism that acts as cankerworm that has eaten and sectional rivalry which contribute to frequent coups
deep into the fabric of our body – polity. we witness in this country.
5. Independence of the judiciary: The independence of 18. Hasty decisions: One of the weakness of military
the judiciary was sometimes not guaranteed and many administration is that they take hasty decisions. The
of their decrees contain ouster clauses that render the military boys seem to take decisions first before thinking;
judiciary powerless. how can one justify the reckless manner in which
6. Violation of fundamental human rights: The military Buhari/Idiagbon regime destroyed many dwelling
administrations in Nigeria no matter how humane, houses, trading stores, etc., which they labelled illegal
indulge in denying the citizens their fundamental structures all in the name of environmental sanitation?
human rights. People are detained with impunity Another good example is the way and manner that the
without trial. The death of Ken Saro Wiwa and other representative Buhari regime treated medical doctors.
eight Ogoni citizens is a clear case of violation of This contributed to the present brain drain and Rasaki and
Maroko episode.
human rights.
7. Absence of press freedom: Press freedom is normally
2007/46 Neco
absent during a military rule. The army gags the press
One of the defects of military government is
so that they will sing their praises. A. freedom of expression
8. Non-tolerance to criticism: The military regime did B. registration of political parties
not tolerate criticism and therefore hostile to criticisms C. abuse of human rights
and public opinion. D. promotion of few military officers
9. Political ambition: Over political ambition among the Answer
soldiers in Nigeria is one of the causes of frequent Military rule is mostly noted for violating of the fundamental
coups and counter-coups in our country. Since power human rights. Fundamental human rights was entrenched in
emanates from the barrel of gun, every soldier want to the constitution and the military uses decree not constitution,
rule the country and this makes soldiers to pal up and so abuse of Human Rights is guaranteed. (C)
execute coup or counter-coup at the slightest excuse.
10. They are not trained to rule: Military rule is described 2015/2016/59 (NDU, BAYELSA)
as aberration because, the military boys are trained to Which of the following will produce a weak government
defend the nations’ territorial integrity not to rule. The A. coalition B. two-party system C. general election
Khaki boys are therefore, not administrative D. presidential system E. military rule
technocrats and coming to rule a nation is a deviation. Answer – E
11. Overstaying in Government: Since the military boys Military rule will produce a weak government because the
are not elected for any specific number of years and electorate will not involve, the military usually takes over by
since there is no constitution that regulates their stay in force.
power, there is every tendency for them to stay in
government as long as they wish and as long as they 1992/43 UTME
are not removed from power through coup by their A major problem of military governments in Nigeria is the
colleagues. A. absence of proper accountability
12. Economic mismanagement: Like their civilian B. abolition of the past of ombudsman
counterparts, the khaki boys also commit the economic C. absence of the rule of law
offence of mismanagement. They involve in reckless D. encouragement of foreign investors
spending like the amount spent on the famous Answer – C
FESTAC 77, wrong allocation of resources, The major problem of military governments in Nigeria is
embezzlement of public fund even though they are not the absence of the rule of law. In military government,
probed like their civilian counterparts, etc. there is no equality before the law, they rule by decree not
constitution, etc.
489
2018/46 Measures that could be taken to prevent military
One of the problems of military administration in West intervention in West Africa
Africa is that soldiers 1. Outlawed: Military intervention should be outlawed by
A. are representatives of the people the constitution of the individual country.
B. lack discipline C. are not well organized 2. Accountability: There should be accountability on the
D. are not trained for governance part of the politicians who are in government or
Answer planning to be in government.
The weakness of the military administration in West Africa 3. Rules and regulations: The game of politics should be
is that soldiers are not trained for governance, so they played according to the laid down rules and regulations.
lacked both administrative and political experience to 4. Ethnic politics: This should be avoided by the
govern. (D) politicians.
5. Good leadership: There should be good leadership on
the part of all elected officials, who are to serve in
2014/9 Neco
different areas of government.
Outline five reasons people prefer democratic government 6. Mismanagement of public fund: This should be
to military regimes. avoided by the politician and the ruling elites.
Answer 7. Responsible government: The elected government
1. In democratic governments political leaders are should be responsive to the yearning of the people.
elected while in the military regime, members of the 8. Free and fair elections: There should be free and fair
administration are not elected. elections in the country.
2. In democratic governments, fundamental human rights 9. Depoliticization: The military should be depoliticized.
are guaranteed and respected while in military regimes, In other words, the military should be completely
they are curtailed and violated with impunity. separated from politics.
3. Actions of democratic governments are open to public 10. Peaceful mass disobedience: The people should resist
scrutiny and criticisms while military regimes are military intervention through peaceful mass
intolerant and apprehensive to scrutiny and criticisms. disobedience.
4. In democratic governments, political parties exist 11. Independence of the judiciary: This should be a must
while in military regimes ruled by decrees. so that cases can be judged impartially.
5. In democratic governments, the constitution, as the 12. Political education: The masses should be given
fundamental law, is allowed to operate while in political education. Many people are ignorant of their
military regimes they are suspended. rights, politically.
6. Democratic governments promote free press while in 13. Fundamental human rights: This should be respected
military regime; they are usually gagged/censored or by everybody in the society especially the politicians
and the military.
proscribed.
7. Democratic governments apply anti separation of
PROCESS OF RETURN TO CIVILIAN RULE
powers while in the military the powers are fused.
The following steps were taken by the military government
8. Decisions in democratic governments are through
to return Nigeria to civil rule in October, 1979.
persuasion while in military regimes, coercion and
1. Setting up of a Constitutional Drafting Committee:
violence are utilized.
The making of a new constitution commences with the
9. Democratic governments are legitimate while military
setting up of a constitution Drafting Committee (CDC)
regimes are illegitimate.
to propose a draft constitution. The CDC was set up by
10. Democratic governments gained international
the Supreme Council (SMC) under the chairmanship
recognition while military regime may not.
of Chief Rotimi Williams to fashion out a new
11. In democratic governments, there is independence of
constitution for the country. Membership was 49 and
the judiciary while under military regime, the
it started work in October, 1975. It completed the work
independence of the judiciary is eroded by setting up
in September, 1976 and published a two – volume
special military tribunals.
report on the new constitution.
12. In democratic governments there is fixed term of office
2. The inauguration of a constituent assembly to
while in the military, there is no tenure of office.
ratify the draft constitution: A Constituent
13. Democratic governments are responsive and
Assembly is established to ratify the draft constitution
accountable to the people while military regimes are
after thorough debates on its provisions and
neither responsive nor accountable to the people.
amendment of some of its provisions by the military
administration before its promulgation. Later in 1976,
a Constituent Assembly (C. A.) was established with
1998/8 Exercise 36.22
190 members indirectly elected by local government
What were the weakness of the military regime in Nigeria
units and 40 other members were appointed by the
between 1966 and 1975?
federal military government making it 230 members.
The chairman was Justice Udo Udoma and the body
2014/47 Exercise 36.23
started work in December, 1976. It completed its work
Laws promulgated by a military government are called
in June, 1978. However, some amendments were
A. bills B. acts C. decrees D. proclamations
effected by the military and at the end it was
promulgated and came into effect on October 1, 1979.

490
3. Establishment of Federal Electoral Commission Reasons for the reluctance of Military Regimes to hand
(FEDECO): An Electoral Commission is established over power to civilian Administration
or instituted and charged with responsibilities of The military are always reluctant to hand over power to
delimitation of constituencies, registration of voters, civilian governments because of the following reasons:
registration of political parties, etc. So, an electoral (1) The desire to ensure that they totally eliminate the
commission, FEDECO was set up to take charge of all political party or group they unlawfully overthrew
issues concerning election administration and conduct from power.
in the country. (2) The fear that when a group that is opposed to them
4. Lifting the ban on political activities: This is one of comes to power, they may reverse the very reasons
the steps to handling over to a civilian government. In or principles which made them stage the coup.
addition, stringent laws can be introduced for the (3) When they taste political power and realize that it is
formation of national political parties. These parties sweet with all the privileges that go with it, they find
can then commence campaigns and party primaries it difficult to go back to the barracks.
into various elective posts. (4) Having overthrown a government, they also become
5. Local government election: The conduct of a free, stained with the very vices they wish to wipe out.
fair and democratic elections is one of the last steps to They have the fear of being prosecuted for it,
usher in new civilian leaders. This usually starts with therefore they stay on in power.
the election of Local Government Chairman and (5) Some of the soldiers begin to feel that they are better
Councillors. This may be on the basis of political administrators than their civilian counterparts and so
parties or zero party system. Local government would want to stay in power.
election was conducted in 1976 on non-party basis. (6) They consider themselves as social-political and
6. Formation and registration of political parties: economic saviour. They wish to continue in power
After lifting the ban on politics, about 52 political until they are able to uproot all the social vices in the
associations were formed, but only five were duly state.
registered as having satisfied the laid down conditions (7) The support from civilians who benefit from
by the electoral body. The registered parties were military administration.
National Party of Nigeria (NPN), Unity Party of (8) Recognition given to military government by other
Nigeria (UPN), Nigerian Peoples Party (NPP), Great countries.
Nigeria Peoples Party (GNPP) and Peoples (9) The inordinate ambition to remain in power for life
Redemption Party (PRP). by some military head of state.
7. The conduct of general elections in 1979: The (10) The military is in possession of instruments of
elections were fixed between July and August, 1979. coercion and force..
Senate elections came first in July 7th, House of (11) Disunity among civilian politician who could not
Representatives 14th of July, State Assemblies July offer effective opposition and create hatred and
21st, 1979, gubernatorial elections July 28th and disaffection to military rule.
presidential elections August 11th. The Senate had 95 (12) Absence of the rule of law and separation of powers
seats, House of Representatives has 499 seats and 1347 (13) Mutiny among the soldiers.
seats in all the states’ Assemblies. (14) Political crisis resulting from bitterness among
8. Swearing in of the elected president and politicians and regional or state governments.
Governors: The results of the various elections (15) Corruption on the part of the politicians.
conducted will be announced by the Electoral (16) The election malpractices by electoral commission
Commission, and a time table prepared for the officials.
inauguration of the elected representatives. This (17) Declaration of unpopular candidates as winners of
inauguration signified the retirement of the armed election primaries.
forces to the barracks and the take – over of the mantle
of leadership by the new civilian representatives. The 2008/10 Exercise 36.24
Federal Electoral Commission FEDECO on August Give six reasons for the reluctance of military regimes to
17th, 1979 declared Alhaji Shehu Shagari the winner hand over power to civilian administrations.
of the presidential election held on August 11, 1979.
The electoral body claimed that Shagari satisfied the 1995/9 Exercise 36.25
provision of section 34 (A) sub-section (1) (c) (1) of Outline the measures that could be taken to prevent
the Electoral decree No 73 by securing the highest military intervention in the government of West Africa
votes at the election. Also he satisfied the provision of countries.
sub-section (1) (c) (11) of the same section. He was
sworn in as the new Head of State and government of 1993/48
Nigeria and the commander – in – Chief of the Armed One of the ways to keep the military out of politics is to
Forces in Nigeria’s Second Republic (1979 – 83). A. improve coup plotters B. execute coup plotters
Also, at the state level, governors were equally sworn C. crush military regime D. stop election rigging
in as the Chief Executives. So, October 1, 1979 E. arm the police well as a counterpoise
became a reality in Nigeria’s drive to an elected Answer
democratic rule. One of the ways to keep the military out of politics is to
stop election rigging. (D)

491
1999/44 2003/33 UTME
The best way to keep military out of politics in developing The military head of state during the third republic was
countries is to A. General Olusegun Obasanjo B. General Ibrahim Babangida
A. pay soldiers better salaries B. imprison coup plotters C. General Murtala Muhummed D. General Sani Abacha
C. outlaw coup planning D. ensure good governance Answer – A
Answer General Ibrahim Babangida was the military head of state
The best way to keep military out of our politics in during the third republic.
developing countries is to ensure good governance by the
civilian leaders. (C) 2004/49 UTME
The immediate cause of the January 15, 1966 military coup
2018/9 in Nigeria was the
What mechanisms should be put in place to forestall A. crisis over the population census
military intervention in politics? B. election crisis in the western region
Answer C. Kano riots D. TIV riots
1. The existence and promotion of democratically elected Answer – B
government. The immediate cause of the January 15, 1966 military coup
2. Promotion of good governance. in Nigeria was the election crisis in the Western Region.
3. Eradication of corruption and abuse of office.
4. Avoidance of electoral malpractice by encouraging free 1992/41 UTME
and fair elections. The Nigerian military government launched the second
5. Encouraging national unity by suppressing tribalism and national Development plan in 1970 purposely.
nepotism. A. to develop all the disadvantaged states
6. Enhanced conditions of service for the military. B. to accelerate the development of the country
7. Proper civic education for the armed forces on their
C. for rapid economic and social development of the
role/enlightenment for military on their roles.
country after the civil war
8. Promotion of accountability and transparency in
governance.
D. to further the cause of a united, strong and self-reliant
9. Appeal to civilian administration to conform to the nation
constitutional tenure of office. Answer – C
10. Equitable distribution of both human and natural The Nigerian military government launched the second
resources. National Development plan in 1970 purposely for rapid
11. Entrenchment of provisions in the constitution to forestall or economic and social development of the country after the
discourage military intervention in politics. civil war.
12. Responsive and responsible/good leadership.
13. Avoidance of political unrest/rivalry among politicians. 1994/29 UTME
14. Non–recognition of military government by the The primary function of the Armed forces of Nigeria to
international community or organization e.g. UNO, AU, A. promote and protect the security of the nation
ECOWAS, commonwealth, etc.. B. protect the head of state and commander-in-chief of the
15. Maintenance of cordial relationship among politicians. armed forces of the nation
16. Civic disobedience/resistance by the populace and C. protect the citizens against corrupt and oppressive
interest groups. politicians
D. project the country’s image by participating in peace-
2006/15 UTME keeping operations
The highest decision-making body under the Gowon Answer – A
Regime as the The main primary function of the Armed Forces of Nigeria
A. provisional ruling council B. supreme military council is to promote and protect the security of the nation.
C. armed forces ruling council D. federal executive council
Answer – B
The highest decision-making body under the Gowon 2011/25 (OAU,IFE)
Regime was the supreme military council. The Supreme Under military regimes in Nigeria, the branches of
Military Council was the body that ruled Nigeria under the government that were fused are:
Gowon Regime. A. executive and the legislature
B. executive and the judiciary
2006/19 UTME C. legislature and the judiciary
In Nigeria, military regimes returned power to civilians D. executive the legislature and the judiciary
through Answer – A
A. negotiations B. impositions Executive and the legislature were the branches of
C. transition programme D. constructional conference government that was fused under the military regimes in
Answer – C Nigeria.
In Nigeria, military regime returned power to civilians
through transition programme. It’s when the system get
ready to successfully move from the military to civilian
government.

492
1985/39 UTME 1992/20 UTME
In 1966 the military intervened in Nigerian politics Which of the following was a great military and political
because power before the colonization of Nigeria?
A. the country was not operating a presidential system of A. the Idoma Kingdom B. the Igala Empire
government C. the Kwararafa Empire D. the Nupe Kingdom
B. the number of legislators was too large Answer – C
C. crude oil had been discovered in the country The Kwararafa Empire was a great military and political
D. there was a high level of corruption in the country power before the colonization of Nigeria. Kororofa
E. the political processes had broken down (Kwararafa in Hausa diction) was a multiethnic state and
Answer – E or confederacy centered along the Benue River valley in
In 1966 the military intervened in Nigerian politics what is today central Nigeria. They rose to prominence
because the political processes had broken down, the before 1500. They were in conflict with their more
people took laws into their hands by killing and destroying powerful neighbours in the 17th century, and reduced to a
public properties. small tribute state by the 18 century. It is believed that
Kwarafafa was either a confederacy conquest state, led by
2008/2009/15 (NDU, BAYELSA) the modern Jukun people or perhaps a collective name
Which of the following countries in West Africa has not given by their Muslim foes for a number of pagan peoples
experience military intervention in political? to their south.
A. Upper Volta B. Sierra-Leone C. Mali
D. Cote I’voire E. Togo 2006/8 UTME
Answer – C The Chairman of the National Defense council as provided
Cote I’voire (Ivory Coast) is the only country in West in the 1999 constitution is the
Africa that has not experience military intervention in A. Chief of Army Staff B. Chief of Defence Staff
politics. C. President D. Minister of Defence
Answer – C
1978/36 UTME The constitution of 1999, stipulated the chairman of the
The military take over power from politicians in West National Defence Council as the President of Nigeria.
African countries.
A. when politicians have become corrupt, and are reckless 1999/36 UTME
in their use of power A feature unique to General Murtala Muhammed Supreme
B. when there is a breakdown of law and order in the Military Council as compared to that of General Yakubu
country Gowon was the
C. for reasons which touch on the interest of the military A. inclusion of civilians as members
D. because of the personal ambitions of some politicians B. exclusion of military governors from the council
E. all of the above C. inclusion of the chief justice as a member
Answer – E D. the exclusion of the inspector-general of police from the
The military take over power from politicians in West council
African Countries when politicians have become corrupt, Answer – B
and are reckless in their use of power, when there is a The Supreme Military Council was the body that ruled
breakdown of law and order in the country. Most of the Nigeria after the 1966 coup d’état until it was dissolved
politicians have personal ambition and motive of ruling. following the 1979 parliamentary election of the second
Nigerian Republic. The Supreme Military Council
1990/30 UTME consisted of the Regional Military Governors and the
The military normally belongs to the arm(s) of government Military Administrator of the Federal Territory, the Heads
known as of the Nigerian Army, Navy and Air Force, the Chief of
A. the legislature and the judiciary Staff of the Armed Forces and the Inspector-General of
B. the executive C. the judiciary Police or his Deputy. The Administration of General
D. the judiciary and the executive Yakubu Gowon excluded the military governors from the
Answer – B council.
The military normally belongs to the aim(s) of government
known as the executive. 1994/39 UTME
A major negative impact of military intervention in
1992/11 UTME Nigerian Politics is the
Law making under military regimes is done through A. Politicization of the military
A. delegated legislation B. administrative enactments B. domination of the economy by foreign powers
C. the promulgation of decrees C. poor performance of the military in foreign peace-
D. the ministry of justice keeping operations
Answer – C D. neglect of the welfare of military personnel
Law making under military government or regime is done Answer – A
through the promulgation of decrees. Promulgation means Politicization of the military negative impact led to
the formal proclamation or the declaration that a new military intervention in Nigerian politics. The involvement
statutory or administrative law is enacted after its final of the army in the Western Regional Crisis and the Tiv riots
approval. of 1964.
493
1998/42 UTME 1995/43 UTME
Which of the following factors was not responsible for the Nigerian soldiers have been deployed for peace-keeping
military intervention in Nigerian politics in 1966? missions to
A. willingness of politicians to relinquish power A. Burundi and Yugoslavia B. Ethiopia and Korea
B. the western regional election of 1965 C. Somalia and Rwanda D. Haiti and Lebanon
C. the federal election of 1964 Answer – C
D. ethnic politics and lawlessness Nigerian soldiers have been deployed for peace-keeping
Answer – B missions to Somalia and Rwanda.
The western regional election of 1965 was not a factor
responsible for the military intervention in Nigerian politics
1997/46 UTME
in 1966.
In 1993, Nigerian troops were on peace-keeping
assignment
1978/36 UTME
The military take over power from politicians in West African
A. Liberia and Burundi B. Rwanda and Liberia
countries C. Chad and Liberia D. Liberia and Somalia
A. when politicians have become corrupt, and are reckless in Answer – D
their uses of power In 1993, Nigerian troops were on peace-keeping
B. when there is a breakdown of law and order in the country assignment to Liberia and Somalia.
C. for reasons which touch on the interest of the military
D. because of the personal ambitions of some politicians 1997/32 UTME
E. all of the above Between 1966 and 1975, the highest legislative body in
Answer – E Nigeria was the
The military took over power from politicians in West A. armed forces revolutionary council
African countries because many of the politicians were B. supreme military council
corrupt, reckless in their use of power, there is a breakdown C. armed forces ruling council
of law and orders in the country, most of the politicians have D. provisional ruling council
personal ambitions and were selfish. Answer – B
Supreme military council was the highest legislative body
1992/31 UTME in Nigeria between 1966 and 1975.
By statute, the main responsibility of the armed forces of
Nigeria is to 2012/40 UTME
A. form a military government Military intervention in Nigeria arose from
B. maintain law and order
A. perceived incapacity of civilian to govern
C. defend the sovereignty and territorial integrity of the
B. Military Corporation and egocentrism
country
D. take part in peace-keeping operations in troubled
C. international pressures for change
neighbouring countries D. civilians desire to give up power
Answer – C Answer – A
By statute, the main responsibility of the armed forces of The military intervention in Nigeria arose from perceived
Nigeria is to defend the sovereignty and territorial integrity of incapacity to civilians to govern the nation.
the country.
2020/30
1992/33 UTME In Nigeria the council of state was first created by
The highest decision-making body in Nigeria under the A. General Olusegun Obasanjo
Buhari military regime was the B. General Murtala Muhammed
A. Armed Forces ruling Council C. Major-General Aguiyi Ironsi
B. Supreme Military Council D. General Yakubu Gowon
C. National Council of States Answer – B
D. Federal Executive Council General Murtala Muhammed was the first to create the
Answer – B council of state in Nigeria.
Supreme Military Council was the highest decision-
making body in Nigeria under the Buhari’s administration.
2002/40 UTME
1995/40 UTME The main legislative body in Nigeria between 1966 and
The military administration that attempted to tackle the 1975 was the
problem of inefficiency in the public sector by mass A. Armed Forces Ruling Council
retirement of public officers was the B. Supreme Military Council
A. gown administration B. murtala administration C. Provisional Ruling Council
C. obasanjo administration D. buhari administration D. National Security Council
Answer – B Answer – B
Murtala Administration attempted to tackle the problem of Supreme Military Council was the main legislative body in
inefficiency in the public sector by mass retirement of Nigeria between 1966 and 1975.
public officers.

494
2012/41 UTME 2018/8 NABTEB
The first institution introduced by the military to exercise 8a. Explain five reasons for military intervention in
legislative power was the Nigerian politics.
A. supreme military council B. armed forces ruling council b. List five achievements of military rule in Nigeria.
C. federal executive council D. provisional ruling council Answer
Answer – A (8a) Reasons for military intervention in Nigeria.
Supreme Military Council was the first institution introduced 1. Socio-Economic Development: According to this
by the military to exercise legislative power in Nigeria. theory, a military intervention can happen as a result
of disbelief in the socio-economic development of the
2015/25 UTME
country. Socially and economically stable countries
One of the agencies introduced by the military to promote
are less prone to military coups. Military
national integration is the
A. National Youth Service Corps
interventions usually take place in countries with
B. Directorate of Mass Mobilization for Social and Economic low–income status. Nigeria experienced this problem
C. Directorate of Food Roads and Rural Infrastructure during the military coups up to the beginning of the
D. National Directorate for Employment 1990s.
Answer – A 2. Corruption and political development: Another great
National Youth Service Corps was an agency introduced by reason for military intervention in politics is political
the military to promote national interaction of Nigerians. crisis in a country; like in the case of military
interventions during the cold war because the
2017/20 UTME communistic regimes failed against capitalism and
The apex body under the military regime of Yakubu Gowon democracy. Corruption always weakens the
was government and results in high chances of military
A. Supreme Military Council coups.
B. Federal Executive Council 3. Politicization of the army: The army or military of
C. The Armed Forces Ruling Council the first Republic maintained her status quo and
D. The National Council of State thereafter became politicized. Appointments and
Answer – A promotions were based on tribal and political
The supreme military council was the apex body under the sentiments, not on seniority or merits.
military regime of Yakubu Gowon. 4. Dispute over the census results: Another reason for
military involvement in politics in Nigeria was
2007/39 UTME
because of the 1962 and 1963 census results. The first
Military disengagement from politics is always proceeded by
in 1962 & second rejected as many claimed the results
A. the retirement of military personnel
B. the making of a new constitution
were falsified and that the figures were inflated.
C. an increase in workers’ salaries 5. Mismanagement of public funds: The extent at
D. the establishment of more universities which money meant for development is diverted into
Answer – B other projects and even into private accounts are
Military disengagement from politics is always preceded by enough reasons for military intervention. Politicians
the making of a new constitution. of the first and second Republic and even some
military leaders have displayed this arrogance in the
2008/50 UTME highest proportion.
The Political structure of Nigeria under the first military
regime was (8b) Five achievement of military rule in Nigeria
A. confederal B. quasi C. federal D. unitary 1. Keeping the country together: The first major
Answer – D achievement of military rule in Nigeria was keeping the
Unitary system of government was the political structure of country together as one geographical entity. The thirty-
Nigeria, under the first military regime. month fratricidal war, fought by soldiers in Nigeria, was
aimed at keeping the country together.
1981/39 UTME 2. Provision of infrastructure: Greater part of the
Once a country changes from military to civilian rule, future infrastructure like good roads, sea and airports, fly-over
military rule becomes bridges especially in Lagos, etc. we have in Nigeria were
A. impossible B. a matter of time built under the military rule. Gowon’s administration has
C. a question only of the wishes of senior military officers the greatest credit in the area of provision of
D. difficult if the civilian regime pursues peoples and widely infrastructure.
beneficial policies 3. Creation of states: Nigeria was divided into 12 states on
E. possible through foreign military intervention May 27, 1967 and 19 states on February 3, 1976 by
Answer – D Gowon and Murtala Muhammed administrations
Once a country changes from military to civilian rule, future respectively. These states have contributed immensely to
military rule becomes difficult, if the civilian regime pursues bringing the government and development nearer to the
peoples and widely beneficial policies. people.
4. Encouragement of regional cooperation: It is on record
in West Africa that our former military Head of State
General Gowon was one of the founding fathers of
Economic Community of West African States
(ECOWAS).
495
5. Introduction of N.Y.S.C: The National Youth Service 11. A country that has experienced incessant military
Corps (N.Y.S.C) programme was established in 1973 interregnum is said to have fallen into the
during the administration of General Gowon, at a time A. military trap B. coup d’état trap
when people of Nigeria were afraid to go, live and C. praetorian trap D. palace – coup trap
work in other parts of the country other than theirs at E. armed forces trap
the end of the civil war. N.Y.S.C among other aims and 12. Account for the coming of the military intervention in
objectives was meant to encourage mobility of labour West Africa politics in 1966?
in the country, foster common ties among Nigerian 13. Outline five reasons for military intervention in West
youths and thereby promote national unity. Africa politics.
14. Describe the features of military governments in West
Africa.
REVISION EXERCISES 15. Describe any six ways of preventing military
1. The main cause of military intervention in intervention in politics of West African states.
government in West Africa was 16. Outline the various steps taken by the military
A. that soldiers wanted to form their own political government to returning Nigeria to civil rule in
parties October, 1979.
B. the breakdown of democratic institution 17. Explain six causes of the first military intervention in
C. the need to grant the request of the colonial Nigerian politics.
government 18. State five achievements of military rule in Nigeria.
D. the soldiers wanted to take part in democracy 19. Explain the military coups in Nigeria.
2. Under military governments, local authorities issue 20. Briefly discuss military regimes in Nigeria.
bye-laws, while state governments issue
A. edicts B. decrees C. warrants D. orders
3. What is détente in international relations?
A. detention of war prisoners
B. posting of ambassadors
C. military alliance between nations
D. peace agreement between nations
4. Which of the following is not a process in the
transition from military to civilian rule?
A. drafting of a new constitution
B. appointment of ministers
C. setting up of a constituent assembly
D. arrangement for and conduct of elections
5. Powers under military rule in Nigeria can be said to be
A. absolutely separated B. absolutely fused
C. more separated than fused
D. more fused than separated
E. absolutely decentralized
6. The only Nigerian military head of state to take the
title of president is General _______
A. Olusegun Obasanjo B. Ibrahim Babangida
C. Muhammadu Buhari D. Murtala Mohammed
7. Military governments usually lack
A. mismanagement B. leadership
C. organization D. legitimacy
8. The organs of government which are normally fused
in a military regime are the
A. civil service and judiciary
B. legislature and executive
C. executive and the civil service
D. judiciary and the legislature
9. Which of the following is not a feature of military
rule?
A. suspension of the constitution
B. promulgation of laws through decrees
C. application of democratic principles
D. lack of legitimacy E. undemocratic election
10. The primary role of the military is to
A. assists the civilian government to rule
B. mounts guard of honour for foreign Heads of state
C. provide public utility for the people
D. defend the nation from external aggression
496
6. Culture shock and differences in culture: Habits,
Chapter Thirty Seven values and ways of life are a product of a people’s
culture. When people of different cultures interact,
CONFLICTS RESOLUTION AND there may be conflict due to differences in values,
styles and patterns of behaviour.
MANAGEMENT 7. Human rights violation: Abuse of human rights often
Conflicts can be defined as a disagreement among leads to conflict.
individuals or groups because they differ in values, goals, 8. Poverty: Poverty limits opportunities in education,
beliefs, attitude or needs. A conflict is a clash of interest. employment, access to health care and economic
The basis of conflict may vary but it is always a part of advancement. This limitation often ignites conflict.
society. The basis of conflict may be personal, racial, class, 9. Personal feelings, interests and emotions: Conflicts
caste, political and international. Conflicts may take the occur because people ignore their own or others’
forms of disputes or even violent clashes between groups feelings and emotions. Also, when feelings and
or individuals within a society or between nations often emotions differ over a particular issue, there will be
caused by differences of opinion, disagreements between conflict.
members, or scarcity of resources. 10. Incompatible values: Values are beliefs or principles
which one considers very important. Conflicts occurs
The existence of a conflict shows that something in a when one holds incompatible values.
relationship or the whole relationship between the parties 11. Poor or ineffective communication: When people
cannot continue as it was. Thus this calls for adjustment are unable to express their ideas and feelings on a
and constructive change. Usually, conflicts are centred on particular matter, they may be misunderstood by the
an issue, a problem, a question or all of the other party and this may result in conflict.
aforementioned. A relationship without conflicts stagnates 12. Power: Conflict can arise when people try to make
and a society without conflict does not make progress. others change their positions on certain issues in order
While conflict naturally occurs due to our interaction with to gain advantage.
others and as a result of our human subjectivity, what is 13. Social change: Social change becomes a cause of
important is how we deal with the conflict that arises. This conflict when a part of society does not change along
brings us to conflict resolution and management. with changes in other parts of society. Social change
causes cultural intolerance which leads to conflict.
Author’s Question 14. Religious differences: This has occasionally led to
Conflict means the following except wars and persecution over time. Differences in religion
A. clash B. disagreement C. struggle D. orderly is one of the major causes of conflict in developed
Answer societies today.
Conflict means clash of interest or principles. It is also a
disagreement between individuals, people or groups. Exercise 37.2
Orderly is not a description of conflict. (D) Highlight five causes of conflicts.

Exercise 37.1 Exercise 37.3

Explain the term conflict. The following are causes of conflicts, except
A. poor or ineffective communication B. disagreement
CAUSES OF CONFLICTS C. conducive atmosphere D. leadership tussle
The causes of conflicts are numerous but include the
following, amongst others;
1. Different perception: This has to do with individual’s TYPES OF CONFLICTS
views of issues. People look at things differently. The following are types of conflict.
People also think differently about the causes and 1. Content conflict: This occurs when individuals
consequences of problems. disagree about how to deal with a certain issue. This
2. Power or leadership tussle: Conflicts arises when can be a good thing as it has the potential to stimulate
different people want to be leaders or make other discussion and increase motivation.
people accept their leadership, especially against those 2. Relationship conflict: This occurs when individuals
people’s will. disagree about one another. This relational conflicts
3. Needs and limited resources: Human needs are decreases performance, loyalty, satisfaction and
many. Conflicts occur when the limited resources are commitment and causes individuals to be irritable,
not enough to cater for every need. When we ignore negative and suspicious. This stems from
the needs of others in the face of limited resources like interpersonal incompatibilities. It is an awareness of
finance, facilities, equipment, etc., conflict may likely frictions caused by frustrations, annoyance and
occur. irritations.
4. Disagreement: Individuals with different goals, needs, 3. Functional Conflict: This type supports the goal of
priority and interest can bring about disagreement in an organization.
any organization over policy issue or objectives. 4. Dysfunctional Conflict: This type of conflict hinders
5. Organizational structure: Poor, inadequate or not group performance.
properly defined organizational structure can cause
conflict.
497
5. Task conflicts: This conflict is related to IV. Intergroup conflicts: This arises as a result of
disagreements in view points and opinion about a misunderstanding among different teams within an
particular task in group settings. organization or different groups within a
6. Affective conflict: This is an emotional conflict society/state. Such groups could be ethnic groups,
developed from interpersonal incompatibilities and political parties, etc. Intergroup conflicts are often
disputes. It often produces suspicion, distrust, and as a result of varied sets of goals and interests of
hostility. Therefore, it is seen as a negative kind of these different groups. Other factors that
conflict and an obstacle to those who experience it. contribute to intergroup conflicts are competition,
7. Cognitive conflict: This occurs during tasks and rivalry of resources or boundaries.
comes from a difference in perspective and judgment.
It improves decision making and allows for the freer Exercise 37.4
exchange of information between group members. Overt conflict is ______ in nature.
Cognitive conflict is seen as a positive tension that A. open B. hidden C. notice D. struggles
promotes good group work.
8. Process conflict: This is conflict over how the work Exercise 37.5
should be done. For example, role that is over-loaded, Functional conflict is the type of conflict that
role that is under-loaded and role ambiguities i.e. A. hinders performance B. hidden
roles or function that are not properly defined. C. support organization D. personality relationship
9. Surface conflict: This conflict is not based on any
previous disagreements. It occurs on the spur of the Exercise 37.6
moment and has no root. This is a conflict between The following are types of conflicts, except
two people which is usually caused by A. dysfunctional B. overt C. covert
misunderstanding of the prevailing issues. D. process conflict E. ego conflict.
10. Latent conflict: This is also known as convert
conflict. It is the type of conflict that has existed for
sometime, but is hidden and not noticeable. In this Consequences or Effects of Conflict
type of conflict, the lingering issue was not resolved, Conflicts have many consequences on the individuals and
leaving both parties thinking over the problem for a the societies involved. Consequences of conflict on the
long time. This type of conflict has to be brought to individuals involved are stated below:
the open before it can be resolved. 1. Psychological consequence: This is when conflicts
11. Open conflict: This is also known as overt conflict. affects the mind of an individual which transcends into
It is a type of conflict that is very obvious. It may be having several effects such as:
affected directly or indirectly. Open conflicts may (a) Lack of interest and cooperation;
have started a long time ago, affecting generations. It (b) Alienation from other people;
is a violent type of conflict which may be between (c) Hatred for other people;
tribes, communities or even countries. Conflict can (d) Frustration; and
also be classified as intrapersonal conflicts, (e) Suicidal thoughts.
interpersonal conflicts, intragroup conflict and
intergroup conflicts. 2. Behavioural consequence: This is a situation
I. Intrapersonal conflict: This conflict occurs within whereby conflicts leads individuals to bad and
an individual. The experience takes place within a dangerous behaviours such as:
person’s mind, thoughts, values, principles and (a) Fighting, alcoholism and drug addiction;
emotions. It could be as simple as deciding what to (b) Aggressive behaviour;
have for lunch or what to wear, to complex major (c) Decreased communication; and
decisions such as career choice. This type of (d) Unending anger towards other people.
conflict can be quite difficult to handle and can lead
to restlessness, uneasiness and even depression. 3. Physiological consequence: This is the effects
II. Interpersonal conflict: This refers to conflict conflicts may have on the body system of the
between two individuals or a small number of
individuals involved. These includes:
people as a result of differences in their personality.
(a) Hypertension.
We have varied personality which usually results to
incompatible choices and opinions. Interpersonal
(b) The development of high blood pressure.
conflict, if properly managed, leads to personal (c) Headaches.
growth and better relationship with others. (d) Respiratory problems such as asthma.
III. Intragroup conflict: This type of conflict happens (e) Injury or bodily harm and sometimes, suicide.
among individuals within a group. The
incompatibilities and misunderstanding among Consequences of Conflicts on the Society
these individuals lead to an intragroup conflict. The consequences of conflict can either be negative or
Intragroup conflicts are often as a result of positive. The negative outcomes include:
differences in views and opinions. Intragroup 1. Delay in decision making: Conflict delays decision
conflict, if properly managed, creates opportunities, making as parties involved tend to focus on the conflict
new ideas and meeting group objectives. and cannot agree on decision – making process. This
causes stagnation and delays progress and
development.
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2. Violence: When conflict escalates without mediation, Conflict resolution is an end which has been brought about
intense situations may arise between groups, by conflict management. It is seen as a peaceful solution to
organizations in a society or independent states. This individuals and groups that are in conflict. There are a lot
may cause violence in the form of outbursts and wars of means and strategies involved in dealing with conflict,
leading to injuries and loss of lives. and all of these aim to come up with a resolution to it.
3. Loss of lives and property: Societies bedeviled with Resolving a conflict may take time and this will ultimately
conflicts and wars often record large numbers of depend on its scale. Hence, a person who intends to act as
casualties. Personal properties such as houses and a mediator to parties in conflict need to have skills and
businesses are often lost during such violent outbursts. know the strategies necessary to resolve conflict. There are
Social infrastructures such as roads, rails, ports, even available trainings for those who intend to acquire
electricity, and communication are often damaged. these skills.
4. Displacement: When conflicts occur in societies or
between societies, people flee for their lives thereby Conflict may seem to be a problem to some, but this is not
becoming refugees elsewhere. how conflict should be perceived. On the other hand, it is
5. Breakdown of law and order: Conflicts cause an opportunity for growth and can be an effective means
disorder, chaos and confusion. War as a form of of opening up among groups or individuals. However,
conflict may destroy the lives and property of when conflict begins to draw back productivity and gives
countless individuals. It may bring incalculable way to more conflicts, then conflict management would be
damage and immeasurable suffering to a number of needed to come up with a resolution.
people. The commonest ways of conflict resolutions are by
6. Damaged relationship: Conflicts breed hatred and mediation, negotiation, arbitration and litigation.
dissatisfaction between two states. This destroys the (i) Negotiation: Negotiation involves just the two
economic and social relationship that they enjoy conflicting parties. Here, the parties involved initiate
thereby leading to economic loss. or facilitate the resolution of the conflict through
dialogue without a third party. In negotiation,
Conflicts also have some positive outcomes. Some are compromise or agreement is reached while avoiding
stated below: argument and dispute. Sometimes after a negotiation,
1. Improved future communications: Effects of a communique is signed, which the warning groups
conflict can be positive in nature. Conflicts can bring must respect.
individuals and group members together and help them (ii) Mediation: Here, a third party is involved and makes
learn more about one another. From this, there is it easier by acting as a go-between. He or she facilitates
understanding and new avenues to solve individual rather than directs the process and uses specialized
and societal problems. communication and negotiating techniques. Mediation
2. Change: Conflicts accelerate change in a group or is also known as conciliation. In mediation, all
society. They help to build relationships, form new participants are encouraged to actively participate in
ideas and prompt modification of policies, operations the process. Mediation as a form of conflict resolution
and procedures in organization and the society at large. is beneficial for the following reasons:
3. Innovation: Conflicts that result into healthy (a) It takes less time than litigation.
competition cultivates innovation and inventories (b) Mediation is strictly confidential, except in issues
between individuals and amongst groups. In times of relating to child abuse and such other acts.
conflict, there is a high sense of necessity that results (c) It increases the control which the parties have over
into the emergence of divergent viewpoints amongst the resolution. That is, it is likely to produce a
group members. result that is acceptable by the parties involved.
4. Machinery for dialogue: Conflict helps to keep in (d) There is high compliance by both parties because
place machinery for dialogue and mediation the result is often attained by the parties.
(committee) as conflict is inevitable. (e) The parties to a mediation are often ready to work
5. Conflicts lead to the redefinition of the value system. together towards a resolution.
6. Conflicts, if well managed, may lead to a new (iii) Arbitration: Arbitration involves a third party who
consensus. acts as a private judge and imposes his/her decisions
7. Conflicts, if well managed, brings about viability and or verdict. It is often done outside the formal court.
creativity in an organization or group. These impartial decision-makers or arbiters are either
8. Conflicts, if well managed will enhance the goals that selected by the disputing parties or through a
can be achieved within a possible time frame. mechanism agreed on by the parties. The parties in
conflict are bound by the decision of the arbitrator.
(iv) Litigation: Litigation is the settlement of conflict by a
Conflict Resolution judge in a court of law suitably empowered to hear
Conflict resolution is conceptualized as the methods and such case.
processes involved in facilitating the peaceful ending of
conflicts by actively communicating information about
their conflicting motives or ideologies to the rest of the
group (e.g.) intentions, reasons for holding certain beliefs,
etc. and by engaging in various conflicting resolution
strategies.
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Below are some other general ways of resolving conflicts (ii) Avoiding: The avoiding approach can be summed up in
1. Resolution committee: A conflict or disciplinary the statement: “Conflict? What conflict?” In this
committee should be constituted. approach, there is withdrawal from the conflict. The
2. Issues generating conflict: Any issue that can problem is being dealt with through a passive attitude.
generate conflict in an organization should be avoided The avoider employs strategies of fleeing, denying,
or removed. ignoring, withdrawing, delaying and wishing only to
3. Dialogue: Dialogue is a vital tool in conflict hope and pray that the conflict will resolve itself.
management. Avoiders prefer to be with other people who will avoid
4. Collective bargaining and negotiation: This form of issues as well. They refuse to dialogue or gather
information to help deal with conflict. Some
conflict resolution is mostly used when there is
characteristics of avoiders include passiveness, timidity,
industrial disagreement over condition of service,
the inclination to moralise, and an aim to weather the
allowances or salaries for example, labour and storm; they find discussions and groups intrusive, and
government. they are a bit chaotic and unfocused. People who avoid
5. Enhanced communication tool: Effective machinery conflict and conflict management have a lose-lose
should be mounted for proper communication outcome, when as the avoider has both a low concern for
network because information is power. his or her relationship with the other person and low
6. Empowerment: Funding should be made publicly. personal goals as well. People who engage in this
7. Tolerance: Parties in conflict should be informed of behaviour do not know how to resolve conflict or
the inevitability of conflict and necessity for continue in meaningful relationships after conflict
tolerance, so that the goals can be achieved. occurs.

Conflict management The avoiding approach might be applicable in certain

There are a number of responses one can have in conflict situations but not all. The approach is often appropriate
management. Some people react to conflict violently, with when the issue is trivial, when the perceived negative end
war, terrorism, genocide, etc. There are also non-violent outweighs the positive outcome, when the relationship is
methods of dealing with conflict, which are more common insignificant, when time is short and decision is not
in our daily lives. The five main approaches to non-violent necessary, and you have little power but still wish to
methods of dealing with conflict are Competing, Avoiding, block the other person. The avoiding approach is
Accommodating, Compromising and Collaborating. inappropriate when you are about the relationship and the
However, different people tend to use some of the issues involved. When avoidance is used habitually for
approaches much more than they use others. Sometimes most issues, negative feelings may linger. Avoidance
would mean that you neglect the responsibility that
this is as a result of a person’s character or simply a
comes with conflict resolution. The other individuals
person’s habit.
involved might think you are neglecting the problem.
(i) Competing: The competing approach can be summed Thus, it is better to confront the problem before it gets
up in the statement: “Do it my way or not at all”. worse.
Competition involves authoritative and assertive
behaviours. Some strategies adopted in this approach (iii) Accommodating: The accommodating approach can be
are to compete, control, outwit, coerce and fight the summed up in the statement: “Whatever you say”.
other person to achieve your goals. Competitors are Accommodation involves having to deal with the
impatient with dialogue and information gathering. problem with an element of self-sacrifice that is, setting
They are authoritarian, and threatened by aside personal concerns so as to maintain peace in the
disagreement; they attempt to maintain the status quo situation; displaying a form of selflessness. The
and react in times of crisis. The competitor has a high accommodator uses strategies to agree, appease or flatter
concern for his/her personal goals and a very low the other person. Like the avoider, the accommodator
concern for his/her relationship with others. refuses to dialogue or gather information. The
characteristic of an accommodator can be summed up by
Competing may be appropriate in some situations but their ineffectiveness in groups, and their indecisive
it should not lead to the aggressor becoming behaviour/attitude. They are easily swayed, try to please
unreasonable. The competing approach is often everyone and allow discussions to drift. Accommodators
appropriate when an emergency looms, when you are tend to have low personal goals and a high concern for
sure you are right and being right is more important their relationship with the person they are in conflict with.
than preserving relationships, when the self-respect of The accommodating approach is best to use when: you
others is needlessly diminished, or the issue is trivial encounter an issue you do not really care about, you want
an immediate solution to an issue (however it also brings
and others do not really care what happens. This
about a false manner of dealing with a problem. This can
approach is inappropriate when collaboration has not
be disruptive if there is need to come up with a more
yet been attempted, because cooperation with others is sound and creative way out of the problem), you are
important. Dealing with a conflict with an open mind powerless but have no wish to prevent the other person
is vital for a resolution to be met. from achieving their goals, or you realize you are wrong.
This approach is inappropriate when the individual is in
the wrong as it can come as a form of conciliation; when
you are likely to harbour resentment as a result, or want
to gain acceptance (which will result in depression or a
lack of self-respect).
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(iv) Compromising: The compromising approach can be Collaborating works best when the issues and
summarized with the phrase ‘I’ll back off if you do the relationship are both significant, when cooperation is
same”. Compromising is about coming up with a important, a creative end is important, and reasonable
resolution that would be acceptable to the parties hope exists to address all the concerns. This approach
involved. Thus, one party is willing to sacrifice their is often inappropriate when time is short, when the
own sets of goals as long as the others will do the same. issues are important, when the parties are overloaded,
Hence, it can be viewed as a mutual give-and-take and when the goal of the other person are wrong.
scenario where the parties submit the same amount of
investment for the problem to be solved. The
compromiser uses strategies such as bargaining, REVISION EXERCISES
reducing expectations, dividing desired achievements 1. Discuss conflict resolution that will enhance the
so everyone gets something, and splitting the effectiveness of an organization.
difference. They prefer to work with people who 2. Highlight five skills for resolving inter – communal
compromise or accommodate. The compromiser conflicts.
tolerates the exchange of views, although he/she finds 3. Which of the following is not a skill for settling inter-
this uncomfortable. Some characteristics of the communal conflict
compromiser are cautious but open, and he/she urges A. war B. dialogue C. mediation D. arbitration
others not to be too open or outspoken. The 4. One of the skills that can be used in resolving inter-
compromiser finds a mid-way balance between communal conflict is
concern for the relationship and meeting personal A. coercion B. mediation C. suspension D. harassment
goals and expects to win some arguments and lose
others. A disadvantage of this strategy is the fact that
since these parties find an easy way around the
problem, the possibility of coming up with more
creative ways for a solution would be neglected. This
approach is least appropriate when there is a need for
the parties to find the most creative ways for a solution
would be neglected.
This approach is best used when cooperation is
important but the time or resources are limited; when
faced with a stalemate and the only way to overcome
it is to settle for a less than ideal solution; or when
efforts to collaborate will be misunderstood as forcing.
This approach is least appropriate when there is a need
for the parties to find the most creative solutions
possible or when the parties may not be able to live
with the consequences of the decisions made.

(v) Collaborating: The final approach is the collaborating

approach. This can be summarized in the statement:
“My preference is …. What’s your choice?
Collaborating aims to finds a solution to the conflict
through cooperating with other parties involved.
Hence, communications is an important part of this
strategy. In this mechanism, effort is exerted in digging
into the issue to identify the needs of the individuals
concerned without removing their respective interests
from the picture. The collaborator uses strategies such
as gathering information, looking for alternatives,
dialoguing openly, and also welcoming disagreements.
Collaborators prefer to work with people who
collaborate or compromise. They tend to focus on
information gathering, and their characteristics
generally include processing, dialoguing, being
energized by controversy, and being open to change
and growth. Collaborators also have a high concern for
both personal goals and for relationships, and aim to
come up with a successful resolution creatively,
without compromising their own satisfactions, that is,
a win-win situation.

501
NEED FOR PEACE IN OUR SOCIETY
Chapter Thirty Eight Peace is one of the most wonderful gifts that God has given
to the world. One way of viewing peace is that it is a way
PEACE EDUCATION of life committed to the non-violent resolution of conflict
Peace is freedom from disturbance; tranquility. Peace is a and to personal and social justice. All societies work for
concept of societal friendship and harmony in the absence peace to be a way of life. However, some other societies
of hostility and violence. In a social sense, peace is are more violent than others are.
commonly used to mean a lack of conflict and freedom
from fear of violence between individuals or groups. There are numerous United Nations declaration on the
importance of peace education. Bank Ki Moon, United
Peace education is the process of acquiring the values, the Nations Secretary General, has dedicated the International
knowledge and developing the attitudes, skills and Day of Peace 2013 to peace education and in an effort to
behaviour to live in harmony with oneself, with others and refocus minds and financing on the pre-eminence of peace
with the natural environment. education as the means to bring about, a culture of peace.

TYPES OF PEACE EDUCATION Koichiro Matsuura, the immediate past Director-General

There are three types of peace education. These are: of UNESCO has written of peace education as being of
(a) Conflict Resolution: This is the arm of peace education “fundamental importance to the mission of UNESCO and
that teaches and trains people on the best approaches or the United Nations. Peace education as a right is something
techniques to resolving conflicts and interpersonal which is now increasingly emphasized by peace
disputes. Conflict resolution focuses on the following: researchers. Since the early decades of the 20th century
(i) Dispute resolution techniques or approaches such “peace education programs” around the world have
as negotiation, arbitration, mediation, diplomacy, represented a spectrum of:
etc. 1. International understanding.
(ii) Anger Management 2. Anti-nuclearism.
(iii) Improvement of communication skills like good 3. Environmental responsibility.
listenership, turn-taking, and identifying a need in 4. Communication skills.
order to respond well. 5. Non–violence.
(iv) Taking personal responsibility for actions 6. Conflict resolution techniques.
(v) Reaching a compromise and an amicable 7. Democracy.
settlement. 8. Human rights awareness.
(b) Democracy education: This is the arm of peace 9. Tolerance of diversity.
education that focuses on and teaches the populace on the 10. Co-existence and gender equality among others.
democratic processes needed to maintain peace. It teaches
on the need for following due process, tolerating divergent Exercise 38.2
opinions, accepting the inevitability of conflict and Who needs peace?
avoiding violence and war.
1988/23
(c) Human rights education: This is an arm of peace Which of the following is not an accepted way of resolving
education which creates awareness on individual’s international conflict?
fundamental rights in schools and educational institutions, A. diplomacy B. propaganda C. non – military use
as well as to the general public. The major aim is to of force D. military force (war) E. nuclear war
engender a commitment among participants to a vision of Answer
structural peace in which all individual members of the Correct option is E. Nuclear war is not an accepted way of
human race can exercise their personal freedom and be resolving international conflict.
legally protected from violence, oppression and indignity.

Peace means Mechanism for Promoting Peace

A. struggling spirit B. challenges situation 1. Value of peace: The value of peace cannot be under-
C. disturbance atmosphere D. absence of hostility estimated, so the student should be informed on the
E. violence individuals value of peace and just social structures as only in
Answer peace conditions will there be security of lives and
Peace is a conflict of societal friendship and harmony in property and rapid all round development.
the absence of hostility and violence. (D) 2. Consequences of war: Informing the student on the
consequences of war inequality and social injustice.
Exercise 38.1 3. Peace-building: Peace-building refers to efforts and
Explain the term peace. measures in identifying long term preventive strategies
and measures to eliminate internal causes of conflict,
consolidate peaceful relations and create an
environment which deters tensions and conflicts.
4. Peace making: This is applying various approaches to
resolving conflicts, ending injustice and preventing
violence.
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5. Peace-keeping: These refers to activities intended to Exercise 38.3
create condition that favour lasting peace. Peace What is Democracy Education?
keeping help conflicting parties to navigate the
difficult paths from conflict to peace. REVISION EXERCISES
6. Commitment to peace: In peace education, we are 1. Define the term peace education
encouraged to be committed to ensuring peace in our 2. Discuss the need of peace in our society.
environment. Conflicting parties are encouraged to 3. Discuss three arms of peace education you know.
embrace peace as the only option to settlement, that is, 4. Enumerate five mechanisms for promoting peace.
both parties must be approached and spoken to. 5. State five peace education programmes.
7. Love the world: Encouraging the student to love the 6. Explain the term fundamental human rights.
world and to imagine a peaceful future.
8. Care of others: Students are encouraged to care for
others and show strong attention at their point of their
needs. Examples of people that need care are people
who are sick, very old, very young, pregnant women,
physically challenged, etc.
9. The social behavioural symptoms: The social
behavioural symptoms of conflict involve training
individual to resolve inter–personal disputes through
techniques of negotiation and peer mediation.
10. Management of anger: Learning to manage anger and
improve communication through skills such as
listening, turn taking and identifying needs.
11. Non-violence: The use of force and battery to get
others to do what you want them to do does not
promote peace. Non–violence is mechanism of
promoting peace.
12. Taking of responsibility: Participants are also
encouraged to take responsibility for their actions.
13. Brainstorming: The need to brainstorm together on
compromise (an agreement between two people or
groups in which each side gives up some of the things
they want so that both sides are at peace and happy at
the end.
14. Amnesty: Amnesty is a pardon extended by the
government to a group or class of people for a crime
they have committed for peace to reign.
15. Dialogue: This is a very important mechanism for
promoting peace. During a dialogue, conflicting
parties agree on a round table mediation, negotiation,
agreement or signing a communique. Dialogue is a
very powerful tool for resolving conflicts.
16. Diplomacy: Diplomacy is one of the ways of
promoting peace among nations. Diplomacy is carried
out by officials of government (diplomats) who
negotiates on behalf of government.

Author’s Question
Peace education are in the following variation except
A. conflict resolution training B. democracy education
C. human right education D. social education
Answer
Social education is not part of the peace education
variation. (D)

Who dedicated the International Day of Peace in 2013?

A. Koichiro Matsuura B. Bank Ki Moon
C. Golden Smith D. Robertson Williams
Answer
Bank Ki Moon, United Nations Secretary General, has
dedicated the International Day of Peace 2013. (B)

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Components of National Interest:
Chapter Thirty Nine In describing the national interests that nations seek to
secure a two-fold classification:
NIGERIA AND THE WORLD: THE (A) Necessary or Vital Components of National
INDEPENDENCE OF NATIONS Interest and
(B) Variable or Non-vital Components of National
(FOREIGN POLICY) Interests.
NATIONAL INTEREST
National Interest is the most crucial concept in (A) Necessary or Vital Components:
International Relations. It is the key concept in foreign According to Morgenthau, the vital components of the
policy as it provides the material on the basis of which national interests that a foreign policy seeks to secure are
foreign policy is made. All the nations are always engaged survival or identity. He sub-divides identity into three
in the process of fulfilling or securing the goals of their parts:
national interests. The foreign policy of each nation is Physical identity – Physical identity includes territorial
formulated on the basis of its national interest and it is identity.
always at work for securing its goals. It is a universally Political identity – Political identity means politico-
accepted right of each state to secure its national interests. economic system.
A state always tries to justify its actions on the basis of its Cultural identity – Cultural identity stands for historical
national interest. The behaviour of a state is always values that are upheld by a nation as part of its cultural
conditioned and governed by its national interests. Hence heritage.
it is essential for us to know the meaning and content of
National Interest. These are called vital components because these are
essential for the survival of the nation and can be easily
“The meaning of national interest is survival—the identified and examined. A nation even decides to go to
protection of physical, political and cultural identity war for securing or protecting her vital interests.
against encroachments by other nation-states” —
Morgenthau. A nation always formulates its foreign policy decisions
with a view to secure and strengthens its security. The
National Interest is a vague and ambiguous term that
attempts to secure international peace and security, that
carries a meaning according to the context in which it is
nations are currently making, are being made because
used. Statesmen and policy-makers have always used it in
today the security of each state stands inseparably linked
ways suitable to them and to their objective of justifying
up with international peace and security. Security is, thus,
the actions of their states. Hitler justified expansionist
a vital component of national interest. Each nation always
policies in the name of “German national interests.”
tries to secure its vital interests even by means of war.
The ambiguity that surrounds the concept of National
Interest hinders the process of formulating a universally
(B) Non-vital or Variable Components of National
accepted definition of National Interest. However, several
Interest:
scholars have tried to define National Interest.
The non-vital components are those parts of national
Definition of National Interest: interest which are determined either by circumstances or
1. National Interest means: “The general, long term and by the necessity of securing the vital components. These
continuing purpose which the state, the nation, and the are determined by a host of factors—the decision-makers,
government all see themselves as serving.” —Charles public opinion, party politics, sectional or group interests
Lerche and Abdul and political and moral folkways.
2. National Interest is: “What a nation feels to be
necessary to its security and well-being… National “These variable interests are those desires of individual
interest reflects the general and continuing ends for states which they would, no doubt, like to see fulfilled but
which a nation acts.” —Brookings Institution for which they will not go to war. Whereas the vital
3. “National Interest is, that which states seek to protect interests may be taken as goals, the secondary interests
or achieve in relation to each other. It means desires on may be termed as objectives of foreign policy.”
the part of sovereign states.” —Vernon Von Dyke
4. “The meaning of national interest is survival—the These objectives have been listed by V.V. Dyke and his list
protection of physical, political and cultural identity includes: Prosperity, Peace, Ideology, Justice, Prestige,
against encroachments by other nation-states”. — Aggrandisement and Power. Though each state defines
Morgenthau these objectives in a manner which suits its interests in
5. National Interest means: “The values, desires and changing circumstances, yet these objectives can be
interests which states seek to protect or achieve in described as common to almost all states. Thus, national
relation to each other” “desires on the part of sovereign interest which a nation seeks to secure can be generally
states”. —V.V. Dyke categorized into these two parts.

National Interests can as defined as the claims,

objectives, goals, demands and interests which a nation
always tries to preserve, protect, defend and secure in
relations with other nations.
504
Classification of National Interests: 5. The General Interests: General interests of a nation
In order to be more precise in examining the interest which refer to those positive conditions which apply to a
a nation seeks to secure, Thomas W. Robinson presents a large number of nations or in several specified fields
six fold classification of interests which nations try to such as economic, trade, diplomatic relations etc. To
secure. maintain international peace is a general interest of
1. The Primary Interests: These are those interests in all the nations. Similar is the case of disarmament
respect of which no nation can compromise. It includes and arms control.
the preservation of physical, political and cultural
identity against possible encroachments by other states. 6. Specific Interests: These are the logical outgrowths
A state has to defend these at all costs. of the general interests and these are defined in terms
of time and space. To secure the economic rights of
2. Secondary Interests: These are less important than the the Third World countries through the securing of a
primary interests. Secondary Interests are quite vital for New International Economic Order is a specific
the existence of the state. This includes the protection interest of Nigeria and other developing countries.
of the citizens abroad and ensuring of diplomatic
immunities for the diplomatic staff. International Interests:
Besides these six categories of national interest, T.W.
3. Permanent Interests: These refer to the relatively Robinson also refers to three international interests—
constant long-term interests of the state. These are identical interests, complementary interests and conflicting
subject to very slow changes. interests.
For example, shortly after the assumption of office, The first category (identical interests), includes those interests
General Murtala Muhammed set up the Adedeji which are common to a large number of states; the second
commission to examine Nigeria’s foreign policy in all category (complementary interests), refers to those interests,
its ramifications. The recommendations had far which though not identical, can form the basis of agreement
reaching effects on Nigeria’s external. Based on the on some specific issues; and the third category (conflicting
commission’s report, General Obasanjo in June 1976 interests), includes those interests which are neither
identified the elements of the national interest, which complementary nor identical.
equally constitute the objectives of the country’s However, this classification is neither absolute nor complete.
foreign policy. These are as follows: The defense of our The complementary interests can, with the passage of time,
sovereignty, independence and territorial integrity; The become identical interests and conflicting interests can
creation of the necessary political and economic become complementary interests. The study of national
conditions in Africa and the rest of the World which interest of a nation involves an examination of all these vital
will facilitate the defense of the independence and and non-vital components of national interest. The six fold
territorial integrity of all Africa countries while at the classificatory scheme offered by T. W. Robinson can be of
same time foster national self–reliance and rapid great help to us for analyzing the national interests of all
economic development; The promotion of equality and nations. Such a study can help us to examine the behaviour of
self–reliance in Africa and the rest of the developing nations in international relations.
world; The promotion and defense of justice and
respect for human dignity, especially the dignity of the Methods for the Securing of National Interest:
black man; and the defense and promotion of world To secure the goals and objectives of her national interest
peace. is the paramount right and duty of every nation. Nations
are always at work to secure their national interests and in
A cursory look at the objectives clearly indicates the
doing so they adopt a number of methods.
description of the Nigeria’s national interest. An
The following are the five popular methods or instruments
important, germane and sensitive question is
which are usually employed by a nation for securing her
whether Nigeria has the capabilities to attain some
national interests in international relations:
of these objectives. According to Aluko “some of
them are not realisable and cannot therefore provide 1. Diplomacy as a Means of National Interests:
rational and realistic basis for the capabilities of Diplomacy is a universally accepted means for
Nigeria. This possibly informs the emphasis on three securing national interests. It is through diplomacy that
broad objectives by General Obasanjo. the foreign policy of a nation travels to other nations.
It seeks to secure the goals of national interests.
“These are – territorial integrity, independence and Diplomats establish contacts with the decision-makers
rapid development as being central to national
and diplomats of other nations and conduct
interest.”
negotiations for achieving the desired goals and
4. Variable Interests: Such interests are those objectives of national interests of their nation.
interests of a nation which are considered vital for The art of diplomacy involves the presentation of the
national good in a given set of circumstances. In this goals and objectives of national interest in such a way
sense these can diverge from both primary and as can persuade others to accept these as just and
permanent interests. The variable interests are rightful demands of the nation. Diplomats use
largely determined by “the cross currents of persuasion and threats, rewards and threats of denial of
personalities, public opinion, sectional interests, rewards as the means for exercising power and
partisan politics and political and moral folkways.” securing goals of national interest as defined by foreign
policy of their nation.
505
Diplomatic negotiations constitute the most effective Alliances and treaties make it a legal obligation for the
means of conflict-resolution and for reconciling the members of the alliances or signatories of the treaties
divergent interests of the state. Through mutual give to work for the promotion of agreed common interests.
and take, accommodation and reconciliation, The alliances may be concluded for serving a
diplomacy tries to secure the desired goals and particular specific interest or for securing a number of
objectives of national interest. common interests. The nature of an alliance depends
upon the nature of interest which is sought to be
As an instrument of securing national interest, secured. Accordingly, the alliances are either
diplomacy is a universally recognized and most economic, e.g. ECOWAS or military in nature e.g. G5
frequently used means. Morgenthau regards Sahel, AFRICOM, NATO etc.
diplomacy as the most primary means of securing
national interest. However, all the objectives and goals 5. Coercive Means: The role of power in international
of national interest cannot be secured through relations is a recognized fact. It is an unwritten law of
diplomacy. international intercourse that nations can use force for
securing their national interests. International Law also
2. Propaganda: The second important method for recognizes coercive means short of war as the methods
securing national interest is propaganda. Propaganda is that can be used by states for fulfilling their desired goals
the art of salesmanship. It is the art of convincing and objectives. Intervention, Non-intercourse,
others about the justness of the goals and objectives or embargoes, boycotts, reprisals, retaliation, severance of
ends which are desired to be secured. It consists of the relations and pacific biocides are the popular coercive
means which can be used by a nation to force others to
attempt to impress upon nations the necessity of
accept a particular course of behaviour or to refrain from
securing the goals which a nation wishes to achieve.
a course which is considered harmful by the nation using
coercive means. War and Aggression have been declared
“Propaganda is a systematic attempt to affect the illegal means, yet these continue to be used by the states
minds, emotions and actions of a given group for a in actual course of international relations. Today, nations
specific public purpose.” —Frankel fully realize the importance of peaceful means of
conflict-resolution like negotiations, and diplomacy as
It is directly addressed to the people of other states and the ideal methods for promoting their national interests.
its aim is always to secure the self-interests—interests Yet at the same time they continue to use coercive means,
which are governed exclusively by the national whenever they find it expedient and necessary. Military
interests of the propagandist. power is still regarded as a major part of national power
and is often used by a nation for securing its desired goals
The revolutionary development of the means of and objectives. The use of military power against
communications (Internet) in the recent times has international terrorism now stands universally accepted
increased the scope of propaganda as a means for as a natural and just means for fighting the menace.
securing support for goals of national interest. Today world public opinion accepts the use of war and
other forcible means for the elimination of international
3. Economic Means: The rich and developed nations use terrorism. All these means are used by all the nations for
economic aid and loans as the means for securing their securing their national interests. Nations have the right
interests in international relations. The existence of a and duty to secure their national interests and they have
very wide gap between the rich and poor countries the freedom to choose the requisite means for this
purpose. They can use peaceful or coercive means as and
provides a big opportunity to the rich nations for
when they may desire or deem essential.
promoting their interests vis-a-vis the poor nations.
However, in the interest of international peace, security
The dependence of the poor and lowly- developed and prosperity, nations are expected to refrain from using
nations upon the rich and developed nations for the coercive means particular war and aggression. They are
import of industrial goods, technological know-how, expected to depend upon peaceful means for the
foreign aid, armaments and for selling raw materials, settlement of disputes and for securing their interests.
has been responsible for strengthening the role of
economic instruments of foreign policy. In this era of While formulating the goals and objectives of national
Globalization conduct of international economic interest, all the nations must make honest attempts to
relation has emerged as a key means of national make this compatible with the international interests of
interests. Peace, Security environmental protection, protection
of human rights and Sustainable Development.
4. Alliances and Treaties: Alliances and Treaties are Peaceful coexistence, peaceful conflict-resolution and
concluded by two or more states for securing their purposeful mutual cooperation for development are the
common interests. This device is mostly used for common and shared interests of all the nations. As
securing identical and complementary interests. such, along with the promotion of their national
However, even conflictual interests may lead to interests, the nations must try to protect and promote
alliances and treaties with like-minded states against common interests in the larger interest of the whole
the common rivals or opponents. international community.

506
All this makes it essential for every nation to formulate There is interdependence and interrelationship existing
its foreign policy and to conduct its relations with other among nations of the world. No nation is an island. Nations
nations on the basis of its national interests, as of the world have become so closely related to one another
interpreted and defined in harmony with the common as a result of breakthrough in communication, formation of
interests of the humankind. The aim of foreign policy different types of organizations etc.. Therefore,
is to secure the defined goals of national interest by the development of a nation cannot be done without relating or
use of the national power. interacting with other nations.

Nigeria interacts with many nations of the world, politically,

1995/54 economically, socially, culturally, etc.. and this is made
The goal which a state aspires to achieve in its relation with possible through establishment of high commissions,
other states maybe referred to as embassies and consulates abroad. Nigeria, equally play host
A. diplomatic interest B. national policy to many foreign mission located in Nigeria. Nigeria also
C. national interest D. political independence belongs to international, regional or sub regional
E. economic independence organizations, e.g. United Nations Organisations (UNO),
Answer African Union (AU), and Economic Community of West
National Interests can as defined as the claims, objectives, African States (ECOWAS). She is also a member of the Oil
goals, demands and interests which a nation always tries to Producing Exporting Countries (OPEC).
preserve, protect, defend and secure in relations with other
nations. (C) The Need for Interaction
There are three reasons for interaction.
2016/10a 1. Political reason for interaction: States agree to
What is national interest? interact through the formation of different
Answer organizations e.g. UNO and AU. This is done in order
National Interests are the claims, objectives, goals, to create opportunity for a peaceful and secured
demands and interests which a nation always tries to world, good government and to avoid the interference
preserve, protect, defend and secure in relations with other of one states or states in others, which may result in
nations. Central to Nigeria’s national interest are three war of world-wide dimension. Therefore, member –
broad objectives by General Obasanjo, these are – states of such organizations are made to abide by the
territorial integrity, independence and rapid development. principles governing such organizations.
2. Economic reason for interaction: Natural resources
2019/2020/16) (UI, IBADAN) are unevenly distributed worldwide and nations can
The review of Nigerian foreign policy under the Murtala – only benefit from one another through such
Obasanjo regime was done by interactions. Nations get what they don’t have
A. Udoji committee B. Aboyade committee through such interaction and it has added impetus to
C. Okigbo committee D. Adedeji committee the economic advancement of most states.
Answer 3. Socio/cultural reason for interactions: This is very
Adedeji committee reviewed Nigeria’s foreign policy important because it promotes love and friendship
under the Murtala – Obasanjo regime (C) among nations and eliminates conflicts. Nations are
brought together to share things in common, derive
2017/3 UTME some benefits in the area of culture, sports, football,
Which of the following is a strategy of foreign policy etc.
implementation?
A. cultural integration B. democratic elections Advantages of interactions among nations of the world
C. political representation D. propaganda 1. Peace and security: Through membership and
Answer interactions existing in these international or regional
Propaganda is a strategy of Foreign policy implementation. organizations, e.g. UNO and AU member – states are
Propaganda is the dissemination of information, facts, meant to abide by the principles governing these
arguments, rumours, half – truths, or lies to influence bodies thereby promoting peace and security
public opinion (D) worldwide.
2. Economic advancement: Interactions bring about
2003/39 Exercise 39.1 states benefiting from others that are more
A benefit which a country seeks to achieve in her relations economically viable, especially in the areas of natural
with other nations is called endowment, technology, etc.
A. national interest B. commercial interest 3. Closer relationship: Especially in the areas of sports,
C. international diplomacy D. foreign policy objective musical and cultural concerts etc., nations are drawn
closer naturally.
4. Removal of interference: Political interaction
DEFINITION OF INTERACTION removes the tendency of one state or more interfering
Interaction is mutual or reciprocal action or influence. in the domestic affairs of other states or even trying
Interaction is a kind of action that occurs as two or more to dominate others.
people have an effect upon another. For example, 5. Cultural and social benefits: States benefit
governments interact with each other in federations immensely from others, especially through sports,
507
cultural exchange, etc. They learn from one another 6. Peaceful resolution of disputes with her neighbours e.g.
as it brings them closer together. Nigeria and Chad.
6. Foreign aids: Interactions among states can attract 7. Participation in cultural and sporting activities e.g.
technological, financial and technical aids to African games, FESTAC, etc..
developing countries from the developed ones. 8. Participation in peace–keeping operations in African,
7. Investment opportunities: Also, the coming together e.g. Congo, Chad, Liberia, etc.
of nations can open doors to investment 9. Active support for liberation movements.
opportunities.
8. Establishment of political organizations: The 2008/46 Exercise 39.2
Which of the following is an advantage a country derived
existence of interaction among nations has led to the
from international relations?
establishment of political organizations, e.g. UNO
A. peaceful settlements of conflict with other nations
and AU, associations and blocs, high commissions, B. helping their citizens to secure citizenship of other
embassies. countries C. allowing the government to annex more
9. Spread of civilization and modernization: territories D. increases in population growth
Interactions among nations of the world can spread
civilization and modernization and even help to
promote tourism as well. NIGERIA’S FOREIGN POLICY
10. Reduction of hostilities: The hostilities among Foreign policy, also called foreign relations or foreign affairs
nations of the world are reduced to the barest policy, consists of self – interest strategies chosen by the state
minimum through interactions. to safeguard its national interests and to achieve goals within
its international relations. Foreign policy is the general
Disadvantages of interactions among nations of the objectives that guide the activities and relationships of one
world state in its interactions with other states. It can also be defined
1. Cultural/social problems: Through interactions with as the sum total of decisions formulated by the government of
other nations something that was not acceptable a country to manipulate the international environment to
became normal routes in the society. attain certain national interests or objectives. The
2. Interference of states: Interactions makes developed development of foreign policy is influenced by domestic
nations to still interfere in the domestic affairs of the considerations, the policies or behaviour of other states or
developing nations because of the economic benefits. plans to advance specific geopolitical designs.
3. Neo–colonialism: Interaction among states
2014/2015/73 (UI, IBADAN)
introduces neo-colonialism, which uses economic,
Which of the following best defines foreign policy?
political, cultural, or other pressures to control or
A. the ways in which some actors on the domestic scene
influence other countries, especially former translate available power into policies designed to bring
dependencies. positive outcomes
4. Inferior or poorly produced goods: Interaction B. the actions of a state towards the celestial environment
among states can lead to some developed countries C. a set of objectives with regards to the world beyond the
making some of the third world countries dumping borders of a given state and a set
ground for their inferior or poorly produced goods. of strategies and tactics designed to achieve these objectives
5. Control of states: Political and economic interactions D. the protection of the territorial integrity of a state
associated with the membership of some of the Answer
organizations, e.g. UNO and I.M.F can bring about Foreign policy is a set of objectives with regards to the world
control of the sovereignty of less powerful states, as beyond the borders of a given state and a set of strategies and
most of these organizations are controlled by the big tactics designed to achieve these objectives (C)
powers.
2011/11a
1997/10 What is foreign policy of a country?
In what ways does Nigeria maintain friendly relations with Answer
other African states? A foreign policy of a country is the set objectives which a
Answer government seeks to achieve through its relationship with
1. Establishment of bilateral economic/political governments of other countries and international
relationship e.g. Nigeria and Togo. organizations.
2. Promotion of multi-lateral economic/political
relationship, e.g. Chad Basin Commission and Niger 2019/11 (NDU, BAYELSA)
Basin Commission. The set of policies on the basis of which countries interact
3. Active participation in Economic Union – ECOWAS, with one another is called
African Petroleum Producers Association (APPA), A. diplomacy B. foreign policy
African Economic Community (AEC), African C. national policy D. international relations
Development Bank (ADB). Answer
4. Grants and aids, sending of relief materials to victims Foreign policy is the set of policies on the basis of which
of political instability/natural disasters, the technical countries interact with one another (B)
aid corps.
5. Initiation of peaceful settlement of crisis e.g. Chad,
Liberia, Sudan, Somalia, etc..
508
2016/48 Former foreign affairs Minister of Nigeria, Major –
Foreign policy is the General Ike Nwachukwu (rtd) grouped Nigeria’s foreign
A. general principles that guide foreigners in a country policy since independence into different phases:
B. policy made by a country during war 1. The Balewa era (1960 – 66).
C. policy made by a country in peace time 2. Crisis and civil war period (Gowon period,1966-70).
D. general principles of a country in the conduct of 3. Post war era of Gowon (1970–75): Reconstruction,
international relations Reconciliation and Rehabilitation.
Answer 4. The Murtala/Obasanjo era (1975–79)
Foreign policy is the overall result of the process by which 5. The Second Republic era (1979–83).
a state translates its broadly or general principles of a 6. The Buhari/Idiagbon era (1983–85).
country in the conduct of international relations. (D) 7. The Babangida era (1985–93)
8. The Shonekan/Abacha era (1993–June 98).
1997/55 Exercise 39.3 9. The Abubakar era (June 1998–May 1999).
Nigeria’s relations with other countries are determined
largely by the Each of the regimes or administrations operated according
A. national interest B. political culture to the prevailing domestic or national and international
C. traditional rulers D. opinions of exporters environment, including the goals set by each of the leaders’
E. trade unions administrations.

The following are the names of the external affairs minister

2001/11a Exercise 39.4 that played crucial roles in Nigeria’s foreign policy:
What is foreign policy? 1. Dr. Jaja Nwachukwu (1962–65).
2. Alhaji Nuhu Bamali (1965–66).
2003/39 3. Dr. Okoi Arikpo, Commissioner for External Affairs
A benefit which a country seeks to achieve in her relations (July 1966-1975).
with other nations is called 4. Major-General Joseph Garba (1975–79).
A. national interest B. commercial interest 5. Major Generla Henry Adefope (Jan 1979 to Sept 1979).
C. international diplomacy D. foreign policy objectives 6. Professor Ishaya Audu (1979–1983).
7. Chief Emeka Anyaoku (October–December 1983).
Answer
8. Professor Ibrahim Gambari (1984–1985).
National interest is the benefit which a country seeks to
9. Professor Bolaji Akinyemi (1985–1987).
achieve in her relationship with other nations. (A) 10. Major General Ike Nwachukwu (1987-89 and 1990-92).
11. Alhaji Rilwan Lukman (1989-1990).
1989/38 Nov Exercise 39.5 12. Chief Tom Ikimi.
Foreign policy refers to 13. Alhaji Lamido (1998 June–May, 1999).
A. a policy made by a foreign country
B. a policy made by a country for foreigners BALEWA ERA (1960–66)
C. a policy made by a country when it is at war The Balewa era tried to consolidate by joining international
D. the international events which govern states’ internal organizations. It was involved in the decolonization process
policies E. the general principles which govern a state in Africa and stood against the apartheid policy in South
Africa. The administration recognized Africa as the
2022/17 Neco centerpiece of Nigeria’s foreign policy. The government also
Foreign policy is defined as the broke diplomatic relations with France over the testing of an
A. blueprint made in conjunction with other countries atomic bomb in the Sahara desert. Also, Ian Smith’s
B. principle which governs a state’s international Unilateral Declaration of Independence (UDR) in Rhodesia
behaviours in 1965 was vehemently opposed by the administration. It
C. priority of international agreements on states interests supported the expulsion of South Africa from the
D. proclamations made on the immigrants into a country commonwealth in 1961. It also played crucial role in the
E. strategic formations during conflicts formation of O.A.U in May 25, 1963.

1989/32 Nov
Nigeria’s Foreign Policy since Independence Nigeria does not maintain diplomatic relations with South
Nigeria’s foreign policy can be defined as the totality of Africa because of the latter’s
Nigeria’s interaction within the international system. A. industrial policy B. apartheid policy
Since independence, there has been a succession of C. foreign policy D. agricultural policy
military and civilian administrations whose foreign E. religious policy
policies differed greatly in terms of ideology, style, Answer
substance and even the personality of the leaders. Also, the Nigeria does not maintain diplomatic relations with South
dynamics of foreign policy, resources must be in Africa because of the latter’s apartheid policy. Apartheid
proportion to the necessary demands and global was a system of institutionalized racial segregation that
obligations of the actors. Nigeria’s foreign policy, existed in South Africa and South West Africa from 1948
therefore, should be examined differently. until the early 1990s. (B)

509
1989/48 Nov CRISIS AND CIVIL WAR/GOWON ERA (1966-1975)
With which country did Nigeria break diplomatic relations The crisis and civil war/Gowon era was the era that nearly
in 1961 for exploding a nuclear device in the Sahara? witnessed the break–up of the country. Our foreign policy
A. the Soviet Union B. The U.S.A. C. China shifted emphasis from the west to the east. Most of the
D. South Africa E. France
weapons used in prosecuting the civil war came from the east.
Answer
Nigeria broke diplomatic relations with France in 1961 The post war era of this administration was the application of
because of France’s atomic test in the Sahara desert. This the 3Rs (Reconstruction, Reconciliation and Rehabilitation).
singular act was credited to Balewa administration. (E) The administration accepted the principle of non–interference
in the sovereignty of African states, respect for the principles
1999/47 Neco of non–interference in the sovereignty of African states,
The implementation of Nigerian Foreign Policy during the respect for the principles governing the O.A.U and U.N.O.
first republic (1960–1966) was basically
Also, it played a crucial role in the establishment of the
A. pro-western B. pro–eastern C. African–centered
D. pro–Asian Economic Community of West Africa (ECOWAS) and
Answer financial assistance made to the liberation committee of the
The implementation of Nigerian Foreign Policy during the A.U.
first republic (1960–1966) was basically
The implementation of Nigerian Foreign Policy during the 1994/52
first republic (1960–1966) was basically Pro-western. Which of the following statements is not correct about
Pro-western means not to resist or support Western
Nigeria’s foreign policy during the civil war?
hegemony and aggression in various forms, such as
economic colonization, military conquest and media. (A) A. the civil war led Nigeria to establish closer ties with the
soviet union
2001/48 Neco B. the civil war led Nigeria to broaden her foreign relations
Nigeria’s idea of Africa as the centerpiece of her foreign C. Nigeria established closer tiers with the other O.A.U
policy includes all the following except member countries
A. support for apartheid policy in South Africa
D. Nigeria broke the diplomatic relations with Ivory Coast,
B. promotion of African unity
C. creation of more Nigerian missions in Africa Gabon and Tanzania
D. settling of disputes in Africa E. Nigeria withdrew her membership of the UNO because
Answer the organization supported Biafra.
Nigeria’s idea of Africa as the centerpiece of her foreign Answer
policy includes promotion of African unity, peace, and Nigeria withdrew her membership of the UNO because the
creation of more Nigerian missions in Africa and settling organization supported Biafra which was not a statement
of disputes in Africa continent. Support for apartheid
of Nigeria’s foreign policy during the civil war. (E)
policy in South Africa was not part of Nigeria as
centerpiece of Africa. (A)

1995/52 Exercise 39.6 MURTALA/OBASANJO ERA (1975-1979)

Africa became the centerpiece of Nigeria’s foreign policy The Murtala/Obasanjo administration favoured
under the regime of decolonization and self – determination of African states.
A. Tafawa Balewa B. Yakubu Gowon The events in Angola were a case in point. The regime
C. Murtala Muhammed D. Shehu Shagari supported MPLA, Augustino Neto’s popular movement
E. Aguiyi Ironsi for the liberation of Angola U.N.I.T.A, FNLA, even
Answer though some western countries reacted negatively.
Africa became the centerpiece of Nigeria’s foreign policy
under the regime of Tafawa Balewa 1960 to 1966 era. (A)
The strained relations which resulted from this, especially
1990/5a Nov Exercise 39.7 with Britain and some western countries, led to the
Which of the following statements best describes Nigeria’s nationalization of British Petroleum (now African
foreign policy between 1960 and 1966? petroleum) and Barclays Bank (now Union Bank of
A. cautious and relatively inactive Nigeria). It also gave its weight to the struggle against
B. truly non-aligned apartheid policy in South Africa by sponsoring the world
C. heavily depended on eastern bloc countries
conference for Action Against Apartheid held in August,
D. very active and prominent in West African sub–region
E. dynamic and active 1977 in Lagos.

In 1978, a national agricultural programme was

inaugurated by this administration known as “Operation
Feed the Nation” (OFN).

510
1990/10 strengthen south–south cooperation. Nigeria courted
The progressive nature of Nigeria’s foreign policy between Argentina, Brazil, Indonesia, Singapore, Korea, Hong-
1975 and 1979 is attributed to all the following except Kong, Zimbabwe etc. to find areas of possible economic
A. the influence of radical intellectuals and technical cooperation.
B. military officers who were acting in foreign affairs
before coming into the government The Babangida administration passed a decree and
C. the influence of the America government encouraged African states to do same against the dumping
D. Nigeria’s oil money E. public opinion of toxic and radioactive waste on the continent. The
Answer administration is noted to have re-established diplomatic
Nigeria’s foreign policy between 1975 and 1979 is ties between Nigeria and Israel. It also established
attributed to the influence of radical intellectuals, military technical aid corps programme for African states.
officers who were acting in foreign affairs before coming
into the government, Nigeria’s oil money and public Conflict Resolution: In this era, Babangida’s regime sent
opinion. The influence of the America government is not troops to some troubled areas in the world. In 1990, a full
part of the Nigeria’s foreign policy between 1975 and scale war broke out in Liberia. This became a great concern
1979. (C) to Babangida’s regime which at the 13th summit of
ECOWAS held in Banjul, the Gambia, in May, 1990,
proposed the need to set up a standing mediation
SHAGARI ERA (1979 – 83) committee charged with addressing conflict issues in the
The Shagari era was the second Republic civilian West African sub-region.
administration in Nigeria. The administration supported
Zimbabwe’s independence. This action represented This later resulted in the formation of the ECOWAS
Nigeria’s avowed stand on the issue of decolonization. Monitoring Group (ECOMOG). The group was committed
However, the foreign policy of this administration was not to restoring peace and normalcy in Liberia. Also,
smooth sailing because efforts were made to please the Babangida launched a N100 million solidarity funds in
colonial masters. Lagos for Namibia when south West Africa People’s
Organisation (SWAPO) leader, Sam Nijoma visited
Exercise 39.8 Nigeria.
Which of the following country did Shagari administration
supported for independence? Transition programme: As part of its transition programme
A. France B. Ghana C. Zimbabwe D. Togo to democracy, 1986–93, the Babangida regime inaugurated
a Directorate for social mobilization, also known as mass
mobilization for self reliance, economic recovery and
Exercise 39.9 social justice (MAMSER). The purpose of establishing
The Shagari administration was MAMSER was to shape a political culture that would be
A. smooth sailing B. not smooth sailing congenial to a democratic system.
C. perfect sailing D. rough sailing
Centre for democratic studies: In 1990, the IBB
administration also established the centre for Democratic
THE BUHARI/IDIAGBON ERA (1983-85) Studies (CDS) in Abuja, to conduct research and organize
The Buhari/Idiagbon regime expelled West Africans living seminars on democratization for government officials.
illegally in the country. In early 1985, about one million This government also introduced the Structural
illegal aliens were expelled, the land borders were closed Adjustment Programme (SAP).
to check smuggling, the inflow of illegal immigrants as
well as currency trafficking. These measures were aimed 1999/46 Neco
at consolidating domestic national interest in the nation’s In 1993, Nigeria troops were on peace-keeping
foreign policy objectives. This also came with its strained assignments to
relations with West African states. Relations with Britain A. Liberia and Burundi B. Rwanda and Liberia
also went very sour, especially with Umaru Dikko’s affair. C. Chad and Liberia D. Liberia and Somalia
Answer
Author’s Exercise 39.10 In 1993, Nigeria troops were on peace-keeping assignment
Outline the nature of Nigeria’s foreign policy during the to Liberia and Somalia. (D)
Buhari/Idiagbon’s era (1983-85).
2000/44 UTME
The foreign policy thrust of the Babangida administration
THE BABANGIDA ERA (1985-93) A. economic diplomacy B. war against
The Babangida administration tried to bring back Nigeria narcotics
into the fore front of Africa international relations. In this C. military aggression D. African interest
era efforts were made to move away from political Answer
objectives to economic restructuring. A good number of The foreign policy thrust of the Babangida administration
trade and economic missions were undertaken. Germany, was African interest (D)
China, Brazil, Japan, Argentina, etc.. for example, visited
Nigeria to discuss possible areas of co-operation to
511
Exercise 39.11 THE ABUBAKAR ERA (JUNE 1998-MAY 1999)
Nigeria was regarded as a frontline state because she The Abdulsalami Abubakar administration embarked on
A. assisted liberation struggles in Southern Africa reconciliation with her friends and world community to
B. assisted ECOMOG troops in Liberia correct the poor image the country was plunged into during
C. sent troops for peace – keeping in Somalia the regime of the late General Sani Abacha. Abubakar’s
D. sent policemen to Namibia administration succeeded in returning Nigeria to its
rightful place while evolving an action plan that would see
Nigeria in years to come.
Exercise 39.12
The countries in which Nigeria participated in the FACTORS THAT CAN AFFECT NIGERIA’S
ECOMOG peacekeeping operations were FOREIGN POLICY
A. Liberia and Guinea The following factors can influence or affect Nigeria’s
B. Sierra-Leone and Cote d’Ivoire foreign policy formulation.
C. Senegal and Cote d’Ivoire 1. Human resource/size: The human resource/size of
D. Liberia and Sierra-Leone the country and quality of the population of Nigeria,
can affect her foreign policy formulation.
2. The economic resources: The economic resources on
Exercise 39.13 ground will help to facilitate the objectives, aims and
The foreign policy thrust of the Babangida administration goals of Nigeria foreign policy.
was 3. Previous commitment or agreements of the
A. economic diplomacy B. war against narcotics government: The previous agreement, commitment
C. military aggression D. African interest and bargain of the government in the areas of signing
or entering into treaties, packs contract or agreements
Exercise 39.14 among others countries, can affect the Nigeria foreign
Nigeria’s role in ECOMOG in essentially informed by her policy.
A. desire for peace and stability 4. Ideological disposition of the rulers: If the leaders
B. chairmanship of ECOWAS are capitalist or socialist oriented, any of these can
C. desire to establish democracy affect the country’s foreign policy.
D. membership of ECOWAS 5. The military strength of Nigeria: The strength of the
industries and technologies used in Nigeria have the
Exercise 39.15 capacity to affect her foreign policy formulation.
1. South–south cooperation is a major policy plan on 6. Public opinion: The opinion of Nigerian citizens on
which Nigeria bases her relations with national interest can affect or influence the foreign
A. developed countries policy in Nigeria.
B. countries of the southern hemisphere 7. Geographical location: Nigeria is located in West
C. developing countries Africa and Africa is a centerpiece of her foreign
D. member countries of OAU policy. Nigeria worked for the de-colonisation of the
African continent and she supported the eradication
of apartheid policy in South Africa. These activities
2006/48 Neco Exercise 39.16 in respect to her geographical location can affect her
During the peak of Liberian and Sierra-Leonean civil wars foreign policy.
in the 90’s 8. Globalization: Events and values e.g. democracy
A. Nigeria military ECOMOG provided over 70% happening globally can affect Nigeria’s foreign
B. Ghana military provided 56% policy.
C. Namibia military provided 79% 9. Historical background: Nigeria was colonized by
D. Togo military provided 51% Britain government and this colonial experience can
affect her foreign policy.
SHONEKAN/ABACHA ERA (1993-JUNE 1998) 10. National domestic interest: The interest of the
The Shonekan/Abacha administration helped in ushering people, their economy, and social beliefs can promote
in peace in Liberia. After seven years of War, a democratic or affect their foreign policy because their interest is
government was set up, headed by Charles Taylor while the basis of Nigeria foreign policy.
President Ahmed Kabbah’s civilian government was
restored after Koroma’s military Junta was removed in 1988/21
Sierra-Leone. Also, demonstrated was Nigeria’s belief The following are the key factors which influenced
about Africa as the centerpiece of Nigeria’s policy. Nigeria’s foreign relation except
A. peaceful co-existence B. economic dependence
However, the regime adopted a confrontational posture C. non – interference D. respect for territorial integrity
with the international community. The administration was E. international cooperation
accused of abuse of human rights and subsequently Answer
sanctions were clamped down on the country from the The economic resources available help to shape and
West and the member nations of the commonwealth etc.. formulate her foreign policy objectives. (B)
Nigeria was alienated and her leadership position in Africa
was threatened.
512
2004/45 I. Involved in carrying out matters as they relate
The foreign policy of a country is influenced by all the to the welfare of Nigerians abroad.
following factors except the II. To promote and enhance a conducive
A. size of the country B. leadership rule atmosphere for a cordial relationship between
C. educational system D. economic system Nigeria and other countries.
Answer III. To work together with Nigerian embassies
The foreign policy of a country is affected or influenced by abroad and maintain peace and harmony
the size of the country, leadership, style, economic system, between them.
historical background, geographical location and the IV. To provide information relevant to formulation
military strength. Education system of a country cannot of foreign policy.
influence its foreign policy. (C)
1996/56
2012/46 Neco Which of the following levels of government formulates
Which of the following factors influences a country’s the foreign policy of a federal state?
foreign policy? A. the central government only
A. size of the country’s civil service B. state governments only C. local governments only
B. over all national interest in the country D. both the central and local governments
C. capacity of the police force E. both local and state government
D. type of traditional rulers in the country Answer
Answer The formulation of federal state foreign policy is
The overall national interest of the country is an important technically the responsibility of the president of the
influence on its foreign policy. (B) country. The central governments only made foreign
policy through the help of Ministry of External Affairs and
2009/45 Neco Nigerian Institute of International Affairs. (A)
Which of the following does not influence the foreign
policy of a country? 2015/48 UTME
A. historical and cultural matters B. ideological factors Which of the following assists the president in the
C. economic factors D. intra-party conflicts formulation of foreign policies?
Answer A. Ministry of Foreign Affair B. Ministry of Interior
Intra-party conflicts is not an influence of foreign policy in C. Ministry of Defence D. Ministry of justice
the country. (D) Answer
Ministry of Foreign Affairs assist the president in the
2018/47 Neco Exercise 39.17 formulation of foreign policies with their objectives (A)
Foreign policy of a country could be influenced by
A. personality of political leaders 1991/43 UTME
B. number of schools in a country Nigerian foreign policy implementation is the
C. number of ministers in a country responsibility of the
D. national election A. Department of Immigration B. custom services
C. Ministry of External Affairs
2013/11 Exercise 39.18 D. Ministry of Budget and Planning
What factors have governed Nigeria’s relations with her Answer
neighbouring states? Nigerian foreign policy implementation is the
responsibility of the president, who is been assisted by the
2001/11b Exercise 39.19 ministers and officials of the Ministry of External Affairs
Outline the basic factors that influence Nigeria’s foreign (C)
policy.
2017/48 Exercise 39.20
A major merit of a country’s foreign policy is that it
FORMULATION OF NIGERIA FOREIGN POLICY A. encourages infringement on the territories of other state
1. Formulation: The formulation of Nigeria’s foreign B. promotes country’s national interest
policy is technically the responsibility of the president C. stimulates political activities in the state
of the country. D. promotes understanding between the leaders and the led
2. Consultations: Consultations are made with
Nigeria’s diplomat or representatives abroad, experts 2009/17 (OAU, IFE) Exercise 39.21
in the universities, the business community, leaders One of the functions of the Ministry of External Affairs is
of thought, etc. before taking decisions. the
3. The minister and the ministry of external affairs: A. deportation of illegal aliens
The presidency is assisted in policy formulation by B. issuance of passports
the minister and officials of the Ministry of External C. defence of the country borders
Affairs as well as experts at Nigeria’s Institute of D. promotion of national interest
International Affairs. This ministry is schedule for the
following functions.

513
1999/45 Nov Exercise 39.22 NIGERIA'S FOREIGN POLICY OBJECTIVES
The major goal of Nigeria’s foreign policy is the Since Nigeria gained independence in 1960 the country has
A. formation of United State of Africa conscientiously and continuously articulated a number of
B. dependence on Western powers foreign policy objectives. These objectives some of which
C. promotion and protection of the countries national were first identified by the Prime Minister Tafawa Balewa
interest in a major speech in Parliament in August 1960 and
D. defence of weaker nations in West Africa enunciated by General Olusegun Obasanjo on June 29,
1970, are as follows:
1. Promotion and protection of Nigeria’s national
1995/51 Nov Exercise 39.23 interests.
The idea and experience of Nigeria’s foreign policy are 2. Representing and protecting the interests of the
essentially British because Federal Republic of Nigeria, Nigerian citizens and
A. only Britain knows about foreign relations legal entities abroad.
B. Nigeria trades with Britain only 3. Promotion of African integration and support for
C. Nigeria wants only Britain to train her African unity.
D. Britain is very dear and good to Nigeria 4. Promotion of international cooperation for the
E. Nigeria was a Britain colony consolidation of universal peace and mutual respect
among nations and elimination of discrimination in all
its manifestation.
MAJOR FEATURES OF NIGERIA’S FOREIGN 5. Respect for international law and treaty by seeking
POLICY settlement of internal dispute through negotiation,
1. Non-alignment: To remain non-aligned with any of mediation, conciliations, arbitration and adjudication.
the power blocs, i.e. western or eastern blocks, west 6. Respect for the independence, sovereignty and
representing capitalism and east communism. territorial integrity of other countries.
2. Friendship and cooperation: The country maintains 7. Non – interference in the internal affairs of other
friendship and cooperation with other nations of the states/nations.
world that respect her territory. 8. The promotion and defence of justice and respect for
3. Clear and practical policies: Adoption of clear and human dignity, especially the dignity of the black man.
practical policies regarding Africa with a view to 9. Unimpeded decolonization
bringing about cooperation and progress to all 10. Commitment to the principle of non-alignment.
independent African states. 11. Assistance of African States in search of solutions to
4. Independence of African states: The foreign policy their problem and encouragement of the development
helps the non – independent Africa countries to of common ties among all African states to foster co –
achieve their freedom, confirming the statement that, operation among countries in Africa in so far it is
Africa is the centerpiece of Nigeria’s foreign policy. compatible with Nigeria’s national interest.
5. Respect for territorial integrity: Nigeria has respect 12. Promotion of equality and self – reliance in Africa.
for other states in Africa based on the principle of non 13. Commitment to technological development within
– interference in the internal affairs of other states. Africa.
6. Peaceful resolution of crisis: Joining other states to 14. Promotion of a just world economic order.
find peaceful resolution to crisis as in ECOMOG
troops in Liberia, Sierra – Leone, etc.
7. Eradication of colonialism: In Africa and also 2014/41 UTME
apartheid in South Africa as well as giving financial Which of the following is a guiding principle of Nigeria’s
or moral support to liberation movements e.g. foreign policy?
SWAPO in Southern Africa. A. decolonization of all African states
8. National interest: One of the features is to promote B. total opposition to the cold war
and protect our national interest. C. posting of only carrier diplomats as envoys
9. International or domestic problems: To assist other D. interference in the affairs of African countries
neighbouring countries to solve their internal or Answer
domestic problems. The guiding principle of Nigeria’s foreign policy is
10. Economic order: To work in cooperation with other decolonization of all African states. Decolonization is the
nations of the world in promotion of a just world process of a state withdrawing from a former colony,
economic order. leaving it independent (A)
11. Peace and security: In addition, to also cooperate
with member nations of U.N.O in the defence and 2006/44 UTME
promotion of world peace and security. One major determinant of Nigeria’s foreign policy is
12. International laws: To respect international laws and A. commitment to world peace
treaty obligations. B. cooperation among African states
C. non-alignment in world affairs
D. external influences
Answer
One main feature of Nigeria’s foreign policy is
commitment to world peace at large (A)
514
1989/48 UTME 3. Promoting friendly association among independent
Which of the following principles does not govern African state.
Nigeria’s foreign policy? 4. To oppose aggression, support the demand for
A. national interest B. non-alignment C. African interest restoration of fundamental human rights in Africa and
D. international terrorism the world in general.
Answer 5. To support as at then the struggle against apartheid
International terrorism does not follow in the principle that policy and its eradication in South.
governed Nigeria foreign policy (D) 6. Working towards the de-colonization of African
continent still under colonial rule.
2014/2015/78 (UI, IBADAN) 7. Respect for the non – interference in the domestic
Which of these is not the essence of foreign policy? affairs of other African states.
A. promotion and defence of a nation’s vital interest
B. protection and promotion of a nation’s strategic interest
C. protection and promotion of the interest of the political Reasons for the adoption of Africa as the centerpiece of
leaders of a country Nigeria’s Foreign Policy
D. promotion and defence of the economic interest of a 1. Size and population of Nigeria in the continent added
nation to its enormous wealth.
Answer 2. The ideological rivalries that penetrated into Africa.
Protection and promotion of the interest of the political 3. The inter-territorial communication which help in
leaders of a country is not the essence of foreign policy (C) improving and the cooperation among Africa states.
4. De-colonization of Africa state i.e. not granting
2013/21 (OAU, IFE) independence to some African.
The foreign policy objective of developed countries is 5. The geographical location in Nigeria was given a
usually centered on pride of place by most Africa leaders.
A. economic development 6. To provide assistance to other states and fostering
B. peace and security understanding among them.
C. war D. political independence 7. To enhance the prestige of Nigeria in Africa and in
Answer the international arena.
The foreign policy objective of developed countries is 8. To bring African states together to speak with one
usually centered on economic development (A) voice on issues at international organization.
9. To maintain peace and order in African continent.
2014/2015/66 (NDU, BAYELSA) Exercise 39.24 10. It defends the independence and territorial integrity of
Which of the following is not an objective in foreign African states.
policy? 11. To reciprocate the support given to Nigeria by the
A. prestige B. large population C. territory integration O.A.U during her civil war.
D. survival E. preservation of state beliefs and value 12. It helps to promote friendly association and unity of
independence.

1995/8 Exercise 39.25

Outline five major features of Nigeria’s foreign policy How Nigeria has demonstrated that Africa is the
since independence. centerpiece of her foreign policy implementation
1. Anti–racism and anti-colonization is a total
eradication of colonization in part of Africa countries.
2016/10b Exercise 39.26 2. For the purpose of unity and solidarity to show that
Outline four objectives of your country’s foreign policy. Nigeria has been the Africa centerpiece of her foreign
policy.
3. For promotion of peace and unity.
AFRICA AS THE CENTERPIECE OF NIGERIA 4. Assistance to sister Africa state.
FOREIGN POLICY 5. Nigeria has established friendly relations with
The origin of the concept “Africa the centerpiece of foreign African states.
policy” could be traced to the administration of the first 6. Severing relationship with countries which support
Republic in Nigeria (1960-1966) headed by the then prime racism or aggression within the African continent.
minister, Sir Abubakar Tafawa Balewa. He maintained 7. Diplomatic mission in Africa.
that, we belong to Africa as such Nigeria would pursue the 8. For encouragement of democracy among African
realistic of Africa policies. Africa should be given the pride states.
of a place in Nigeria foreign policy formulation. The 9. For promotion of intra-African sports.
following are the principles of the concepts; 10. For the purpose of speaking with one voice at
1. Developing programmes for possible assistance to international organization e.g. U.N.O.
other African states and fostering understanding
among them.
2. The belief in the sovereignty and equality of African
states.

515
Ways by which Nigeria maintains friendly relations Answer
with African States The reason of Africa as the centerpiece of Nigeria’s foreign
1. Establishment of bilateral economic/political policies is for Nigeria to be truly great to her neighbours so
relationship. that they can also become great as well. (A)
2. Promotion of multi – lateral economic/political
relationship. 2001/48 Neco
3. Active participation in economic union Nigeria’s idea of Africa as the centerpiece of her foreign
4. Grants and aids. policy includes all the following except
5. Initiation of peaceful settlement of crisis. A. support for apartheid policy in South Africa
6. Peaceful resolution of disputes with her neighbours. B. promotion of African unity
7. Participation in peace keeping operations in Africa. C. creation of more Nigerian missions in Africa
8. Active participation in cultural and sporting activities. D. settling of disputes in Africa
9. Liberation movement. Answer
Nigeria’s idea of Africa as the centerpiece of her foreign
Problems of Africa as Centerpiece of Nigeria policy does not include the support for apartheid policy in
1. Financial burden on Nigeria. South Africa. (A)
2. It leads to loss of lives through peace keeping NB: Apartheid policy in South Africa was a system of
operations and liberation activities e.g. Congo, racial segregation that was enforced in South Africa from
Liberia and Sudan. 1948 to 1994. Nigeria’s idea of Africa as the centerpiece
3. Brain drain from Nigeria to other African states. of her foreign policy did not support apartheid.
4. One of the problems led to the influx of citizens of
other countries to Nigeria for greener pasture. 2002/12
5. Some African countries which benefitted from the In what four ways has Nigeria demonstrated that Africa is
policy later became hostile and unfriendly to Nigeria the centerpiece of her foreign policy?
e.g. Angola, Liberia, South Africa, Niger and Chad. Answer
1. Support for O.AU – Successive Nigerian governments
1998/10 have given political, financial and diplomatic support to
How has Nigeria shown that Africa is the centerpiece of the organization of African unity.
her foreign policy? 2. Nigeria has identified itself with anti–apartheid front:
Answer Nigeria gave moral, political, financial, material and
Nigeria has shown that Africa is the centerpiece of her diplomatic supports to the liberation movements in
foreign policy in the following ways: South Africa.
1. Anti-racism and anti-colonialism, i.e. eradication of 3. Nigeria’s commitment to peaceful settlement of
colonialism in some parts of Africa e.g. support for political crisis in Liberia and Sierra Leone through the
SWAPO, ANC, MPLA, etc.. formation of ECOMOG.
2. Promotion of African unity and solidarity especially
at the international community. 1995/46 UTME
3. Friendly relations with all African state. The principle of Africa being the centre-piece of Nigeria’s
4. Serious efforts at promotion of peace in Africa. foreign policy has been demonstrated in
5. Assisting the less – fortunate nations in the spirit of A. Egypt B. Gabon C. Zambia D. Namibia
brotherhood and as a way of preventing neo- Answer
colonialism. The principle of Africa being the centre-piece of Nigeria’s
6. Severing relationship with countries which support foreign policy has been demonstrated in Namibia (D)
racism or aggression within the African continent. NB: Nigeria supported the independence struggle of
7. Encouragement of the resolution of conflicts in Africa Namibia, thus exercising its foreign policy belief, notably
by Africans. that its size and potentials endows it with both the
8. Establishment of more diplomatic missions in Africa. opportunity and responsibility to play a leading role in
9. Broad attempts at promoting democratic rule in all Africa.
parts of the continent.
2016/22 UTME
1993/52 Nigeria placed Africa at the centre of her foreign policy
Behind the principle of “Africa as the centerpiece of because of her
Nigeria’s foreign policy: is the understanding that A. role in Congo crisis B. size and wealth
A. for Nigeria to be truly great her neighbours must C. desire to dominate the continent
become great as well D. potential role in Africa
B. Nigeria should play the role of mediator in international Answer
crisis Nigeria placed Africa at the centre of the foreign policy
C. Nigeria is pledged to neutrality in international trade because of her potential role in Africa. Nigeria foreign
relations policy objective promotes Africa integration and unity
D. Nigeria’s foreign policy formulation process must not (D)
have inputs from foreign countries

516
2008/29 UTME Origin of Non–Aligned Movement
Which of the following justifies the Afro-centric foreign The Non-Aligned Movement (NAM) was created and
policy of Nigeria? founded during the collapse of the colonial system and the
A. Her location in the West African sub-region independence struggles of the peoples of Africa, Asia,
B. Her colonization by a foreign power Latin America and other regions of the world and at the
C. Her physical size, population and resource endowments height of the Cold War. The origin of the NAM can be
D Her ability to contribute to peace keeping missions traced back to the Asian Relations conference held in New
Answer Delhi in March 1947 in which Nehru highlighted the
Physical size, population and resource endowments dangers posed by the hostility between the two power
justifies the Afro-centric foreign policy of Nigeria (C) blocs. In 1949, another convention for Asian unity was
held at New Delhi to discuss the Indonesian problem which
1993/2 UTME called upon the Dutch troops to withdraw from the areas
The foreign policy of Nigeria is centered on Africa because under the control of Indonesia. In 1954, the five principles
of her of ‘Panchasheel’ were given practical shape at a
A. membership of OAU B. membership of ECOWAS conference held in Bandung in April 1959 which was
C. concern for and attention to African problems attended by 29 afro-Asian countries. The delegates at the
D. commitment to end colonization in Africa conference condemned colonialism and emphasized the
Answer need for economic growth in the third world countries. The
The foreign policy of Nigeria is centered on Africa because conference paved the way for cooperation among newly
of her concern for and attention to African problems. The independent nations which later blossomed into the Non-
foreign policy of Nigeria want to turn Africa to a global Aligned Movement.
village (C)
India was the first country to initiate the policy of non –
1996/54 Exercise 39.27 alignment under the leadership of Nehru. He called upon
The focus of Nigeria foreign policy is the Afro-Asian countries to keep themselves away from
A. that Nigeria cannot joint the non-aligned movement the politics of the two opposing camps (USA and Soviet
B. Nigeria as a frontline country Union), which had already brought about two world wars.
C. that African liberation movements should look Nehru led the Afro-Asian countries towards the concept of
elsewhere for aids D. Africa as its centerpiece non – alignment. He led the Bandung conference along
E. that African countries have not reciprocated Nigeria’s with Joseph Tito, Nasser, Kwame Nkrumah and many
friendly gestures others. Nehru was acknowledged as the greatest
spokesman for the neutrality of Afro-Asian states in the
1992/55 Exercise 39.28 Cold War era. He did not approve of military and economic
Africa is the centerpiece of Nigeria’s foreign policy alliances of SEATO, NATO, the Warsaw Pact,
because Cominform, etc. Nehru was against the philosophy
A. of Nigeria’s leadership role in Africa advocated by the two power blocs. He was against the
B. it is in line with United Nations Charter policy of apartheid being followed in South Africa. Nehru
C. Nigerians wish to be so also called for disarmament and abolition of stockpiles of
D. it is a mandate from the colonialists nuclear weapons.
E. it is a mandate from African leaders
The first NAM summit
2000/43 UTME Exercise 39.29 The NAM was formally launched at its first summit held
Nigeria’s relations with African countries are underscores in September 1961 at Belgrade in Yugoslavia. It was
by its policy of attended by 23 afro – Asian and one European country.
A. non-alignment B. afrocentrism Pandit Jawaharial Nehru, Joseph Tito and Nasser are
C. political diplomacy D. peaceful co-existence considered as ‘founding fathers’ of NAM. Several
problems such as problems of Berlin and Congo, question
1995/52 Nov Exercise 39.30 of Chinese representation in the UN and the issue of
Africa became the centre piece of Nigeria’s foreign policy apartheid in South Africa were discussed. The summit
under the regime of demanded immediate and total abolition of colonialism
A. Tafawa Balewa B. Yakubu Gowon and called for complete disarmament.
C. Murtala Muhammed D. Shehu Shagari
E. Aguiyi Ironsi Aims and Objectives of Non–Aligned Movement
1. To keep the newly independent nations of Asia and
Africa away from the rivalry of the two superpowers
Non–Alignment and preserve their newly acquired national
It is the international policy of a sovereign state according independence.
to which it does not align itself with any of the power 2. To eliminate all those factors and tendencies in the
blocks and at the same time actively participates in the international arena that could lead to war.
world affairs to promote international peace, harmony and 3. To protect the nascent freedom of the new born Asian
cooperation. It is mostly associated with neutrality in the and African countries and help them distance
face of mounting tension in the world especially among the themselves from colonial domination.
super powers in the era of cold war.
517
4. To oppose colonialism, imperialism and racial 1995/55
discrimination. Nigeria’s foreign of policy came into limelight at
5. To advocate sovereign equality of all states. independence because
6. To encourage friendly relations among countries. A. Nigeria did not know any other country before then
7. To advocate peaceful settlements of international B. only at independence do states proclaim their foreign
disputes. policy principles
8. To oppose the use of force and nuclear weapons in the C. her internal policies were harsh
international arena. D. Nigeria was self sufficient
9. To strengthen the United Nations organizations as an E. Nigeria dropped its isolationist policy
organ of world peace. Answer
10. To protect human rights and the environment. Only at independence do states proclaim their foreign
policy principles (B)
Factors that Stimulate the Formation of Non–Aligned
Movement. 1994/58
1. Global tension caused by cold war: Most of the The non-aligned movement was established by group of
newly independent countries of Asia and Africa third world countries at the
realized the division of the world into two power A. Berlin conference in 1884
blocs was into in their larger interest and this might B. Bandung conference in 1955
endanger world peace. These nations felt that by C. Accra conference in 1958
maintaining distance from both the super powers they D. commonwealth conference in 1960
would put off the danger of another war or a nuclear E. Belgrade in 1961
holocaust. Answer
2. Right of independent judgment: The newly The non-aligned movement was established by group of
independent nations were able to keep their own Third world counties at the Belgrade in 1961. (E)
identity by not aligning with any of the power blocs.
They wanted to solve their problems themselves 2000/46 Nov
without any outside interference or influence. Nigeria is a member of the non – aligned movement
3. International groupings: The formation of North because
Atlantic Treaty Organisation (N.A.T.O) and Warsaw A. of her oil wealth
pact in 1949 and 1955 respectively. B. she can solve all her problems militarily
4. Bi-polarization of the world: The opposition of bi- C. she depends on richer countries economically
polarization of the world by Nehru of India and Tito D. she intends to act independently in world affairs
of Yugoslavia. Answer
5. The independence of India in 1947: This Nigeria is a member of the non – aligned movement
development encouraged territories struggling for because she intends to act independently in world affairs.
self–rule, especially in Africa, Asia, etc. (D)
6. Globalization: To be involved on issues of global
dimension without having anything at stake with 1992/45 UTME
either of the super powers. Nigeria’s foreign policy of non-alignment was a reaction
7. Consolidation of sovereignty: The desire of most to
independent states, especially in Africa, Asia, Latin A. British imperialism
America etc. to fortify and consolidate their B. East – West ideological competition
sovereignty after long period of colonial rule, racial C. militarism of ex-colonial powers
segregation and discrimination by some of the D. third world poverty
western powers e.g. Britain and France. Answer
Nigeria foreign policy of non-alignment was a reaction of
2010/46 East-West ideological competition (B)
Which of the following best describes the foreign policy of
West African countries during the cold war? 1995/44 UTME
A. support for the western bloc The adoption of non-alignment as a principle of Nigerian
B. support for the eastern bloc foreign policy is aimed at
C. non – alignment with any power bloc A. promoting Nigeria’s leadership aspiration in Africa
D. allegiance to nazi government B. placing Nigeria on a comfortable position to contribute
Answer to international peace and morality
Non–alignment with any power bloc best describes the C. enabling Nigeria assume equal status with the world
foreign policy of West African countries during the cold powers
war. (C) D. fulfilling a basic requirement for her acceptance into the
Security Council of the UN
Answer
The main aim of adopting the principle of foreign policy in
non-alignment in Nigeria was placing Nigeria on a
comfortable position to contribute to international peace
and morality (B)
518
2011/44 UTME aggressive policies of Israel and the unilateral
The adoption of non-alignment as a principle of Nigeria’s American attack on Iraq.
foreign policy was aimed at 4. It has advocated the creation of New International
A. fulfilling a basic requirement for acceptance in the UN Economic Order (NIEO) based on greater economic
Security Council cooperation and justice. In fact, the first UN
B. insulating Nigeria against having to take side in the cold conference on Trade and Development (UCTAD)
war held in 1964 was largely a result of the efforts of the
C. promoting Nigeria’s leadership aspiration in Africa non-aligned countries.
D. attaining equal status with the world powers 5. NAM has made the developed countries realize that
Answer the continued deprivation of the third world
The adoption of non-alignment as a principle of Nigeria’s negatively affect the global economy and their own
foreign policy was aimed at insulating Nigeria against prosperity.
having to take side in the cold war (B) 6. The movement is working and cooperating with the
U.N.O in achieving world peace and security.
1993/51 Exercise 39.31 7. The membership today stands at 113 states, making it
The principle of non–alignment in Nigeria’s foreign policy an important body, playing crucial roles in
implies that international politics.
A. Nigeria is committed to either the west or the east in her 8. It has always opposed the division of the world into
foreign policy capitalist and socialist blocs.
B. Nigeria is pledged to neutrality in international trade 9. It had always supported sanctions against South
relations Africa over its apartheid policies by voting
C. Nigeria is pledged to objectivity in all international crisis courageously in support of its dissolution.
D. Nigeria should play the role of mediator in international 10. It has spoken and condemned outright apartheid
crisis policy in South Africa and encouraged other
E. Nigeria’s foreign policy formulation process must not have territories agitating for independence and freedom
inputs from foreign sources from their erstwhile colonial masters.

2014/2015/90 (UI, IBADAN) Exercise 39.31 State the achievements of non – aligned movement.
The non-aligned movement was established at in Answer
A. Bombay, 1955 B. Bandung 1955 1. Non–aligned movement has helped in easing the
C. Lagos 1972 D. Addis Ababa, 1955 tension between the two power blocs.
2. NAM acted against the arms race of the super powers
1990/48 UTME during the time of the cold war.
The first conference of the Non-Aligned Movement was 3. It has advocated the creation of a New International
held in Economic Order (NIEO) based on greater economic
A. Belgrade B. Bandung C. Havana D. Harare cooperation and justice.
Answer 4. It has supported the cause of international peace,
The firs conference of the Non-Aligned Movement (NAM) justice and freedom.
took place in Belgrade, Yugoslavia in September, 1961 (A) 5. The movement is working and cooperating with the
U.N.O in achieving world peace and security.
2003/44 Exercise 39.32 6. The membership today stands at 113 states, making it
The principle of non – alignment means that a country an important body, playing crucial roles in
A. is neutral in international trade international politics.
B. does not belong to any world organization 7. It has always opposed the division of the world into
C. does not belong to any of the power blocs capitalist and socialist blocs.
D. has no diplomatic mission abroad 8. It had always supported sanctions against South
Africa over its apartheid policies by voting
courageously in support of its dissolution.
Exercise 39.33
Outline he factors that stimulates the formation of non – Problems of Non-Aligned Movement
aligned movement. The following are the major problems facing the
movement.
1. This body has no features of a well-defined
Achievements or Successes of Non – Aligned Movement international body: e.g. a charter, organs or
1. Non – aligned movement has helped in easing the institutions of a well-established international body.
tension between the two power blocs. It also 2. Body: The majority, if not all members of the
contributed a lot to bringing an end to the cold war. movement are poor. Some members, therefore, have
2. NAM acted against the arms race of the superpowers to dance to the tune of either the West or the East for
during the time of the cold war. one form of assistance or the other.
3. It has supported the cause of international peace, 3. No military set-up: It has no military establishment
justice and freedom. It has opposed all forms of of its own to enforce or compel obedience to its
injustice, including the Suez crisis of 1956, the resolution.
519
4. Failure to remain neutral: Non–aligned movement was Nigeria and Non–Aligned Movement: Reasons why
supposed to be a neutral body but ironically, it could not Nigeria Adopted the Principle
live up to this ideal. 1. To interact and cooperate freely: Nigeria is adopting
5. Differences in ideological stance: Some states are for this policy in order to cooperate and interact freely
capitalism and others for socialism. This has been with any nation within the comity of nations.
affecting the reality of the movement and the objectives
it allowed to uphold. 2. To pursue its economic and political policies without
6. The control of IMF and World Bank: The control of any dictation or interference from either the east or
these two international banks by developed nations is the west.
affecting the policy of the movement. Economic of
some members of the movement are in shambles and
3. Nigeria would be able to concentrate on issues
they are going to World Bank or IMF means that they
should be ready to obey their conditionalities.
affecting Africa since it regards itself as the
7. Different cultural background: The problems facing this mouthpiece of Africa on international issues.
movement are sometimes complex and difficult to tackle
because the composition of the movement shows that they 4. Sovereignty: This policy was adopted in order to
are people of different cultural background, history, guide and protect the sovereignty of Nigeria.
political system, belief, etc.
8. Test of military prowess: Members are competing 5. To give the leaders a free hand: This policy was also
among themselves to acquire better weapons of modern adopted in order to put the interests of the country
warfare. Not only has that, even building nuclear war above any other considerations in foreign policy
headed. A case in point is between India and Pakistan. decisions.
Both countries recently tested their nuclear capabilities.
9. Fear of domination: There is the fear of domination
being expressed, especially, by the poor states against 1992/9 Exercise 39.34
the richer ones. This can affect the existence of oneness Why was the policy of non –alignment adopted by
among them, because they exist in suspicion and fear. Nigeria?

2007/47 1992/10
The major defect of foreign policy in West Africa is Give reasons to show that Nigeria is a non–aligned nation.
A. public opinion and pressure group B. military power Answer
C. good economy D. poor leadership The non–alignment movement is the idea or notion of a
Answer group of nations of Asia, Africa, Latin America, Caribbean
The major problem of foreign policy in West Africa is poor and Europe to be neutral in the cold war between the west
leadership. (D) capitalist and the eastern socialist powers. Nigeria had
demonstrated its non-aligned postures in the following
2008/11 Neco ways:
Highlight three merits and demerits of Africa as the 1. Nigeria’s policy of non–interference in the internal
centerpiece of Nigeria foreign policy. affairs of other nations made her to condemn in strong
Answer terms the invasion of Afghanistan by USSR, invasion
Merits of Panama by USA, etc.
1. Respect the sovereign equality and territorial integrity. 2. Breaking of diplomatic relations with France for
2. Increased Nigerian participation in the liberation testing atomic bomb in the Sahara in 1961.
movements in all colonial African states. 3. Abrogation of the defence pact with Britain in 1962.
3. Increases rapport and friendly relationship with other 4. Signing multi and bilateral agreements with countries
African states. of both western and eastern blocs.
4. Nigeria’s active participation in the development of 5. Nigeria’s refusal to follow Britain into EEC as an
sports and education. associate member.
5. Formation of multilateral economic relationships e.g. 6. The military support Nigeria got from USSR during
Chad Basin commission. her civil war.
6. It gives Nigeria’s foreign policy a sense of direction 7. Nigeria maintains embassies in both the western and
and policy consistency in some Africa countries. eastern bloc countries like USA, Britain, France,
USSR, Bulgaria, Poland, etc.
Demerits 8. Allowing the importation of communist literature into
1. It imposes heavy financial burden on Nigeria. Nigeria.
2. It leads to loss of lives through peace keeping operation 9. Nigeria’s independent foreign policy that is not
and liberation activities e.g. Congo, Liberia, Sudan, etc. biased to either the western or eastern bloc.
3. It leads to brain drain from Nigeria to other African 10. Nigeria’s participation in the Moscow Olympics in 1980
states. which was boycotted by Eastern bloc countries.
4. It leads to the influx of citizens of other African
countries.
5. Hostilities: Some African countries which benefitted
from the policy later became hostile and unfriendly to
Nigeria and Nigerians e.g. Angola
520
1990/30 Nov 1990/50 UTME
On attainment of independence Nigeria declared that she In international relations, countries have a right to
would adopt the policy of non-alignment. This meant that A. export oil B. create more states
Nigeria C. diplomatic immunity of their envoys
A. believed in cooperation as a means of promoting African D. own a police force
unity Answer
B. would take side with any country that offers aids to her In international relations, countries have a right to
C. would seek the opinion of her West African neighbours diplomatic immunity of their envoys (C)
before taking any action in international matters
D. would not take side with any of the contending power blocs
2002/34
in the international system
What is détente in international relations?
E. would not interfere in the internal affairs of her neighbours
A. detention of war prisoners’ B. posting of ambassadors
Answer
The attainment of independence Nigeria declared that she C. military alliance between nations
would adopt the policy of non – alignment. This meant that D. peace agreement between nations
Nigeria would not take side with any of the contending power Answer
blocs in the international system. (D) Détente in international relations is a peace agreement
between nations. (D)
2019/2020/15 (UI, IBADAN)
The Pro-West orientation of Nigeria’s foreign policy was 1991/45 UTME
mainly because of her Which of the following is not a statutory function of an
A. historical development B. geographical locations embassy?
C. social structure D. economic under development A. issuance of visas B. collection of information
Answer C. espionage D. welfare of her citizens
The Pro-West orientation of Nigeria’s foreign policy was Answer
mainly because of her economic underdevelopment (D) Espionage is not a statutory function of an embassy.
Espionage is the practice of spying or using spies, typically
2010/20 (OAU, IFE) by governments to obtain political and military
Multi-laterism in Nigeria’s foreign policy entails her information (C)
A. stand on Africa as the centerpiece of her policy
B. non-aligned posture in the international system 1994/44 UTME
C. quest for a permanent seat in the UN Security Council Which of the following reasons best explains why Nigeria,
D. membership of international organization during the first republic could not pursue an independence
Answer foreign policy?
Multi-laterism in Nigeria’s foreign policy entails her A. the numerous differences among the ethnic groups
membership of international organization (D) B. lack of political ideology
C. Nigeria was a non-aligned country
2012/42 UTME D. Nigeria’s economy was dependent on the western
The main focus of Nigeria’s policy since independence countries
centres on Answer
A. South South Cooperation B. Sub regionalism Nigeria could not pursue her independence foreign policy
C. globalism D. afrocentrism because Nigeria’s economy was dependent on the western
Answer countries (D)
The key point of Nigeria’s foreign policy since independence
centres on afrocentrism. Afrocentrism is an educational 2001/39 UTME
movement that gives central importance to the culture and A major factor that influenced the formulation of Nigeria
history of Africa people from Africa. (D) foreign policy in the first Republic was
A. geographical location B. the colonial legacy
2015/17 (OAU, IFE) C. economic consideration D. the parliamentary system
Which of these is not an instrument of foreign policy? Answer
A. war B. diplomacy C. subversion D. foreign aid The main factor that influenced the formulation of Nigeria
Answer foreign policy in the first Republic was the colonial legacy
War is not an instrument of foreign policy (A) (B)
2005/39 UTME
2001/40 UTME
Nigeria supports the South-South cooperation as a foreign
Nigeria’s departure from Pro-West policy during the
policy objective for mutual understanding among
A. sub-saharan African countries
Murtala Muhammed regime was as a result o
B. developing countries A. the economic interests of the west in Nigeria
C. Asian and Sub-Saharan African countries B. Nigeria’s increased international influence
D. nations south of the equator C the growing trade between Nigeria and the East
Answer D. Nigeria’s concern for decolonization in Africa
Nigeria supports the South-South cooperation as a foreign Answer
policy objective for mutual understanding among Asian and Nigeria left Pro-West policy during the Murtala
sub-Saharan African countries (C) Muhammed regime was as a result of Nigeria’s concern for
decolonization in Africa (D)
521
2015/13 (OAU, IFE) 1992/46 UTME
The principles that have guided Nigerian foreign policy Which of the following countries had a strained relationship
since independence is with Nigeria over the Angolan crisis of 1975?
A. peaceful coexistence B. legal equality of states A. The Soviet Union B. Tanzania
C. political dependence D. non alignment C. The United States of America D. South Africa
Answer Answer
The principles of non–alignment have guided Nigerian The United States of America had a strained relationship with
foreign policy since independence is (D) Nigeria over the Angolan crisis of 1975 because the Nigerian
government supported Angolan (C)
1995/44 UTME
2017/40 UTME The adoption of non-alignment as a principle of Nigerian
Nigeria’s actions towards the external environment is foreign policy is aimed at
imbedded in her A. promoting Nigeria’s leadership aspiration in Africa
A. state policy B. party policy C. government policy B. placing Nigeria on a comfortable position to contribute to
D. foreign policy international peace and morality
Answer C. enabling Nigeria assume equal status with the world
Nigeria’s action towards the external environment is powers
imbedded in her Foreign policy (D) D. fulfilling a basic requirement for her acceptance into the
Security Council of the UN
2012/7 (OAU,IFE) Answer
A major factor that differentiates international politics The main aim of adopting the principle of foreign policy in
from domestic politics is that international politics non-alignment in Nigeria was placing Nigeria on a
comfortable position to contribute to international peace and
A. has no centralized institution of government
morality (B)
B. cannot enforce sanctions
C. has centralized organs of government 1997/43 UTME
D. has a central law making body Non-alignment is no longer relevant in Nigerian foreign
Answer policy because
The main differences between international politics from A. she is seen as the leader of Africa
domestic politics is that international politics has no B. her focus is now on Africa
centralized institution of government (A) C. of the formation of the ECOWAS
D. the cold war has ended
2008/30 UTME Answer
A virile foreign policy is one characterized by Non-alignment is no longer relevant in Nigerian foreign
A. a vibrant press, vibrant public opinion and a dynamic policy because of the formation of the Economic Community
civil society of West Africa states (ECOWAS) (C)
B. propaganda, espionage and economic embargoes 2011/44 UTME
C. a stable policy, buoyant economy and visionary The adoption of non-alignment as a principle of Nigeria’s
leadership foreign policy was aimed at
D. the nature and dynamics of the international system A. fulfilling a basic requirement for acceptance in the UN Security
Answer Council
A virile foreign policy is one characterized by a stable B. insulating Nigeria against having to take side in the cold war
policy, buoyant economy and visionary leadership (C) C. promoting Nigeria’s leadership aspiration in Africa
D. attaining equal status with the world powers
1995/45 UTME Answer
The country whose interest conflicted with those of The adoption of non-alignment as a principle of Nigeria’s
Nigeria over Angola in 1975 was foreign policy was aimed at insulating Nigeria against having
A. USSR B. USA C. France D. Cuba to take side in the cold war (B)
Answer 2014/2015/90 (UI, IBADAN)
United States of America interest conflicted with those of The non-aligned movement was established at in
Nigeria over Angola in 1975 (B) A. Bombay, 1955 B. Bandung 1955
C. Lagos 1972 D. Addis Ababa, 1955
1992/45 Answer
Nigeria’s foreign policy of non-alignment was a reaction Correct option is B.
to
A. British imperialism 2003/42 UTME
B. East – West ideological competition Nigeria’s non-alignment policy is constrained by her
C. militarism of ex-colonial powers A. strong ties with western powers
D. third world poverty B. membership of the ECOWAS
C. Afrocentric posture
Answer
D. membership of the UNO
Nigeria foreign policy of non-alignment was a reaction of
Answer
East-West ideological competition (B) Nigeria’s non-alignment policy is constrained by her strong
relationship with the Western countries (A)

522
2004/13 UTME 2002/48 UTME
Nigeria demonstrated her commitment to the policy of An attribute that Nigeria shares with most non-aligned
non-alignment during the regime of countries is
A. Ibrahim Babangida B. Muhammadu Buhari A. the state of her economy B. her large size
C. Johnson Aguiyi Ironsi D. Murtala Muhammed C. her heterogeneous population D. her large population
Answer Answer
During the regime of Murtala Muhammed, Nigeria An attribute that Nigeria shares with most non-aligned
demonstrate her loyalty to the policy of non-alignment (D) countries is the state of her economy (A)

2007/6 UTME 2011/45 UTME

Nigeria’s non-aligned policy was criticized because of theIn 1979, the non-aligned member states were
A. ECOWAS treaty B. Nuclear Test Ban Treaty A. 37 B. 19 C. 21 D. 27
C. Anglo-Nigerian Defence Pact E. none of the above
D. Non-Proliferation Treaty Answer
Answer Correct Option E
Nigeria’s non-aligned policy was criticized because of theNB: The movement was founded in April 1955. The purpose
Anglo-Nigerian Defence pact during the Angolan Crisis I of the organisation as stated in the Havana declaration of 1979
1975 (C) is to ensure national independence, sovereignty, territorial
integrity and security of non-aligned countries’ in their
2010/42 UTME struggle against imperialism, colonialism, non–colonialism
An attribute that Nigeria shares with most non-aligned and all forms of foreign aggression, etc. between 1955 and
countries is 1979, the members grew from 25 to 117 member countries.
A. the state of her economy
B. her heterogeneous population 1998/46 UTME
The concept of Africa as the centre-piece of Nigerian foreign
C. her large population
policy implies that Nigeria should
D. her large size
A. interfere in the internal affairs of other African states
Answer B. support secessionist movements in Africa
Nigeria shares an attribute of her economy with most C. participate in any peace-keeping operation in Africa
members of the non-aligned (A) D. lay more emphasis on African states
Answer
2013/41 UTME The concept of Africa as the centre-piece of Nigerian foreign
Nigeria’s non-alignment policy in the sixties lacked real policy implies that Nigeria should lay more emphasis on
substance because of her Africa issues (D)
A. Afrocentric policy B. poor economic potential
C. partnership with Asian countries 2005/40 UTME
D. close ties with Britain An indication that Africa is still the centre-piece of Nigeria’s
Answer foreign policy was the creation of the
Nigeria’s non-alignment policy in the sixties lacked real A. Nigerian institute of international affairs
substance because of her close relationship (ties) with B. ministry of integration and cooperation in Africa
Britain government her colonized master (D) C. Nigeria Institute of Policy and Strategic Studies
D. Ministry of Foreign Affairs
1999/46 UTME Answer
Nigeria non-aligned policy means that she will The indication that Africa is still the centre-piece of Nigeria’s
A. have nothing to do with the superpowers foreign policy was the creation of the Ministry of Integration
B. not take sides in international issues based on and Cooperation in Africa (B)
ideological considerations
2020/19 UTME
C. avoid having any dealing with member countries of the
The centre-piece of Nigeria’s foreign policy covers only
Non-Aligned Movement A. Europe B. Africa C. Latin America
Answer D. Asia
Nigeria non-aligned policy means that she will not take Answer
sides in international issues based on ideological The centre-piece of Nigeria’s foreign policy covers only
consideration (B) Africa (B)

1999/47 UTME 2008/50 UTME

One of the underlying principles of Nigerian foreign policy Nigeria teamed up with other developing countries to assert a
is neutral posture under the platform of
A. encouragement of peace keeping operations in Africa A. nationalist movement B. Pan African movement
B. interference in the internal activities of other countries C. Non-aligned movement D. negritude movement
C. non – commitment towards African unity Answer
D. respect for sovereign equality of all states Nigeria teamed up with other African developing countries to
Answer assert a neutral posture under the platform of non-aligned
The main principles of Nigerian foreign policy is respect movement (C)
for sovereign equality of all states (D)
523
1990/48 UTME 2003/42 UTME
The first conference of the Non-Aligned Movement was Nigeria’s non-alignment policy is constrained by her
held in A. strong ties with western powers
A. Belgrade B. Bandung C. Havana D. Harare B. membership of the ECOWAS
Answer C. Afrocentric posture
The firs conference of the Non-Aligned Movement (NAM) D. membership of the UNO
took place in Belgrade, Yugoslavia in September, 1961 (A) Answer
Nigeria’s non-alignment policy is constrained by her
1997/42 UTME strong relationship with the Western countries (A)
The foreign affairs minister who introduced economic
diplomacy as a foreign policy initiative was 2004/13 UTME
A. Prof. Bola Akinyemi Nigeria demonstrated her commitment to the policy of
B. Major General Ike Nwachukwu non-alignment during the regime of
C. Prof. Ibrahim Gambari A. Ibrahim Babangida B. Muhammadu Buhari
D. Major General Joseph Garba C. Johnson Aguiyi Ironsi D. Murtala Muhammed
Answer Answer
Major General Ike Nwachukwu was the Foreign Affairs During the regime of Murtala Muhammed, Nigeria
Minister in Nigeria whom introduced economic diplomacy demonstrate her loyalty to the policy of non-alignment
as a foreign policy initiative (B) (D)
2007/6 UTME
1994/43 UTME Nigeria’s non-aligned policy was criticized because of the
The foreign affairs minister who advocated the “concept of A. ECOWAS treaty B. Nuclear Test Ban Treaty
medium powers” was C. Anglo-Nigerian Defence Pact
A. Prof. Ibrahim Gambari B. Major General Joe Garba D. Non-Proliferation Treaty
C. Alhaji Rilwanu Lukman D. Prof. Bolaji Akinyemi Answer
Answer Nigeria’s non-aligned policy was criticized because of the
Prof. Bolaji Akinyemi was the foreign affair minister who Anglo-Nigerian Defence pact during the Angolan Crisis I
advocated the concept of medium powers (D) 1975 (C)

2015/15 UTME 2010/42 UTME

One of the reasons for the adoption of Africa as the centre An attribute that Nigeria shares with most non-aligned
piece of Nigeria’s foreign policy is to countries is
A. encourage rivalry in Africa A. the state of her economy
B. monopolise African economics B. her heterogeneous population
C. protect her domestic environment C. her large population
D. challenge the major powers D. her large size
Answer Answer
The main reason for the adoption of Africa as the Nigeria shares an attribute of her economy with most
centerpiece of Nigeria’s foreign policy is to protect her members of the non-aligned (A)
domestic environment (C)
2013/41 UTME
1992/46 UTME Nigeria’s non-alignment policy in the sixties lacked real
Which of the following countries had a strained substance because of her
relationship with Nigeria over the Angolan crisis of 1975? A. Afrocentric policy B. poor economic potential
A. The Soviet Union B. Tanzania C. partnership with Asian countries
C. The United States of America D. South Africa D. close ties with Britain
Answer Answer
The United States of America had a strained relationship Nigeria’s non-alignment policy in the sixties lacked real
with Nigeria over the Angolan crisis of 1975 because the substance because of her close relationship (ties) with
Nigerian government supported Angolan (C) Britain government her colonized master (D)

1997/43 UTME 1999/46 UTME

Non-alignment is no longer relevant in Nigerian foreign Nigeria non-aligned policy means that she will
policy because A. have nothing to do with the superpowers
A. she is seen as the leader of Africa B. not take sides in international issues based on
B. her focus is now on Africa ideological considerations
C. of the formation of the ECOWAS C. avoid having any dealing with member countries of the
D. the cold war has ended Non-Aligned Movement
Answer Answer
Non-alignment is no longer relevant in Nigerian foreign Nigeria non-aligned policy means that she will not take
policy because of the formation of the Economic sides in international issues based on ideological
Community of West Africa states (ECOWAS) (C) consideration (B)

524
1999/47 UTME 1997/42 UTME
One of the underlying principles of Nigerian foreign policy The foreign affairs minister who introduced economic
is diplomacy as a foreign policy initiative was
A. encouragement of peace keeping operations in Africa A. Prof. Bola Akinyemi
B. interference in the internal activities of other countries B. Major General Ike Nwachukwu
C. non – commitment towards African unity C. Prof. Ibrahim Gambari
D. respect for sovereign equality of all states D. Major General Joseph Garba
Answer Answer
The main principles of Nigerian foreign policy is respect Major General Ike Nwachukwu was the Foreign Affairs
for sovereign equality of all states (D) Minister in Nigeria whom introduced economic diplomacy
as a foreign policy initiative (B)
2002/48 UTME
An attribute that Nigeria shares with most non-aligned 1994/43 UTME
countries is The foreign affairs minister who advocated the “concept of
A. the state of her economy B. her large size medium powers” was
C. her heterogeneous population D. her large population A. Prof. Ibrahim Gambari B. Major General Joe Garba
Answer C. Alhaji Rilwanu Lukman D. Prof. Bolaji Akinyemi
An attribute that Nigeria shares with most non-aligned Answer
countries is the state of her economy (A) Prof. Bolaji Akinyemi was the foreign affair minister who
advocated the concept of medium powers (D)

1998/46 UTME 2015/15 UTME

The concept of Africa as the centre-piece of Nigerian One of the reasons for the adoption of Africa as the centre
foreign policy implies that Nigeria should piece of Nigeria’s foreign policy is to
A. interfere in the internal affairs of other African states A. encourage rivalry in Africa
B. support secessionist movements in Africa B. monopolise African economics
C. participate in any peace-keeping operation in Africa C. protect her domestic environment
D. lay more emphasis on African states D. challenge the major powers
Answer Answer
The concept of Africa as the centre-piece of Nigerian The main reason for the adoption of Africa as the
foreign policy implies that Nigeria should lay more centerpiece of Nigeria’s foreign policy is to protect her
emphasis on Africa issues (D) domestic environment (C)

2005/40 UTME 2022/9 Neco

An indication that Africa is still the centre-piece of Highlight six advantages of interactions among nations of
Nigeria’s foreign policy was the creation of the the world.
A. Nigerian institute of international affairs Answer
B. ministry of integration and cooperation in Africa 1. Peace and security: Through membership and
C. Nigeria Institute of Policy and Strategic Studies interactions existing in these international or regional
D. Ministry of Foreign Affairs organizations, e.g. UNO and AU member – states are
Answer meant to abide by the principles governing these
The indication that Africa is still the centre-piece of bodies thereby promoting peace and security
Nigeria’s foreign policy was the creation of the Ministry of worldwide.
Integration and Cooperation in Africa (B) 2. Economic advancement: Interactions bring about
2020/19 UTME states benefiting from others that are more
The centre-piece of Nigeria’s foreign policy covers only economically viable, especially in the areas of natural
A. Europe B. Africa C. Latin America endowment, technology, etc..
D. Asia 3. Spread of civilization and modernization:
Answer Interactions among nations of the world can spread
The centre-piece of Nigeria’s foreign policy covers only civilization and modernization and even help to
Africa (B) promote tourism as well.
4. Removal of interference: Political interaction
2008/50 UTME removes the tendency of one state or more interfering
Nigeria teamed up with other developing countries to in the domestic affairs of other states or even trying
assert a neutral posture under the platform of to dominate others.
A. nationalist movement B. Pan African movement 5. Cultural and social benefits: States benefit
C. Non-aligned movement D. negritude movement immensely from others, especially through sports,
Answer cultural exchange, etc. They learn from one another
Nigeria teamed up with other African developing countries as it brings them closer together.
to assert a neutral posture under the platform of non- 6. Foreign aids: Interactions among states can attract
aligned movement (C) technological, financial and technical aids to
developing countries from the developed ones

525
2022/8 4. Military reason: Through membership and
Explain five problems Nigeria encounter in her interactions existing in these international or regional
interactions with nations of the world. organizations, warring countries get easy access to
Answer military aids, assistance and interventions.
The following are the problems Nigeria encounter in her 5. Foreign aids: Interactions among states can attract
interactions with nations of the world. technological, financial and technical aids to
1. Cultural/social problems: Through Nigeria developing countries from the developed ones.
interactions with other nations something that was not
acceptable became normal routes in our society. REVISION EXERCISES
2. Interference of states: Interactions makes developed 1. Which of the following is not an objective in foreign
nations to still interfere in the domestic affairs of the policy?
developing nations, especially Nigeria, because of the A. prestige B. large population
economic benefits. C. territorial integrity D. survival
3. Neo–colonialism: Nigeria’s interaction among states E. preservation of states beliefs and values
introduces neo-colonialism, which uses economic, 2. Which of the following African countries has
political, cultural, or other pressures to control or diplomatic relations with South Africa?
influence other countries, especially former A. Malawi B. Zambia C. Gabon D. Tanzania
dependencies. E. Cameroon
4. Inferior or poorly produced goods: Interaction 3. Nigeria broke diplomatic relations with Israel
among states can lead to some developed countries because of that country’s
making some of the third world countries e.g. Nigeria, A. raid on a Ugandan town
as dumping ground for their inferior or poorly B. occupation of Arab territories including Egypt C.
produced goods. non – support of Nigeria civil war
5. Control of states: Political and economic interactions D. support for South Africa
associated with the membership of some of the E. refusal to accept pilgrims from Africa
organizations, which Nigeria is an active member e.g. 4. If the receiving state does not approve a diplomat on
UNO and I.M.F bring about control of sovereignty of account of his past activities, he is considered
less powerful states, as most of these organizations A. a dozen of diplomat corps
are controlled by the big powers. B. an extra – ordinary ambassador
C. an ambassador plenipotentiary
2021/9 NABTEB D. a person anon grata
a. Explain interdependence of nations. 5. Which of the following does not make up the basic
b. Highlight five reasons why nations depend on one principles of a country’s external relations?
another. A. commitment to world peace
Answer B. cooperation among states
Inter–dependence of nations is the relationship among C. interference in the internal affairs of other
countries in which they depend on each other for resources, countries
goods and services. Since no nation can exist in isolation D. non – alignment in world affairs
from others. Thus, development of a nation cannot be done Answer - interference in the internal affairs of other
without relating or interacting with other nations. In the countries
process of these interactions, benefits are derived in 6. Which of the following statements is true of foreign
different areas of human endeavour. policy? It is determined by
A. the federal government only
(9b) Highlight five reasons why nations depend on one B. state governments
another. C. both the federal and state governments
1. Political reason: States agree to interact through the D. local governments E. all the people in the state
formation of different organizations e.g. UNO and 7. States achieve their objectives at the international
AU. This is done in order to create opportunity for a community through
peaceful and secured world, good government and to A. inter state dialogue B. foreign policy
avoid the interference of one states or states in others, C. espionage D. national interest E. propaganda
which may result in war of world-wide dimension. Answer - foreign policy
2. Economic reason: Natural resources are unevenly 8. Nigeria’s foreign policy came into the limelight at
distributed worldwide and nations can only benefit independence because
from one another through such interactions. Nations A. Nigeria did not know any other country before than
get what they don’t have through such interaction and B. only at independence do states proclaim their
it has added impetus to the economic advancement of foreign policy
most states. C. her internal policies were harsh
3. Socio/cultural reason: This is very important D. Nigeria was self–sufficient before independence
because it promotes love and friendship among E. Nigeria dropped its isolationist
nations and eliminates conflicts. Nations are brought
together to share things in common, derive some
benefits in the area of culture, sports, football, etc.

526
9. Nigeria’s recognition of the popular movement for
the liberation of Angola to lead the country was made
under
A. General Yakubu Gowon
B. General Murtala Muhammed
C. General Muhammadu Buhari
D. General Ibrahim Babangida
10. Nigeria’s non–alignment policy constrained by her
A. membership of the UNO B. afrocentric posture
C. members of ECOWAS
D. strong ties with western powers
11. The dispute between Nigeria and Cameroon is over
A. trade B. exploration rights C. fishing rights
D. territory
12. The foreign affairs minister who introduced economic
diplomacy as a foreign policy initiative was
A. Prof. Bolaji Akinyemi B. Major General Ike
Nwachukwu C. Prof. Ibrahim Gambari
D. Major General Joseph Garba
13. Nigeria broke diplomatic relations with France in
1961 because of
A. France’s atomic test in the Sahara desert
B. the poor relations of the Franco-phone countries
with her
C. General de–Gaulle Senegative attitudes towards her
D. France’s diplomatic relations with Israel
14. One outstanding action for which the Gowon
administration will be remembered in Nigeria’s
political history is the
A. organization of FESTAC B. construction of roads
C. creation of twelve states D. civil service purge
15. The foreign affairs minister who advocated the
concert of medium powers’ was
A. Prof. Ibrahim Gambari
B. Major-General Joe Garba
C. Alhaji Rilwanu Lukman D. Prof. Bolaji Akinyemi
16. Which of the following reasons best explains why
Nigeria during the first republic, could not pursue an
independent policy?
A. the numerous differences among the ethnic groups
B. lack of political ideology
C. Nigeria was a non – aligned country
D. Nigeria’s economy was dependent on the western
countries
17. The principle of Africa being the centerpiece of
Nigeria’s foreign policy has been demonstrated in
A. Egypt B. Gabon C. Zambia D. Namibia
18. In what ways does Nigeria maintain friendly relations
with other Africa states?
19. How has Nigeria shown that Africa is the centerpiece
of her foreign policy?
20. Outline the basic factors that influence Nigeria
foreign policy.
21. Identify any six factors affecting Nigeria’s foreign
policy.
22. Explain the main guiding principles of Nigeria’s
foreign policy.
23. Highlight any four main objectives of the foreign
policy of any one West African country.
24. a. Explain the axiom “Nigeria’s foreign policy
as a Centre-piece of Africa”
b. Highlight five factors influencing Nigeria’s
foreign policy.
527
Chapter Forty 1978/26 UTME
The OAU was formed in
INTERNATIONAL ORGANISATION 1: A. 1946 B. 1956 C. 1960 D. 1963 E. 1965
Answer
THE ORGANIZATION OF AFRICAN The Organisation of African Unity (OAU) was founded on
UNION (OAU)/ AFRICAN UNION May 25, 1963 at Addis Ababa in Ethiopia (D)
(AU)/NEW PARTNERSHIP FOR
AFRICA’S DEVELOPMENT (NEPAD) 2000/36 UTME
Prior to the formation of the OAU in 1963, Nigeria
HISTORICAL PERSPECTIVE OF OAU identified with the
The Organization of African Unity (OAU) was an A. Monrovia Group B. Cassablanca Group
intergovernmental organization established on May 25, 1963 C. Brazzaville Group D. Libreville Group
at Addis Ababa, Ethiopia, with 32 signatory governments. Answer
One of the main heads for OAU’s establishment was Kwame Nigeria was identified with the Monrovia Group before the
Nkrumah of Ghana. It was disbanded on July 9, 2002 by its formation of the Organisation of African Unity (OAU).
last chairman, South African President Thabo Mbeki, and The Monrovia Group, sometimes known as the Monrovia
replaced by the African Union (AU). The organization was bloc, officially the conference of Independent African
intended to unite all African states against the forces of states, was a short-lived, informal association of African
colonialism and imperialism and work towards the resolution states with a shared vision of the future of Africa and of
of African socio-economic and political problems. The OAU Pan-Africanism in the early 1960s (A)
is made up of all independent African states. Before the
establishment of OAU as a regional body, there were three 1986/50 UTME
different groups in Africa with their ideologies and goals.
Which of these groups of African leaders is closely
These groups did not augur well for the unity and peace of
associated with the formation of the OAU?
Africa. OAU is a better organization than the former blocs it
replaced. Blocs means a group of countries or political parties A. Haile Selassie, Abubakar Tafawa Balewa, Williams
with common interests who have formed an alliance. Tubman
B. Abubakar Tafawa Balewa, Jean Bokassa, Kwame
These were the three blocs before OAU in Africa. Nkrumah
1. Casablanca group: The group consisted of the C. Kwame Nkrumah, Nnamdi Azikiwe, Jomo Kenyatta
following countries: Ghana, Egypt, Morocco, Guinea, D. Julina Nyerere, Kwame Nkrumah, Haile Selassie
Mali and Algeria. Answer
2. Brazzaville or African and Malagasy group: Kwame Nkrumah, Nnamdi Azikiwe and Jomo Kenyatta
Cameroon, Congo, Brazzaville, Ivory Coast, Senegal, were the African leaders which were closely associated
Niger Republic, etc.. with the formation of the Organisation of African Unity
3. Monrovia group: Nigeria, Liberia, Sierra – Leone, (OAU) (C)
Ethiopia, etc.
1993/55
These three blocs were present when signing the charter in The moving force behind the formation of OAU was
Addis Ababa, Monrovia and Casablanca groups were A. Williams Tubman B. Abubakar Tafawa Balewa
dissolved while Brazzaville or African and Malagasy group C. Jomo Kenyatta D. Kwame Nkrumah
continued to exist. The headquarters of OAU is in Addis E. Julius Nyerere
Ababa, Ethiopia. Currently about 53 countries were members Answer
of OAU, and they are all independent states. Eritrea was Kwame Krumah was the force behind the formation of
admitted as the 52nd member in June 1993 after obtaining its
OAU. Kwame Krumah was a Ghanaian politician and
independence from Ethiopia on May 24, 1993. South Africa
revolutionary. He was the first prime minister and
was the 53rd member of OAU after apartheid was dismantled.
Aside Dr. Kwame Nkrumah of Ghana, other notable figures
president of Ghana, having led the Ivory Coast to
who were major proponent of its establishment include, H.O independence from Britain in 1957. (D)
Davies, Magnus Williams, S.L. Akintola, Nnamdi Azikiwe,
Tafawa Balewa, of Nigeria, Jomo Kenyatta of Kenya, 1996/57 Nov
Wallace Johnson of Siera Leone, Modibo Keita of Mali, The membership of the Organisation of African Unity
Gamal Abdul Nasser of Egypt, Seku Toure of Guinea, (OAU) is
William Tubman of Liberia, Ben Bella Of Algeria, Emperor A. open to all independent African states
Haile Selassie of Ethiopia, Julius K. Nyerere of Tazania, and B. mandatory for all African states
many others. C. open to all African states and colonies
D. limited to states, south of the Sahara
1986/47 UTME E. only for independent states, north of the Sahara
The administrative headquarters of OAU is in Answer
A. Addis Ababa B. Lagos C. Accra D. Nairobi The membership of the Organization of African Unity (OAU)
Answer is open to all African states that are independent. (A)
The administrative headquarters of OAU is Addis Ababa,
Ethiopia (A)
528
2012/47 3. Integration: Accelerate the political and social and
The Organization of African Unity (OAU) was set up in economic integration of the continent.
A. Accra B. Harare C. Cairo D. Addis Ababa 4. Promote African positions: Promote and defend
Answer African common positions on issues of interest to the
The OAU was founded in May 25, 1963 in Addis Ababa, continent and its people.
Ethiopia, by 32 African states with the main aim of 5. International cooperation: Encourage international
bringing the African nations together and resolve the issues cooperation, in accordance with the charter of the
within the continent. (D) United Nations and the Universal Declaration of
Human Rights.
2002/46 Nov 6. Peace and security: Promote peace, security, and
The formation of the Organization of African Unity (OAU) stability on the continent.
was inspired by 7. Democratic principle: Promote democratic
A. Africans living in Britain principles and institutions, popular participation and
B. the pan–African Movement good governance.
C. Movement for the eradication of slave trade 8. Protect human rights: Promote and protect human
D. the economic community of West African states rights and people’s rights in accordance with the
Answer African charter on human and people’s rights and
The organization of African Unity (OAU), established on other relevant human rights instrument.
25 May, 1963, was the culmination of a number of diverse 9. Enabling environment: Establish the necessary
and far reaching historical currents and political trends conditions which enable the continent to play its
both on the African continent and abroad. Of particular rightful role in the global economy and in
impart to the ideological formation of the OAU was the international negotiations.
late 19th century pan–Africanist movement which emerged 10. Sustainable development: Promote sustainable
in the United States of America (USA) among black development at the economic, social and cultural
Americans. (B) levels as well as the integration of African economies.
11. Cooperation: Promote cooperation in all fields of
2013/48 Neco Exercise 40.1 human activity to raise the living standards of African
Which of the following international organizations did all people.
West African countries belong to? 12. Coordinate policies: Coordinate and harmonize
A. Organization of Petroleum Exporting Countries policies between existing and future regional
B. North Atlantic Treaty Organisation economic communities for the gradual attainment of
C. European Union the objectives of the union.
D. Organisation of African Unity 13. Promote research: Advance the development of the
continent by promoting research in all fields,
1994/57 Exercise 40.2 particularly in science and technology.
To which of the following did Nigeria belong before the 14. Eliminate preventable diseases: Work with relevant
formation of the OAU. international partners in the eradication of
A. OPEC group B. Monrovia group preventable diseases and the promotion of good
C. West Africa group D. Casablanca group health on the continent.
E. Brazzaville group
1987/43 UTME
1999/43 Exercise 40.3 One of the objectives of the OAU is to ensure
Which of the following ideological groups was in A. mutual assistance of member states in suppressing
existence before the formation of the Organization of domestic uprising
Africa’s Unity (O.A.U)? B. non-interference in internal affairs of member states
A. Casablanca, Lagos, Monrovia group C. constant readjustment of territorial boundaries of
B. Brazzaville, Lome, Accra group member states
C. Casablanca, Brazzaville, Conakry group D. unification of liberation movements in southern Africa
D. Casablanca, Brazzaville, Monrovia group Answer
One of the aims of the Organisation of African Unity
2018/22 NABTEB Exercise 40.4 (OAU) was to ensure constant readjustment of territorial
African union has its headquarters in boundaries of member states (B)
A. Freetown B. Dares Salaam C. Addis Ababa
D. Abuja 1982/26 UTME
The OAU was founded to
A. effect an immediate political union of African states
Aims and Objectives of OAU B. end colonialism in Africa by 1970
1. Unity between African countries: Achieve greater C. promote the unity and solidarity of African states
unity and solidarity between the African countries D. create a common market in Sub-Saharan Africa
and the people of Africa. E. prevent other regional groups from being set – up
2. Defense: Defend the sovereignty, territorial integrity Answer
and independence of its member states. The Organization of Africa Unity (OAU) was founded to
promote the unity and solidarity of African states (C)
529
1981/38 UTME 1978/45 UTME Exercise 40.7
Organisation of African Unity was established for the main The dominant idea behind the establishment of the
purpose of Organisation of African unity is
A. opposing imperialism in all its forms and manifestations A. that Africa must unite
B. establishing an African High command B. to show the World that African can also do what Latin
C. protecting the human rights of all Africans wherever they American and Asian countries have done
may live C. to provide a framework and opportunity for cooperation
D. creating an African common market on common African problems
E. encouraging cooperation and unity among African states D. to promote economic development of Africa
Answer E. to have its Secretary – General coordinate the foreign
Organisation of African Unity (OAU) was established for the
policies of member states
main purpose of encouraging cooperation and unity among
African states (E)

2005/48 Principles of OAU

One of the main objectives of the African Union (AU) is to 1. Sovereignty: All member states are sovereign, none
A. hold elections in member states should be under the control of any other state. Respect
B. distribute military equipment to its members for sovereignty of states is a major principle of OAU.
C. encourage cooperation among member states 2. Settlement of disputes: Peaceful settlement of all
D. establish court in member states disputes by negotiation, mediation, reconciliation or
Answer arbitration.
The main aim and objectives of the African Union (AU) is to 3. Emancipation of African territories: Absolute
encourage cooperation, peace and unity among members’ dedication to the total emancipation of the African
states. (C) territories which are still dependent.
4. Equality of states: No state should dominate others.
1988/10a Equal rights should be granted to all member states.
Mention the aims of the organization of African Unity 5. Policy of non–interference: No member state has the
(OAU). right to interfere in the internal affairs of other
Answer member states.
1. To promote the unity and solidarity of African states. 6. Policy of non–alignment: Affirmation of a policy of
2. To coordinate and intensify their cooperation and efforts non–alignment with regards to all blocks; and
to achieve a better life for the people of Africa. members are expected to discuss and assess
3. To defend their sovereignty, territorial integrity and international issues objectively.
independence. 7. Unreserved condemnation, in all its forms, of political
4. To eradicate all forms of colonialism from Africa. assassination as well as of subversive activities on the
5. To promote international cooperation, having due part of neighbouring or any other state within the
regard to the charter of the United Nations and the continent.
Universal Declaration of Human Rights.
6. To promote peaceful resolution of disputes among
1995/49
member states through negotiation, mediation,
consultation and arbitration. The OAU is founded on the principle of
7. To speak with one voice on the world affairs so as to A. settlement of international disputes by armed struggles
present a united front. B. justification interference in the domestic affairs of
8. To preserve the African personality, culture and member states
traditions. C. sovereign equality of member states
D. equal contribution of member states
1999/41 UTME Exercise 40.5 Answer
Based on its objectives, the Organisation of African Unity The Organization of African Unity (OAU) was founded on
can primarily be classified as the principle of sovereign equality of member states (C)
A. a social organization B. a political organization
C. a cultural organization D. an economic organization 2000/11 Neco Exercise 40.8
What are the guiding principles of the Organization of
1988/44 Exercise 40.6 African Unity (OAU)?
Which of the following is not an aim of the organization of
African Unity (OAU)?
A. promotion of unity and solidarity among African states THE LIBERATION COMMITTEE
B. cooperation of efforts to achieve a better life for the The liberation committee was set up in 1963 to channel
African states money and materials from O.A.U. It has its headquarters at
C. defence of the sovereignty and independence of African Dare-es-Salam in Tanzania.
states
D. eradication of all forms of colonialism and foreign
exploitation
E. enthronement of democratic governments in Africa

530
Functions of the Liberation Committee 2013/49 Neco
1. This committee was set up mainly to assist African Which of the following is not an organ of the organization
territories who were still under colonial rule to gain of African Unity (OAU)? The
independence. Some countries, it has helped include A. Assembly of Heads of State and Government
Angola, Cape Verde Islands, Guinea–Bissau B. Tribunal of the community C. council of ministers
Mozambique etc. D. secretariat
2. The body was to assist, financially and materially, the Answer
liberation movements in Africa, e.g. SWAPO in Tribunal of the community is not an organ of the
Namibia and MPLA in Angola. Organisation of African Unity (OAU). (B)
NB: The liberation committee has long ceased to exist
because all African countries are now independent. 2019/49 NABTEB Exercise 40.9
Which of the following is not among the organs of the
1990/45 UTME African Union (AU)?
The headquarters of the OAU Liberations Committee is A. Assembly of Heads of state and government
located in B. Security Council C. council of minister
A. Lagos B. Addis Ababa C. Dar-es Salaam D. the secretariat
D. Harare
Answer 1993/56 Exercise 40.10
The headquarters of the Organisation of African Unity All the following are organs of OAU except
Liberation Committee is located in Dar-es Salaam (C) A. Assembly of Heads of state and government
B. Economic Commission for Africa
1992/51 C. General Secretariat D. Council of Minister
Nigeria contributed to the South African Liberation Fund E. Commission for mediation conciliation and arbitration
because
A. a Nigerian was made the chairman of the OAU
liberation committee THE ASSEMBLY OF HEADS OF STATE AND
B. Africa is the centerpiece of Nigeria’s foreign policy GOVERNMENT
C. of her desires to eradicate racial discrimination in Africa The Assembly of Heads of State and Government was the
D. she is the richest African country supreme organ of the OAU. This Assembly consisted of
E. she hates South Africa the Heads of State of member states or their accredited
Answer representatives. It met at least once a year. At the request
Nigeria contributed to the South African Liberation Fund of any member-state, it could meet in an extraordinary
because of her desires to eradicate racial discrimination in session subject to the approval of two-thirds of the
Africa. (C) member-states. In the Assembly, each member had one
vote and all resolutions were determined by a two-third
Organs/Institutions Of OAU majority. This Assembly has a chairman and usually, the
head of state and government of the host country is usually
The following are the organs of OAU. the chairman for one year.
1. The Assembly of Heads of State and Government.
2. The Council of Ministers. Functions of the Assembly of Heads of State and
3. The General Secretariat. Governments
4. The Commission of Mediation, Conciliation and 1. Appointment of Secretary-General: This organ is
Arbitration. responsible for the appointment of the Administrative
Secretary General of the Organisation and his
1984/50 UTME assistants.
All the following are organs of the OAU, except 2. Regulations of activities of the Secretary-General:
A. the commission on Mediation, Conciliation and The assembly approve the regulations governing the
Arbitration functions and conditions of service of the
B. The Council of Ministers Administrative Secretary General, his assistants and
C. The General Secretariat the staff.
D. The Economic Commission for Africa 3. Admission of new members: New members into the
E. The Assembly of Heads of State and Government organization are also admitted by this organ.
Answer 4. Amendment of the charter: The assembly can approve
The Economic Commission for Africa was not an organ of
amendments to the charter in conformity with the
Organisation of African Unity (D)
established procedure.
5. Coordination of policies: Policies of general interest
1998/60
The Commission of mediation, conciliation and arbitration is as it affects member states are discussed and
an organ of the coordinated by this body.
A. ECOWAS B. OAU C. Commonwealth 6. Activities of the various organs commission, etc.: are
D. NESCO E. OPEC examined by the Assembly of Heads of State and
Answer Governments.
The commission of mediation, conciliation and arbitration is
an organ of the Organization of African unity. (B)
531
7. Problems of member states: Some problems of 1993/57 Nov Exercise 40.11
member states are looked into and settled by this body The responsibility for the settlement of disputes among
using the available machinery in place. member states of the OAU belongs to the
8. Examination of activities: To review the structure, A. commission for mediation, conciliation and arbitration
functions and acts of all the organs and any specialized B. liberation committee
agencies which may be created in accordance with the C. Assembly of Heads of State and Government
present charter. D. General secretariat E. Council of ministers

1996/57 2011/20 (OAU, IFE) Exercise 40.12

The supreme policy–making organ of African Unity (OAU) Which of the following was the main organ of the defunct
is the OAU?
A. council of ministers A. the Liberian committee B. The council of Ministers
B. Assembly of Heads of State and Governments C. the Commission of Mediation, Conciliation and
C. General Secretariat D. Defence Commission Arbitration
E. Security Council D. the Assembly of Heads of state and government
Answer
Assembly of Heads of State and Government is the Supreme 2001/11 Nov Exercise 40.13
policy-making organ of the Organisation of African Unity Highlight the functions of Assembly of Heads of State and
(OAU). (B) Governments in the Organisation of African Unity (OAU).

1999/47 Nov 1993/45 UTME Exercise 40.14

The Assembly of Heads of States and governments of the The supreme policy-making organ in the organization of
Organisation of African Unity (OAU) is mainly responsible for African Unity is
A. making laws for member states A. the council of ministers
B. imposing sanctions on member states B. the Assembly of Heads of State and Government
C. formulating the general policies of the organization C. the General Secretariat
D. the day to day administration of the organization D. Specialised Commissions E. none of the above
Answer
Formulation of the general policies of the Organization of
African Unity (OAU) is mainly the responsibility of the THE COUNCIL OF MINISTERS
assembly of Heads of State and Governments. (C) This was the second principal organ of the OAU which consisted
of the Foreign Ministers of each member-state. It met at least twice
1995/56 Nov a year, but like the Assembly, could also meet in extraordinary
The Chairman of the Organisation of African Unity (OAU) is sessions on the request of a member-state subject to the approval
appointed for a period of of two-third of the OAU members.
A. one year B. two years C. three years
D. four years E. five years The Council was charged with the duty of preparing the agenda
Answer for the Assembly before the final decision on the items by the
Organisation of African Unity (OAU) has an assembly Assembly.
Chairman under the Heads of State and Government, the host
country for their annual meeting usually became the Functions of the Council of Ministers
Chairman of the Assembly for one year. (A) 1. Preparation of the agenda: The council of ministers
prepares the agenda for the meetings of the Assembly of
2001/49 Neco Heads of States and Government.
The organ of the Organization of African Unity (OAU) 2. Approval of the budget: It approves the annual budget of the
responsible for the appointment of the Secretary–General is organization.
the 3. Implementation of decisions: This council equally
A. appointment commission B. liberation committee implements the decisions arrived at by the Assembly.
C. assembly of the Heads of State and Government 4. Recommendations: This body recommends to the Assembly
D. Economic and Social Commission of Heads of State and Government for the appointment of a
Answer Secretary–General of the organization and for the
Assembly of Heads of State and Governments is the organ administration of new members into the organization.
responsible for the appointment of the Secretary–General of 5. Responsible to the Assembly: This council is responsible for
the organization. (C) the coordination of inter-African co-operation in accordance
with the instruction of the Assembly and in conformity with
2003/49 Neco the organisation’s Charter in the following respects:
The highest organ of the Organisations of African Unity (a) Political and diplomatic cooperation;
(OAU) is the (b) Economic cooperation including transport and
A. Trusteeship council B. secretariat communications;
C. assembly of Heads of States and Governments (c) Educational and cultural cooperation;
D. Council of ministers (d) Health, sanitation and nutritional cooperation;
Answer (e) Scientific and technical cooperation;
The Assembly of Heads of State and Government is the (f) Cooperation for defence and security;
highest and most powerful of all the organs of the 6. The council decides on the privileges and immunities to
organization. (C) be accorded to the personnel of the Secretariat in
respective territories of the member states.
532
2015/19 Exercise 40.16
The organ of the AU that prepares for the meeting of the Which body recommends to the Assembly of Heads of
Assembly of Heads of state and Government is the State and government for the appointment of a Secretary-
A. Commission of Mediation, Conciliation and Arbitration General of the organization?
B. African parliament C. Council of Ministers A. Council of Ministers
D. General Secretariat B. Council of Liberation Committee
Answer C. Council of Elders D. the General Secretariat
The Council of Ministers are the organ of the African
Union (AU) that prepares for the meeting of the Assembly Exercise 40.17
of Heads and Government. (C) Among the following option which organ is responsible for
co-ordination and harmonization of inter-African co-
operation?
2019/39 A. The Assembly of Heads of State and Government
The annual budget of the OAU is approved by the B. The Council of Ministers
A. Council of Ministers C. The General Secretariat
B. Assembly of Head of states and government D. the Liberation committee
C. Secretary-General D. General Assembly
Answer Exercise 40.18
The Council of Ministers consists of foreign or external Which organ implements the decision of the organization?
affairs ministers or any other ministers appointed by the A. the Secretary General B. the council of ministers
government for this purpose. E.g. the minister of external C. the council of leaders D. the council of presidents
affairs in Nigeria is a member of this council. The annual
budget of the OAU is approved by the council of Ministers Exercise 40.19
(A) 1. Highlight the functions of the council of ministers
in the Organization of African Unity (OAU).
1995/58
The resolutions and programmes of the OAU are executed THE GENERAL-SECRETARIAT
by the This is the administrative organ of the organization. The
A. secretariat headquarters is in Addis Ababa, Ethiopia. The OAU had
B. commission of mediation, conciliation and arbitration permanent administrative Secretary-General who was
C. Secretary General D. Council of Ministers appointed by the Assembly on the recommendation of the
E. Head of government of each member state Council of Ministers. The Charter also made provisions for
Answer one or more Assistant Secretary-Generals, but the affairs
The Council of Ministers executes the resolutions and of the Secretariat were directed by the Secretary-General.
programmes of the Organisation of African Unity (OAU). The Secretary–General stays in the office for a tenure of four years
(D) and maybe re-appointed for another term.

1991/16 Nov
Which of the following organs of the OAU approves the Functions of the General Secretariat
Organisation’s annual budget? The 1. The organ prepares the agenda for meetings and also
A. secretariat B. council of Ministers keeps in custody the documents and files of the
C. Assembly of Heads of state and governments meetings of the Assembly or the Council of Ministers,
D. economic and social commission of the Specialised Commissions, and other organs of
E. liberation committee the OAU.
Answer 2. The organ prepares the annual report on the activities
The Council of Ministers approves the annual budget of of the organization.
the Organisation of African Unity (OAU). (B) 3. The secretariat prepares the programme and budget of
the organization for each fiscal year to be submitted
2007/48 Neco to the council of Ministers for its consideration and
The Council of Ministers of the Organisation of African approval.
Unity (OAU) is made up of 4. The organ places at the disposal of the specialized
A. Justice Ministers B. Foreign Affairs Ministers commissions, the technical and administrative
C. Education Ministers D. Defence Ministers services that may be required.
Answer 5. The general–secretariat is the body that controls the
The Council of Minister of the Organisation of African finances of the organization.
Unity (OAU) is made up of Foreign Affairs Minister. (B) 6. The organ receive communications or ratification of
instruments of agreements entered into between
Exercise 40.15 member states.
Which organ of the Organisation of African Unity (OAU) 7. The organ prepare for submission to the Council,
prepares the agenda for the meetings of the Assembly of reports on the activities carried out by the Specialised
Heads of State and governments? Commissions.
A. The General Secretariat B. General Secretary
C. Liberian Committee D. The Council of Ministers
533
2014/49 UTME Exercise 40.24
The Secretary General of the OAU holds office for a The meeting of the Council of Ministers usually takes place
renewable period of at
A. five years B. six years C. three years D. four years A. market B. office C. Secretariat
Answer D. worship centres
The Secretary-General stays in office for a period of four
years and may be re-appointed for another term (B) Exercise 40.25
The organ that provides the technical and administrative
services required by the Organisation of African Unity
2000/49 UTME
(OAU) is
The Secretary-General of the OAU is appointed by the
A. Permanent Secretary B. General Secretariat
A. council upon the recommendation of the Assembly
C. General D. Assembly of the head of states
B. council upon the recommendation of the secretariat
C. assembly upon the recommendation of the council Exercise 40.26
D. defence commission upon the recommendation of the Which organ prepares the annual report of the Organisation?
secretariat A. Assembly of Heads of States and Government
Answer B. the General Secretariat
The Secretary-General of the OAU is appointed by the C. Assembly of the Council of Ministers
Assembly upon the recommendation of the council (C) D. Secretary General’s office

1993/45 UTME Exercise 40.27

The supreme policy-making organ in the organization of The organ that prepares the budget of the organization is
African Unity is called
A. the council of ministers A. the General–Secretariat
B. the Assembly of Heads of State and Government B. the council of ministers
C. the General Secretariat C. the liberation committee
D. Specialised Commissions E. none of the above D. the assembly of heads of state and government
Answer
The Assembly of Heads of State and Government is the Exercise 40.28
supreme policy-making organ in the Organization of Which organ of the Organisation of African Unity (OAU)
African Unity (B) prepares the programmes of activities of the year in the
organization?
A. technical council B. skilled council
Exercise 40.20
C. the general secretariat D. the ministers council
The administrative organ of the Organisation of African
Answer
Unity (OAU) is The General–Secretariat is the organ of the Organisation of
A. The council of chiefs B. the council of ministers African Unity (OAU) that prepares the programmes of
C. the Secretary General D. The General Secretariat activities of the year in the organization. (C)

Exercise 40.21 Exercise 40.29

Who is the Chief Administrative officer of the The organ that controls the finances of the organization of
Organisation of African Unity (OAU)? African Unity (OAU) is the
A. ministers B. Secretary–General C. secretariat A. Ministers B. Governors C. Presidents
D. the assembly of states D. General–Secretariat E. State government

Exercise 40.22 Exercise 40.30

The Secretary-General tenure is _______ Highlight the functions of the General–Secretariats of the
A. four years B. three years C. eight years organization of African Unity (OAU).
D. one year
Answer Duties of the Secretary-General
The Secretary–General stays in office for a period of fourThe duties and obligations of the Administrative Secretary-
years and maybe re-appointed for only one another term. General included the following:
(A) (a) He directed the activities of the General Secretariat and
its legal representative.
Exercise 40.23 (b) He was the Accounting Officer of the organization and
Which organ prepares the agenda for meeting of the was responsible for the proper administration of the
council of ministers of the Organisation of African Unity budget.
(c) He called ordinary as well as extraordinary sessions of
(OAU)? The
the Council of Ministers and of the Assembly, in
A. Council of Ministers B. General – Secretariats
accordance with the rules of procedure of the Council.
C. Assembly of Heads of State and Government (d) He submitted reports requested by the Assembly, the
D. Liberation committee Council of Ministers and the Specialised Commissions.
He submitted to the Council, any required financial
matter or statement of the organization.

534
(e) He submitted to member states a quarterly statement Past Secretary–Generals of OAU
on payment of contributions and outstanding 1. Kiffle Wodajo of Ethiopia (1963–1964).
contributions. 2. Diallo Telli of Guinea (1964–72).
(f) In the financial sphere, he could also establish 3. Nzo Ekangaki of Cameroon (1972–74).
fiduciary funds, reserve funds and special funds with 4. William Eketi Mbomoua of Cameroon (1974–78).
the approval of the Council of Ministers, and may 5. Edem Kodjo of Togo (1978–83).
accept on behalf of the organization, gifts, bequests 6. Peter Onu of Nigeria (1983–85).
and other donations made available to the 7. Ide Oumarou of Niger Republic (1985–-89).
organization, provided that such donations are 8. Salim Ahmed Salim of Tanzania (1989–2001). Salim
consistent with the objectives and purposes of the A. Salim was the last Secretary–General of the OAU.
organization and are approved by the Council of The newly formed African Union (AU) has
Ministers. 9. Amara Essy of Ivory Coast (2001–2002).
(g) He was also accorded the right of designating the 10. Alpha Oumar Konare (2003–2008) of Mali.
African Banks or Banking Institutions in which the 11. Jean Ping of Gabon (2008–2012).
funds of the organization are to be deposited. 12. Nkosazana Dlamini–Zuma of South Africa (2012–
(h) He received notification of adherence or assentation of 2017).
the Charter, or renunciation of membership, and 13. Moussa Faki of Chad (2017-date).
communicated to member states written requests of
member states for amendments or revisions of the 1988/47 UTME
Charter. Which of the following has not been a Secretary – General
(i) He drew up the provisional agenda and communicated of the OAU?
it to member states in the manner laid down in the A. Adebayo Adedeji B. |Ide Oumaru C. Diallotelli
Rules of Procedure. D. Edem Kodjo
(j) He established or abolished, as the case may be, such Answer
branches and administrative and technical offices as Adebayo Adedeji has never been a Secretary General of
may be deemed necessary for the adequate functioning the Organisation of Africa Unity (A)
of the General Secretariat, subject of course, to
approval of the Council of Ministers. Exercise 40.36
Enumerate all the Organization of African Unity (OAU)
Exercise 40.31 Secretary Generals with their countries and years of
Who controls the secretariat of Organisation of African appointment and exit.
Unity (OAU)?
A. ministers B. council C. Secretary – General
D. Governor E. President THE COMMISSION OF MEDIATION,
CONCILIATION AND ARBITRATION
Exercise 40.32 Member states are pledged to settle disputes among
The implementation of the decisions of the Organisation of themselves by peaceful means. To this end, this
African Unity (OAU) is the responsibility of commission was established as the machinery for settling
A. Assembly of Heads of states and government disputes that might arise among the member states. The
B. Assembly of council of ministers protocol of this Commission was signed in 1964 and its
C. Secretary–General D. Liberation of committee membership was fixed at twenty-one.
The commission members have five years of tenure in
Exercise 40.33 office. Addis Ababa in Ethiopia as its headquarters. The
The appointment and recruitment of staff at the commission has a president and vice – president that
Organization of African Unity (OAU) is handled by supersedes or presides over their meetings, the activities of
A. staff of the Secretariat B. Secretary–General this commission is determined by the Assembly of Head of
C. administrative support staff State and Government.
D. the minister of council
To facilitate and promote the work of the organization, other
Exercise 40.34 five specialized commissions were set up. Membership of
Who supervises the preparation of the annual budget of the these specialized commissions consists of the ministers
Organisation of African Unity? concerned in their respective states or their designated
A. Head of State and Government representatives.
B. Assembly of Ministers These are;
C. reconciliation committee D. Secretary–General 1. Educational and cultural commission.
2. Economic and social commission.
Exercise 40.35 3. Health, sanitation and nutrition commission.
Who is the head of the Secretariat of Organisation of 4. Defence commission.
African Unity (OAU)? 5. Scientific, technical research commission.
A. Secretary–General
B. Restructuring and Correcting Committee
C. Assembly of heads of State and Government
D. Assembly of Minister’s Council
535
NB: The first constituted members were elected in 1965 Achievements of the OAU
for a five year period and the provisions for election and 1. United stand at the U.N: The first achievement of this
the functions of the Commission were as follows: organization to date is the total disappearance of the
(a) A member, once chosen, cannot be removed from antagonistic relations that once existed between the
office except by a two-third majority of the assembly radical and moderate states before the inception of
on the grounds of want of performance. OAU. The OAU members speak with one voice in the
(b) Not more than one national from each state can be UNO.
chosen or elected. 2. Served as a forum: The organization served as a forum
(c) The Commission’s jurisdiction is restricted to disputes for African leaders to discuss African affairs.
between member states. 3. Attainment of independence: The successes recorded
(d) The commission cannot be asked to arbitrate in a by the Liberation Committee of the organization are
conflict between a state and the organization. quite tremendous. Today, Guinea Bissau,
Disputes can be referred to the Commission by one or more Mozambique, the Cape Verde, Zimbabwe and Angola
parties; by the Council of Ministers or by the Assembly of are fully independent Sovereign States.
Heads of State. 4. Settlement of disputes: Another achievement was the
success of the organization in resolving some delicate
1993/57 Nov issues and disputes in the continent such as:
The responsibility for the settlement of disputes among (a) The problem of political refugees;
member states of the O.A.U belongs to the (b) The presence of white mercenaries in the
A. commission for mediation, conciliation and arbitration Congo;
B. liberation committee C. assembly of head of state (c) The Nigerian crisis (civil war) between 1967
D. general secretariat E. council of ministers and 1970.
Answer (d) Border disputes between member states.
The commission for mediation, conciliation and arbitration is Although the OAU has not successfully
responsible for the settlement of disputes among member resolved a single border dispute, it has on many
states of the organization of African union. (A) occasions created conditions for
disengagement and settlement e.g.
Outline the other five specialized commissions set up Algeria/Morocco(1963), Somalia/Ethiopia
under the organization of African unity. (1967).
Answer 5. African Development Bank: This bank has granted
I. Educational and cultural commission. soft loans to member states for developmental
II. Economic and social commission. programmes.
III. Health, sanitation and nutrition commission. 6. Regional economic cooperation: To a large extent,
IV. Defence commission. there have been successes in the field of economic,
V. Scientific, technical and research commission. educational, health, scientific, social–cultural and
regional and economic cooperation in Africa, e.g.
The commission of mediation, conciliation and arbitration ECOWAS.
has how many members. 7. Human rights: It has contributed to the observance of
A. 21 members B. 43 members C. 40 members human rights in African countries through the adoption
D. 26 members E. 24 members of the African charter on human rights.
Answer 8. Eradication of apartheid: The organization lived up to
The Commission of mediation, conciliation and arbitration its mandate objective of eradicating all forms of
has about 21 members from different member state. (A) colonialism from Africa with the overthrow of the
Apartheid regime in South Africa.
Where is the headquarter of the commission of mediation, 9. Poverty alleviation: It contributed in no small measure
conciliation and arbitration organ of OAU? in alleviating the sufferings of many African hit by
A. Free Town B. Spain Park C. Addis Ababa hunger and diseases resulting from natural disasters,
D. Cape town E. Dakar town through humanitarian assistance. For instance, in its
Answer round-off in Durban, South Africa, the organization
Addis Ababa in Ethiopia is the headquarters of the gave out financial grants totaling U.S $1.2 million in
commission of mediation, conciliation and arbitration organ humanitarian assistance to alleviate the suffering of
of Organization of African Unity. (C) African Countries hit by a devastating drought
disaster. These countries included Zambia, Lesotho,
The members of the commission of mediation, conciliation Zimbabwe, Malawi, Tanzania and Mozambique.
and arbitration have the tenure of _____ 10. African Economic Community (AEC): The treaty
A. four years B. six years C. five years establishing this community was signed in Abuja in
D. seven years E. one year 1991. One of the goals of the community is for a
Answer sustained socio-economic development of member
The commission members have five years of tenure in states of the organization.
office. (C) 11. Promotion of world peace: OAU in cooperation with
other international bodies e.g. UNO etc.. has
contributed to the promotion of world peace and
security.
536
2005/48 UTME 3. Economic co-operation including joint projects on
A major achievement of the OAU was the transport and communication through agencies like
A. decolonization of Africa B. eradication of poverty the ABD, ECA, ECOWAS, etc..
C. promotion of development 4. Education sports and cultural cooperation e.g.
D. establishment of democracy FESTAC, African Nations Cup.
Answer 5. Health, sanitation and nutritional cooperation.
The main achievement of the OAU was the decolonization 6. Scientific and technical cooperation.
of Africa (A) 7. Respect for the sovereignty and territorial integrity of
each state.
1988/10b Exercise 40.37 8. Eradication of all forms of colonialism from the
Discuss some of its achievements of OAU. continent of Africa.
9. Provision of military aid and support for countries in
1995/10 Nov Exercise 40.38 need e.g. Congo Democratic Republic.
State the major achievements of the Organisation of
African Unity (OAU) since its inception. 1995/56
Which of the following has the Organization of African
Unity (OAU) failed to achieve?
Weakness or Problems of the Organization of African A. setting up an African high command
Unity B. setting border disputes in Africa
(i) First among the series of problems of this C. giving assistance to liberation movements in Africa
organization was its inability to mobilize any D. contributing to the economic and social development of
effective military force for the realization of some member states
of its aims. E. providing a forum for the discussions of common
(ii) Another problem was political instability that problems
brought about widespread coup d’état and unrest Answer
in many parts of Africa. The Organisation of African Unity (O.A.U) failed to
(iii) The organisation’s various committees and achieve setting up an African high command. (A)
agencies were not clearly defined with their
resultant overlapping of functions. 2008/12
(iv) The organization suffered from poor finances and Outline four political factors that contribute to the
great dependence of most African countries on weakness of the Organisation of African Unity (OAU).
some major powers. Answer
(v) Most African states are yet to have reliable honest 1. The principle of non – interference in internal affairs
and dedicated leadership committed to the ideals of member states. This prevented OAU from playing
of the organization. active role in major crisis.
(vi) Most member states were indebted to the 2. Inter–state boundary disputes are common in Africa,
organization as they did not pay their dues e.g. Eritrea/Ethiopia, Nigeria/Cameroon,
regularly. The result was that the OAU did not Senegal/Mauritania, etc..
have adequate funds to prosecute its programmes. 3. Lack of military high command, OAU lacked a
(vii) Border clashes have been a regular feature on the standing army to be used in conflict situations.
continent. OAU, as a body has no capability to 4. Existence of sub-regional organizations e.g.
forestall such. ECOWAS, Mano River Union, etc..
(viii) There was lack of commitments to the defence of 5. Frequent changes of government through coup d’état.
independence of its member states as a result of 6. Member countries still maintain affinity to their
non-existence of an African Defence Force. former colonial masters.
(ix) Some of the aims of the organization, according to 7. Ideological differences among African countries.
the Charter, were over ambitious. For instance, it 8. Fear of domination by some member countries.
was impossible for the OAU to eradicate all forms 9. Lack of political will of some Heads of state to carry
of colonialism when the economic dependence of out OAU decisions.
its members on foreign powers encouraged the 10. Internal or domestic strife’s, conflicts, violence,
perpetuation of neo-colonialism. breakdown of law and order in some member states
leading to divided attention and lack of support for the
organization.
2003/12 Neco 11. Rivalry among the powerful member states for
In what ways do member states of the organization of supremacy.
African unity (OAU) cooperate with another?
Answer
1. Peaceful settlement of disputes by negotiation,
mediation, conciliation and arbitration, e.g. border
disputes.
2. Unreserved condemnation in all forms of political
assassination as well as of subversive activities on the
part of neighbouring states or any other state.
537
THE FORMATION OF AFRICAN UNION (AU) Exercise 40.39
The Charter of the Organization of African Unity (OAU) The African union is a continental union that consists of
was formally closed at its 37th Summit which marked the A. 55 member states B. 40 members’ states
last summit of the 38 years old organization. This formal C. 48 member states D. 53 members’ states
closure was to open the way for the formal inauguration of
a new continental body, the African Union (A.U). The Exercise 40.40
Africa Union (AU) was officially launched on 8th July, African union as a bloc was founded on
2002, in the Port City of Durban, South Africa, presided A. 26 May, 2001 B. 21 May, 1999
over by South African President, Thabo Mbeki. C. 22 May, 1994 D. 26 May, 2008

In his address to the Assembly of Heads of State and Exercise 40.41

Government at the Summit to mark the end of O.A.U., the African union is located on the continent
South African President paid tribute to the defunct OAU A. Africa B. Europe C. Africa D. Abuja
for the achievements it recorded in its 39 years of existence
despite the prediction by Africa’s detractors that the Exercise 40.42
continental body was designed to fail soon after its The bloc was launched on
inauguration on May 25, 1963. He noted that the summit A. 10 July, 2008 B. 10 July, 2002 C. 10 July, 2008
was being held in a liberated South Africa which was D. 10 July, 2000
symbolic and unimaginable some years back when the
country was ruled by the brutal apartheid regime. Exercise 40.43
According to him, “the liquidation of the apartheid system African union was launched in
of colonialism stands out as one of the historic A. Durban B. Dublin C. New York D. Sirte
achievements of the OAU, which guarantees the
organization a permanent place of honour in the history of
formation of modern Africa. FEATURES OF AFRICAN UNION (AU)
1. The African Union (AU) is a pan–African
Thus, African Union (AU) metamorphosed from the organization whose goal is to propel a united
defunct OAU and continued from where OAU stopped. As continent towards peace and prosperity.
its inception, the OAU had 53 member states; all African 2. The AU supports political and economic integration
nations except Morocco, which withdrew from the OAU in among member states.
1985 after the disputed territory of Western Sahara was 3. It aims to boost development and eradicate poverty.
admitted as a member. 4. All aims to bring Africa into the global economy.
NB: The African Union is a continental union now
Exercise 40.44
consisting of 55 members state located on the continent of
Outline three features or characteristics of African union.
Africa.

The AU is modeled loosely along the line of European CHARTER OF THE AFRICAN UNION (AU)
Union. It is primarily aimed at achieving peace and 1. The draft act for the AU provides for the right of
security for the African continent through good members states to request intervention in order to
governance and democracy that will promote rapid socio- restore peace and security.
economic development of the continent. 2. The proposed charter for AU also gives the union the
right to “intervene in a member state pursuant to a
The headquarters of the African union is in Addis Ababa decision of the Assembly in respect of grave
in the Federal Democratic Republic of Ethiopia. The circumstances namely: war crimes, genocide and
working languages of the union and its institutions shall be crimes against humanity”.
African languages, Arabic, English, French and 3. The draft charter also provides “that any member state
Portuguese. that fails to comply with the decisions and policies of
the union may be subject to sanctions.
2014/2015/87 (UI, IBADAN)
The AU was formed by members of OAU INSTITUTIONS OF AU
A. on 8th July 2002 at Durban, South Africa 1. Establishment of Committee of Intelligence and
B. on 8th July 2003 at Abuja, Nigeria Security Service of Africa (CISSA).
C. on 8th July 2003 at Tripoli a. To address Africa’s myriad of security issue.
D. on 8th June 2002 at Accra, Ghana b. Stability and development problems looking at
Answer factors inhibiting stability and development.
The 37th summit of the Organisation of African Unity c. To be located in the office of the chairman of AU.
(OAU) held 9th – 13th July, 2001 was the last summit of the 2. African Union constituent Act
38 years old, Organization of African Unity. The 53 This act empowers members to intervene in any of
member countries adopted African Union (AU), on AU’s member states where massive violence and
Monday 8th July, 2002 in Durban, South Africa (A) disorder is taking place even if it is caused by
misgovernance. This is a departure from the concept
of non–interference in the domestic affairs of any
member state which existed under the former O.A.U.
538
3. Economic, social and cultural council of the AU Aims and Objectives of AU
Established under the provision of article and 22 of 1. Achieve greater unity and solidarity between African
the African Union constituent. countries and their people.
2. Defend the sovereignty, territorial integrity and
Functions independence of its Member states.
It is to be a vehicle for building a strong partnership 3. Accelerate the political and socio-economic
between governments across the continents of Africa. integration of the continent.
The first president is Professor Wangari Mathai of 4. Promote and defend African common positions on
Kenya and the first Deputy President is Mr. Ayodele issues of interest to the continent and its peoples.
Aderinwale of Nigeria. Other regions in the assembly 5. Encourage international cooperation.
are: Central Africa, North Africa and Southern 6. Promote and defend African common positions on
Africa. issues of interest to the continent and its people.
4. Peace and security council and pan African Agency 7. Encourage international cooperation.
Both were constituted under the Union Act with the 8. Promote peace, security and stability on the continent.
mandate to advise the leadership of A.U. and to 9. Promote democratic principles and institutions,
address new situations as they come up. popular participation and good governance.
5. The secretariat (the commission): It will be like its 10. Promote and protect human and peoples’ rights in
European Union counterpart. accordance with the African Charter on Human and
6. African union parliament: African parliamentarians Peoples’ rights and other relevant human rights
will for the first time debate on continental-wide issues instruments.
at a new pan–African parliament. The parliament with 11. Establish the necessary condition which enables the
MPS from 55 member states of the African union has continent to play its rightful role in the global
been officially inaugurated in Addis Ababa, Ethiopia. economy and in international negotiations.
The commission’s first chairman, Alpha Oumar Konare 12. Coordinate and harmonise the policies between the
said that the members will craft the political map of the existing and future Regional Economic communities
continent. for the gradual attainment of the objectives of the
union.
At the inauguration, only 190 MPS from 38 countries 13. Advance the development of the continent by
were sworn in. promoting research in all fields, particularly in
science and technology.
Function 14. Work with relevant international partners in the
To advise the heads of states and governments of the eradication of preventable diseases and the promotion
African union. of good health on the continent.
7. Structure of the African union 15. Ensure the effective participation of women in
The African union is modeled in part after the decision making, particularly in the political,
European Union. The 4th ordinary session of economic and socio-cultural areas.
Assembly of Africa Union (AU) came up with the
following decisions: Exercise 40.46
I. African parliament to be located in South Africa. Outline the aims and objectives of AU
II. African Central Bank in West Africa.
III. Africa Investment Bank in North Africa
IV. African Monetary fund in Central Africa. Proposed achievements of the African Union
V. African Court of Justice in East Africa. 1. Regional economic cooperation and integration can
also make it possible for the union to collectively
The African Union will be built on six strong pillars build integrative infrastructures in transport,
1. An institution framework with sufficient authority communications and energy which would otherwise
and capacity for implementing agreed decisions. be too costly for some African countries to undertake
2. Regional infrastructure in transport, communication or embark upon.
and energy. 2. In the competitive world of globalization and
3. Full private sector and civil society participation. liberalization, cooperation and integration offers the
4. Sustainable development through the adoption of only chance to be relevant and to speak with one voice
regional strategies and policies. in international negotiations.
5. Promotion of intra-regional trade at a level that 3. First generation of Africa’s integration arrangement
matches the potential of the continent. focused primarily on trade promotion through trade
6. Equitably sharing of burden affecting the continent liberalization schemes.
and the union’s administration.
Problems that may likely Confront AU
Exercise 40.45 1. Debts which are up to the tune of about 40 million
Highlight the African Union Pillars. U.S. dollars.
2. Problem of resources and political will to attain its
lofty goals.
3. The union is likely to become another toothless
bulldog like its predecessor, the OAU.
539
4. The union may not have the power to rein in the Exercise 40.49
despots and corruption – reddened governments that NEPAD was adopted at the
plague the African continent. A. 37th session of Assembly
5. Africa’s participation in world trade has remained at B. 32nd session of Assembly
an insignificant stage. C. 30th session of Assembly
6. The absence of any significant change in the structure D. 35th session of Assembly
of African economies.
7. Exports are still confined to basic minerals and Exercise 40.50
primarily agricultural products. African Union (AU) replaced the OAU in
A. 2005 B. 2004 C. 2002 D. 2001
Exercise 40.47
State the problems that may likely confront AU. Exercise 40.51
NEPAD is a merger of two plans of economic regeneration
of Africa
NEW PARTNERSHIP FOR AFRICA’S A. MAP and OMEGA B. OMEGA and EU
DEVELOPMENT (NEPAD) C. MAP and OAU D. HSGIC and MAP
The New Partnership for Africa’s Development (NEPAD)
is an economic development programme of the African Exercise 40.52
Union; the home-spun plan offers good governance and NEPAD has its headquarters in
sound economic policies in return for increased foreign aid A. Chad B. Mali C. South Africa D. Nigeria
and trade opportunities for Africa. NEPAD was adopted at
the 37th session of the Assembly of Heads of State and Exercise 40.53
Government in July 2001 in Lusaka, Zambia. The Heads Highlight any five actions that were initiated by African
of State and Government Implementation Committee leaders before the formation of NEPAD.
(HSGIC) for the project finalized the policy frame work
and named it the new partnership for Africa’s 2019/9a Exercise 40.54
Development on 23 October, 2001. NEPAD is now a What is New Partnership for Africa’s Development
program of the African Union (AU) that has replaced the (NEPAD)?
OAU in 2002, though it has its own secretariat based in
South Africa to coordinate and implement its programmes. NEPAD’S COMMITMENT
1. NEPAD is committed to peace, security and good
NEPAD is a merger of two plans for the Economic governance.
Regeneration of Africa. The Millennium Partnership for the 2. To uphold democracy and human rights.
African Recovery Programme (MAP), led by former 3. Committed to the actualization of prudent economic
President Thabo Mbeki of South Africa in conjunction with management and sustainable development.
former President Olusegun Obasanjo of Nigeria and 4. Reduce conflicts and have greater access to world
President Abdelaziz Boutefika of Algeria and the OMEGA markets.
plan for Africa developed by President Abdoulaye Wade of 5. Fight, in its entirety, corruption, which had taken the
Senegal. At a summit in Sirte, Libya, March 2001, the centre–stage of the continent’s political soul,
Organization of African Unity (OAU) agreed that the MAP impacting negatively on developmental efforts.
and OMEGA plans should be merged.
Objectives of the New Partnership for Africa’s
The following actions were initiated by African leaders Development (NEPAD)
before the formation of NEPAD. 1. A commitment to good governance as a pre–
1. The final act of Lagos 1980. condition for economic growth.
2. The Lagos plan of action for Economic Development 2. Eradication of poverty from the African continent
of Africa (1980-2006). within a stipulated time.
3. The Africa’s Priority Programme for Economic 3. Strengthening democracy and the rule of law in
Recovery (APPER) (1986-1990). Africa.
4. The African Alternative Framework to Structural 4. Achieving peace, security, and stability in Africa.
Adjustment Programme for Socio-Economic 5. Acceleration of the empowerment of women in
Recovery and Transformation, AAF –SAP (1989). African countries so as to ensure gender equality.
5. The African Charter for Popular Participation for 6. To make Africa attractive to both domestic and
Development (1990). foreign investors.
6. The Compact Programme for African Recovery (2000). 7. Reduction of corruption in Africa.
8. To halt the marginalization of Africa in the
Exercise 40.48 globalization process.
The New Partnership for Africa’s Development (NEPAD) is 9. To increase investment in human resources
an economic development programme under development.
A. European union B. African Union 10. The enhancement of standard of living of the
C. Asia union D. Nassarawa union Africans.
11. Promotion of sound economic management and
people centered development.
540
12. Development of a new partnership with the 2006/47 UTME
industrialized countries and multilateral institutions. The New Partnership for Africa’s Development was
13. To achieve and sustain an average rate of GDP mainly promoted by
growth of 7% per annum for 15 years. A. Ghana, Sierra Leone and Nigeria
14. To strengthen Africa’s capacity to mobilize external B. Kenya, South Africa and Senegal
resources for its development. C. Nigeria, Senegal and South Africa
15. To ensure that the continent achieves the agreed D. Tanzania, Burkina Faso and Egypt
international development goals (MDGs & SDGs). Answer
16. To accelerate the rate of integration in Africa. The New Partnership for Africa’s Development was
mainly promoted by Nigeria, Senegal and South Africa (C)
2017/49
One primary objective of the New Partnership for African 2014/2015/91 (UI,IBADAN)
Development (NEPAD) is to The OAU adopted NEPAD during its summit held in
A. settle disputes among African nations A. Abuja B. Lusaka C. Tunis D. Cairo
B. eradicate poverty C. betray corrupt African leaders Answer
D. protect African citizens NEPAD was adopted by OAU at its 37th session of the
Answer Assembly of Heads of State and Government in July 2001
Eradication of poverty from the African continent within a in Lusaka, Zambia as to improve the living standard of the
stipulated time. (B) Africans from poverty (B)

2007/7 UTME 2019/9B

NEPAD was adopted during the OAU summit held in Identify four objectives of the New Partnership for
A. Tunis B. Lusaka C. Cairo D. Abuja Africa’s Development (NEPAD).
Answer Answer
NEPAD was adopted during the AU summit held in 1. A commitment to good governance as a pre-condition
Lusaka, Zambia (B) for economic growth.
2. Eradication of poverty from the African continent
2012/44 UTME within a stipulated time.
A major drawback to the NEPAD initiative is its 3. Strengthening democracy and the rule of law in
A. articulation to the African union Africa.
B. affiliation to the African Union 4. Achieving peace, security and stability in Africa.
C. inability to empower the youth 5. Acceleration of the empowerment of women in
D. reliance on western donors for funds African countries so as to ensure gender equality.
Answer 6. To make Africa attractive to both domestic and
The main problem to the NEPAD initiative is its reliance foreign investors.
on western donors for funds to their programmes (D) 7. Reduction of corruption in Africa.
8. To halt the marginalization of Africa in the
2017/32 UTME globalization process.
Which of the following Nigerian president initiated and 9. To increase investment in human resource
facilitated the creation of NEPAD? development.
A. Goodluck Jonathan 10. The enhancement of standards of living of the people
B. Olusegun Obasanjo of Africa.
C. Umaru Musa Yar’dua D. Mohammed Buhari
Answer 2018/36 UTME
President Olusegun Obasanjo initiated and facilitated the In 1973, following an OAU resolution, Nigeria broke
creation of NEPAD (B) diplomatic relations with
A. South Africa B. France C. Israel D. Cuba
2018/2019/70 (NDU,BAYELSA) Answer
What is the full meaning of NEPAD? In 1973, OAU had a resolution which led to Nigeria
A. Nigeria Economic Partnership of Advance breaking diplomatic relationship with Israel (C)
Development
B. Nigeria Economic Promotion and Development 2019/37 UTME
C. New Partnership of African Development Nigeria is a member of
D. none of the above A. OPEC, NATO and ECOWAS
Answer B. OAU, the UNO and ECOWAS
NEPAD means New Partnership of African Development C. ECOWAS, NATO and OAU
(C) D. the Commonwealth of Nations, OPEC and the ADS
Answer
Nigeria is a member of Organisation of African Unity, the
United Nations Organisation and Economic Community of
West African States (B)

541
1995/49 UTME 2012/45 UTME
The OAU is founded on the principle of The structure of the African union includes
A. settlement of international disputes by armed struggles A. the court of Justice, Pan African Congress and People’s
B. justification interference in the domestic affairs of Assembly
member states B. Pan African Parliament, the court of justice and the
C. sovereign equality of member states peace and security council
D. equal contribution of member states C. specialized technical commission, the court of justice
Answer and Humanitarian Board
The Organization of African Unity (OAU) was founded on D. People’s Assembly, Humanitarian Board and the peace
the principle of sovereign equality of member states (C) and Security Council
Answer
1999/41 UTME The structure of the African Union included Pan African
Based on its objectives, the Organisation of African Unity parliament, the Court of Justice and the Peace and Security
can primarily be classified as Council (B)
A. a social organization B. a political organization
C. a cultural organization D. an economic organization 2014/2015/97 (UI, IBADAN)
Answer Which of the following is a specialized agency of the AU?
Organisation of African Unity (OAU) can be primarily A. The Assembly Conference B. the Executive Council
categorized as a political organization based on its C. African Court of Justice D. The Commission
objectives, aims and goals (B) Answer
2009/22
2016/47 UTME The AU’s right to intervene in a member country in crisis
The AU differs from the OAU in having portray it as
A. no permanent headquarters A. an international organization B. a regional organization
C. a supranational organization
B. effective mechanism for enforcing its decisions
D. a continental organization
C a minimum of divergent viewpoints
Answer
D. no assembly of Heads of state The AU’s right to intervene in a member country in crisis
Answer portrays it as a supranational organization. Supranational
African Union (AU) differs from the organization of organization is a multinational union or association in which
African Unity (OAU) is having effective mechanism for member countries cede authority and sovereignty on at least
enforcing its decisions (B) some internal matters to the group, whose decisions are
binding on its members. In short, member states share in
2014/2015/39 (UI, IBADAN) decision making on matters that will affect each country’s
The first summit of the African Union (AU) took place citizens (C)
A. on February 2, 2004 at Addis Ababa, Ethiopia
B. on February 3, 2003 at Addis Ababa, Ethiopia 2001/46 UTME
C. on February 3, 2003 at Lagos, Nigeria In 1981, Nigeria participated in an organization of African
D. on February 3, 2004 at Lagos, Nigeria Unity peace-keeping force to replace Libya forces in
Answer A. Somalia B. Chad C. Ethiopia D. Zaire
The first summit of the African Union (AU) took place on Answer
February 3, 2003 at Addis Ababa, Ethiopia. (B) In1981, Nigeria participated in an organization of African
Unity peace-keeping force to replace Libyan forces in Chad
2005/43 UTME (B)
Under the umbrella of the OAU, Nigeria mediated in the
dispute between 2001/49 UTME
A. Kenya and Somalia B. Tunisia and Morocco Which of the following is the function of the Council of
C. Ethiopia and Somalia D. Zimbabwe and Tanzania Ministers of the OAU?
A. co-ordinating the general policy of the organization
Answer
B. directing the finances of the organization
Nigeria mediated between Ethiopia and Somalia under the
C. preparing the agenda of the organization’s meeting
umbrella of the OAU (C) D. reviewing the functions and activities of other organs of
the organization
2007/5 UTME Answer
Nigeria declared that she would not attend OAU summit in Preparing the agenda of the organizational meetings is the
Tripoli in 1982 unless function of the council of ministers of the OAU (C)
A. colonial Gaddafi resigned as the Libyan head of state
B. Libya withdraw her troops from Chad 2003/49 UTME
C. president Shehu Shagari become the chairman of OAU The Independent African countries that signed the OAU
D. Cameroun was suspended for killing Nigerian soldiers charter on May 25, 1963 were
at Bakassi A. Togo and Sierra Leone B. Morocco and Angola
Answer C. Togo and Morocco D. Chad and Gambia
Nigeria declared that she would not attend OAU summit in Answer
Tripoli in 1982 unless Libya withdraw her troops from Togo and Morocco were the two independent African
Chad. (B) countries that signed the OAU charter on May 25, 1963 (C)
542
2014/2015/97 (UI, IBADAN) 1986/47 UTME
Which of the following is a specialized agency of the AU? The administrative headquarters of OAU is in
A. The Assembly Conference B. the Executive Council A. Addis Ababa B. Lagos C. Accra D. Nairobi
C. African Court of Justice D. The Commission Answer
Answer The administrative headquarters of OAU is Addis Ababa,
African Court of Justice is a specialized agency of the AU. Ethiopia (A)

2013/45 UTME 2001/49 UTME

Nigeria’s role in the African Union was most prominent Which of the following is the function of the Council of
during the regimes of Ministers of the OAU?
A. President Olusegun Obasanjo A. co-ordinating the general policy of the organization
B. President Shehu Shagari B. directing the finances of the organization
C. President Umaru Yar’ Adua C. preparing the agenda of the organization’s meeting
D. President Ibrahim Babangida D. reviewing the functions and activities of other organs of
Answer the organization
During President Olusegun Obasanjo the role of Nigeria in Answer
the African union was most prominent (A) Preparing the agenda of the organizational meetings is the
function of the council of ministers of the OAU (C)

2012/47 UTME 2004/9 UTME

The African leader mostly credited for spearheading the A major problem of the defunct Organisation of African
formation of the African union is Unity was
A. Muammar Ghaddafi B. Abdelaziz Bouteflika A. language barrier B. inadequate resources
C. Abdoulaye Wade D. Thabo Mbeki C. cultural diversity D. ideological differences
Answer Answer
Colonel Muammar Ghaddafi was credited for The main problem of the defunct organization of African
spearheading the formation of the African union (A) unity was ideological differences of member states (D)

2013/45 UTME 1978/26 UTME

Nigeria’s role in the African Union was most prominent The OAU was formed in
during the regimes of A. 1946 B. 1956 C. 1960 D. 1963 E. 1965
A. President Olusegun Obasanjo Answer
B. President Shehu Shagari The Organisation of African Unity (OAU) was founded on
C. President Umaru Yar’ Adua May 25, 1963 at Addis Ababa in Ethiopia (D)
D. President Ibrahim Babangida
Answer 2018/2019/20 (UI,IBADAN)
During President Olusegun Obasanjo the role of Nigeria in
The OAU has its headquarters in
the African union was most prominent (A) A. Freetown B. Dar-es Salaam C. Nairobi
D. Addis Ababa E. Khartoum
1984/30 UTME Answer
The major conflict that threatened the existence of the The OAU has its headquarters at Addis Ababa, Ethiopia
OAU as an international organization from 1982-83 was (D)
the conflict
A. in Chad B. between Namibia and South Africa 1982/26 UTME
C. between the Polisario front and Morocco The OAU was founded to
D. in Angola E. between Somalia and Ethiopia A. effect an immediate political union of African states
Answer B. end colonialism in Africa by 1970
The main conflict that threatened the existence of the C. promote the unity and solidarity of African states
Organisation of African Unity as an international D. create a common market in Sub-Saharan Africa
organization from 1982/83 was the conflict between the E. prevent other regional groups from being set – up
Polissario front and Morocco (C) Answer
The Organization of Africa Unity (OAU) was founded to
2018/2019/90 (NDU, BAYELSA) promote the unity and solidarity of African states (C)
The first Nigerian leader to become Chairman of the
Organisation of African Unity was 2014/2015/91 (UI, IBADAN)
A. Murtala Muhammed B. Yakubu Gowon The OAU adopted NEPAD during its summit held in
C. Johnson Aguiyi-Ironsi D. Tafawa Balewa A. Abuja B. Lusaka C. Tunis D. Cairo
Answer Answer
Yakubu Gowon was the first Nigerian leader to become The AU adopted NEPAD during its 37th in Cairo, to
chairman of the Organisation of African Unity from 27th improve the living standard of the Africans from poverty
May, 1973 and 12th June, 1974 (B) (C)

543
2006/23 UTME 2009/2010/43 (UNIZIK, AWKA)
The transformation of the OAU to AU is essentially to Which is the supreme organ of the OAU?
A. enhance Africa’s economic development A. The Council of Ministers
B. accelerate Africa’s political development B. The Administrative Secretary General
C. accelerate Africa’s technological development C. The Assembly of Heads of States and Government
D. promote Africa’s socio-culture advancement D. none of the above E. all of the above
Answer Answer
The main transformation from (OAU) organization of The supreme organ of the OAU was the Assembly of
African unity to African union (AU) is essentially to Heads of States and Government (C)
promote Africa’s socio-cultural advancement (D)
2018/2019/20 (UI, IBADAN)
2009/22 UTME The OAU has its headquarters in
The AU’s right to intervene in a member country in crisis A. Freetown B. Dar-es Salaam C. Nairobi
portray it as D. Addis Ababa E. Khartoum
A. an international organization B. a regional Answer
organization C. a supernational organization The OAU has its headquarters at Addis Ababa, Ethiopia
D. a continental organization (D)
Answer
The AU’s right to intervene in a member country in crisis 1982/31 UTME
portrays it as a supernational organization. Supernational The Organisation of Africa Unity was set up in
organization is a multinational union or association in A. 1960 B. 1957 C. 1963 D. 1975 E. 1979
which member countries cede authority and sovereignty on Answer
at least some internal matters to the group, whose decisions OAU was established in 1963 (C)
are binding on its members. In short, member states share
in decision making on matters that will affect each 2014/2015/93 (UI,IBADAN)
country’s citizens (C) To which of these groups did Nigeria belong before the
formation of the OAU?
2004/8 UTME A. the Brazaville Group B. the Monrovia Group
The leaders who spearheaded the transformation of the C. The Casablanca Group D. The West African Group
organization of African unity into the African union are E. the OPEC Group
from Answer
A. Nigeria, Liberia and Kenya Nigeria belonged to the Monrovia Group before the
B. Algeria, Libya and Morocco formation of the Organisation of African Unity (OAU)
C. South Africa, Libya and Zambia (B)
D. Nigeria, Libya and South Africa
Answer 1991/48 UTME
Nigeria, Libya and South Africa leaders who spearheaded Which of these countries was not a foundation member of
the transformation of the Organisation of African Unity the Organisation of African Unity?
into the African Union (D) A. Ghana B. Ethiopia C. Zimbabwe D. Tanzania
Answer
2004/9 UTME Zimbabwe was not a foundational member of the
A major problem of the defunct Organisation of African Organisation of African Unity (OAU). Zimbabwe joined
Unity was on the 24th, October 1964 (C)
A. language barrier B. inadequate resources
C. cultural diversity D. ideological differences 2014/2015/95 (UI,IBADAN)
Answer Where and when was the African Union inaugurated?
The main problem of the defunct organization of African A. Durban, 2002 B. Addis Ababa, 1963
unity was ideological differences of member states (D) C. Lagos, 1972 D. Tripoli, 2001
Answer
2007/3 UTME African Union was inaugurated at Durban, South Africa in
The African Union was established to 2002 (A)
A. form an African high command
B. promote global economic dominance by Africa 2018/36 UTME
C. address current international developments affecting In 1973, following an OAU resolution, Nigeria broke
Africa diplomatic relations with
D. consolidate Africa’s position in global politics A. South Africa B. France C. Israel D. Cuba
Answer Answer – (C)
The African Union was established to consolidate Africa’s In 1973, OAU had a resolution, after the Yom Kippur War
position in global politics (D) in 1973 which led to Nigeria breaking diplomatic
relationship with Israel. Diplomatc relations were restored
in September 1992. Since April 1993, Israel has
maintained an embassy in Abuja and Nigeria has an
embassy in Tel Aviv.
544
2019/37 UTME 2012/45 UTME
Nigeria is a member of The structure of the African union includes
A. OPEC, NATO and ECOWAS A. the court of Justice, Pan African Congress and People’s
B. OAU, the UNO and ECOWAS Assembly
C. ECOWAS, NATO and OAU B. Pan African Parliament, the court of justice and the
D. the Commonwealth of Nations, OPEC and the ADS peace and Security Council
Answer C. specialized technical commission, the court of justice
Nigeria is a member of Organisation of African Unity, the and Humanitarian Board
United nations Organisation and Economic Community of D. People’s Assembly, Humanitarian Board and the peace
West African States (B) and Security Council
Answer
2018/2019/90 (NDU,BAYELSA) The structure of the African Union included Pan African
The first Nigerian leader to become Chairman of the parliament, the Court of Justice and the Peace and Security
Organisation of African Unity was Council (B)
A. Murtala Muhammed B. Yakubu Gowon
C. Johnson Aguiyi-Ironsi D. Tafawa Balewa 2001/46 UTME
Answer In 1981, Nigeria participated in an organization of African
Yakubu Gowon was the first Nigerian leader to become Unity peace-keeping force to replace Libya forces in
chairman of the Organisation of African Unity from 27th A. Somalia B. Chad C. Ethiopia D. Zaire
th
May, 1973 and 12 June, 1974 (B) Answer
In1981, Nigeria participated in an organization of African
2005/43 UTME Unity peace-keeping force to replace Libyan forces in
Under the umbrella of the OAU, Nigeria mediated in the Chad (B)
dispute between
A. Kenya and Somalia B. Tunisia and Morocco 2003/49 UTME
C. Ethiopia and Somalia D. Zimbabwe and Tanzania The Independent African countries that signed the OAU
Answer charter on May 25, 1963 were
Nigeria mediated between Ethiopia and Somalia under the A. Togo and Sierra Leone B. Morocco and Angola
umbrella of the OAU (C) C. Togo and Morocco D. Chad and Gambia
Answer
2007/5 UTME Togo and Morocco were the two independent African
Nigeria declared that she would not attend OAU summit in countries that signed the OAU charter on May 25, 1963
Tripoli in 1982 unless (C)
A. colonial Gaddafi resigned as the Libyan head of state
B. Libya withdraw her troops from Chad 2004/8 UTME
C. president Shehu Shagari become the chairman of OAU The leaders who spearheaded the transformation of the
D. Cameroun was suspended for killing Nigerian soldiers organization of African unity into the African union are
at Bakassi from
Answer A. Nigeria, Liberia and Kenya
Nigeria declared that she would not attend OAU summit in B. Algeria, Libya and Morocco
Tripoli in 1982 unless Libya withdraw her troops from C. South Africa, Libya and Zambia
Chad. (B) D. Nigeria, Libya and South Africa
Answer
2006/23 UTME Nigeria, Libya and South Africa leaders who spearheaded
The transformation of the OAU to AU is essentially to the transformation of the Organisation of African Unity
A. enhance Africa’s economic development into the African Union (D)
B. accelerate Africa’s political development
C. accelerate Africa’s technological development 2007/3 UTME
D. promote Africa’s socio-culture advancement The African Union was established to
Answer A. form an African high command
The main transformation from (OAU) organization of African B. promote global economic dominance by Africa
unity to African union (AU) is essentially to promote Africa’s C. address current international developments affecting
socio-cultural advancement (D)
Africa
D. consolidate Africa’s position in global politics
2011/20 (OAU, IFE)
Which of the following was the main organ of the defunct Answer
OAU? The African Union was established to consolidate Africa’s
A. the Liberian committee B. The council of Ministers position in global politics (D)
C. the Commission of Mediation, Conciliation and
Arbitration
D. the Assembly of Heads of state and government
Answer
The Assembly of Heads of state and Government was the
main organ of the defunct OAU (D)
545
2009/2010/43 (UNIZIK, AWKA)
Which is the supreme organ of the OAU? 1987/43 UTME
A. The Council of Ministers One of the objectives of the OAU is to ensure
B. The Administrative Secretary General A. mutual assistance of member states in suppressing
C. The Assembly of Heads of States and Government domestic uprising
D. none of the above E. all of the above B. non-interference in internal affairs of member states
Answer C. constant readjustment of territorial boundaries of
The supreme organ of the OAU was the Assembly of Heads member states
of States and Government (C) D. unification of liberation movements in southern Africa
Answer
1981/38 UTME
One of the aims of the Organisation of African Unity
Organisation of African Unity was established for the main
purpose of (OAU) was to ensure constant readjustment of territorial
A. opposing imperialism in all its forms and manifestations boundaries of member states (B)
B. establishing an African High command
C. protecting the human rights of all Africans wherever they 1991/48 UTME
may live Which of these countries was not a foundation member of
D. creating an African common market the Organisation of African Unity?
E. encouraging cooperation and unity among African states A. Ghana B. Ethiopia C. Zimbabwe D. Tanzania
Answer Answer
Organisation of African Unity (OAU) was established for the Zimbabwe was not a foundational member of the
main purpose of encouraging cooperation and unity among Organisation of African Unity (OAU). Zimbabwe joined
African states (E) on the 24th, October 1964 (C)

1982/31 UTME 2014/2015/95 (UI,IBADAN)

The Organisation of Africa Unity was set up in Where and when was the African Union inaugurated?
A. 1960 B. 1957 C. 1963 D. 1975 E. 1979 A. Durban, 2002 B. Addis Ababa, 1963
Answer C. Lagos, 1972 D. Tripoli, 2001
OAU was established in 1963 (C) Answer
African Union was inaugurated at Durban, South Africa in
1984/50 UTME 2002 (A)
All the following are organs of the OAU, except
A. the commission on Mediation, Conciliation and
1993/10
Arbitration
In what ways does the Organisation of African Unity
B. The Council of Ministers
C. The General Secretariat (OAU) look like confederal type of government?
D. The Economic Commission for Africa Answer
E. The Assembly of Heads of State and Government A confederal type of government is a loose political
Answer arrangement in which autonomous or sovereign states or
The Economic Commission for Africa was not an organ of republic come together to form a union in which the major
Organisation of African Unity (D) functions of government are reserved exclusively for the
component states with weak centres. OAU, therefore looks
1984/30 UTME like a confederal type of government in the following
The major conflict that threatened the existence of the OAU ways:
as an international organization from 1982-83 was the 1. OAU is a union or organization of sovereign or
conflict autonomous states.
A. in Chad B. between Namibia and South Africa 2. Major functions or powers of OAU are reserved
C. between the Polisario front and Morocco exclusively for member states.
D. in Angola E. between Somalia and Ethiopia 3. The organization has a weak centre which is its
Answer secretariat.
The main conflict that threatened the existence of the 4. The constitution of OAU did not reduce the powers
Organisation of African Unity as an international of its member states, rather they are very powerful.
organization from 1982/83 was the conflict between the 5. Member states have constitutional rights to secede.
Polissario front and Morocco (C) 6. Citizens have to obey government of their own
country and not OAU.
2014/2015/93 (UI, IBADAN) 7. Member states of OAU retain their own army and
To which of these groups did Nigeria belong before the police.
formation of the OAU? 8. Member states of OAU retain their sovereignty and
A. the Brazzaville Group B. the Monrovia Group identity.
C. The Casablanca Group D. The West African Group
E. the OPEC Group
Answer
Nigeria belonged to the Monrovia Group before the
formation of the Organisation of African Unity (OAU)
(B)
546
REVISION EXERCISES 11. Which of the following countries was a member of
1. Nigeria is a member of the following except the Monrovia group?
A. African union B. ECOWAS A. Chad B. Niger C. Cameroon
C. The commonwealth D. EU D. Sierra – Leone
2. The Brazzaville group formed before the Organization
of African Unity (O.A.U) consisted mainly of
A. francophone African countries
B. West African countries
C. North African countries
D. Anglophone African countries
3. The question of Nigerian civil war was raised for the
first time at the meeting of the OAU in September,
1967 in
A. Kampala B. Addis Ababa C. Lagos
D. Kinshasa E. Nairobi
4. Nigeria objected to the discussion of civil war in the
OAU summit on the grounds that
A. it amounts to interference in its internal affairs
B. some African countries recognized Biafra
C. Tanzania and Ivory Coast recognized Biafra
D. the resolution of the conflict was difficult
E. the OAU was not capable of resolving the conflict
5. To which of the following groups did Nigeria belong
during the formation stage of OAU?
A. Brazzaville B. Casablanca C. Monrovia
D. Malagasy E. Moderates
6. Which of the following ideals has not been violated
by any member of OAU?
A. non-interference in the internal affairs of states
B. respect for the territorial integrity and sovereignty
of each member states
C. peaceful settlement of disputes by negotiation,
conciliation or arbitration
D. unreserved condemnation of all forms of political
assassination and subversive activities on the part of
neighbouring states
E. dedication to the total emancipation of the African
territories which are still under political subjugation
7. Which of the following has the Organization of
African Unity (OAU) failed to achieve?
A. setting up an African high command
B. setting border disputes in Africa
C. giving assistance to liberation movement in Africa
D. contributing to the economic and social
development of member states
E. providing a forum for the discussion of common
problems
8. The annual budget of the organization of African
Unity is approved by the
A. Security Council B. council of ministers
C. economic and social council
D. commission of mediation and arbitration
9. Which of the following blocs existed in Africa, prior
to the formation of the Organization of Africa Unity
(OAU)?
A. Monrovia, Accra and Casablanca group
B. Brazzaville, Lome and Monrovia group
C. Casablanca, Brazzaville and Monrovia group
D. Algeria, Monrovia and Casablanca group
10. The Organisation of African Unity (OAU) was set up
in
A. Accra B. Harare C. Cairo D. Addis Ababa

547
Europe and the Pacific have joined the Commonwealth.
Chapter Forty One Membership today is based on free and equal voluntary co-
operation.
The last 2 countries to join the Commonwealth - Rwanda and
INTERNATIONAL ORGANISATION 2 Mozambique - have no historical ties to the British Empire.

THE COMMONWEALTH/THE LEAGUE OF NATIONS The Commonwealth Secretariat was created in 1965 as a
Commonwealth is a voluntary association of 54 equal central intergovernmental organisation to manage the
countries. It can also be defined as a free association of the Commonwealth's work. The headquarters of the
former territories or colonies of the British Empire. These commonwealth is London. Meetings of this organization are
are territories that were colonized by Britain worldwide held once every two years, attended by Heads of States and
and later granted independence. Governments of member states.

1981/45 UTME
THE ORIGIN OF THE COMMONWEALTH The commonwealth is an organization
1. The origin of commonwealth could be traced to 1907 A. of all states formerly in the British Empire
when representatives of governments of the five B. of most of the states in the defunct British Empire
countries, Australia, Canada Ireland, New Zealand C. of all English speaking countries of the world
and South Africa met for the first time. D. of only Asian and African Countries
2. The Association was formerly known as British E. which effectively coordinates the policies of its members
Commonwealth of Nations. Answer – B
3. The modern commonwealth began on 12th March, The commonwealth is an organization of most of the states in
the defunct British Empire.
1931 when British parliament created statue of West
Minister.
2003/5 UTME
4. Commonwealth is composed of 54 countries now. With the admission of Asian and African countries to the
commonwealth, the Queen of England became the
HISTORICAL BACKGROUND OF COMMONWEALTH A. patron of the Commonwealth
Commonwealth History B. head of state of these countries
The Commonwealth is one of the world’s oldest political C. chairperson of the commonwealth
associations of states. Its roots go back to the British D. head of government of these countries
Empire, when countries around the world were ruled by Answer – C
Britain. Over time different countries of the British Empire When the Asian and African countries joined the
gained different levels of freedom from Britain. Semi- Commonwealth of Nations, the Queen of England became the
independent countries were called Dominions. Leaders of chairperson of the commonwealth.
the Dominions attended conferences with Britain from
1887. 2003/45 UTME
The 1926 Imperial Conference was attended by the leaders The Non-British colony which is a member of the
of Australia, Canada, India, the Irish Free State, commonwealth is
Newfoundland, New Zealand and South Africa. At the A. Nigeria B. Guinea-Bissau C. Mozambique D. Eritrea
1926 conference Britain and the Dominions agreed that Answer – C
they were all equal members of a community within the Mozambique is the Non-British colony which is a member of
British Empire. They all owed allegiance to the British the commonwealth. Mozambique was colonized by
king or queen, but the United Kingdom did not rule over Portuguese in 1975.
them. This community was called the British
Commonwealth of Nations or just the Commonwealth. 2014/50 UTME
Former colonies of Britain belong to the association known
as
A. Commonwealth B. DECD C. NATO D. European Union
BIRTH OF THE MODERN COMMONWEALTH Answer – A
The Dominions and other territories of the British Empire Commonwealth is the former colonies of Britain that belong
gradually became fully independent of the United Kingdom. to the association.
India became independent in 1947. India wanted to become a
republic which didn't owe allegiance to the British king or
2016/49
queen, but it also wanted to stay a member of the
The Commonwealth of Nations was originally made up of
Commonwealth. At a Commonwealth Prime Ministers
A. former Portuguese colonies in Africa
meeting in London in 1949, the London Declaration said that
B. former Spanish colonies in Africa
republics and other countries could be part of the
C. independence nations formerly under British Empire
Commonwealth. The modern Commonwealth of Nations was
D. France and her former colonies in West Africa
born.
Answer
King George VI was the first Head of the Commonwealth,
The Commonwealth of Nations was originally made up of
and Queen Elizabeth II became Head when he died. But the
independent nations formerly under British Empire or the
British king or queen is not automatically Head of the
territories that were colonized by Britain worldwide and later
Commonwealth. Commonwealth member countries choose
granted independence. (C)
who becomes Head of the Commonwealth. Since 1949
independent countries from Africa, the Americas, Asia,
548
1988/25 MEMBERS OF COMMONWEALTH
The commonwealth is Prerequisite for Membership of the Commonwealth
A. an economic organization Intending members of the common wealth of nations must:
B. made up of all independent ex-colonies of Britain 1. Have attained full political independence
C. made up of all countries who are friendly with Britain 2. Accept other states as equals and most not practice
D. made up of independent Europeans countries racial discrimination in any form
E. made up of independent African countries who were ex- 3. Be prepared to accept the British monarch as the
colonies of Britain permanent head of the common wealth
Answer
The commonwealth is made up of all independent ex- The members of the commonwealth includes:
colonies of Britain. (B) Antigua and Barbuda (1981), Australia (1926), the
Bahamas (1073), Bangladesh (1972), Barbados (1966),
Belize (1981), Botswana (1966), Brunei (1984), Cameroon
1999/49 Nov (1995), Canada (1926), Cyprus (1961), Dominica (1978),
The Commonwealth of Nations is an association of Eswatini (1968), Fiji (1970), The Gambia (1965), Ghana
A. France and her former colonies in West Africa (1957), Grenada (179), Guyana (1966), India (1947),
B. former Portuguese colonies in Africa Jamaica (1962), Kenya (1963), Kiribati (1979), Lesotho
C. former German colonies in the world (1966), Malawi (1964), Malaysia (1957), Maldives (1982),
D. independent nations formerly in the British Empire Malta (1964), Mauritius (1968), Mozambique (1995),
Answer Namibia (1990), Nauru (1968), New Zealand (1926),
The Commonwealth of Nations is an association of Nigeria (1960), Pakistan (1947), Papua New Guinea
independent nations formerly in the British Empire. (D) (1975), Rwanda (2009), Saint Kitts and Nevis (1983),
Saint Lucia (1979), Saint Vincent and the Grenadines
(1979), Samoa (1970), Seychelles (1976), Sierra-Leone
2015/48 Exercise 41.1 (1961), Singapore (1965), Solomon Islands (1978), South
The origin of the Commonwealth of Nations can be traced Africa (1926), Sri Lanka (1948), Tanzania (1961), Tonga
to (1970), Trinidad and Tobago (1962), Tuvalu (1978),
A. colonial ties B. world economic order Uganda (1962), United Kingdom (1926), Vanuatu (1980),
C. equality of states D. sovereignty of states Zambia (1964).

2009/47 Neco
2007/12a Exercise 41.2 Which of the following countries is a founding member of
Describe the origin of the Commonwealth the commonwealth?
A. Zimbabwe B. Ghana C. Guinea D. South Africa
Answer
1997/58 Exercise 41.3 The founding members of the commonwealth include
An international organization which has former British Australia, Canada, India, the Irish Free State,
colonies as its members is the Newfoundland, New Zealand and South Africa. (D)
A. Organisation of African Unity (OAU)
B. Economic Community of West Africa (ECOWAS) 2014/2015/84 (UI, IBADAN)
C. United Nations Organisation (UNO) Membership of the Commonwealth of Nations means
D. Commonwealth of Nations A. recognition of the queen as the Head of the
E. European Economic Community (EEC) commonwealth and the republican states
Answer B. recognition of the queen as the Head of the
Commonwealth of Nations is an international organization Commonwealth and not of the Republican States
which has former British colonies as its members. (D) C. recognition of the Queen as the Head of the independent
states and the republican States
2014/2015/98 (UI, IBADAN) Exercise 41.4 D. recognition of the queen as the Head of all independent
Which of the following is an apt definition of the states
Commonwealth of Nations? Answer – A
A. voluntary association of the independent countries of Membership of the Commonwealth of Nations means
the Former British Colonies recognition of the queen as the Head of the Commonwealth
B. association of free nations enjoying equal rights under and the republican states.
the British.
C. a free association of sovereign independent African 2014/48 Neco Exercise 41.5
state The meetings of the Commonwealth of Nations are held
D. voluntary association of countries that were formerly in once every
the French colonial empire A. six years B. five years C. three years D. two years
Answer
Meetings of this organization (commonwealth) are held
once every two years. (D)

549
2014/47 Neco Exercise 41.6 2014/2015/71 (UI, IBADAN)
A commonwealth member that has no colonial link with The head of the Commonwealth of Nations is the
the United Kingdom is A. Chairman of the conference of the Commonwealth
A. Nigeria B. Kenya C. Ghana D. Mozambique Heads of Governments.
B. Queen of Great Britain
1987/47 UTME Exercise 41.7 C. Prime Minister of Great Britain
The Commonwealth of Nations is made up of
D. Secretary-General of the commonwealth.
A. African and Asian states
Answer – B
B. Britain and some of her former colonies
The head of the Commonwealth of Nations was the Queen
C. France and some of her former colonies
of Great Britain, Queen Elizabeth II after her demise on
D. French and English speaking African countries
September 8, 2022 was succeeded by the King of Britain,
King Charles III.
FEATURES OF COMMONWEALTH
1. English language is the official language of the 2007/49
member states. Every member states of the The Head of the Commonwealth of Nations is
Commonwealth of Nations uses English language as A. Queen Elizabeth II B. Don Mckinnon C. Tony Blair
the official language of her citizens. At the meeting of D. Margaret Thatcher
the association, English language is the official Answer
language of communication. The Queen of England was the head of the Commonwealth
2. The British Monarch is the head of the Commonwealth of Nations now succeeded by the King of England, King
of Nations. The Monarch is the symbol of unity of the Charles III after her death (A)
organization. Before these countries became
independent, the British monarch was represented by Exercise 41.9
the Governor-General. At independence, they still When was the Queen of England adopted as the head of
recognize the Monarch as the figure head of the commonwealth?
association. A. 1940 B. 1804 C. 1949 E. 1932
3. Countries establish foreign missions abroad. These
missions are called Embassies or High commissions.
The missions are called embassies if they are located Exercise 41.10
in states that are not members of the Commonwealth State the aims and objectives of the commonwealth.
of Nations. When they are situated in the members of
the organization they are called High Commissions. ORGANS OF THE COMMONWEALTH
The Head of the High Commission is called the High A. The prime minister conference: This is the paramount
Commissioner. organ of the commonwealth. Membership has to do with
4. There is the organization of the commonwealth games. the heads of state and governments of member–states or
Every member state participates in this competition their accredited representatives. This conference at the
which is hosted by the members from time to time. Kingston’s prime minister’s conference in 1964, agreed
to establish a commonwealth secretariat and it became a
Exercise 41.8 reality in 1965.
Highlight the features of commonwealth
Functions of the Prime Minister
1. Approval of budget: This body receives and approves
The Queen as the Head of the Commonwealth
the budget of the organization.
The Queen as the Head of the commonwealth was adopted
2. Appointment of the Secretary-General: The body
in 1949, when the proposal for making India a republic
appoints the Secretary-General of the organization.
within the commonwealth was adopted and accepted. It
3. Discussion of problems: They discuss issues, problems
was accepted because paying allegiance or being
as they affect member states and recommend measures or
submissive to the crown should not be the basis for a
solutions for such problems.
continued membership of the commonwealth and that a
4. Power of sanction: It can sanction or suspend a member
republic can co-exist with monarchy without jeopardizing
state that does not respect the objective upon which the
the benefits of membership. Her office was separated from
organization was founded e.g. Nigeria was suspended
the headship of the republic.
from the commonwealth in 1995 for the abuse of human
The title was held by Queen Elizabeth II, George VI’s elder rights, i.e. the execution of Ken Saro Wiwa and other 8
daughter. In 2018, following the 2018 Commonwealth Ogoni citizens.
Heads of Government Meeting, Commonwealth leaders
declared that Charles then Prince of Wales, would be the Exercise 41.11
next Head of the Commonwealth, while the role remained The paramount organs of the commonwealth is
non–hereditary. Consequently, after the demise of Her A. secretariat B. the prime minister conference
Majesty Queen Elizabeth II on 8 September 2022, in C. council of leaders D. management council
Balmoral Scotland at age 96, Charles who succeeded her,
called King Charles III (King of the United Kingdom)
automatically became Head of the Commonwealth as
already declared in 2018.
550
Exercise 41.12 Gains Derivable from commonwealth membership
The conference at the Kingston’s prime minister’s 1. Trade co-operation: Member states enjoy economic
conference in 1964, agreed to cooperation among themselves.
A. establish tertiary institution 2. Technical assistance: Technical assistance is given by
B. secondary schools in the member states the advanced countries of the commonwealth to the
C. a commonwealth secretariat D. joint army forces developing ones.
3. Education and award of scholarship: The
Exercise 41.13 commonwealth member countries have exchange
The commonwealth secretariat became a reality in programmes in which citizens of member states could
A. 1960 B. 1963 C. 1965 D. 1969 go to study in another commonwealth country as well
as offering scholarship.
Exercise 41.14 4. Military assistance: Developing members states of the
Highlight the functions of the prime ministers’ conference. commonwealth enjoy military cooperation and
assistance from developed members.
B. The Secretariat 5. Cultural exchange and cooperation: Member states of
The Secretariat was established after the prime the commonwealth have cultural exchange programmes
ministers’ conference in Kingston, Jamaica in 1965 with one another to further strengthen their unity and
and based in London. It is headed by a Secretary- offer assistance during period of disaster.
General under whom are members of staff from 6. Sports: Commonwealth member states organize
member states. Arnold Smith (1965-1975), was the commonwealth games to foster unity among themselves.
first Secretary–General and is from Canada, followed 7. Democractic rule: Member states impose sanctions on
by Sir Shridath Ramphal (1975-1990) from Guyana. dictatorial government thereby promoting democratic
He was succeeded by Chief Emeka Anyaoku from rule.
Nigeria as the next Secretary–General (1992-2005). 8. Common Problems: It enables member states to speak
He was in turn replaced by Mr. Don Mckinnon. with oneness on common problems in international
issues.
Functions of the Secretariat 9. Development: It offers loans and grants to poor
1. Annual conferences: It organizes the annual member countries for development.
conferences of Heads of States and Government of 10. Offical Language: There is a common and official
member states. language for communication which better foster
2. Administrative functions: The secretariat performs understanding when interacting among the member
administrative and correspondence functions. states. English Language is the official Language.
3. Preparation of reports: It prepares the reports of the
organization annually.
4. Correspondences: The secretariat at the instance of 1999/46
the conference of Prime Minister can enter into Which of the following links the commonwealth countries
correspondences with members and other together?
organizations. It also receives letter from members A. currency B. electoral system C. the political system
and organizations. D. the English language
5. Supervises other bodies: It oversees the activities of Answer
bodies like the Commonwealth foundation, The English language is an official link of communication
Commonwealth Universities, the Commonwealth in commonwealth states. (D)
Fund for Technical Co-operation and the
Commonwealth Economic Consultative Council.
6. Keeping of property: It keeps records of the 2006/49 Neco
properties of the organization. The official language of the commonwealth is
A. French B. Spanish C. Dutch D. English
1997/48 Answer
The first West African to become the Secretary General of English language is the official language of the
the commonwealth is Commonwealth of Nations. (D)
A. Emeka Anyaoku B. Agboola Gambar
C. Arnold Smith D. Shridath Ramphal
Answer 2002/22 UTME
The first West African to become the Secretary General of The impact of the Commonwealth of Nations is felt most
the commonwealth is Emeka Anyaoku. (A) in the area of
A. military cooperation B. economic cooperation
2000/45 Nov C. diplomatic cooperation D. cultural cooperation
The first Nigerian Secretary–General of the commonwealth Answer – D
is The impact of the Commonwealth of Nations is felt most
A. Emeka Anyaoku B. Maitama Sule C. Joe Garba in the area of cultural cooperation.
D. Bolaji Akinyemi 1537
Answer
Emeka Anyaoku (A)
551
2000/12 Neco 2007/4 UTME
Describe any five benefits, member states of the A principle defect of the commonwealth is
commonwealth derive from the organization. A. lack of commitment by member states
Answer B. lack of quorum at annual summits
1. It grants scholarship to deserving students in the C. poverty among member states
member states. D. lack of democratic head
2. Granting of loans and grants to member states Answer
especially the developing countries. The main defect of the commonwealth is lack of commitment
3. Member states help in discussing common problems. by member states (A)
4. Member states engage in sporting activities every
2009/19 UTME
four years to foster unity
A major limitation of the commonwealth is that it lacks
5. The legal system is similar and fashioned along the A. the power to set formal rules to govern the affairs of
British pattern. member-nations.
6. There is opportunity for member state to visit each B. an organizational structure and a definite identify
other without a visa. C. enough funds to run its affairs
7. Training of defence personnel in other military D. the power to compel member-nations to comply with its
academy in Britain and India. decisions
Answer – D
2011/12 Neco Exercise 41.15 The main limitation of the common wealth is that it lacks the
Outline six benefits member states of the commonwealth power to compel member-nations to comply with its
derive from the organization. decisions.

2017/21 UTME
PROBLEMS FACING THE COMMONWEALTH One of the problems of the Commonwealth of Nations is lack
1. Foreign policies: Member states formulates different of
foreign policies as dictated by their national interest A. finance B. administrative structures
and sometimes in opposition of the commonwealth. C. cultural heterogeneity D. Capacity to enforce decisions
2. Regional or sub-regional groups: Many member Answer – D
states belong to other international organization and One of the problems of the common wealth of nations is lack
this create divided loyalty. For example, the of capacity to enforce decisions.
preferential tariffs agreed upon by member state no
2012/48 UTME
longer obtain with the formation of different
One of the programmes binding members of the
economic blocs in the international system. Britain Commonwealth is the
herself is presently more committed to the EEC than A. food and aid programme B. cultural programmes
the commonwealth. C. agenda for peace D. scholarship scheme
3. No charter: Because the commonwealth has no Answer – C
charter like UNO and AU, there are no standard rules Agenda for peace is one of the programme binding members
to regulate the governing or operations of the of the commonwealth together.
organization.
4. Problem of South Africa: It created differences 2014/2015/81 (UI, IBADAN)
among member. Britain’s support for apartheid policy A major weakness of the commonwealth is
and the then British prime minister, Margaret A. lack of commitment by member states
Thatcher’s insistence on non–sanction. B. lack of quorum at annual summits
5. No common currency: Previously, member states C. poverty among member states
have their currencies in pound sterling, but now the D. lack of democratic leadership
case is different. Answer – A
6. Compliance with decision: Member states cannot be The major weakness of the commonwealth is lack of
compelled to comply with its decision like the UNO. commitment by member states.
There is nobody or agency that can enforce
compliance to its decisions. 2014/10 Neco Exercise 41.16
7. Visa Introduction: Member states no longer grant Identify five challenges facing the Commonwealth of
Nations.
free movement to immigrants from other member
countries
8. Cultural Diversities: There is diversities of culture
among member–states, and it affects social and THE LEAGUE OF NATIONS
The League of Nations was an organization for international
cultural interactions.
cooperation. It was established on January 10, 1920, at the
9. Secession: Member state can easily secede out of the initiative of the victorious Allied Powers at the End of World
organization. War I. It was formally disbanded on April 19, 1946.
10. No common military and defence pact: There is no Although, ultimately, it was unable to fulfill the hopes of its
common military and defence pact in the founders, its creation was an event of decisive importance in
organization. the history of international relations. Examples of member
11. Political Instability: There is political instability in states includes: Argentina, Australia, Belgium, Bolivia,
some member-states, especially the developing states. British, Canada, and Denmark.
552
1995/55 Nov Function
All the following international organizations exist today To deal with matters within their range of action,
except the threatening or affecting world peace.
A. Commonwealth of Nations B. League of Nations
C. United Nations Organisation
D. Organisation of African unity A COUNCIL
E. Economic Community of West African States It is made up of 9 members of the five Great Powers as
Answer permanent members and four non–permanent states were
League of Nations is an international organization that elected by the Assembly. Later, Permanent members were
does not exist today. (B) reduced to 4 and non–permanent members increased to 9.

Exercise 41.17 The principle of representation was to be maintained in the

The League of Nations was established on election of few countries into the council. This will come
A. January 10, 1920 B. January 21, 1920 up periodically and it is to be conducted by the Assembly.
C. January 20, 1920 D. January 11, 1920
Functions
Exercise 41.18 1. The main function was to settle international disputes.
The following is not a member of League of Nations 2. To carry on with the work of the league.
A. Nigeria B. Bolivia C. British D. Canada 3. The council was to appoint a Secretary–General with
the majority of the Assembly members approving.
4. It was to prepare the agenda for the Assembly.
Reasons underlining the establishment of League of 5. To deal with issues, within the range of action of the
Nations League, affecting the peace of the world.
1. To remove causes of wars: This was made possible
by reducing procurement of national armaments to Exercise 41.20
the barest minimum so as to be in line with national 1. The council of the league of nation was up of
safety. A. nine members B. two members
2. Dispute between nations: In the event of disputes, C. eight members D. twenty members
procedures were in place to prevent such leading to
war and that such disputes if capable of producing
war, should be submitted to arbitration or to judicial Exercise 41.21
settlement or to inquiry by the league council. 2. The main function of the council is to
3. Keeping the arrangement: If a member should go to A. change organization policies
war, provision was made to help the member state that B. permanent the league guidelines
did not break the promises. Those states that broke the C. settle international disputes
arrangement should face trade or financial sanction. D. for peace and unity of African
4. Protection of the covenants: Similarly, the league E. league organization
council should recommend to states the contribution
to be made in terms of armed forces so as to protect THE SECRETARIAT
the covenants of the league. The permanent organization of the league was appointed
5. Supervision of trade in arms and ammunition: The by the Secretary–General with the consent of the council.
league is entrusted with the supervision of trade in
arms and ammunition for the common interest of Functions
members. This is to enthrone peace and prevent wars. 1. It provided the necessary continuity between one
meeting of the Assembly or the council and the next
Exercise 41.19 meeting.
1. State four reasons for the establishment of League of 2. It collected materials before any proceedings of the
Nations. assembly or the council and carried out the decision
taken.
3. The staff also published the reports of the meetings.
Permanent institution of League of Nations
The following are the institutions created under the League Exercise 41.22
of Nations. Outline three functions of the secretariat League of Nations
1. An Assembly.
2. A council. THE PERMANENT COURT OF INTERNATIONAL
3. A secretariat. JUSTICE
4. A court of international justice. The permanent court of international justice, often called the
5. International labour officer. World Court, existed from 1922 to 1946. It was an
international court attached to the League of Nations. Created
AN ASSEMBLY in 1920 (although the idea of an international court was
There are three delegates to represent a state with only one several centuries old), the court was initially well-received
vote. The assembly consists of representatives of all from states and academics alike, with many cases submitted
members of the league. to it for its first decade of operation.
553
The headquarters is at The Hague, Netherlands. This court Arguments in favour of the League of Nations
had 11 judges and 4 deputy Judges elected for 9 years by the 1. Settlement of disputes among member states, the
Assembly and the council. League of Nation is genuinely committed to peace e.g.
a border dispute between Turkey and Iraq, 1924-26.
2005/12 Nov 2. Colonial administration supported system through the
Highlight any four functions of the International Court of mandate.
Justice (ICJ). 3. The minorities received attention for fair treatment.
Answer 4. The court of international justice delivered over 60
1. To settle disputes in accordance with international law. judgments.
2. It gives advisory opinions on legal questions. 5. The League of Nations improves the condition of
3. Protects individual’s rights and rights of the states. labour in the world.
4. It punishes and repression of criminal conduct. 6. It also improves cooperation in economic and social
5. The Bureaucratic function. matters.
7. The health organization of the league helped to
1995/59 coordinate the efforts of various European
All the following organs/agencies of the United Nations governments to combat cholera and small pox
Organisation have their headquarter situated in New York epidemic as well as to conduct research work on the
except the prevention of such diseases as tuberculosis.
A. United Nations Development Projects (UNDP) 8. Prevention of forced labour was urged, from maturing
B. World Health Organisation (WHO) into full slavery thus combating the traffic in women
C. International Court of Justice (ICJ) and children.
D. United Nation Education, Scientific and Cultural 9. It equally promoted child welfare and the eradication
Organisation (UNESCO) of drug trafficking.
E. International Labour Organisation (ILO)
Answer Exercise 41.23
International Court of Justice is not an organ or agency of Highlight any five arguments in favour of the League of
the United Nations Organisation. (C) Nations.

1996/59 2019/9a Exercise 41.24

The Headquarters of the International Court of Justice is at Outline five merits of commonwealth membership.
A. New York B. Geneva C. Paris D. The Hague
E. Moscow
Answer Arguments against the League of Nations
The Headquarters of the International Court of Justice is at 1. The league did not succeed in settling disputes
The Hague, Netherlands. (D) between powerful states for example, the 1931–33
Sino or China – Japan dispute.
2. The league was not wide enough: As the USA
INTERNATIONAL LABOUR OFFICE remained outside it and later Japan, Germany and Italy
This office tried to maintain and possibly secure fair and left the body.
humane conditions of labour for men, women and children. 3. A tool of manipulation: The League of Nations was a
The international labour office is the permanent secretariat tool of manipulation in the hands of some powerful
of the international labour organization. It is the focal point rich nations.
for international labour organization’s overall activities 4. Frequent secession: Any nation can secede from the
which it prepares under the scrutiny of the Governing Body league without coercion or restraint.
and under the leadership of the Director-General. The 5. Representatives not elected: Representatives at the
office employs some 2,700 officials from over 150 nations league were appointed by the governments and not
at its headquarters in Geneva, and in around 40 field offices elected by the people of member states.
and the world. 6. The league lacked sovereign power: It lacked all
sovereign power to operate and formally ceased to
2002/50 Nov exist in 1947.
The International Labour Organisation (ILO) has its
headquarters in Exercise 41.25
A. Geneva B. Atlanta C. Lagos D. Accra Outline four arguments against the League of Nations.
Answer
The headquarters of International Labour Organisation
(ILO) is in Geneva. (A) 2005/47 UTME
A member of the commonwealth that still recognized the
British Monarch as its Head of State is
A. Ghana B. India C. Australia D. Singapore

554
2006/24 UTME
Diplomatic missions among the commonwealth member 2014/46 UTME
states are referred to as A representative of a Commonwealth Country in another
A. high commission B. legations C. embassies member state is known as
D. consulates A. consul-general B. ambassador
Answer C. attaché D. High commissioner
High commission are the members of commonwealth with Answer – D
diplomatic missions. In the Commonwealth of Nations, a High commissioner is the representative of a
high commissioner is the senior diplomat in charge of the commonwealth country in another member state.
diplomatic mission of one commonwealth government to
another (A) 2014/45 UTME
The reason behind Nigeria’s suspension from the common
2008/1 UTME wealth in 1995 was.
A member of the commonwealth that was not colonized by A. socio-cultural B. legal C. political D. economic
Britain is Answer – C
A. Malaysia B. Uganda C. Mozambique The reason behind Nigeria’s suspension from the
D. Namibia E. Zimbabwe commonwealth in 1995 was purely political.
Answer
The correct option is (C) 2007/10 (OAU,IFE)
A Nigerian who has been the secretary of the
2010/46 UTME Commonwealth of Nations organization is
The head of a Nigerian mission in a commonwealth A. Dr. Ibrahim Gambari B. Professor Adebayo Adedeji
country is called C. Chief Michaeal Olutimelin D. Chief Emeka Anyaoku
A. an Ambassador B. a consul General Answer – D
C. a High commissioner D. an Attached General Chief Emeka Anyaoku was the secretary of the
Answer – C Commonwealth of Nation between 1st July, 1990 – 31st
High commissioner is the head of Nigerian mission in a March, 2000. He was born 18th January, 1933, he was the
commonwealth. third Commonwealth Secretary-General.

1998/48 UTME 2014/2015/88 (UI,IBADAN)

The first international organization Nigeria joined after The first nation to become a republic within the
independence is the Commonwealth of Nations is
A. United Nations organizations A. Nigeria B. Cyprus C. Ghana D. India
B. Organization of African Unity Answer – C
C. Commonwealth of Nation The first nation to become a republic within the
D. organization of petroleum exporting countries Commonwealth of Nations is Ghana, it got her independence
Answer – C in 1957 and became a commonwealth republic in 1960.
Commonwealth of nation was the first international
2014/2015/83 (UI,IBADAN)
organization Nigeria joined after their independence in
In which of these international organizations is African
1960.
membership NOT possible?
A. ECOWAS B. EU C. OPEC D. Commonwealth
1999/45 UTME Answer – B
Nigeria was suspended from the commonwealth because of African membership is not possible in organization of
her European Union.
A. tacit approval of military dictatorship
B. negative position towards other nations
2019/45 (NDU, BAYELSA)
C. complete negligence of freedom of the press Which of the following international organizations was in
D. violation of fundamental human rights existence before the Second World War?
Answer – D A. The leagues of nations B. the ECOWAS
Nigeria was suspended from the Commonwealth of Nations C. the UNO D. the OAU
from 11th Nov, 1995to 29th May, 1999 because of her Answer – A
violation of fundamental human rights. The League of Nations was an international organization,
founded with the mission to maintain world peace, after the
2001/47 UTME First World War.
Nigeria’s withdrawal from the Edinburgh Commonwealth
Games in July 1986 was in protest against British.
2019/2020/65 (IUNIZIK, AWKA)
A. support for UNITA rebels in Angola
B. supply of arms to Rhodesia
The first African Secretary-general of the Commonwealth
C. failure to impose sanctions on South Africa of Nations was
D. negative utterances on Nigeria A. Bolaji Akinyemi B. Boutrous Boutrous-Ghali
Answer – C B. Kofi Annan D. Emeka Anyaku
Nigeria withdrawn from the Edinburgh commonwealth Answer – D
Games in July 1986 was in protest against British failure to Chief Anyaoku was the first African Secretary-general of
imposed sanctions on South Africa during the apartheid. the Commonwealth of Nations.
555
REVISION EXERCISES 20. List five international institutions under the
1. The representation of the League that are not elected is commonwealth.
A. OAU B. ECOWAS league C. UN league 21. The international court of justice has its headquarters in
D. league of all nations A. The Hague B. Paris C. London D. New York
2. The arguments in favour of the league of nations are E. Washington D.C.
the following except Answer – A.
A. settling of disputes B. health matters
C. prevention of marriage
D. prevention of forced labour
3. The following were permanent institutions of the
league of nations except
A. an assembly B. judiciary
C. a council D. a secretariat
4. Which of the following is the problem facing the
common wealth?
A. administration B. history C. background
D. foreign policies
5. The following are gains derivable from common
wealth membership except
A. scholarship B. common problems
C. foreign policy D. official language
6. The origin of commonwealth was traced to
A. 1907 B. 1909 C. 1920 D. 1931
7. The historical background of commonwealth
A. 19th century B. 21st century C. 14th century
D. 16th century
8. The Queen of England is the head of
A. ECOWAS B. OPEC C. AU D. commonwealth
9. Which state joined the Commonwealth of Nations in
1960?
A. Kenya B. Lesotho C. Nigeria D. Mauritius
10. The main aim and objectives of the commonwealth is
A. common understanding B. independence
C. historical D. secretariat
11. The secretariat of the commonwealth was located
A. Dublin B. Doha C. London D. the Gambia
12. The Heads of State and Government of the
commonwealth hold their meetings in
A. Egypt B. Australia C. Nigeria
D. member state countries based on rotation basis
13. A representative of one country in another within the
commonwealth of nations is called
A. High Commissioner B. attaché
C. foreign minister D. consultation
14. Nigeria hosted the meeting of commonwealth Heads
of states in
A. 1965 B. 1966 C. 1967
D. 1968 E. 1969
15. In order to promote democracy and good governance
the commonwealth of Nations
A. prosecutes leaders who commit atrocities at the
international criminal court
B. organizes seminars and training programmes on
technical assistance to members
C. sanction members who do not pay their dues
D. sponsors election observer teams to monitor the
conduct of elections
16. Enumerate five problems facing the commonwealth.
17. Explain the secretariat and its function
(commonwealth).
18. Discuss the historical background of commonwealth.
19. State any six aims and objectives of commonwealth.

556
Nigeria as the 99th member. The United Nations officially
Chapter Forty Two came into existence on 24 October, 1945, when the charter
had been ratified by China, France, the Soviet Union, the
INTERNATIONAL ORGANISATION 3: United Kingdom, and the United States and by a majority of
other signatories. United Nations Day is celebrated on 24th
THE UNITED NATIONS October each year.
ORGANIZATION
2000/47
The charter of the United Nations was drawn up in
A. New York B. Washington DC
C. Los Angeles D. San Francisco
Answer – D
The charter of the United was signed on 26 June, 1945, in
San Francisco, at the conclusion of the United Nations
conference on international organization, and came into
force on 24 October, 1945.

2018/40 UTME
Which of these international organizations is the
predecessor of the United Nations?
A. the European Economic Community
B. the organization of American States
C. the League of Nations
The United Nation Building D. the North Atlantic Treaty organization
Answer – C
The United Nations (UN) is an intergovernmental The League of Nations was the predecessor of the United
organization that aims to maintain international peace and Nations.
security, develop friendly relations among nations, achieve
international cooperation, and be a centre for harmonizing 2014/2015/53, (NDU, BAYELSA)
the actions of nations. The UN was established after World The international organization formed after the Second
War II with the aim of preventing future wars, succeeding World War to guarantee international peace and security is
the ineffective League of Nations. the
A. World Bank B. United Nations Organization
C. League of Nations D. British Commonwealth of
Nations
Origin of United Nation Organisation (UNO)
The name “United Nations”, coined by United States E. European Common Market
President Franklin D. Roosevelt was first used in the Answer – B
Declaration by United Nations of 1 January 1942, during the The United Nations origination was formed after the
Second World War, when representatives of 26 nations Second World War to guarantee international peace and
pledged their Governments to continue fighting together security of the world.
against the Axis Powers.
2002/25 UTME
NB: The Axis powers originally called the Rome–Berlin The United Nations Charter is an instrument that
Axis, was a military coalition that initiated World War II A. facilitates the resolution of disputes among member
and fought against the Allies. Its principal members were state
Nazi Germany, the Kingdom of Italy, and the Empire of B. sets out the rights and obligations of member states
Japan. The Axis were united in their opposition to the C. determines the admission of member states
Allies, but otherwise lacked comparable coordination and D. provides for funding of member states
ideological cohesion. Answer – B
The United Nations Charter is an instrument that sets out
On the 24th October, 1945, representatives of 50 countries met the rights and obligations of members states.
in San Francisco at the United Nations Conference on
international organisation to draw up the United Nations 1991/49 UTME
charter. Those delegates deliberated on the basis of proposals The United Nations Organizations was founded to
worked out by the representatives of China, the Soviet Union, A. end the Second World War
the United Kingdom and the United States at Dumbarton B. end the Nigeria Civil War
Oaks, United States in August-October 1944. C. promote world peace
D. co-ordinate the activities of all its members
The charter was signed on 26 June 1945 by the representative E. co-ordinate the activities of regional organizations
of the 50 countries, Poland, which was not represented at the Answer – C
conference, signed it later and became one of the original 51 The United Nations Organization was founded to promote
member states. U.N.O has 193 nations as member with world peace and security.

557
2009/48 Neco The Principles of United Nation Organisation
Which of the following African countries participated in 1. Settlement of disputes: International disputes are to be
the signing of the United Nations Organisation (UNO) settled by peaceful means and it must be done in such a
charter in 1945? way to avoid endangering international peace and
A. Ethiopia B. Tunisia C. Ghana D. Nigeria security.
Answer 2. Principle of sovereign equality: United Nations
Ethiopia is an African country that participated in the Organisation is based on the principle of sovereign
signing of the United Nations Organisation (UNO) charter equality of member states.
in 1945. 3. Military assistance: The organization has the capacity
to provide military assistance when it is called to do so.
4. Speaking with one voice: Members of the body has to
2001/50 Nov
agree in good faith to fulfill the obligation as obtained
The United Nation’s Organisation (UNO) was founded in
in the charter.
A. London B. Bonn C. San Francisco D. Paris 5. Unity and cooperation among nations: This is to
Answer harmonize in the areas of solving international
On the 24th October, 1945, representatives of 50 countries problems, eradication of threats and causes of wars.
met in San Francisco to draw up the United Nations 6. Promotion of democratic principles: Democratic
charter. (C) principles should be promoted through observing
elections held in member states, donation of election
1989/60 Nov Exercise 42.1 materials, and the discouragement of military rule.
The International Organisation formed after the Second 7. Maintenance of international peace and security: The
World War to guarantee international peace and security is organization is to ensure that members and non-
the members do not comport themselves in a manner that
A. World Bank B. United Nations Organisation could be detrimental to the maintenance of international
C. League of Nations D. British Commonwealth peace and security.
E. European Common market 8. Loyalty among members: Members are to refrain from
assisting any state or nation that the organization is
enforcing or taking compelling obedience, but to assist
2006/47 Neco Exercise 42.2 the body in any action it takes that are in conformity with
The United Nations Organisation (UNO) was founded in the organization’s charter.
1945 as a successor to the 9. The use of force: This should be discouraged among the
A. warsaw pact B. World trade organization members in their international relations as such may be
contrary to the workings and purposes of the world
C. North Atlantic Treaty Organisation
body.
D. League of Nations
2007/2
2002/49 Nov Exercise 42.3 Which of the following is not a principle of United Nations
The United Nations Organisation was formed after the
Organisation?
failure of the A. settlement of disputes B. military assistance
A. organization of African Unity B. League of Nations
C. unity and cooperation D. causing violate
C. European Economic Commission Answer
D. Commonwealth of Nations The principle of United Nations Organisation is to settle
disputes among or between member states, military assistance
2014/4 Exercise 42.4 during war, unity and cooperation is highly encouraged, it
The United Nations Organisation (UNO) came into promotes democratic principles and maintenance of
existence in international peace and security. Causing violence is not a
A. 1945 B. 1948 C. 1950 D. 1953 principle of United Nations Organisation. (D)

2014/2015/82 (UI, IBADAN)

1996/58 Exercise 42.5 An essential principle that guides the activities of the
October 24 of each year is universally marked as the United Nations is
United Nations Day because on this day the A. regulation of international trade
A. United Nations Organisation officially came into B. the protection of the United States of America against
existence terrorism
B. Second World War ended C. respect for the sovereign equally of member states
C. two super powers signed the United Nations Charter D. the transfer of technology to developing countries
D. charter on fundamental human rights was signed Answer – C
E. United Nations charter was drawn up The important feature that guides the activities of the
United Nations is respect for the sovereign equally of
member’s states.
2016/50 Neco Exercise 42.6
Which of the following countries was not instrumental to 2002/11 Neco Exercise 42.7
the formation of the United Nations Organisation (UNO)? Highlight the basic principles on which the United
A. United States of America B. Britain C. Germany Nation’s Organisation (UNO) was founded.
D. USSR
558
Aims and Objectives of the UNO 2019/9c NABTEB Exercise 42.8
1. To maintain international peace and security. Give five objectives of the United Nations.
2. To promote economic and social advancement of all
people.
3. To develop friendly relations among states based on THE ORGANS OF THE UNO
mutual respect, equal rights and self–determination of The following are the main organs of U.N.O
people. 1. The General Assembly.
4. To accelerate the independence of trust territories. 2. The Security Council.
5. To promote and encourage respect for Human rights and 3. The Secretariat.
fundamental freedom for all races internationally.
4. The Trusteeship Council.
6. To encourage and achieve international cooperation in
5. The International Council of Justice.
solving international problems economic, social,
cultural and humanitarian.
6. The Economic and Social Council.
7. To settle disputes among member states by peaceful
means. 1993/60
8. Total respect to the sovereignty of member state must be Which of the following is not an organ of the UNO? The
put in place. A. Security Council B. World Health Organization
C. Economic and Social Council D. Secretariat
2013/47 E. International Court of Justice
The primary objective of the United Nations Organisation Answer
(UNO) is to World Health Organisation is not an organ but an agency of
A. stop aggression B. help poor countries the UNO. (B)
C. fight against injustice D. maintain world peace
Answer 2001/50 Neco
The main objective of the United Nations Organisation Which of the following is an organ of the United Nations
(UNO) is to maintain world peace. (D) Organisation (UNO)?
A. Assembly of Heads of States
2004/50 B. International Labour Organisation
The major aim of the United Nations Organization (UNO) is C. Council of Ministers D. The Security Council
to Answer
A. maintain international peace and security The Security Council is an organ of the United Nations
B. coordinate and supervise the activities of specialized Organisation (UNO). (D)
agencies
C. promote sports among all nations
THE GENERAL ASSEMBLY
D. stabilize the price of oil in the world market
The General Assembly is the main deliberative, policy
Answer
Maintain international peace and security is the primary aim making and representative organ of the United Nations.
of the United Nations Organisation (UNO). (A) The General Assembly comprises of 193 member states of
the UNO, it provides a unique forum for multilateral
1995/60 discussion of international issues including peace and
One of the objectives of the United Nations Organisation security. Five representatives are draw from each member
(UNO) is to states into the Assembly. They meet once in a year but
A. develop the African states there could be a special session, if the Security Council or
B. maintain international peace and security a consensus on issues or matters is achieved by simple
C. ensure that workers all over the world are paid handsome majority. A president is elected from one of the member
wages states to head the Assembly for a term of one year and it is
D. provide ammunition for any warring states rotated among member states.
E. ensure that meeting of the organization are held regularly
Answer Aims of the General Assembly
One of the objectives of the United Nations Organisation (UNO) 1. To maintain international peace and security.
is to maintain international peace and security. (B) 2. To safeguard human rights and promote the rule of
law.
1995/48 UTME 3. To protect our common environment.
The primary objective of the UNO is to 4. To meet the special needs of Africa.
A. maintain international peace and security
5. To strengthen the United Nations and cooperation
B. promote fundamental human rights
among the states.
C. develop bilateral relations among nations
D. serve as a coordinating platform for the actions of nations
6. To promote economic and social advancement of all
Answer – A people.
The main objective of the United Nations Organization is to 7. To develop friendly relations among states based on
maintain international peace and security. To develop mutual respect, equal rights and self-determination.
friendly relations among nations on the basis of equality and
the principle of self-determination.

559
Functions of the General Assembly 1994/59
1. It deliberate on issues pertaining to world peace and The main deliberative organ of the UNO is the
security passes resolutions and recommends same to A. international Court of Justice B. Secretariat
the Security Council. C. Economic and Social Council D. General Assembly
2. It has the power to vote on issues of international E. Security Council
importance. Answer
3. It can approve key appointments e.g. the Secretary – The General Assembly is the main deliberative, policy
General of the organization. making and representative organ of the United Nations. (D)
4. It controls the activities of the specialized agencies of
the UNO e.g. UNESCO and WHO. 1992/58
5. It discusses and approves the annual budget of the The United Nations Secretary–General is appointed by the
UNO. A. Secretariat B. Economic and Social Council
6. It considers the annual reports of various C. International Court of Justice D. General Assembly
commissions and specialized agencies. E. UNO’s international appointment committee
7. It admits new members into the organization. Answer
8. It elects non–permanent members into the Security The General Assembly appoints the Secretary General of
Council and judges of international court of justice. the United Nations Organisation. (D)
9. It can amend the UNO charter.
10. It initiates development and codification of 1998/57
international law. The most representative organ of the United Nations
11. The General Assembly reviews issues that relates to Organisation is the
the functions and the power of the other organs of the A. Economic and Social Council B. Security Council
organization. C. International Court of Justice D. Trusteeship council
12. It has the power to suspend or expel any erring E. General Assembly
member state of UNO. Answer
13. In conjunction with the Security Council, it elects The General Assembly is made up of all member states.
members of other organs and agencies of the Five representatives are drawn from each member state
organization. For example non-permanent members into the Assembly. (E)
into the security council, Judges of International
Court of Justice (ICJ) and Economic and Social 2009/12a Neco
Council (ESOSOC). Describe the composition of the General Assembly of
14. It alerts the security council of any situation likely to
United Nations Organisation (UNO).
endanger international peace and security. Answer
The General Assembly is the main deliberative assembly
of the United Nations. Composed of all United Nations
2004/3 UTME member state as the assembly meets in regular yearly under
The one-time president of the United Nations General a president elected from among the member states. Two –
Assembly was weeks period at the start of each session. All members have
A. Joseph Garba B. Ibrahim Gambari the opportunity to address the assembly. Traditionally, the
C. Arthur Mbanefo D. Maitama Sule Secretary-General makes the first statement, followed by
Answer – A the president of the assembly.
Major General Joseph Nanven Garba (17 July, 1943 to 1
June 2002) was a Nigeria general, diplomat, and politician In 1945, the UN had 51 members, which by the 21st century
who served as president of the United Nations General nearly quadrupled to 193, of which more than two–thirds
Assembly from 1989 to 1990. are developing.

NB: Joseph Nanuem Garba of Nigeria (1943 – 2002) was 2009/12B Exercise 42.9
elected president in the year 1989 for the forty fourth, Highlight four functions of the General Assembly.
sixteenth, seventeenteeth and eighteenth special session.
2019/13 UTME Exercise 42.10
2014/2015/92, (UI,IBADAN) The organ of the UNO with full representation is the
The organ of the United Nation responsible for the A. Security Council B. General Assembly
approval of its annual budget is the C. Trusteeship Council D. International Court of Justice
A. general assembly B. Economic and social council
C. secretariat D. Security Council 2016/30 UTME Exercise 42.11
Answer – A The main representative body of the United Nations is the
The General Assembly is the main deliberative, policy A. Security Council B. general assembly
making and representative organ of the UN. All 193 C. trusteeship council D. secretariat
member states of the UN are represented in the General
Assembly, making it the only UN body with universal 2011/2012/25 (NDU,BAYELSA) Exercise 42.12
representation. The General Assembly is the organ of the The Supreme organ of the UNO is the
United Nations responsible for the approval of its annual A. General Assembly B. Secretary General
budget. C. World Court D. World Bank
560
2013/46 Exercise 42.13 8. The council determines whether any situation
The Organ of the United Nations Organisation that threaten world peace and to take necessary measures
coordinates the activities of its specialized agencies is the of restoring international peace.
A. General Assembly B. International Court of Justice 9. The Security Council takes diplomatic, economic and
C. Economic and Social Council D. Trusteeship council other measures that can give effects to its decisions,
and to employ air, naval or land forces to maintain
2004/12 Exercise 42.14 and restore international peace.
Discuss the functions of the General Assembly of the
United Nations Organisation (UNO).
2009/23 UTME
The permanent membership of the UN Security Council is
THE SECURITY COUNCIL A. ten B. fifteen C. five D. eleven
The Security Council is one of the organs of U.N.O and it Answer – C
is assumed to be the most powerful of all the organs, The United Nations has fifteen (15) members, five (5)
making up the organization. Formerly, it was made up of 5 permanent and ten (10) non-permanent members.
permanent and 6 non–permanent members, but it was
enlarged in 1965, bringing 6 non–permanent members to 2019/2020/45 (UNIZIK, AWKA)
10, making it 15 members. The permanent members are: Which of those organs of the United Nations is responsible
U.S.A, Britain, Russia, China and France. The 10 non– for appointing staff of the organization
permanent members are elected for a term of two years A. Security Council B. Secretariat
from among the member states. Each of the five permanent C. General Assembly D. Trusteeship Council
members of the Security Council has a veto power. The Answer – B
veto is a “NO” vote. A veto by any of the 5, blocks any The Secretariat Comprises the Secretary-General and tens
issue under discussion in the council. of thousands of International UN Staff members who carry
out the day-to-day work of the UN as mandated by the
Importance of Veto Power To the five permanent General Assembly and the organization’s other principal
members of the Security Council bodies. The secretariat of the United Nation is responsible
1. Agreement: To bring the (five) 5 permanent members for appointing staff of the organization.
into agreement on important security and world issues
and ensures universality of interest. 2009/48 UTME
2. Collective responsibility: To give the five permanent The tenure of non-permanent members of the Security
members collective responsibility for world peace. Council is
3. Prevention: To prevent action of one permanent A. 5 years B. 2 years C. 4 years D. 6 years
member resulting to wars of worldwide dimension. Answer – B
4. Compensation: To compensate the permanent The ten non-permanent members are elected by the United
members for their financial, military and human Nation General Assembly for two years. A non-permanent
investments to the United Nations Organisation member must receive at least two-thirds of all votes cast
(UNO). for that seat, which can result in deadlock if there are two
5. Effectiveness: To make for the effectiveness of the roughly evenly matched candidates.
Security Council.
2012/49 UTME
Functions of the Security Council As part of the reforms in the UN, two slots were proposed
1. Peace and security: Its main responsibility is to in the Security Council for
ensure world peace and security. A. Asia B. Africa C. America D. Europe
2. It investigates disputes and suggests ways of finding Answer – B
solutions to them. Two slots were proposed in the Security Council for Africa
3. It selects candidates for the post of Secretary-General as part of the reform of the United Nations.
and recommends him to the General Assembly for
approval. 2008/2009/4 (NDU, BAYELSA)
4. Judges of the World court: They are elected by the Within the United Nation, the veto power is exercised in
Security Council in conjunction with the General A. WHO B. the General Assembly
Assembly. C. the Security Council D. UNESCO
5. It approves application from nations: The Security Answer – C
Council ratifies application from state seeking Veto power is only exercised in the Security Council of the
membership of the organization. United Nation organization. The Security Council takes
6. The Security Council calls upon states to settle their the lead in determining the existence of a threat to the
disputes by negotiation, medication, conciliation, peace or act of aggression. It calls upon the parties to a
arbitration or judicial settlement or other peaceful dispute to settle it by peaceful means and recommends
means. methods of adjustment or terms of settlement. In some
7. The council recommends to states appropriate cases, the Security Council can resort to imposing
procedures of adjudication of disputes which will sanctions or even authorize the use of force to maintain or
likely endanger the maintenance of international restore international peace and security.
security.
561
2002/22 UTME 2000/49 Nov
The greatest criticism of the Security Council of the UNO Which of the following has a veto power in the United
is that it Nations?
A. is not representative enough A. non–aligned nation’s B. ECOWAS member countries
B. undermines the General Assembly C. OAU member countries
C. has exclusive veto power D. permanent member of the Security Council
D. has no standing army Answer
Answer – C The permanent five members of the Security Council have a veto
The greatest criticism of the Security Council of the UNO power in the United Nations Organisation. (D)
is that it has exclusive veto power. The United Nations
1997/60
Security Council “veto power” refers to the power of the
Which of the following countries is a permanent member of
five permanent members of the UN Security Council the Security Council?
(China, France, Russia, the United Kingdom and the A. India B. Canada C. China D. Korea E. Italy
United States) to veto any “sustentative” resolution. Answer
China is a permanent member of the security council of the
1993/58 United Nations Organisation. (C)
The veto given the five permanent members of the security
council of the United Nations is necessary because it 1998/56
A. makes them respect the UNO and help her achieve her The non–permanent members of the security council of the
objectives United Nations Organisation are appointed for a period of
B. gives due respect to whom honour is due A. one year B. two years C. three years D. four years
C. makes apartheid South Africa to fear the UNO E. five years
D. bringing the big powers into agreement on important Answer
world issues The 10 non–permanent members are elected for a term of two
E. ensure the operation of the principle of collective years from among the member states. (B)
responsibility
Answer
The veto given to the five permanent members of the 2014/50
security council of the United Nation is necessary because The organ responsible for investigating internal disputes in
it brings the big powers into agreement on important world the United Nations Organisation (UNO) is the
A. General Assembly B. Security Council
issues. (D)
C. Secretariat D. Economic and social council
Answer
1994/56 Security Council is the organ responsible for investigating
To which of the following countries did Nigeria send a peace- internal disputes in the United Nations Organisation (UNO).
keeping force under the United Nations Organisation? (B)
A. Israel B. Ghana C. Netherlands D. Lebanon
E. Argentina 1991/10 Nov
Answer Describe composition and functions of the United Nations
Nigeria sent troops of soldiers to Lebanon for peace Security Council.
keeping under the United Nations Organisation. (D) Answer
The Security Council is composed of fifteen UN member
1999/48 Nov states, five of which are permanent members – United States,
One of the functions of the United Nation Security Council the United Kingdom, France, the Russian federation and
is the China. The permanent members have the power to “veto” a
A. approval of the budget for the whole organization substantive decision of the council by voting against it. The
B. maintenance of international peace and security other ten members of the council are elected by the General
C. holding of general debates and elections Assembly to two-year non–renewable terms. The ten
D. recognition of regional organizations members elected are known in charter language as ‘non–
Answer permanent members’ are selected according to a distribution
The main function of the United Nations Security Council is formula from each of the world’s major regions. The meeting
the maintenance of international peace and security. (B) of the Security Council normally takes place in the security
chamber at UN headquarters in New York.
1990/60 GCE
1996/10 Nov
Which of the following countries is not a permanent Why is the veto power given to the five permanent members
member of the United Nations Security Council? of the security council of the United Nations Organisation
A. China B. Britain C. USA D. Russia E. Japan (UNO) necessary?
Answer Answer
Japan is not a permanent member of the United Nation Article 27 (3) of the charter establishes that all substantive
Security Council. (E) decisions of the council must be made with the concurring
votes of the permanent members”. The veto has been
addressed regularly during the annual working methods
debates and is among the topics most frequently raised in the
context of almost all discussions of council working methods.
562
Permanent members use the veto to defend their national 1984/32 Exercise 42.20
interest, to uphold a tenet of their foreign policy. In the Which organ of the UNO can impose mandatory sanctions
early years, the USSR cast most of the votes, with a on any of its members?
considerable number of these used to block the admission A. the General Assembly
of a new member state. The use of the veto by Russia and B. the Security Council
China rose considerably since 2011, with the conflict in
C. the Secretariat D. the Economic and Social Council
Syria. The veto affects the work of the council in ways that
transcend its actual use during voting. E. the International Court of Justice

Veto power urges the permanent members voluntarily to 1991/17 Exercise 42.21
agree to refrain from using their veto in situations The ten non-permanent members of the UN Security
involving mass atrocity crime. The High Commissioner of Council are elected by
Human Rights Zeid Ra’ad Al Hussein made a statement in A. a two–third majority of the General Assembly for a
support of the French initiative. In a summary of the event,
period of two years
the co-chairs called on the (p5) five permanent members to
B. a simple majority of the General Assembly for a period
voluntarily and collectively pledge not to use the veto in
of two years
case of genocide, crimes against humanity and war crimes
on a large scale. However, from among the permanent C. a two–third majority of the General Assembly for a
members, only the UK has supported the initiative. period of one year
D. a simple majority of the General Assembly for a period
1978/31 UTME Exercise 42.15 of one year
In which of these organs of the United Nations E. the Security Council and the General Assembly
organization is veto power exercised by some countries
A. the World Health Organization B. the Security Council 1998/58 Exercise 42.22
C. General Assembly
The veto power in the United Nations Organisation (UNO)
D. the UN committee against apartheid
E. the International Court of Justice is exercised by
A. all members of the Security Council
2006/25 UTME Exercise 42.16 B. staff of the General Secretariat
The chairman of the UN Security Council emerges through C. members of the International Court of Justice
A. rotation B. consensus C. election D. selection D. all members of the General Assembly
E. the permanent members of the Security Council
2005/46 Exercise 42.17
A Security Council resolution requires the concurrence of
1999/48 UTME Exercise 42.23
A. 3 of the 5 permanent members
B. 1 of the 5 permanent members Before a new member is admitted to the United Nations
C. all of the 5 permanent members Organization, its application must be approved by all
D. 9 of the 15 council members A. permanent members of the Security Council
B. members of the General Assembly
1995/47 Exercise 42.18 C. members of the economic and social council
Which of the following countries has the right to veto the D. members of the international court of justice
decision of the Security Council?
A. Australia B. Switzerland C. China D. Canada E. Japan
Answer – C THE SECRETARIAT
China is one of the five permanent members of the Security
The Secretariat is the administrative unit of the U.N.O. The
Council under the United Nations, veto power are given to
them to act according to the situation or challenges. U.N.O headquarters is in New York. It is headed by the
Secretary–General of the organization. He stays in office
1998/49 Exercise 42.19 for 5 years term and could be re-elected. The following are
The security council of the United Nations organization is the past Secretary-Generals of the organization.
composed of 1. Trygie Lie of Norway (1946-53).
A. the western industrial nations 2. Dag Hammarskjold of Sweden (1953-61).
B. the five permanent members 3. U. Thant of Burma (1961-72).
C. the five permanent members and other members 4. Kurt Waldeim of Austria (1972-82).
periodically elected
5. Javier Perez de Cuellar of Peru (1982-72).
D. Eleven member states elected by the General Assembly
Answer – C 6. Boutrous, Boutrous Ghali of Egypt (1993-98).
The security council of the United Nations Organization is 7. Dr. Koffi Annan of Ghana (1998-2006).
composed of the five permanent members and other 8. Ban Ki – Moon of South Korea (2007-2016).
members periodically elected. 9. Antonio Guterres of Portugal (2017-date).

563
Functions of the Secretariat 2014/20 (OAU, IFE)
1. Correspondence: It handles all correspondence of the The current Secretary General of the United Nation is
organization. A. Ban Ki-moon B. John Kerry
2. Administrative functions: It performs the C. Kofi Anan D. Hilary Clinton
administrative functions of the UNO. Answer – A
3. Preparation of annual reports: It prepares the annual Ban Ki-moon of South Korea was the Secretary General of
reports on the activities of the organization, and the United Nations between Jan 1, 2007 – Dec 31 – 2016
implements the programme and budget of the fiscal
year. 1996/59 Nov
4. Provision of the administrative and technical services
The Secretariat of the United Nations Organisation (UNO)
needed by the specialized commissions of the UNO.
is situated in
5. It makes available all the facilities needed for all
meetings of the organization.
A. London B. Paris C. Vienna D. Geneva E. New York
Answer
Functions of the Secretary–General of UNO The secretariat is the administrative unit of the UNO and
1. He is the chief administrative officer of the organization. the headquarters is situated in New York. (E)
2. He prepares the agenda for the General Assembly.
3. He makes the annual report to the General Assembly on 2009/50 Neco
the work of the United Nations. The United Nations Secretary–General is appointed for a
4. The Secretary–General appoints other members of staff A. five-year term B. four-year term
under the guidance of the General Assembly. C. three– year term D. single – year term
5. He administers peace–keeping operation worldwide. Answer
6. He organizes international conferences on problems of The Secretariat is headed by the Secretary General of the
worldwide concern e.g. UNICEF. organization, he stays in office for 5 years term and could
7. The annual budget of the organization is prepared by the be re-elected for another term. (A)
Secretary–General.
8. He brings to the attention of the Security Council any 2015/49
matter which, in his opinion may threaten the The first black African to hold the position of UN Secretary
maintenance of world peace and security. General was
A. Salim Ahmed Salim B. Kofi Annan
2000/38 UTME C. Emeka Anyaoku D. Nelson Mandela
The first African Secretary-General of the United Nation is
Answer
A. Kofi Annan B. Joe Garba
Kofi Annan of Ghana was the first black African to hold the
C. Boutros Boutros – Ghali D. Ibrahim Gambari
Answer – C
position of U.N Secretary General from 1998–2006. (B)
Boutros Boutros – Ghali is an Egyptian, politician and
diplomat who was the sixth, but the first African Secretary- 2019/9a NABTEB
General of the United Nations from January 1992 to List five past Secretary–Generals of the United Nations
December 1996 and was later succeeded by Kofi Annan of Answer
Ghana. 1. U. Thant of Burma (1961-72).
2. Kurt Waldeim of Austria (1972-82).
2003/2 UTME 3. Javier Perez de Cuellar of Peru (1982-72).
The permanent members of the security council of the United 4. Boutrous, Boutrous Ghali of Egypt (1993-98).
Nations are 5. Dr. Koffi Annan of Ghana (1998-2006).
A. Germany, France, Poland, Hungary and China 6. Ban Ki – Moon of South Korea (2007-2016).
B. Britain, Japan, Australia, Germany and the United States
C. the United States, Russia, France, Britain and Japan 1992/52
D. the United States, Russia, France, Britain and China Which of the following is not a duty of the Secretary–
Answer – D General of the United Nation Organisation?
The permanent members of the Security Council of the A. bringing to the notice of the Security Council matters
United Nations are the United States, Russia, France, Britain that threaten world peace and security
and China. The permanent members are also addressed as the B. using his good office to help in resolving international
P5, the permanent members of the Security Council have a disputes
unique role that has evolved overtime.
C. organizing international conferences on problems of
world concern
2005/45 UTME
Which of the following served as the Secretary-General of the
D. presiding over Security Council meetings
United Nations? E. preparing annual reports on the organisation’s activities
A. Javier Perez De Cuellar B. Mohammed El-Baradel Answer
C. Ibrahim Gambari D. Joseph Garba The Secretary–General of the United Nations organization
Answer – A cannot preside over Security Council meetings. The
Javier Perez de Cuellar of Peru served as the Secretary- Security Council is an organ of the United Nations that has
General of the United Nations from January 1, 1982 – 15 members, 10 non-permanent and the 5 permanent
December 31, 1991. members have powers to preside over their meeting with
veto power of decisions. (D)

564
2010/49 UTME Exercise 42.24 The trusteeship council is made up of the following
The Secretary General of the United Nations is appointed by members of the United Nations.
the a. Member nations of UNO responsible for
A. Security Council acting alone administering trust territories.
B. General Assembly on the recommendation of the Security b. France, China, USSR, Britain and the USA which are
Council not part of the nation’s administering trust territories.
C. permanent members of the Security Council on the c. Other member nations of the UNO elected for a three
recommendation of the General Assembly year term by the General Assembly. Trust territories
D. General Assembly in plenary session are therefore territories placed under the international
1989/54 Exercise 42.25 trusteeship system and which may take the following
Which of the following is not a function of the Secretary – forms:
General of the United Nation’s Organization? I. Voluntary by states responsible for their
A. supervising the secretariat B. interpreting the treaties administration.
C. alerting the Security Council on any matter that may II. Detached from enemy states as a result of the last
threaten international peace war (1939–40) and placed in that category.
D. making annual report III. Held under mandate and placed under the
E. appointing other members of staff under him trusteeship system by means of agreements. e.g.
Namibia got her independence in 1989 but until
1991/18 Exercise 42.26 then was a trust territory administered by South
The Secretary–General of the UN occupies a peculiar position
Africa. At the expiration of the administering
because he is
period, South Africa refused granting Namibia its
A. the secretary to all organs of the UN
B. appointed by General Assembly independence. The South West Africa People’s
C. a member of the Security Council Organisation (SWAPO) under the leadership of
D. responsible to the UN and not individual government Sam Nujoma, had to start fighting South Africa
E. assisted by several other secretariat staff before the UNO came in and Namibia was able to
gain her independence.
Exercise 42.27
Highlight any four functions of the secretariat of United Functions of the Trusteeship Council
1. Supervision of Trust Territories: The main function
1995/9 Exercise 42.28 of the Trusteeship Council of the UN is to supervise
State the functions of the Secretary–General of the United the administration of the trust territories. It is therefore
expected to ensure that the governments entrusted with
the administration of the trust territories take
THE TRUSTEESHIP COUNCIL appropriate measures to promote the political,
The UN Charter established the Trusteeship Council as one of economic, social and educational advancement of the
the main organs of the United Nations, and assigned to it the inhabitants of the territories
task of supervising the administration of Trust Territories 2. Monitoring: It receives reports from the administering
placed under the International Trusteeship System. The main authorities concerning conditions in such trust
goals of the International Trusteeship System were to promote territories. E.g. British Mandated Togoland and
the advancement of the inhabitants of Trust Territories and Namibia before independence. This enables it to
their progressive development towards self-government or monitor the progress being made in the affected
independence. The Trusteeship Council is made up of the five territories.
permanent members of the Security Council -- China, France, 3. Promotion of Welfare of Trust Territories: The
the Russian Federation, the United Kingdom and the United Trusteeship Council receives petitions from the
States. The aims of the Trusteeship System have been fulfilled inhabitants of trust territories about their wishes. It also
to the extent that all Trust Territories have attained self- undertakes periodic visits to the territories to study
government or independence, either as separate States or by conditions there. This is to enable it to obtain first-hand
joining neighboring independent countries. The Trusteeship information in order to issues the necessary
Council suspended its operations on 1 November 1994, a recommendations.
month after the independence of Palau, the last remaining 4. Facilitation of Independence Process: Among the
United Nations trust territory. By a resolution adopted on 25 functions of the Trusteeship Council is the role it plays
May 1994, the Council amended its rules of procedure to drop in making sure that a trust territory attains
the obligation to meet annually and agreed to meet as occasion independence status as early as possible. It is mandated
required -- by its decision or the decision of its President, or at to take the necessary measures to prepare the trust
the request of a majority of its members or the General territories for independence.
Assembly or the Security Council. Under the Charter, the 5. Supervision of Elections: It supervises elections in a
Trusteeship Council is authorized to examine and discuss trust territory to decide its future political status. For
reports from the Administering Authority on the political, example, Trusteeship Council of the UN supervised
economic, social and educational advancement of the peoples the plebiscites held in British Mandated Togoland and
of Trust Territories and, in consultation with the French Mandated Togoland in 1956. As a result,
Administering Authority, to examine petitions from and British Togoland became part of Ghana, while French
undertake periodic and other special missions to Trust Togoland became an independent state in 1960.
Territories.
565
1999/50 2003/48 UTME
The organ of the United Nations organization responsible for The headquarter of the International Court of Justice is in
the former colonies of defeated World War II power is the A. Washington D.C. B. Paris C. London D. the Hague
A. General Assembly B. Security Council Answer – D
C. Economic and Social Council D. Trusteeship Council The headquarters of the International Court of Justice is in.
Answer – D The Hague, Netherlands. ICJ is the only principal UN organ
Trusteeship Council is the organ of the United Nation not located in New York City
Organization responsible for the former colonies of defeated
World War II powers. The Trusteeship Council was 1993/43 UTME
established in 1945 by the UN Charter, to provide Who was the first Nigeria to be appointed President of the
International Court of Justice at the Hague?
international supervision for Trust Territories that had been
A. Justice Teslim Elias B. Justice Bola Ajibola
placed under the administration of member states, and ensure
C. Justice Daddy Onyeama D. Justice Danley Alexander
that adequate steps were taken to prepare the territories for
self-government and independence. Answer – A
Justice Teslim Elias was the first Nigerian to be appointed as
2012/50 the president of the International Court of Justice at the
Which of the following organs of the United Nations Hague.
Organisation outlived its usefulness? The
A. General Assembly B. Trusteeship council 2006/21 UTME
C. International Court of Justice Judges of the World Court are appointed to serve for
D. Economic and Social Council A. nine years B. four years C. ten years D. five years
Answer Answer – D
Trusteeship council is the organ of the United Nations Judges of the World Court are appointed to serve for five (5)
Organisation that outlived its usefulness (B) years.

2008/50 2012/21 (OAU, IFE)

The organ of the UNO responsible for the affairs of the The judicial organ of the United Nations is the
mandated territories was the A. Security Council B. make the law C. execute the law
A. International Court of Justice B. Trusteeship Council D. interpret the law
C. Economic and Social Council D. General Assembly E. act as a disciplinary body for the civil servants
Answer Answer – C
Trusteeship council is an organ of the UNO responsible for The International Court of Justice is the Principal Judicial
the affairs of the mandated territories. (B) Organ of the United Nations. The court is charged with
settling legal matters and disputes between states and giving
INTERNATIONAL COURT OF JUSTICE advisory opinions to the United Nations and its specialized
This is the World Court with its headquarters in The Hague, agencies.
Netherlands. It has 15 judges elected by the General
Assembly and Security Council. A candidate is elected on 1993/60 Nov
securing a majority of the votes of both the Assembly and The uniting for peace resolution of the United Nations gave
Security Council. Judges are elected for a term of nine years more power to the
and could be re-elected. The decisions of this court are always A. General Assembly
binding on member states in dispute. However, in the charter B. International Labour Organisation
all member nations of UNO have agreed to comply with the C. Secretary General D. Economic and Social Council E.
decisions of the court and if a party to a case refused to International Court of Justice
comply, the matter would be referred to the Security Council Answer
for necessary action. A president is elected by members of the The International Court of Justice is a uniting organ for peace
court. Two Nigerian-Taslim Elias and Daddy Onyema were resolution of the United Nations states. (E)
one time members of the body. Another Nigerian, Bola
Ajibola was also appointed to complete Taslim Elias’ term, Exercise 42.29
after his demise. Enumerate any three functions of the international court of
justice.
Functions of the International Court of Justice
1. Unique Mandate: The court is vested with a unique Exercise 42.30
mandate under the UN charter as the principal judicial Where is the headquarters of World Court?
organ of the United Nations. A. Congo B. Hague C. Ghana D. Britain
2. Contentious Fnctions: To settle, in accordance with E. U.S.A.
international law, legal disputes between states.
3. Advisory Functions: To give advisory opinions on legal Exercise 42.31
questions referred to it by duly authorized UN organs The International Court of Justice has how many judges?
and agencies. A. 15 members B. 10 members C. 12 members
4. The ICJ is a key part of the mechanism for D. 8 members E. 20 members
maintaining international peace and security Exercise 42.32
established by the charter of the United Nations. The judges are elected for
5. It makes the decisions of the court binding on member A. 5 years B. 10 years C. 9 years D. 8 years
states in disputes. E. 4 years

566
THE ECONOMIC AND SOCIAL COUNCIL 2013/47 UTME
This council is made up of 27 members of the UNO. They are The organ of UN that promotes voluntary cooperation
elected by the General Assembly. Members serve for nine among member states in diverse areas is the
years and settlement of issues or matters are reached by A. International Court of Justice B. General Assembly
simple majority vote. C. Economic and Social Council D. Security Council
The agencies under the ECOSOC are the World Health
Answer – C
Organisations (WHO), International Labour Organisation The Economic and Social Council is the principal body for
(ILO); Food and Agricultural Organisation (FAO); coordination, policy review, policy dialogue and
International Monetary Fund (IMF); United Nations recommendations on economic, social and environmental
Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organisation issues, promotes voluntary cooperation among member
(UNESCO); International Telecommunications Union (ITU); states, as well as implementation of internationally agreed
International Bank for Reconstruction and Development development goals.
(IBRD) or World Bank and the International Finance
Corporation (IFC). 2009/49 Neco
The Economic and Social Council of the United Nations
Functions of the Economic and Social Council Organisation (UNO) is made up of
1. Conduct research: They carry out studies on issues like A. 25 members B. 26 members C. 27 members
education, health, economic, cultural, social etc. and D. 28 members
recommend same to the General Assembly and to the Answer
UNO. The Council of Economic and Social is made up of 27
2. Preparation of reports: They are also responsible for members of the United Nations Organisation. (C)
the preparation of reports on the activities of all U.N
agencies. 1996/58 Nov Exercise 42.33
3. It makes recommendation for promoting respect for The primary function of the Economic and Social Council
Human Rights and freedom for all.
of the United Nations Organisation (UNO) is to
4. International conferences: It calls international
A. encourage trade among members of the UNO
conference on economic and social matters.
5. It involves in coordinating the activities of specialized B. remove customs barriers among member countries
agencies e.g. food and agricultural organization. C. prepare the agenda of the General Assembly
D. supervise peace–keeping operations
E. improve the social relationship between the United
1999/49 States of American and Russia
The organ of the United Nations responsible for negotiating
agreements with the specialized agencies is the
1991/19 Exercise 42.34
A. General Assembly B. Security Council
Which of the following is not a specialized agency of the
C. Economic and Social Council D. Trusteeship council
United Nations Organisation?
Answer
Economic and social council is the organ of the United A. Food and Agriculture Organization
Nations responsible for negotiating agreements with the B. international monetary fund
specialized agencies of the organization. (C) C. World Health Organisation
D. Economic and Social Council
1982/49 UTME E. International Labour Organisation
The primary function of the Economic and Social Council of
the UN is to
A. improve the social relationship between the USA and the SPECIALISED AGENCIES OF UNO
Soviet Union These are agencies that are autonomous and are existing
B. maintain world peace and security under the banner or umbrella of the UNO. The existence of
C. assist in the development of member states these organizations is mostly based on agreements and
D. lift customs barriers between petroleum producing and cooperation among a good number of states. Membership
non-petroleum producing countries varies from one agency to another. Most of the activities of
E. encourage trade between third world and European these agencies are coordinated by the Economic and social
countries council. Examples of these specialized agencies are:
Answer – C 1. I.L.O – International Labour Organisation.
The economic and social council, ECOSOC under the UN 2. FAO – Food and Agricultural Organisation.
Charter, is responsible for promoting higher standards of 3. WHO – World Health Organisation.
living, full employment, and economic and social progress; 4. IBRD – International Bank for Reconstruction and
identifying solutions to international economic, social and
Development (World Bank).
health problems; facilitating international cultural and
5. UNESCO – United Nations Educational Scientific
educational cooperation, and encouraging universal respect
for the whole world. It also assist in the development of and Cultural Organisation.
member states. 6. UPU – Universal Postal Union
7. UNICEF – United Nations International Children
Emergency Fund.
8. IMF – International Monetary Fund.

567
Exercise 42.35 1999/50 Nov
State any five specialized agencies of United Nations Which of the following is a specialized agency of the
Organisation. United Nations Organisation (UNO)?
A. European Union B. Council of Ministers
Purposes of the Agencies C. World Health Organisation D. Amnesty International
1. To reduce international conflict to the barest Answer
minimum. World Health Organisation is a specialized agency of the
2. To integrate the interest of the various nations. United Nations Organisation. (C)
3. To promote world peace and unity.
4. To bring nations together. 1986/48 UTME
5. Creation of a world community. The World Health Organization is an agency of
A. the EEC B. NATO C. ECOWAS D. the UNO
UNITED NATIONS INTERNATIONAL CHILDREN Answer – D
EMERGENCY FUND (UNICEF) The World Health organization is a specialized agency of
1. Children are worst victims from attack of major the United Nations responsible for international public
diseases, this body supplies drugs and equipment to health. The WHO constitution, which establishes the
combat such. agency’s governing structure and principles, states its main
2. Coordination: it helps in the coordination and in setting objectives as the attainment by all peoples of the highest
up of health activities, nutrition and welfare of children possible level of health.
in developing countries.
3. To work cooperatively with ILO (International Labour
2003/46 Neco
Organisation) in the areas of occupational health.
The World Health Organisation (WHO) is an agency of the
4. It supplies materials and equipment’s that can help in
A. Organisation of African Unity (OAU)
training of children.
5. It makes available funds to assist in times of B. Economic Community of West African States (ECOWAS)
emergencies. C. Commonwealth of Nations
D. United Nations Organisation
Exercise 42.36 Answer
Outline the functions of United Nations International The World Health Organisation is an agency of the United
Children Emergency Fund (UNICEF). Nations Organisation. (D)

INTERNATIONAL LABOUR ORGANISATION

THE WORLD HEALTH ORGANISATION (WHO) (ILO)
This body was established in 1948 with the headquarters in This agency was established in 1919 by the League of
Geneva, Switzerland. It was established for the following Nations with headquarters in Geneva.
reasons:
1. Training of medical personnel: In order to assist AIMS OF THE ORGANIZATION
member nations in training of medical personnel. 1. It improves the workers condition of service
2. To improve in the method of teaching and training of worldwide.
health personnel.
2. It improves and assists the workers standard of living.
3. To contribute in sending medical team to countries in
need and also help to improve the health sector of such 3. To encourage most governments of the world on the
countries. need to respect workers’ rights, liberties and freedom.
4. It assists in creating standards for the quality and dosage 4. International labour organization campaigns against
of drugs. injustice, slavery and child labour.
5. To improve on the knowledge people have about health 5. Experts drawn from this body are of assistance to
and creating a standard worldwide.
advice third world countries on matters relating to
6. It controls the modalities used by drug manufacturers
and the distribution channel of dangerous drugs. labour.
7. To report the outbreak of infectious and killer diseases. 6. Training is organized especially in technical areas.
8. To suggest ways of controlling and preventing the 7. Workers, governments and employees of labour have
spread of such infectious killer diseases. their representatives in this agency.
9. It improves the condition of people and their lifestyle in 8. It celebrates May 1st of every year as Worker’s day
the areas of sanitation, recreation, economies, nutrition, worldwide.
housing, etc.
10. It assists in coordinating the activities of health workers, 9. Every
st
government is encouraged to respect the May
globally. 1 and declare public holiday.
11. To assist in the eradication of epidemic diseases 10. The function of this body is to enhance the promotion
worldwide. of economic and social stability.
12. To unite the strength of nations of the world in the areas 11. It conducts research in the fields of manpower and
of health. vocational training.
13. To provide materials and other aids to countries to help
in developing their health sector.
14. It helps the health workers with guidance on how to treat
and take care of epidemics.
568
2002/50 Nov 5. Technical assistance: The United Nations
The International Labour Organisation (ILO) has its Development Programmes (UNDP), many member
headquarters in states have been receiving technical assistance.
A. Geneva B. Atlanta C. Lagos D. Accra 6. Conducting of Researches: The World Health
Answer Organisation (WHO) conducts researches into causes of
The International Labour Organisation (ILO) has its
some diseases like small pox, cancer, etc., and the
headquarters in Geneva. (A)
findings are made available to member states.
Exercise 42.37 7. High Commission for Refugees: This body is
When was International Labour Organisation (ILO) responsible for taking care of people fleeing their
established? countries to other countries, as a result of war, famine,
A. 1919 B. 1920 C. 1929 D. 1909 etc. The United Nations High Commission for
Refugees has been alleviating the suffering of
FOOD AND AGRICULTURAL ORGANISATION refugees in this area.
(F.A.O) 8. Peace keeping: The U.N.O has been sending peace-
1. This organization helps the member’s state to grow keeping force in areas of conflict worldwide e.g.
more food. Yugoslavia, Somalia and Lebanon.
2. The organization provides useful advice on food 9. UNICEF: The United Nation International Children
storage, fertilizer usage and soil erosion. Emergency Fund (UNICEF) is a specialized agency
3. It sends relief materials in form of food and money to of U.N.O. Children of the member states have
disaster areas. benefitted immensely from this body.
4. Food and agricultural organization coordinates the
10. Provision of grants and loans: U.N.O provides
efforts of some technical agencies, governments, etc.
in developing forestry, agriculture and fisheries. grants and loans through the World Bank for
5. This organization made available to farmers development.
agricultural production. 11. Promotion of Human Rights: Through the
6. It helps in the conservation of natural resources e.g. declaration of 1948, fundamental rights of many by
environment, lakes and forests. the General Assembly, U.N.O has maintained
7. It equally gives advice: The organization gives advice consistency in promoting these rights.
on the content of animal pests and diseases. 12. Promotion of peace and security: U.N.O has
8. This body sends experts to developing countries in collectively succeeded in the promotion of peace and
need of assistance of such technocrats.
security worldwide, by halting conflicts that would
2002/50 Neco have assumed international dimension e.g. Iraqi-
Food and Agricultural Organization (F.A.O) is one of the Kuwaiti war, Israel – Palestine, etc.
specialized agency of the
A. Organisation of African Unity 1996/60
B. Economic Community of West African States (ECOWAS) The most significant achievement of the United Nations
C. Organisation of Petroleum Exporting Countries (OPEC) Organisation (UNO) since its formation is the
D. United Nations Organisation (UNO) A. prevention of another world war
Answer B. settlement of the Middle East crisis
The Food and Agricultural Organisation (F.A.O) is one of the C. enlargement of its membership
specialized agencies of the United Nations Organisation. (D) D. appointment of an African as the head of the
international court of justice
ACHIEVEMENTS OF THE UNO E. prevention of cold war between the western and the
1. Settlement of disputes: The world court, an organ of eastern power blocs
U.N.O has settled disputes among nations e.g. Libya Answer
and Chad, Nigeria and Cameroon, etc. The very significant achievement of the United Nations
2. Prevention of another world war: The UNO, as an Organisation is the prevention of another world war. (A)
organization and since its formation, has been able to
prevent the outbreak of a 3rd world war. For example,
the annexation of Kuwait by Iraq was quickly 2005/5 Neco
contained by the major powers by collectively The most important achievement of the United Nations
expelling Iraq from Kuwait. Organisation (UNO) is the
3. The Trusteeship Council: This council has helped A. election of a Secretary General from Africa
some territories that have not gained independence to B. prevention of another world war
do so. For example Namibia got her independence C. increase in its membership
through the efforts of the UNO. D. settlement of cases of election rigging
4. UNESCO: Members nation of UNO have benefitted Answer
immensely from UNESCO in the areas of education, The most essential achievement of the United Nations
science, etc. UNESCO is a specialized agency under Organisation (UNO) is the prevention of another world war.
UNO. (B)
569
2001/12 Nov Problems or Failures of the UNO
What are the main achievements of the United Nations 1. Shortage of fund is a main problem of the United
Organisation (UNO)? Nations Organisation.
Answer 2. The U.N.O cannot effectively enforce its decision
1. It settles disputes among nations through the World because member states are not ready to surrender their
Court. sovereignty to the authority of the organization.
2. Prevention of another world war. 3. Each of the five permanent members of the Security
3. Member nations of UNO have benefitted immensely Council has a veto power. This could be used at times
from UNESCO. to satisfy their selfish interest.
4. The Trusteeship council has helped many nations for 4. The differences in culture, ideology, politics and
their independence. method used in pursing economic goals.
5. Through the United Nations Development 5. There are difficulties in achieving the goals of the
Programme (UNDP). organization.
6. Conducting health research, through world health 6. There is no permanent military force in U.N.O
organization. 7. The U.N.O has failed to find permanent solution to
7. High commission for refugees is responsible for this arms race. Many nations are spending too much
taking care of those that fled their countries as a result in manufacturing weapons of war.
of war, riots, famine, poverty, etc. 8. The presence of some regional/sub-regional
groupings, some of these groupings like AU,
2019/43 ECOWAS, EEC, etc.
The major concern of the United Nations (UNO) is world 9. Excesses of some member states also weakens the
A. trade B. peace C. health D. cooperation U.N.O.
Answer 10. The inability of the United Nations to effectively
The main cause of the United Nations Organisation (UNO) address the issue of poverty among member states.
is world peace. (B) 11. Over–reliance of the United Nations on the United
States of America.
1991/10 12. Resolution of conflicts.
What has been the role of Nigeria as members of the UNO?
Answer 2001/50 Nov
1. Nigeria, as a sovereign nation and after her admission A major problem of the United Nations Organisation
as the 99th member of U.N.O has contributed (UNO) is
immensely to the realization of the goals of the A. the use of veto by the super–powers
organization. B. excessive power of the Secretary–General
2. Nigeria has at different time’s occupied different C. excessive power of the International Court of Justice
distinctive positions in the world body, e.g. the D. independence of Afro-Asian states
president of the General Assembly, President of the Answer
International Court of Justice, Chairman of the Anti- The main problem of the United Nations Organisation
Apartheid Commission, etc. (UNO) is the use of veto powers by the super power or
3. In the area of the promotion of international peace and permanent member of the Security Council. (A)
security, Nigeria is a member of non–aligned
movement, a body that works in alliance of 2009/12 Neco
international peace and security. State six weakness of the United Nation Organisation
4. Nigeria is regarded as a frontline state because of her (UNO).
role in the Lebanon, Somalia, the Congo, Liberia, etc. Answer
5. Nigeria has also played an important role in the 1. The ideological differences affected harmony within
supervision and promotion of the activities of the the organization.
specialized agencies. 2. Constant border clashes/disputes among member
nations e.g. India and Pakistan.
2017/11 Exercise 42.38 3. Inability of the United Nations to generate sufficient
The political achievement of UN is the promotion of funds for its operations.
A. economic development B. educational development 4. Inability of the organization to effectively address the
C. international peace and security issue of poverty among member states.
D. democratic institution 5. Inability of the United Nations to curtail the excesses
of some member states.
2018/50 Exercise 42.39 6. Inability to own a military High Command to prevent
The United Nations Organisation (UNO) is primarily wars.
regarded as successful because 7. Over-reliance of the United Nations on the United
A. its membership continues to increase States of America.
B. of its control of outbreaks of another world war 8. Inability to resolve conflicts among some member
C. all member countries have veto power nations e.g. Israel and Palestine.
D. more member countries acquires more nuclear power 9. Inability to control nuclear proliferation.

570
2019/16 UTME 2008/4 UTME
The Gulf war of 1990 is an indication that the UNO is In which of the following countries, has the UN carried out
unable to peace keeping operations?
A. ensure free world trade B. stop colonialism A. Cyprus, Singapore and South Africa
C. control armament D. ensure permanent world peace B. Lebanon, the Congo and Mexico
Answer – D C. Cyprus, Somalia and Yugoslavia
The Gulf war of 1990, was an indication that the United D. Nigeria, Botswana and the Congo
Nations organization is unable to ensure permanent world Answer – C
peace. United Nations carried out peace keeping operations in
Cyprus, Somalia and Yugoslavia.
2019/24 UTME
The Economic commission for Africa is an agency of 2010/45 UTME
A. the OAU B. ECOWAS C. the EEC D. the UNO The prominent role Nigeria played in the UN in the 70’s
Answer – D earned her
The Economic commission for Africa is an agency of the A. non-permanent membership position
United Nation Organization (UNO). B. membership of the Security Council
C. permanent representation at the UN
2007/1 UTME D. chairmanship of the General Assembly
Which of the following is a hindrance to the Answer – D
democratization of the United Nations? The prominent role played by Nigeria in United Nations
A. resistance of the big powers made them to earned 70%, as the chairman of the General
B. proliferation of weapons of mass destruction Assembly.
C. the multiplicity of official languages
D. delayed payment of annual dues by members
Answer – A 2019/31 UTME
The resistance of the big powers is the main hindrance to Which of the following sets of nations belong to both the
the democratization of the United Nations programmes. ECOWAS and the UNO?
A. Sierra Leone and Uganda B. Zimbabwe and Nigeria
1992/59 C. Cameroun and Burkina Faso D. Ghana and Mauritania
The United Nations Day is celebrated on Answer – D
A. March 14 B. May 5 C. August 11 Ghana and Mauritania belong to both the ECOWAS and
D. September 17 E. October 24 UNO.
Answer
The United Nations Day is celebrated on the 24 October of 1985/31 UTME
each year. (E) One of the non-permanent members of the United Nations
Security Council is
2019/34 UTME A. Britain B. USSR C. USA D. China E. Nigeria
The five permanent members of the United Nations Answer – E
Security Council are Nigeria is one of the non-permanent member of the United
A. China, U.K, U.S.S.R., U.S.A. and France Nations Security Council.
B. U.S.S.R, Germany, Canada, India and China
C. U.K, France, U.S.A., Brazil and Ethiopia 2002/49 UTME
D. U.S.A., China, Liberia, U.S.S.R. and Italy Professor Ibrahim Gambari is the special assistant to the
Answer – A United Nations Secretary General on
The following are the five permanent members of the A. Security Matters B. Political and Social Matters
United Nations Security Council: China, U.K., U.S.S.R., C. the Economic Commission of Africa D. African Affairs
U.S.A. and France. The Security Council has primary Answer – D
responsibility under the charter, for maintenance of Professor Ibrahim Gambari has held several positions in
international peace and security. the United Nations. In 1999, he was the President of
UNICEF and later became UN under Secretary-General
2007/9 UTME and the first Special Adviser on Africa to the UN Secretary
Which of the following was once Nigeria’ permanent General Kofi Annan from 1999 to 2005. He was the under
representative at the United Nations? Secretary General of the United Nations for political
A. professor Bolaji Akinyemi affairs from 2005 to 2007. His last appointment in the UN
B. Major-Genaral Ike Nwachukwu was from January 2010 to July 2012, when he was
C. Professor Jibril Aminu appointed in the UN was from January 2010 to July 2012,
D. Major General Joseph Garba when he was appointed by Ban ki-moon and the
Answer – D chairperson of the African Union commission as the Joint
Major-General Joseph Garba was once Nigeria’s African Union-United Nations Special Representative of
permanent representative at the United Nations. Darfur.

571
2003/41 UTME 2002/27 UTME
Nigeria’s high standing in the UN General Assembly is The group of states that conceived the idea of the United
underscored by her Nations organization included.
A. military strength B. successes in UN election office A. the USSA, Italy, the UK and China
C. contributions to global peace D. financial contributions B. Italy, the UK, France and Japan
Answer – C C. France, the USA, Canada and Japan
The Nigeria’s high standing in the UN General Assembly D. the USA, the USSR, the UK and China
is underscored by her contributions to global peace. Answer – D
The group of states that conceived the idea of the United
2003/50 UTME Nations organization included the USA, the USSR, the UK
The tenure of the president of the UN Security Council is and China.
A. two years B. one month C. six month D. one year
Answer – B 2014/7 (OAU, IFE)
The tenure of the president of the UN Security Council is Which UN organ has primary responsibility for the
one month. The Security Council has fifteen members out maintenance of World Peace and Security?
of which five are permanent members. The permanent A. the General Assembly B. the Secretariat
members are elected by the council and general assembly C. the International Court of Justice
for a term of two years. The President of the Security D. the Economic and Social Council
Council of the United Nations is held for one month and E. the Security Council
this is done in rotation. Answer – E
The Security Council is the United Nations organ has
2004/11 UTME primary responsibility for the maintenance of world peace
A specialized agency of the United Nations organization is and security.
the
A. International Court of Justice 1992/5 UTME
B. International Olympic Committee The dramatic rise in the membership of the UN during late
C. General Assembly D. World Health Organization 1991 and early 1992 is best accounted for by the
Answer – D A. admission of a large number of newly independent
The World Health Organization (WHO) is a specialized African states
agency of the United Nation responsible for International B. appointment of the first African Secretary-General
Public Health. The WHO constitution, which establishes the
C. break-up of the Soviet Union into independent republics
agency’s governing structure and principles, states its main
D. expansion of the membership of the Security Councils
objective as “the attainment by the all people of the highest
possible level of health”. It is headquartered in Geneva, Answer – C
Switzerland, with six Semi-autonomous regional offices and The incensement in the membership of the UN in the early
150 field offices worldwide. It meets annually usually in May. 1992 was the best reason why Soviet Union break-up into
Independent Republics.
2001/45 UTME
The first Nigerian permanent representative to the United 1993/44 UTME
Nations was A State is admitted into the United Nations on the
A. Alhaji Yusuf Maitama Sule B. General Joseph Garba A. recommendation of the Secretary-General to the
C. Professor Ibrahim Gambari D. Chief Simeon Adebo Security Council
Answer – D B. Concurrent vote of the Security Council and the General
Chief Simeon Olaosebikan Adebo (October 4, 1913 – Assembly
September 30, 1994) was a Nigerian administrator, lawyer C. enabling action of the General Assembly
and diplomat who served as a United Nations Under- D. sponsoring of any member of the organization
Secretary General. He was the former head of the Civil Answer – A
Service in Nigeria’s Old Western Region. As a Chieftain of A State (country) is admitted into the United Nations
the Yoruba people residing in the historic mountain Organization on the basis of the recommendation of the
stronghold of Abeokuta, he held the title of the Okanlomo of Secretary General to the Security Council.
Egba land.
1993/48 UTME
2001/48 UTME An agency of the United Nations which specializes in the
The major demand of the Third World Countries on the
welfare of children is the
United Nations in recent times is the
A. WHO B. UNESCO C. UNICEF D. UNDP
A. expansion of the permanent membership of the Security
Council
Answer – C
B. post of Secretary General of the organization UNICEF, also known as the United Nations Children’s
C. withdrawal of the veto power from the Security Council Fund, is a United Nations agency responsible for providing
D. enforcement of resolutions on the super powers humanitarian and developmental aid to children
Answer – A worldwide. The agency is among the most widespread and
The main request of the third world countries on the United recognizable social welfare organizations in the world,
Nation in recent times in the expansion of the permanent with a presence in the 192 countries and territories.
membership of the Security Council.

572
1993/50 UTME 2007/2008/85 (UNIZIK, AWKA)
Prior to 1991, veto power was exercised in the United The organ of the United Nations primarily responsible for
Nations Security Council by maintaining international peace and security is the
A. France, Germany, the Soviet Union, Italy and Japan A. General Assembly B. Security Council
B. Japan, the United States, Italy, Germany and France C. International Court of Justice
C. the Soviet Union, people’s Republic of China, Great D. Economic and Social Council
Britain, France and the United States Answer – B
D. Italy, the United States, the Soviet Union, Germany and The Security Council is the organ of the United Nations
France Primarily responsible for maintain international peace and
Answer – C security of the world.
Prior to 1991, veto power was exercised in the United
Nations Security Council by the Soviet Union, People’s 1987/45 UTME
Republic of China, Great Britain, France and the United The UNO was founded in 1945 to replace the
States. A. OAU B. NATO
C. Commonwealth of Nations D. League of Nations
2014/47 UTME Answer – D
The UN succeeded the The United Nation Organization was founded in 1945 to
A. League of Nations B. Warsaw pact C. Nato D. SEATO replace the League of Nations.
Answer – A
United Nations Organization (UNO) succeeded the League 1987/46 UTME
of Nations. The UNO charter aims at
A. ensuring economic equality among nations
2014/48 UTME B. protecting the right of refugees
The number of permanent members of the UN Security C. ensuring world peace and security
Council is D. ensuring fair treatment for prisoners of war
A. seven B. eight C. five D. six Answer – C
Answer – C The United Nations Organization Charter aims at ensuring
The United Nations Security Council has five (5) world peace and security.
permanent members.
1989/45 UTME
1997/48 UTME Which of the following sets of nations belong to both the
Nations join international organizations so that they could ECOWAS and the UNO?
A. advances their interest’s B. get foreign aid A. Sierra Leone and Uganda B. Zimbabwe and Nigeria
C. form alliance D. become more developed C. Cameroun and Burkina Fasa D. Ghana and Mauritania
Answer – A Answer – D
Nations join International organizations so that they could Ghana and Mauritania are sets of nations that belong to
advances their interests. both the ECOWAS and the United Nation Organization.
1985/43 UTME 1990/44 UTME
Which of the following nations does not have veto power
Which of the following pairs of countries were trust
in the security council of the UNO?
A. Britain B. China C. France D. Germany E. USA territories of the United Nations?
Answer – D A. Tanganyika and Ghana B. Cameroon and Niger
The Germany is a nation that does not have veto power in C. Togo and Namibia D. Botswana and Zaire
the Security Council of the United Nation Organization Answer – C
because Germany is a non-permanent member of the United Nations trust territories were the successors of the
Security Council. remaining League of Nations mandates and came into
1985/49 UTME being when the League of Nation were ceased to exist in
The non-permanent members of the Security Council of 1946. Togo and Namibia are pairs of countries under the
the United Nations Organization (UNO) are elected for trust territories of the United Nations.
A. 5 year term B. 4 year term C. 3 year term
D. 2 year term E. 1 year term 1990/46 UTME
Answer – D Which of the following groups advocated Political Union
The non-permanent members of the security council of the of African States?
United Nations Organization (UNO) are elected for two (2) A. the Congo Group B. the Brazzaville Group
year term.
C. the Casablanca Group D. the Moniovia Group
1990/43 UTME Answer – C
The Economic Commission for Africa is an organ of The Casablanca group advocated for political union of
A. OAU B. ECOWAS C. UNO D. EEC E. UNESCO African States.
Answer – C
The Economic Commission for Africa is an organ of
United Nation Organization (UNO).
573
2014/2015/96 (UI,IBADAN) 1984/38 UTME
Which of the following is a functionally specialized global The international organization formed after the Second
international organization World War to guarantee international peace and security is
A. Organization of African Unity B. United Nations called
C. Food and Agriculture Organization D. African Union A. the European Common Market
Answer – B B. the British Commonwealth of Nations
United Nations is a functionally specialized global C. the League of Nations
international organization. D. the United Nations Organization
E. the World Bank
2014/2015/100 (UI,IBADAN)
Answer – D
Which of the following metamorphosed into the United
The international organization formed after the Second
Nations?
A. International Labour Organization World War to guarantee international peace and security is
B. League of Nations C. UNESCO D. OAU called the United Nations Organization.
Answer – D
Organization of Africa Unity is the metamorphosed of the 1984/28 UTME
United Nations. The main deliberative organ of the UNO is the
A. Security Council B. General Assembly
1988/49 C. Economic and Social Council D. Secretariat
Nigeria is a member of E. International Court of Justice
A. OPEC, NATO and ECOWAS Answer – B
B. OAU, the UNO and ECOWAS General Assembly is the main organ of deliberation of the
C. ECOWAS, NATO and OAU UNO.
D. the Commonwealth of Nations, OPEC and the OAU
Answer – B 2014/2015/99 (UI, IBADAN)
Nigeria is a member of Organization of Africa Unity, the Which of the following is not a principal organ of the
United Nations Organization and Economic Community of UNO?
West Africa States. A. UNICEF B. Security Council
C. Secretariat D. General Assembly
Obafemi Awolowo University 2015/9; 2013/18 Answer– A
Nigeria’s voting at the United Nations is guided primarily by UNICEF is a specialized agencies of the United nations
A. her national interest B. world peace and not an organ.
C. the cold war D. her concern for Africa
Answer – D
2008/2009/10 (NDU, BAYELSA)
Nigeria’s voting at the United Nations is guided primarily by
Which organ of the United Nations has primary responsibility
her concern for Africa.
for the maintenance world peace and security?
A. the General assemble B. the secretary
OAU 2008/8
C. the international court of Justice at the Hague
One of the following is not a specialized agency of the United
D. the economic and social council
Nations Organization
E. the secretary council
A. Security Council B. International Labour Organization
Answer – E
C. World Health Organization D. UNESCO
The Secretary-General of the United Nations has the primary
Answer – A
responsibility for the
Security Council is a main organ of United Nations
maintenance of world peace and security at large.
organization not a specialized agency.
2008/49
2019/2020/9 (UI, IBADAN)
Which of the organs of the United Nations of Organisation
Which of the following set of countries belong to both the
(UNO) is responsible for appointing staff of the organization?
ECOWAS and UNO?
A. Security Council B. International Court of Justice
A. Ghana and Kenya B. Nigeria and Niger
C. The Secretariat D. The Economic and Social Council
B. Chad and Cameroon D. Nigeria and Chad
Answer
Answer – D
The Secretariat is an organ that has the responsibility for
Nigeria and Chad belong to both Economic Community of
appointment of staff in the organization. (C)
West African States and United Nations of Organization.
2017/2018/90 (UNIZIK, AWKA)
1985/50 UTME
One of the objectives of the United Nations is
The Economic Commission for Africa is an agency of the
A. develop African states
A. OAU B. OPEC C. UNO D. NATO E ECOWAS
B. maintain international peace and security
Answer – C
C. ensure that workers all over the world are paid handsome
United Nations Economic Commission for Africa (UNECA)
wages
was established by the Economic and Social Council
D. provide ammunition to any warring states
(ECOSOC) of the United Nations (UN) in 1958 as one of the
Answer – B
UN’s five regional commissions, ECA’s mandate is to
The main aim of the United Nations is to maintain
promote the economic and social development of its member
international peace and security.
states and foster intra-regional integration.
574
2022/10 Neco 4. International Bank for Reconstruction and
Itemize and discuss six functions performed by the Development (IBRD–World Bank) provides
Secretary General of the United Nations. financial products and policy advice to help countries
Answer reduce poverty and extend the benefits of sustainable
Six functions performed by the Secretary General of the growth towards greater prosperity.
United Nations are: 5. International Monetary Fund (IMF) works to achieve
1. He is the chief administrative officer of the sustainable growth and prosperity for all its member
organization. countries. It does so by supporting economic policies
2. He prepares the agenda for the General Assembly. that promote financial stability and monetary
3. He makes the annual report to the General Assembly cooperation which are essential to increase
on the work of the United Nations. productivity, job creation, and economic wellbeing.
4. The annual budget of the organization is prepared by 6. United Nations Educational Scientific and Cultural
the Secretary–General. Organisation (UNESCO) has a primary mandate of
5. He brings to the attention of the Security Council any advancing education for the purpose of attaining
matter which, in his opinion may threaten the sustainable development.
maintenance of world peace and security.
6. He organizes international conferences on problems 2019/9 NABTEB NOV
of worldwide concern e.g. UNICEF. 9a. Outline five merits of Commonwealth membership.
b. List five past Secretary-Generals of the United
2022/8 Neco Nations.
8a. Mention six specialized agencies of the United c. Give five objectives of the United Nations.
nations and their headquarters. Answer
b. Discuss one primary duty of each of the six 9a) Five merits of Commonwealth membership are
specialized agencies. 1. Trade co-operation: Member states enjoy economic
Answer cooperation among themselves.
(8a)Six specialized agencies of the United Nations and 2. Technical assistance: Technical assistance is given by
their Headquarters are: the advanced countries of the commonwealth to the
1. I.L.O which implies International Labour developing ones.
Organisation has its headquarter at Geneva, 3. Education and award of scholarship: The
Switzerland. commonwealth member countries have exchange
2. FAO – which implies Food and Agricultural programmes in which citizens of member states could
Organisation has its headquarters at Rome, Italy. go to study in another commonwealth country as well
3. WHO – which implies World Health Organisation as offering scholarship.
has it’s headquarter at Geneva, Switzerland. 4. Military assistance: Developing members states of the
4. IBRD – International Bank for Reconstruction and commonwealth enjoy military cooperation and
Development (World Bank) has it’s headquarter at assistance from developed members.
Washington, D.C. United States of America. 5. Sports: Commonwealth member states organize
5. IMF – which implies International Monetary Fund commonwealth games to foster unity among themselves.
has it’s headquarter at Washington, D.C. United
States of America. 9b) Five past Secretary-Generals of the United Nations are
6. UNESCO – which implies United Nations 1. Kurt Waldeim of Austria (1972-82).
Educational Scientific and Cultural Organisation has 2. Javier Perez de Cuellar of Peru (1982-72).
it’s headquarter at Paris, France. 3. Boutrous, Boutrous Ghali of Egypt (1993-98).
4. Dr. Koffi Annan of Ghana (1998-2006).
(8b) One primary duty of each of the six specialized 5. Ban Ki – Moon of South Korea (2007-2016).
agencies are
1. The international Labour Organisation (ILO) is 9c) Five objectives of the United Nations are
devoted to promoting social justice and 1. To maintain international peace and security.
internationally recognized human and labour rights, 2. To promote economic and social advancement of all
pursuing its founding mission that social justice is people.
essential to universal and lasting peace. 3. To develop friendly relations among states based on
2. Food and Agriculture Organisation (FAO) of the mutual respect, equal rights and self–determination of
United Organisation supports governments and people.
partners to design the right policies and programmes 4. To promote and encourage respect for Human rights
to end hunger, promote food security and promote and fundamental freedom for all races internationally.
sustainable agriculture for millions of people around 5. To encourage and achieve international cooperation
the world. in solving international problems based on economic,
3. World Health Organisation (WHO) is responsible for social, cultural and humanitarian.
providing leadership on global health matters,
shaping the health research agenda, setting norms and
standards, articulating evidence based policy options,
providing technical support to countries and assessing
health trends.
575
REVISION EXERCISES 17. Mention three aims and objectives of the UNO.
1. The United Nations is a useful international 18. Explain the following organs of United Nations
organisation because it Organization (UNO)
A. contributes to the budget of the O.A.U i. General Assembly
B. meets once in a year ii. Security Council
C. promotes international peace and security iii. International Court of Justice
D. is a rival to the League of Nations iv. Economic and social council
D. is dominated by Russia and the United States of
America.
2. Nigeria belongs to all the following international
organizations except
A. Organisation of African Unity (OAU)
B. United Nations Organisation (UNO)
C. North Atlantic Treaty Organisation (NATO)
D. Organisation of Petroleum Exporting Countries
(OPEC)
E. Economic Community of West African States
(ECOWAS)
3. Which of the following is the most powerful organ of
the United Nations?
A. Trusteeship Council B. Security Council
C. Council of Ministers D. Secretariat
4. The World Organisation which existed before the
United Nation organization was the
A. League of Nations
B. European Economic Community
C. Organisation of African Unity
D. Commonwealth of Nations
5. The use of veto power in the United Nations
Organisation (UNO) is only exercised by the
A. Economic and Social Council
B. international Court Justice
C. Trusteeship Council D. Security Council
6. The First West African to be appointed the United
Nations Secretary–General is
A. Emeka Anyaoku B. Salim Ahmed
C. Ibrahim Gambari D. Kofi Annan
7. Which of the following countries is a permanent
member?
A. Nigeria B. Israel C. Iraq D. Britain
8. All the following organs/agencies of the United
Nations Organisation have their headquarters situated
in New York except the
A. United Nations Development Projects (UNDP)
B. World Health Organisation (WHO)
C. International Court of Justice (ICJ)
D. United Nations Educational, Scientific and
Cultural Organisation (UNESCO)
E. International Labour Organisation (ILO)
9. Who was the Nigerian diplomat elected president of
United Nations General Assembly?
A. Professor Ibrahim Gambari
B. Professor Adebayo Adedeji
C. Alhaji Maitama Sule D. General Joseph Garba
10. State five functions of Trusteeship council.
11. Enumerate six specialized agencies of United Nations
Organisation.
12. Explain the origin of United Nations Organisation.
13. Discuss the achievement of United Nations
Organisation.
14. State the six organs of the UNO.
15. Explain the Security Council of UNO.
16. Explain the General Assembly of UNO.
576
The only former member of ECOWAS is French and
Chapter Forty Three Arabic speaking Mauritania which also is one of the
founding members in 1975, the country decided to
INTERNATIONAL ORGANISATION 4: withdraw in December 2000. Mauritania signed a new
associate membership agreement in August 2017.
ECONOMIC COMMUNITY OF WEST
AFRICAN STATES (ECOWAS) NB: The economic community of West African States
became operational on 20 July, 1975 after the treaty was
The Economic Community of West African States ratified by the member countries.
(ECOWAS) is a regional organization of 15 West African
countries established by the treaty of Lagos on 28th May, 2013/50 Neco
1975 in Lagos, Lagos State, Nigeria. Its main goal is the The headquarters of the Economic Community of West
promotion of the economic integration among its African States’ (ECOWAS) fund for cooperation,
members. compensation and Development is located in
A. Lome B. Lagos C. Accra D. Dakar
Author’s Questions Answer
1. What is the full meaning of ECOWAS? Lome is the headquarters of the Economic Community of
A. Economic Organ West Asia States West African States (ECOWAS). (A)
B. Economic Organisation Community States
C. Economic Community of West African States 2017/50 Neco
D. Economic Communication of Waste African The Economic Community of West African States
States (ECOWAS) was formally established in Lagos on
Answer A. December 20, 1945 B. June 20, 1963
Economic Community of West African States C. March 15, 1971 D. May 28, 1975
(ECOWAS). (C) Answer
2. When was ECOWAS founded? The Economic Community of West African States
A. 1975 B. 1985 C. 1995 D. 1965 (ECOWAS was formally established in Lagos on May 28,
Answer 1975. (D)
ECOWAS was founded or established on 28 May,
1975. (A) 1989/59 Nov
3. Economic Community of West African States Which of the following countries is not a member of the
(ECOWAS) is a regional organization of Economic Community of West African States (ECOWAS)?
A. 16 West African States A. Nigeria B. Cameroon C. Ghana D. Togo
B. 12 West African States E. Ivory Coast
C. 15 West African States D. 10 West African states Answer
Answer Cameroon is not a member of the Economic Community
15 West African States (C) of West African States (ECOWAS). (B)

FORMATION OF ECOWAS 2010/47

The Economic Community of West African States was The administrative headquarters of the Economic
formally founded on 28th May, 1975 in Lagos, Nigeria Community of West African States (ECOWAS) is in
under the administration of Yakubu Gowon and Togo A. Freetown B. Lome C. Banjul D. Abuja
under the administration of Late Gnassing Eyadema Answer
playing leading roles. These two leaders, as far back as Abuja is the administrative headquarters of the Economic
1972 held series of meetings and negotiations after which Community of West African States (ECOWAS). (D)
they sent draft proposals to other heads of States of West
African countries. The administrative headquarters of the Aims and Objectives of ECOWAS
community is in Abuja, Nigeria while the fund 1. To promote cooperation and development in all fields of
headquarters is in Lome, Togo. industry, transport, telecommunication, energy,
agriculture, natural resources, commerce, monetary and
The aim was to form an economic union that would financial questions and social and cultural matters for the
purpose of raising the standard of living of its peoples, of
challenge and foil the imperialist economic exploitation
fostering close relations among its members and of
and domination of West Africa. ECOWAS is a regional
contributing to the progress and development of the
economic grouping that cuts across political and linguistic African continent.
barriers. It is made up of fifteen West African countries 2. To eliminate custom duties and other charges in respect
namely: Nigeria, Ghana, the Gambia, Sierra-Leone, and of the importation and exportation of goods between
Liberia which are the English speaking or Anglophone member countries of ECOWAS.
countries. Senegal, Guinea, Togo, Mali, Benin Republic, 3. The abolition of quantitative and administrative
Burkina Faso, Cote d’Ivoire (Ivory Coast), and Niger restrictions on trade among member states.
Republic are French speaking or Francophone countries, 4. The establishment of a common custom tariff and a
making up the body while Cape Verde and Guinea Bissau common commercial policy towards third countries.
are Busophone (Portuguese speaking).

577
5. The abolition between the member–states of the 2003/34 NOV
obstacles to free movement of persons, services and Which of the following is not an organ of ECOWAS?
capital. A. the Community of Tribunal
6. The harmonization of the agricultural policies and the B. The Executive Secretariat
promotion of common projects in the member – states C. the Regional executive and leaders
notably in the fields of marketing, research and agro- D. the Authority of Heads of State and Government
industrial enterprises. E. the council of ministers
7. The implementation of schemes for the joint Answer
development of transport, communication, energy and The Regional executive and leaders is not an organ of
other infrastructural facilities as well as the evolution of
Economic Community of West Africa states. (C)
a common policy in these fields.
8. The harmonizing of the economic and industrial policies of
the members and the elimination of disparities in the levels The Authority of Heads of State and Governments
of development of member states. This is the highest authority in Economic Community of
9. The harmonization required for the proper functioning West African States (ECOWAS). It is made up of Heads
of the community and of the monetary policies of the of State and government within the sub-region. This organ
member states. of ECOWAS is headed by chairman, who holds office for
10. The establishment of a fund for cooperation, one year. The office of the chairman is rotational among
compensation and development. the member states. This body meets once a year but there
can be emergency meeting.
2011/50 Neco
The objective of the Economic Community of West African 2009/46 Neco
States (ECOWAS) is to The highest organ of the Economic Community of West
A. promote economic development among member states African States (ECOWAS) is the
B. achieve African Unity A. Council of Ministers B. Secretariat C. Tribunal
C. establish political unification of West Africa D. Authority of Heads of State and Government
D. eradicate all forms of racism in West Africa Answer
Answer The Authority of the Heads of State and Government is the
The aim of the Economic Community of West African States foremost, the highest authority of the Economic
(ECOWAS) is to promote economic development among Community of West African states. (D)
member states. (A)
Functions, Duties of the Authority of Heads of State
2004/48 Neco
and Government
The primary objective of the Economic Community of West
1. It is the highest decision making body in the
African States (ECOWAS) is to
A. prevent crimes in West African
organization.
B. promote the socio-economic development of member states 2. It approves the appointment of the executive secretary
C. control pollution and environmental degradation for the organization.
D. promote universal human rights 3. It discusses issues pertaining to the regional economy.
Answer 4. It approves the recommendations of the council of
The main objectives of the Economic Community of West ministers.
African States (ECOWAS) are to promote the socio-economic 5. It approves all agreements and treaties entered into by
development of member states. (B) the community.
6. It decides and approves proposals for the amendment
Organs of ECOWAS of the charter of the community.
The following are the organs established by the Economic 7. It considers reports from the secretariat and executive
Community of West African States (ECOWAS). secretary.
1. The Authority of Heads of State and Governments.
2. The Council of Ministers. Author’s Questions
3. The Executive Secretariat. 1. The organ of Heads of State and Government of
4. The fund for cooperation, compensation and ECOWAS is headed by
development. A. Chairman B. council C. minister D. Director
5. The community tribunal. Answer
6. The technical and specialized commission. The organ of Heads of State and Government is headed
by Chairman. (A)
2006/12a Neco
2. The office of the Chairman under the ECOWAS organ
List four organs of the Economic Community of West African
States (ECOWAS). Authority of Heads of State and Governments is
Answer rotational among the
a. The Authority of Heads of State and Government. A. executive B. member–states C. secretariat
b. The Council of Ministers. D. heads of state and government
c. The Executive Secretariat. Answer
d. The fund for cooperation, compensation and development. The office of the Chairman of Heads of State and
(Extras) government is rotational among the member states. (B)
e. The community tribunal.
f. The technical and specialized commission.
578
THE COUNCIL OF MINISTERS 5. Lanscina Kansana Kouyate of Guinea (1997-2002).
The Council of Ministers comprises of two ministers or 6. Mohammadu Ibn Chambas of Ghana (2002-2007).
representatives from each member states and it meets twice 7. Mohammadu Ibn Chambas of Ghana (2007-2010).
in a year. Voting on issues is based on simple majority. The 8. James Victor Gheho of Ghana (2010-2012).
council is assisted by technical commissions which study 9. Kadre’ Desire Owedraogo of Burkina Faso (2012-
the files and prepares the decision with the collaboration of 2016).
the executive secretariat. The decisions of the council are 10. Marcel Lainde Souza of Benin (2016-2018).
by consensus.
1996/55
The first Executive Secretary of the Economic Community of
Functions, Duties of the Council of Ministers
West African States (ECOWAS) was
1. Implementation of decision and policies.
A. Diallo Telli B. Nzo Ekangaki C. Abubakar Quattara
2. It appoints two Deputy Executive Secretaries. D. Salim A. Salim E. Robert Gardiner
3. It appoints the Managing Director of ECOWAS Answer
funds. The first executive secretary of ECOWAS was Abubakar
4. It prepares the agenda for the meetings of the Heads Quattara of Coted’ Ivoire (1975–1985). (C)
of State and Government.
5. It recommends the appointment of the Executive 2005/11b Nov
Secretary of the organization to the Authority of Outline any four duties and powers of the executive secretary
Heads of State and Government. of ECOWAS.
6. It is the body that approves the organization budget. Answer
1. The annual report of the organization is prepared by
THE EXECUTIVE SECRETARIAT him.
The Executive Secretariat is the administrative organ of 2. He is the Chief Administrative Officer of the organization.
ECOWAS. It is headed by secretary general on a four- year 3. He appoints members of his staff.
term. He can be re-elected for another four years. Its major 4. He supervises the preparation of the annual budget of
function is to implement the decisions of Heads of States the organization.
and the council of ministers. The office of the executive 5. He is the head of the secretariat.
secretariat is located at Abuja, Nigeria, where he is been
assisted by two deputy executive secretaries. Author’s Questions
1. The administrative organ of ECOWAS is located at
Functions, Duties of the Executive Secretary A. Cameroun B. Abuja C. Britain D. Senegal
1. He is the Chief Administrative Officer of the Answer
organization. The administrative organ of ECOWAS is located in
2. He directs and controls the secretariat. Abuja, Nigeria. (B)
3. He appoints members of staff of secretariat. 2. Who is the head of ECOWAS?
4. He is in charge of the organization properties. A. Secretary General B. Council of Minister
5. He prepares the annual report of the organization. C. Managing Director D. Deputy Secretary General
6. He supervises the preparation of the annual budget of Answer
the organization. The Secretary General is the principal Chief
Administrative Officer of ECOWAS secretary. (A)
Functions of the Executive Secretariat 3. The office of the Secretary General of ECOWAS is
1. This organ is responsible for all correspondence of the for ____ term.
community. A. three years B. five years
2. It prepares the budget of the community annually. C. seven years D. four years
3. It makes arrangements for all the meetings of the Answer
community. The office of the Secretary General of ECOWAS is
4. The organ prepares the agenda for the meetings of the for four years term. (D)
council of ministers.
5. It document all the files of all the meetings of Heads THE FUND FOR COOPERATION,
of States and council of Ministers of the community COMPENSATION AND DEVELOPMENT
and all organs of the community, are kept in the The ECOWAS fund for Co-operation, Compensation and
secretariat. Development is the financial fund of the ECOWAS. It was
6. It implements the council of Ministers and the created by the ECOWAS treaty of 1975 and it is located in
decisions of the authority of Heads of states and Lome, Togo. The resources of this fund come mainly from
governments. contributions by member states and bilateral or multilateral
7. It initiates the formulation of policies for efficient sources. The fund has a Managing Director who is
development of the community. controlled by a Board of Directors.

The Past Executive Secretaries of ECOWAS The fund is defined as the financial institution of the
1. Abubakar Quattara of Coted ‘Ivoire (1975-1985). ECOWAS that gives compensation to member states that
2. Momodu Munu of Sierra – Leone (1985-89). have suffered loss as a result of the location of community
3. Abbas Bundu of Sierra – Leone (1989-93). enterprises or because of the application of the trade
4. Benjamin Edourd of Guinea (1993-97). liberalization programmes of the community.
579
2014/49 3. The fund is to promote development efforts in less
The ECOWAS fund for cooperation, compensation and developed member states.
development is located in 4. To mobilize international and external resources for
A. Togo B. Nigeria C. The Gambia D. Sierra–Leone development in member states.
Answer
The headquarters of the ECOWAS fund for cooperation,
THE COMMUNITY TRIBUNAL
The ECOWAS community tribunal is the judicial organ of the
compensation and development is located in Togo. (A)
Economic Community of West African States (ECOWAS)
Author’s Question and is charged with resolving disputes related to the
1. The ECOWAS fund for cooperation, compensation community’s treaty, protocols and conventions. The
and development is headed by ECOWAS Community Court of Justice has competence to
A. Minister Council hear individual complaints of alleged human rights violation.
B. heads of State and Government
C. regional authority D. Managing Director The Technical and Specialised Commission
ECOWAS has four technical and specialized commissions,
Answer
they are responsible for special matters.
The fund for cooperation, compensation and
a. Transport, telecommunication and energy commission.
development is headed by ECOWAS Managing b. Social and Cultural affairs commission.
Director. (D) c. Natural resource, agriculture and industry commission.
2. The Managing Director of the fund for cooperation, d. Customs, Immigration, trade, monetary and payments
compensation development is been appointed by commission.
A. Council of ministers
B. Authority of Heads of States and government C. Author’s Questions
community tribunal D. technical committee 1. What are the numbers of the technical and specialised
Answer commission of ECOWAS?
The Council of Ministers appoints the Managing A. three B. six C. seven D. four E. nine
Director to head the fund for cooperation, Answer
compensation and development. (A) ECOWAS has four technical and specialized
commissions. (D)
Functions of the Fund for Cooperation, Compensation 2. Outline the four ECOWAS technical and specialized
and Development commission.
1. To assess and compensate member states that may I. The industry, agriculture and natural resources
suffer losses as a result of their compliance with commissions.
ECOWAS treaty. II. The trade, customs, immigration, monetary and
2. The fund is designed to finance joint development payments commission.
projects within the member states. III. The social and cultural affairs commission.
IV. The transport, telecommunication and energy
3. To provide compensation and other forms of
commission.
assistance to member states who suffer adverse
consequences from the effect of trade liberalization
COURT OF ECONOMIC COMMUNITY OF WEST
and location of community enterprises.
AFRICAN STATES.
4. To guarantee foreign investment made by member
It was established in 2001 mainly for administration of
states in respect of enterprises established in pursuance
Justice and was later empowered to hear cases instituted by
of the harmonization of industrial policies.
the member states. At an interactive session in Accra, the
5. To promote development projects in the less
sub-regional leaders adopted a supplementary protocol
developed member states of the community.
which among other things empowers citizens of the region
to bring their grievances to the court.
Governing Board of the Fund
1. Board of Directors: The fund is governed by a Board
Only the Authority of Heads of State and Government (the
of Directors, made up of one minister each from
executive of the community comprised of all the member
member states.
states) and the member states acting individually were
2. Managing Director: The fund is administered by a
permitted to initiate a contentious case in the court.
managing director who is also the chief executive
appointed by the Council of Ministers.
CONTENTIOUS JURISDICTION IN THE COURT
The court has jurisdiction over four general types of
disputes:
Uses of ECOWAS Fund for Cooperation,
1. Those relating to the interpretation, application or
Compensation and Development
legality of ECOWAS regulations.
1. It is to provide compensation to member states which
2. Those that arise between ECOWAS and its
sustained losses in the process of the application of
employees.
the ECOWAS treaty and that of free trade or trade
3. Those relating to liability for or against ECOWAS
liberalization policy.
4. Those that involve a violation of human rights
2. It guarantee foreign investments proposed by member
committed by a member state.
states, in line with established standard and to
promote the harmonization of industrial policies.
580
Author’s Question 8. Free movement of factors of production throughout
1. Court of Economic Community of West African West Africa: The community will make it possible for
States was established in traders from one member state to go to other member
A. 2008 B. 2004 C. 2001 D. 2000 E. 2007 nations and trade.
Answer 9. Availability of cheap labour: This will be made
The court of Economic Community of West African possible by article 27 of the ECOWAS Charter which
states was established in 2001. (C) permitted “Community Citizen” to take up jobs in any
2. In which interactive session does the sub-regional of the member-states provided they have visa.
leaders adopted a supplementary protocol which 10. Reduction of tariffs: This has help to promote trade
empowers citizens of the region to bring their among member-nations.
grievances to the court? 11. Easy movement of raw materials: Members who
A. Britain B. Cameroun C. Canada D. Accra have more will shift some to those that do not have,
Answer which will promote industrial production.
The sub-regional leaders met in Accra in an 12. Sub-regional self-reliance: ECOWAS will lead to
interactive system adopted the supplementary West Africa self-reliance in the production, marketing
protocol which empowers citizens to bring their and distribution of goods and services thereby cutting
grievances to the court. (D) the apron strings tying them and the imperialists.
3. The members of the court of Economic Community 13. Execution of joint projects: This will contribute
of West African States are the immensely to the development of the countries
A. Director and manager involved.
B. Authority of Heads of States and governments C. 14. Gains from compensation fund: This fund is
Head of state and head of government contributed and owned by all the member-states for
D. General Assembly cooperation, compensation and development.
Answer 15. Harmonization of industrial policies: This will
Only the Authority of Heads of state and Government enable industrialists from one member state to go to
comprises of all the member states of the court of another and establish industries with little or no
Economic Community of West African States. (B) hindrance.
16. Unity: All the activities of ECOWAS will help to
foster friendly atmosphere which will lead to the unity
Advantages derivable from ECOWAS of the West African sub-region.
1. Exposed to an enlarged market: A small country like
Togo, even a large country like Nigeria will have Problems, Weakness, Failures or Disadvantages of
access to a larger market than her small or local market ECOWAS
as the goods will be moved to all parts of West Africa 1. Reluctance in eliminating tariffs: Many West African
countries for sale. This brings about increases in countries are reluctant to eliminate all tariffs on goods
member states sales volume. from member countries since it will lead to a loss of
2. Availability of more goods: Member nations will revenue. These countries depend largely on import and
have the opportunities of getting more goods from export duties as sources of government revenue. The
other member states. total elimination of tariffs would lead to a substantial
3. High standard of living: Increase in all economic fall in government revenue.
activities among member states has led to a rapid rise 2. Absence of common currency: The absence of the
in investment and employment of labour. This has led above factor also hinder economic cooperation in the
to a rise in the level of income and standard of living. region. The inability of the Union to adopt a common
4. High rate of employment: To a large extent member currency in the sub-region has lowered the level of
nations has been able to resolve her unemployment economic activities and other forms of cooperation in
problem as there is a high rate of setting of both small West Africa.
and large firms and free movement of labour to other 3. Financial problems: There is a gross inadequacy of
member states to secure gainful employment. fund in the Union. It is partly caused by unwillingness
5. Full capacity utilization: ECOWAS has enabled of some members to contribute their financial quotas
member states to operate her industries at full capacity. to ECOWAS. This reduces efficiency and
This has eliminated waste; and it has enabled member effectiveness in the ECOWAS’s administrative work
states to achieve maximum output. and implementation of its policies.
6. Access to more capital - high level of investment: 4. Increase in social vices: The presence of these
Member states has been able to raise a very large community citizens in some member-states, Nigeria
amount of capital through sales of her shares, stocks, for instance, has escalated the wave of armed robbery,
debentures, bonds, bills, etc. in all West African religions bigotry, arson, murder, etc.
countries. This has led to increase in the rate of 5. Fear of domination: The fear of domination of some
investment. members by others due to difference in size,
7. High rate of economic growth and development: population and level of development or wealth has
ECOWAS has raised the rate of member states – Togo, seriously weakened the spirit of cooperation and
Ghana, etc.) economic growth (increase in output of implementation of ECOWAS’s decisions by member
goods) due to a very high demand for goods in states.
different parts of the sub-region.
581
6. Language barrier: Member states are polarized into 19. Conflict of interests: Bilateral trade agreements with
English, French and Portuguese language. This is seen other countries outside West Africa could lead to a
as a barrier to the unity of the people of the sub-region. conflict of interest with their ECOWAS commitments.
7. Problems posed by immigrants: The Article 27 of the There are likely to be conflicts of agreement which will
ECOWAS TREATY which granted “community jeopardize the common tariff agreement among the
citizens” freedom of movement and residence within member state.
the community has created and escalated the problems
of illegal aliens. 2000/48 Nov
8. Escalating of smuggling: This problem of smuggling A major problem facing the Economic Community of
is exacerbated by the free movement of the West African States (ECOWAS) is
“community citizens”. A. over population B. adequate infrastructural facilities
9. Affinity to former colonial masters: The political C. multiplicity of currency D. interdependence of state
economy of most member states is tied to that of their Answer
respective former colonial masters. For example, the The major problem facing the Economic Community of West
Francophone countries that are yet to cut economic ties African States (ECOWAS) is multiplicity of currency
binding them to France tend to display more allegiance meaning there is no common currency in the region. (C)
to her former colonial master (France) than to
ECOWAS. 2000/48
10. Political instability: As a result of this, many leaders One of the problems facing the Economic Community of
that show great interest in ECOWAS do not stay in West African State (ECOWAS) is that
office for a longer time to help in the achievement of A. member states do not attend meetings regularly
the above aims and objectives. B. member states do not have a common currency
11. Non policy implementation: This problem led to the C. some member states want to contribute larger funds to
non-achievement of anything by the community in its the community
first decade. D. it is a rival to the organization of African Unity
12. Weak national links with the secretariat: This has Answer
made the secretariat to be unable to know about the The main problem that is facing the Organization of
happenings in member-states and their development Economic Community of West African State (ECOWAS) is
strategies. that member states do not have a common currency. (B)
13. Congestion: This is caused by Article 27 of the
community’s Charter which encourages migration 1993/54
from one member-state to another. Which of the following is not a serious problem of
14. Unemployment: The “community citizens” that have ECOWAS?
left their rural areas to urban areas of other member- A. the economies of member states are not complementary
states with the hope of getting something to do, help to B. member states are primary producers
increase the number of the unemployed of the C. member states have dependent economies
member-states they have gone to. D. the monetary policies of member states differ
15. Political and ideological differences: This arise partly E. member states speak different languages
from differences in political backgrounds. The English Answer
speaking countries of West Africa tends to have a Speaking of different languages is not a serious problem of
similar ideology which is different from that of the ECOWAS because they can use interpretation for better
French speaking countries. The political ideologies of understanding. (E)
the various leaders may also differ. Some want to
practice capitalism and others socialism or mixed 2018/49
economy. Such political and ideological differences Which of the following is not a problem faced by the
tend to limit the degree of economic cooperation. Economic Community of West African States (ECOWAS)?
16. Similarity of products: The basis for trade is virtually A. financial security B. political instability
lacking since most of them produced identical C. larger market D. colonial heritage
commodities which make exchange unnecessary. Most Answer
produce primary products which are either agricultural Larger market is not a problem faced by the Economic
products or minerals. The volume of trade among these Community of West African States. (C)
countries would continue to be low for a long time.
17. High rate of poverty in West Africa: The rampant
incidence of poverty in West Africa reduce the level of Achievements of ECOWAS
investment, employment and effective demand for 1. The removal of custom duties: Custom duties that may
goods and services. This hinders the rate of flow of come up in areas of exportation and importation of
goods, capital and labour in the region. goods are removed.
18. Underdeveloped infrastructure: There are poor links 2. Elimination of obstacles: There is the elimination of
between the member states. The existing obstacles to movement of persons, services and capital.
transportation and communication facilities among the 3. The elimination of administrative restrictions: These
members of the community are inadequate. This would and other restrictions on trade within the sub-region are
impose serious problems to the free movement of removed.
persons, capital and goods.
582
4. Trade liberalization: This has contributed to the 2019/42
promotion of trade in West Africa. ECOWAS Monitoring Group (ECOMOG) was established to
5. Growth and expansion of markets: This has led to mass A. recruits able–bodied men to defend West Africa
production and increase in supply of goods among B. restores peace to war torn West African countries
member nations. C. change bad government in West Africa
6. Increase in competition: This healthy competition D. arrest and prosecute war leaders
takes place in all fields of endeavour and has added to Answer
the developments place of this sub-region. ECOWAS Monitoring Group (ECOMOG) was established to
7. Exchange of raw materials: Liberalization of trade in restore peace to war torn West African countries. (B)
unprocessed goods is one of the three components of the
trade liberalization policy as contained in the Treaty of 2007/50 Neco
the community. The main focus of the ECOWAS Monitoring Group
8. Execution of Joint Projects: The community serves as (ECOMOG) is the
an avenue for the planning and execution of joint A. maintenance of peace in troubled spots of West Africa
projects by member-states. B. installation of unpopular governments in West Africa
9. Increase in bargaining power: By coming together C. protection of oil pipelines along the coast of West African
under the banner of ECOWAS, the bargaining power of
member-nations in the world market has increased D. promotion of military rule
thereby improving their terms of trade.] Answer
10. Availability of more labour: The community has made The main attention of the ECOWAS Monitoring Group
more labour available from member countries where (ECOMOG) is the maintenance of peace in troubled spots of
they are in abundance to areas of relative scarcity. West Africa. (A)
11. High standard of living: This resulted from the
increase in production and supply of goods, reduction of 1988/43
prices, free movement of labour, etc. The Economic Community of West African States
12. Fostering of unity: The community has brought all the (ECOWAS) is
member-nations together and enhanced friendlier A. an economic association B. a political association
atmosphere among them irrespective of the differences C. cultural association D. a social association
in ideology, historical background, tribes, beliefs, etc. E. an inter-ethnic association
13. Establishment of funds: The funds are established for Answer
cooperation, compensation and development. The Economic Community of West African States
14. Mediation: Member states mediate in disputes among (ECOWAS) is an economic association. (A)
states, e.g. Nigeria and Chad, Liberia, Sierra Leone, etc.
15. Formation of ECOMOG: ECOMOG was formed as a 2003/47
peace-keeping force and it helped in restoring The term ECOMOG means
democracy in both Liberia and Sierra-Leone. A. Economic Community of West African Group
B. Economic Community Monetary Group
2019/24 C. ECOWAS monitoring Group
To facilitate movement of people from one member state D. ECOWAS Movement Group
to another, the Economic Community of West African Answer
State has The term ECOMOG means ECOWAS Monitoring Group.
A. created several borders, posts within member states (C)
B. waived visa requirements for citizens of member
countries 2005/47
Which of the following is associated with the Economic
C. created one currency for all member countries
Community of West African States (ECOWAS)?
D. maintained regional peace and security through
A. peace-keeping B. road rehabilitation
deployment of force C. importation of cars D. military rule
Answer Answer
To facilitate movement of people from one member state Peace–keeping is associated with the Economic Community
to another, the Economic Community of West African of West African States (ECOWAS). (A)
States has waived visa requirements for citizens of member
countries. (B) 1994/60
To underscore her relative importance within the African
2019/33 continent, Nigeria has played a prominent role in the
The following are benefits member countries derive from formation and continued existence of the
the Economic Community of West African States A. West African Economic Community
(ECOWAS) except B. Economic Commission for African
A. economic cooperation B. larger market C. West African Customs Union
C. military assistance D. free parts D. West African Defence Council
Answer E. Economic Community of West African States
Larger market is the benefits member countries derive Answer
from the Economic Community of West African States To underscore her relative importance within the African
(ECOWAS). (B) continent, Nigeria has played a prominent role in the
formation and continued existence of the Economic
Community of West African States. (E)
583
2000/46 UTME 2004/4 UTME
How many countries constitute the Economic Community of The countries with which Nigeria participated in the
West African States? ECOMOG peace-keeping operations were
A. 16 B. 15 C. 13 D. 11 A. Sierra-Leone B. Sierra-Leone and Cote d’ Ivoire
Answer – A C. Liberia and Guinea D. Senegal and Cote d’ Ivoire
Sixteen countries were members of Economic Community of Answer – B
West African States before Mauritania withdrawn her Nigeria participated in the ECOMOG peace-keeping
membership in 2000, ECOWAS have fifteen independent operation of Sierra-Leone and Cote d’ Ivoire.
states as members now.
2012/46 UTME
2000/48 UTME ECOMOG at the initial stage of it’s intervention in Liberia
The two leaders that played the most prominent roles in the was perceived as
formation of the ECOWAS were A. neutral B. incompetent C. partisan D. invaders
A. Achempong and Jawara B. Gowin and Eyadema Answer – A
C. Kerekou and Tubman D. Kounche and Senghor ECOMOG at the initial stage of it’s intervention in Liberia
Answer – B was perceived as neutral. Neutral means an impartial or
The two leaders that played the most prominent roles in the unbiased state.
formation of the ECOWAS were Gowon and Eyadema.
Yakubu Gowon was a military Nigerian leader, who served 2017/38 UTME
as head of state (1966 – 1975). He was hailed from Plateau Which of the following countries significantly contributed to
the formation of ECOMOG?
State in the middle belt of Nigeria, he contributed tirelessly to
the formation of ECOWAS in West African region. A. Ghana B. Gambia C. Liberia D. Nigeria
Answer – D
Gnassingbe Eyadema was born (26 December, 1935 – 5 Nigeria contributed significantly to the formation of
February 2005). He was the president of Togo from 1967 until ECOMOG.
his death in 2005. He die after 38 years in office, he played a
significant and prominent roles in the formation of the 2008/20 (OAU, IFE)
Economic community of West African Union. ECOMOG was set up primarily to
A. drive away the Europeans from West Africa
2017/13 (OAU, IFE) B. serve as a peace keeping force for ECOWAS
ECOWAS Treaty was signed on C. help Nigeria to control Africa
A. May 28, 1974 B. October 1, 1960 D. promote rapid economic development among ECOWAS
C. June 12, 1975 D. none of the above members.
Answer – B Answer: B
Economic Community of West African States (ECOWAS) Serve as a peace keeping force for ECOWAS.
was based on the initiative of the heads of states of these two
countries. 2003/7 UTME
A. Nigeria and Ghana B. Nigeria and Togo The Lagos treaty of May 28th, 1975 led to the formation of the
C. Senegal and Cote D’ Ivoire D. A and C above A. African Economic Summit
Answer – B B. Lagos plan of action
Economic Community of West African States (ECOWAS) C. Economic Community of West African States
was based on the initiative of the heads of States of Nigeria D. Economic Commission for Africa
Yakubu Gowon and Togo President Gnassingbe Eyadema. Answer – C
The Lagos Treaty of May 28th, 1975 led to the formation of
2014/2015/67 (UI,IBADAN) the Economic Community of West African States.
Which of these former Nigerian Heads of State was
instrumental to the ECOWAS 2018/9B
A. Nigeria, Ghana and Zaire B. Guinea, Togo and Cameroun Describe five achievements of ECOWAS.
C. Guinea Bissau, Burkina Faso and Cape Verde Answer
D. Liberia, Benin and Ethiopia 1. Custom duties that may come up in areas of exportation
Answer – C and importation of goods are removed.
Guinea Bissau, Burkina Faso and Cape Verde is the group of 2. There is the elimination of obstacles to movements of
states that are all members of the Economic Community of persons, services and capital.
West African States. 3. These and other restrictions on trade within the sub
region are removed.
2014/2015/70 (UI, IBADAN) 4. The funds are established for cooperation, compensation
What is the full meaning of ECOWAS? and development.
A. Economic Community of Western African States 5. ECOMOG was formed as a peace-keeping force and it
B. Economic City of Western African States helped in restoring democracy in both Liberia and
C. Economic Community of West African States Sierra-Leone.
D. Economic Control of Western African States 6. Member states within the sub-region spoke against
Answer – C apartheid.
ECOWAS means Economic Community of West African 7. The establishment of ECOWAS has helped in uniting
the people of member nations irrespective of the
States.
differences in ideology, historical background, tribes,
beliefs etc.
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2008/47 2008/3 UTME
Which of the following countries is a member of the Economic ECOWAS main achievement in recent years has been in
Community of West African State (ECOWAS)? the area of
A. Congo Dr B. Libya C. Kenya D. Burkina Faso A. infrastructural development B. cultural integration
Answer C. security and defence D. political unity
Burkina Faso is a member of the Economic Community of Answer – D
West African States (ECOWAS). (D) Economic Community of West African States main
1993/54 Nov achievement in recent years has been in the area of political
The Nigerian Head of State who was a co-founder of the unity.
ECOWAS is
A. General Olusegun Obasanjo B. Dr. Nnamdi Azikiwe 2009/20 UTME
C. General Muhammadu Buhari D. Alhaji Shehu Shagari Which of the following countries has withdrawn her
E. General Yakubu Gowon membership of the ECOWAS?
Answer A. Senegal B. Mauritania
General Yakubu Gowon was the Head of State of Nigeria and C. Guinea Bissau D. Burkina Faso
co-founder of the Economic Community of West African Answer – B
States. (E) Mauritania withdrew from Economic community of West
African states because ECOWAS plans for a single
1997/57
Which of the following Heads of State initiated the formation
currency have caused Nouakchott (its capital) to abandon
of ECOWAS? the group, since Mauritanian officials are known to oppose
A. Yakubu Gowon and Gnasingbe Eyademe proposals by certain members of the 16-nation grouping to
B. Dauda Jawara and Abdul Diouf set up a common currency. The Mauritanian government
C. Sekou Toure and Joseph Momoh has declared that it considers that the Ouguiya (official
D. Thomas Sankara and Samuel Doe currency of Mauritania) is a “pillar of national
E. Ahmadu Ahidjo and Paul Biya sovereignty”. Mauritania withdrew in December 2000.
Answer
The Heads of State that initiated the formation of ECOWAS is 2010/47 UTME
Yakubu Gowon and Gnasingbe Eyademe. (A) One major function of the Authority of Heads of State and
Government of ECOWAS is
1998/55
A. organizing international conferences
Which of the following bodies maybe regarded as a regional
B. appointing the Executive Secretary
organization?
A. OAU B. UNO C. commonwealth
C. appointing staff of the secretariat
D. UNESCO E. ECOWAS D. preparing the budget of the community
Answer Answer – B
Economic Community of West African States is regarded as The main importance of the Authority of Heads of State
a regional organization of West Africa. (E) and Government of ECOWAS is to appoint president
(Executive secretary) of the ECOWAS Commission.
1992/50 According to the ECOWAS treaty, a commission must be
Nigeria is a member of ECOWAS because she set with a president heading it. The president of that
A. is a member of OAU commission, so established, is appointed by the Authority
B. was a former British West African territory of Heads of State and Government.
C. is a pioneer member of the community
D. believes in the aims and objectives of ECOWAS 1978/48 UTME
E. is the prime mover of ECOWAS The treaty establishing the Economic Community of West
Answer
African States (ECOWAS) was
Nigeria is a member of ECOWAS because she is the prime
A. concluded in Lome (Togo) in December, 1976, after
mover of ECOWAS. (E)
hand and extensive negotiations
1995/59 Nov B. designed as the main pillar on which an eventual
The Economic Community of West African States (ECOWAS) African common market would be built
was formed under the chairmanship of General C. the brain-child of Togo and Ghana
A. Olusegun Obasanjo B. Aguiyi Ironsi D. signed in Lagos, May 1975, to promote trade and other
C. Muhammdu Buhari D. Yakubu Gowon economic co-operation in the region as a whole
E. Murtala Mohammed E. to immediately eliminate tariffs and other barriers to
Answer - Yakubu Gowon trade among members
2006/20 UTME Answer – D
The ECOWAS Tribunal is responsible for The treats establishing the Economic Community of West
A. interpreting ECOWAS treaties African States (ECOWAS) was signed in Lagos, Nigeria
B. ratifying international treaties for member states in May 1975, to promote trade and other economic co-
C. trying erring member states of ECOWAS operation in the West African region as a whole.
D. ensuring compliance with global treaties
Answer – C
The ECOWAS Tribunal is responsible for trying erring
member states of ECOWAS.
585
1979/44 UTME 1988/50 UTME
ECOWAS represents Which of the following pairs are members of ECOWAS?
A. the English speaking equivalent of the Francophone A. Nigeria and Cameroun B. Liberia and Congo
Economic Community in West Africa C. Senegal and Zaire D. Cape Verde and Burkina Faso
B. an attempt to progressively eliminate obstacles to free Answer – D
movements of goods, services and people’s throughout Cape Verde and Burkina Faso are members of Economic
West Africa Community of West African States. The Following are the
C. the West African regional arm of the United Nations fifteen (15) members of the Economic Community of West
Economic and Social Council (ECOSOC) African States (ECOWAS) are Benin, Burkina Faso, Cape
D. a continent-wide economic dimension of pan Verde, Cote d’ Ivoire, the Gambia, Ghana, Guinea,
Africanism Guinea-Bissau, Liberia, Mali, Niger, Nigeria, Senegal,
E. a concrete achievement by the Economic Commission Sierra Leone, and Togo.
for Africa (ECA)
Answer – B 1990/42 UTME
Economic Community of West African States (ECOWAS) The ECOWAS trade liberalization programme excluded
represents an attempt to progressively eliminate obstacles trade in
and challenges to free movements of goods, services and A. Unprocessed goods B. crude oil
peoples throughout West Africa. C. traditional crafts D. Industrial products
Answer – C
1981/35 UTME Traditional crafts was excluded in the Economic
Where is the Headquarters of the Economic Community of Community of West African states trade liberalization
West African States (ECOWAS?) programme.
A. Lagos B. Accra C. Cotonou D. Abidjan E. Lome
Answer – A 1993/43 UTME
When Economic Community of West African States was The major organization through which Nigeria, pursues
established in May 1975, with headquarters in Lagos, her economic, political and social interests in West African
Nigeria. is
A. ECOWAS B. ADB C. ECA D. OAU
1985/16 UTME Answer – A
Which of the following is a good example of a confederal Economic Community of West African State is the main
state? organization through which Nigeria, pursues her
A. Nigeria B. Switzerland C. USA D. Ghana E. ECOWAS economic, political and social interests in West African.
Answer – E
Economic Community of West Africa States is a good 1995/50 UTME
example of a confederal state. Confederal is a Permanent One of the achievements of ECOWAS is the
Union between two or more nations or states. An example A. eradication of colonialism
of confederal is the union of the fifteen political territories B. adoption of vehicle insurance scheme
that form the confederation of Economic Community of C. settlement of Liberian refugees
West African States. Being or of a confederation of D. respect for human rights
independent nations or states. Answer – C
One of the achievement of the Economic Community of
1985/34 UTME West African states was the settlement of Liberian
ECOWAS is refugees.
A. an international military/defence organization
B. a regional economic organization 1998/47 UTME
C. a transnational religious group The organ responsible for the general administration of
D. a West African English-Speaking Organization ECOWAS is the
E. an international organ of the United Nation A. Executive secretariat B. Council of Ministers
Answer – B C. Authority of Head of State and Government
Economic Community of West African States is a regional D. Tribunal of the Community
economic organization to improve the economics of West Answer – A
African States through free movement of goods and The Executive Secretariat is the organ responsible for the
services. general administration of Economic Community of West
African States. ECOWAS also has an elected executive
1985/35 UTME secretariat who serves a four-year term as well as six
Which of the following is NOT a member of ECOWAS? specialized commissions: Trade, customs, immigration,
A. Nigeria B. Togo C. Ghana monetary, and payments; industry, agriculture, and natural
D. Burkina Fasso E. Cameroun resources, transport, communications, and energy, social
Answer – E and cultural affairs, administration and finance.
Cameroun is not a member of Economic Community of
West African states.

586
2001/50 UTME 2010/43 UTME
The Economic Community of West African States has Nigeria spearhead the formation of ECOWAS during the
made impressive progress in the area of regime of
A. free movement of persons and right to residence A. Olusegun Obansanjo B. Yakubu Gowon
B. increased trade among members C. Murtula Muhammed D. Ibrahim Babangida
C. political integration of the region Answer – B
D. providing financial aid to its members Yakubu Gowon the Nigeria Head of State, spearheaded the
Answer – A formation of Economic Community of West African
The Economic Community of West African States has States.
made impressive progress in the area of free movement of
persons and rights of residence of member states. 2015/10 UTME
Which of these international organizations was Nigeria a
2002/26 UTME founding members?
The most active organ of the Economic Community of A. UNO B. the commonwealth C. NATO D. ECOWAS
West African States is the Answer – D
A. Tribunal of the Community The Head of State of Nigeria Yakubu Gowon spearheaded
B. Authority of Heads of State and Government the formation of ECOWAS which made Nigeria among the
C. Technical and specialized commission founding members.
D. council of ministers
Answer – B 2015/11 UTME
Authority of Heads of State and Government is the most Nigeria’s role in ECOWAS was significant in dispute
active organ of the Economic Community of West African resolution in
States. A. Liberia B. Nigeria C. the Gambia D. Senegal
Answer – A
2002/46 UTME Nigeria’s role in Economic Community of West African
Nigeria’s membership of the ECOWAS is informed by her states was significant in dispute resolution in Liberia.
desire to
A. form a sub-regional high command 2017/5 UTME
B. develop a market in the sub-region To facilitate the effective achievement of its objectives
C. promote economic integration ECOWAS is operationally structured with
D. become a sub-regional power A. councils B. panels C. committees D. commissions
Answer – C Answer – A
Nigeria’s membership of the ECOWAS is informed by her Council is the structure of the ECOWAS to facilitate the
desire to promote economic integration among the
effective achievement of its objectives.
membership states.

2003/46 UTME
2004/10 UTME
The major problem of the ECOWAS is lack of The current Executive Secretary of the ECOWAS is
A. a common currency B. commitment by members A. Mohammed Ibn Chambers B. Lan Sana Kovyate
C. uniform ideology D. a common customs union C. Abbas Bundu D. Abubakar Qattara
Answer – A Answer – A
The main problem of the Economic Community of West Mohammed Ibn Chambers is the current Executive
African States is lack of a common currency. Secretary of the ECOWAS. Chambers is from Ghana 2002
to date others were as follows: Dr. Abubakar Qattara,
2003/47 UTME Momadumuru, Dr. Abass Chernor Bundu and Edward
The ECOWAS Treaty was reviewed in 1991 to Benjamin.
A. accommodate the interest of France
B. make it responsible to new challenges 2005/49 UTME
C. accommodate extra sub-regional interests The power to exercise overall control of the executive
D. mobilize ECOMOG functions of ECOWAS is vested in the
Answer – B A. Technical and Special Commissions
The ECOWAS Treaty was reviewed in 1991 to make it B. Council of Ministers
responsible to handle new challenges. C. Authority of Heads of State and Government
D. Secretary General
2011/52 UTME Answer – C
The approval of treaties and agreements of the Economic
Authority of Heads of State and Government, exercise the
Community of West Africa States is the responsibility of the
overall control of the executive functions of the ECOWAS
A. secretary B. ECOWAS tribunal C. Council of Minister
D. Assembly of Heads of State and Government
is vested in them. The Authority of Heads of State and
Answer – D Government determines the policy and guidelines of the
Assembly of Heads of State and Government approves the community. It also coordinates the various polices of the
treaties and agreements of the Economic Community of West member states to ensure uniform development in the
African States. various fields such as social, and economics, science,
culture, etc.

587
2000/37 UTME 3. Fear of domination: Some of the smaller nations
In 1991, the African Economic Community Treaty was have great fear that big nations in the community
signed in might dominate them. Hence, there is mutual
A. Addis Ababa B. Abuja C. Lome D. Tripoli suspicion among them.
Answer – B 4. Influence of foreign powers and ex-colonial
In 1991, the African Economic Community Treaty was masters: Member states depend on them
signed in Abuja, Nigeria. economically.
5. Differences in currency: Different currencies create
2018/9a NABTEB barriers in the exchange of goods and services in the
Explain the origin of ECOWAS. sub-region.
Answer
The Economic Community of West African States was 1990/10 Nov
formally founded on 28th May, 1975 in Lagos, Nigeria Explain the meaning and uses of the ECOWAS fund for
under the administration of Yakubu Gowon and Togo cooperation, compensation and development.
under the administration of Late Gnassing Eyadema Answer
playing leading roles. These two leaders, as far back as The ECOWAS fund for cooperation, compensation and
1972 held series of meetings and negotiations after which development is a fund under a joint finance by the
they sent draft proposals to other heads of States of West contributions from member states, revenue from
African countries. The aim was to form an economic union community enterprises, loan as well as grants from other
that would challenge and foil the imperialist economic sources.
exploitation and domination of West Africa. The
administrative headquarters of the community is in Abuja, “The fund”, as it is called, is an organ of the ECOWAS
Nigeria while the fund headquarters is in Lome, Togo. charged with the responsibility of compensating member
states who may suffer losses as a result of their compliance
2005/12 with ECOWAS treaty and promoting economic activities.
Explain six aims and objectives of the Economic Its headquarters is in Lome, Togo.
Community of West African States. 2012/12
1. Co–operation and developments: One of the aims of Identify any six problems faced by the Economic
ECOWAS is to promote cooperation and Community of West African States (ECOWAS)
development in all fields of economic activities e.g. Answer
transport, energy, agriculture, telecommunications, 1. Military intervention in politics: West Africa is still
etc., among the member states making up the bedeviled by military coups. This is seen as major
organisation. problem to the community’s quest for good and
2. Economic Stability: To increase and maintain democratic governance.
economic stability within the community. 2. Language barrier: Member states are polarized into
3. Development of African Continent: It is also aimed English, French and Portuguese language. This is
at encouraging free movement of citizens, goods and seen as a barrier to the unity of the people of the sub-
services. region.
4. To foster closer relations: This would be achieved by 3. Fear of domination: Some of the smaller nations
encouraging free movements of citizens, goods and have great fear thar big nations in the community
services. might dominate them. Hence, there is mutual
5. Standard of living: To promote and raise the standard suspicion among them.
of living of the people through cooperation within the 4. Influence of foreign powers and ex-colonial masters:
sub – region. Member states depend on them economically.
6. Establishment of common tariff: To remove obstacle 5. Differences in currency: Different currencies create
of free movement of goods, people etc., among barriers in the exchange of goods and services in the
memeber states. sub-region.
6. Communication problems: Lack of good road network,
2018/10 railway, etc. are barriers to economic integration.
State five obstacles to the implementation of the Economic Extras
Community of West African States (ECOWAS) aims and 7. Inter-state conflict: Inter-state boundaries disputes
objectives. often slow down unity and cooperation within the
Answer community.
1. Military intervention in politics: West Africa is still 8. Congestion: This is caused by Article 27 of the
bedeviled by military coups. This is seen as major community’s Charter which encourages migration
problem to the community’s quest for good and from one member-state to another.
democratic governance. 9. Unemployment: The “community citizens” that have
2. Language barrier: Member states are polarized into left their rural areas to urban areas of other member-
English, French and Portuguese language. This is states with the hope of getting something to do, help
seen as a barrier to the unity of the people of the sub- to increase the number of the unemployed of the
region. member-states they have gone to.
10.

588
11. Political and ideological differences: This arise 2. The treaty which formally established the Economic
partly from differences in political backgrounds. The Community of West African States (ECOWAS) was
English speaking countries of West Africa tends to signed in
have a similar ideology which is different from that A. Lome B. Abuja C. Accra D. Lagos
of the French speaking countries. The political 3. ECOWAS was set up purely for
ideologies of the various leaders may also differ. A. political advantages B. social advantages
Some wants to practice capitalism and others C. geographical advantages D. historical advantages
socialism or mixed economy. Such political and E. economic advantages .
ideological differences tend to limit the degree of 4. ECOWAS Monitoring Group (ECOMOG) is usually
economic cooperation. assigned to
A. installs popular governments in West Africa
2017/10 B. unite the different governments in West Africa by
Outline any five contributions of Nigeria towards the force
growth of Economic Community of West African States C. protect the sources of revenue for West African
(ECOWAS) governments
Answer D. maintain peace in troubled spots of West Africa
1. Nigeria played an active role in the formation of 5. Which of the following ECOWAS countries speaks
Economic Community of West African States Portuguese?
(ECOWAS) as well as being an initial signatory to the A. Cape Verde B. Sierra–Leone C. Gambia
Lagos Treaty. D. Nigeria .
2. Provision of high profile personnel for the ECOWAS
secretariat/agencies since its inception.
3. Nigeria Heads of state had served as chairman of
ECOWAS.
4. Nigeria has played major roles in peace-keeping
operations in Liberia, Sierra Leone and Coted’ Ivoire.
5. Nigeria regularly attends all ECOWAS summits.
(Extras)
6. Nigeria contributed to the development of ECOWAS
by hosting summits and conferences.
7. Nigeria makes available petroleum products to other
ECOWAS countries in need.
8. Membership of ECOWAS parliament makes Nigeria
to contribute to sub-regional issues.
9. Financial contributions by paying her dues regularly
to both the secretariat and the ECOWAS fund.
10. Actively participates in ECOWAS countries who
have been displaced as a result of war.
11. Give humanitarian assistance to citizens and
ECOWAS countries who have been displaced as a
result of war.
12. Sending officials to monitor elections in member
states.
13. Implementation of ECOWAS protocols e.g. the
protocol in democracy and good governance, protocol
on the fight against corruption, etc.
14. Nigeria has joined other ECOWAS countries in
undertaking key products e.g. West African Gas
Pipeline.
15. Nigeria has allowed free movement of ECOWAS
citizens’ goods and services.

REVISION EXERCISES
1. It is most unlikely for member nations of the
Economic Community of West African States
(ECOWAS) to
A. fuse into one political entity
B. establish a common customs tariff
C. have joint development of transport and
communication
D. abolish obstacles to free movement of citizens

589
Chapter Forty Four The stated mission of the organization is to “coordinate and
unify the petroleum policies of its member countries and
INTERNATIONAL ORGANIZATION 5: ensure the stabilization of oil markets, in order to secure an
efficient, economic and regular supply of petroleum to
ORGANISATION OF PETROLEUM consumers, a steady income to producers, and a fair return
EXPORTING COUNTRIES (OPEC) on capital for those investing in the petroleum industry.
The Organisation of Petroleum Exporting Countries (OPEC)
was founded in Baghdad, Iraq, with the signing of an Author’s Questions
agreement in September 1960 by five countries namely 1. Which of the following is not a founding nation of the
Islamic Republic of Iran, Iraq, Kuwait, Saudi Arabia and Organisation of Petroleum Exporting Countries
Venezuela. They were to become the Founder Members of (OPEC)?
the organization. A. Qatar B. Iraq C. Iran D. Kuwait
Answer
The Organisation currently, has a total of 13 Member Qatar is not among the founding nations of the
countries. Organisation of Petroleum Exporting Countries
(OPEC). (A)
Author’s Questions 2. Some oil producing countries came together to form
1. Where was OPEC founded? an organization to protect their interest. Which of the
A. Baghdad B. Kuwait C. Iran D. Saudi Arabia following is the correct option
Answer A. UNO B. OAU C. ECOWAS D. OPEC
The organization of Petroleum Exporting Countries Answer
(OPEC) was founded in Baghdad, Iraq. (A) OPEC is the organization that some oil producing
2. How many member–states does OPEC have? countries came together to form to protect their
A. 15 B. 13 C. 17 D. 20 interest. (D)
Answer
The Organisation of Petroleum Exporting Countries
(OPEC) is made up of 13 member states mostly in Aims and Objectives of OPEC
developing nation. (B) 1. Fixing production quotas for member countries: It
determines the production levels of quantity of crude oil
ORIGIN OF OPEC to be produced by each member country. This is a way
OPEC is a voluntary association of oil producing countries of preventing excess supply or oil glut
established in September 1960, to break the monopoly of 2. To coordinate and unify the petroleum policies of
the big foreign oil marketing companies. The main aim of member countries: OPEC streamlines the oil policies
setting up the organisation was to protect the interest of oil of member countries in line with OPEC standards.
producing nations and to eliminate competition and price 3. Steady income: OPEC is set up to ensure steady income
war among them by controlling price and output. to oil producing countries.
4. To break the monopoly of foreign oil marketing
The Organisation of Petroleum Exporting Countries companies and have a more effective control over
(OPEC) was founded in Baghdad, Iraq, with the signing of them: It is meant to enable the oil exporting countries
an agreement in September 1960 by five countries namely to have a greater say in the level of oil production in
Islamic Republic of Iran, Iraq, Kuwait, Saudi Arabia and their territories by encouraging the establishment of
Venezuela. They were to become the Founder Members of refineries and petrochemicals industries.
the organization. 5. Efficient and uninterrupted supply of petroleum: OPEC
These countries were later joined by Qatar (1961), was also formed to ensure an efficient and uninterrupted
Indonesia (1962), Libya (1962), The United Arab Emirates supply of Petroleum to consuming nations.
(1967), Algeria (1969), Nigeria (1971), Ecuador (1973), 6. It helps in the stabilization of oil prices to the
Gabon (1975), Angola (2007), Equatorial Guinea (2017) advantage of member states: This is achieved by
and Congo (2018). effective management of supply and by influencing
demand.
Ecuador suspended its membership in December 1992,
rejoined OPEC in October, 2007, but decided to withdraw Author’s Questions
its membership of OPEC effective 1 January 2020. 1. The following are the aims of Organisation of
Indonesia suspended its membership in January 2009, Petroleum Exporting Countries except
reactivated it again in January 2016, but decided to A. protection of member states
suspend its membership once more at the 171st Meeting of B. efficient and uninterrupted supply of petroleum
the OPEC conference on 30 November 2016. Gabon C. to remove price fluctuations
terminated its membership in January 1995. However, it D. to plan for the world earning and economic
rejoined the organization in July 2016. Qatar terminated its Answer
membership on 1 January 2019. Planning for the world earning and economic of
Petroleum Exporting countries is not the aims and
This means that, currently, the Organisation has a total of objectives of the organization. (D)
13 Member countries.
590
2. Outline any two objectives of the OPEC. 2. How many times OPEC does holds its meetings
Answer annually?
1. To coordinate and unify member states. A. twice B. thrice C. once D. always
2. To remove price fluctuations. Answer
3. Efficient and uninterrupted supply of petroleum. Meetings are held twice in a year but emergency
meetings can be called by Secretary–General of the
ORGANS OF OPEC organization. (A)
1. The conference. 3. Each state of the organization has
2. The board of governors. A. two votes B. four votes C. single votes
3. The secretariat. D. Five votes
Answer
The following are organs of Organisation of Petroleum Each state of the organization of Petroleum Exporting
Exporting Countries except Countries have single vote. (C)
A. The Secretariat B. The Board of Governors
C. The Conference D. Council of Ministers THE BOARD OF GOVERNORS
Answer The Board of Governors which meets twice yearly
Council of Ministers is not among the organs of comprises of Governors nominated by the Member
Organisation of Petroleum Exporting countries. (D) Countries and confirmed by the Conference with a term of
office of two years. It is headed by the Chairman of the
THE CONFERENCE board of governors, appointed by the conference among
The conference consist of delegations representing the the governors for one year in accordance with the principle
member countries. A delegation may consist of one or of alphabetical rotation. The board of governors direct the
more delegates, as well as advisers and observers. When a management of the affairs of the organisation and the
delegation consists of more than one person, the appointing implementations of the decisions of the conference.
country shall nominate one person as the Head of
Delegation. Meetings are held twice in a year but there can Author’s Questions
be an emergency meeting called by the Secretary–General. 1. The board of governor as an organ of OPEC stays in
This can be done after formal consultation with the office for a term of
president of the Conference and approval obtained by a A. two years B. four years C. three years
simple majority of member states. ¾ of the delegates D. eight years
representing member states have to form a quorum before Answer
holding a conference. The Conference is the supreme The Governor stays in the office for the term of two
authority of the organisation. years. (A)
2. The board of governor as an organ of OPEC meets
Functions of the Conference A. once a year B. thrice a year C. six times a year
1. Policy formulation: The conference is involved in D. twice a year
policy formulation. It decides most importantly the Answer
best method of its execution or implementation. The Board of Governors meets twice a year. (D)
2. Membership: Applications for membership of OPEC
are considered by the conference. Functions of the Board of Governors
3. Budget: It approves the budget of the organization. 1. Preparation of Agenda: It prepares agenda for the
4. Appointments: It has the power to appoint the meetings of the conference.
Secretary–General, Deputy Secretary–General of 2. Management: It manages the affairs and
OPEC. administration of the organization.
5. Members of board: The appointment of the members 3. Decision making: Decisions are made by this body
of board of Governors is approved by the conference. based on the reports submitted to it by the secretary
6. Auditing: Auditors that examine the accounts of the general of OPEC.
organization are equally appointed by this organ. 4. Execution of decisions: The board executes issues or
7. Reports and recommendations: The attention of the matters decided by the conference.
conference is also drawn to the reports and 5. Budget: This body also prepares the budget of the
recommendations made by the Board of Governors. organization. The final consideration of the budget is
They are reports and recommendations on issues of made by the conference.
interest to the organization. 6. Auditing: It has the power to nominate the auditor to
look into the finances of the organization with
Author’s Questions recommendations.
1. Which organ of the Organization of Petroleum 7. Approval of auditor’s report: The auditor’s report
Exporting Countries is the highest and most powerful and statement of accounts are approved by the
of all the organs conference based on the consideration given by the
A. The Conference B. The Board of Governors Governors.
C. The Board of Directors D. The Secretariat
Answer
The conference is the highest and the most powerful
of all the organs of OPEC. (A)
591
Author’s Questions Functions of the Secretariat
1. The Board of Governor of OPEC, have the following 1. Correspondence: The secretariat is responsible for all
functions, except the correspondences of the organization.
A. preparation of agenda 2. Executive and administrative issues: It involves in the
B. management of the administration executive and administrative issues of the organization.
C. it prepares the budget There are four department making up the secretariat
D. the president of the OPEC which are
E. approves the auditor’s report a. Information department.
b. Economic department.
Answer
c. Administrative department.
The Board of Governors of the Organization of
d. Technical department.
Petroleum Exporting Countries is not the president of
the organization. (D)
ACHIEVEMENTS OF OPEC
2. Which organ of OPEC nominates the auditor of the
1. Regulation of output - fixing production quota: OPEC
organization? periodically fix production quota for their members; and it
A. Conference B. Secretariat must not be exceeded. This has made oil price level to
C. The Board of Governors D. Council of ministers constantly move up.
Answer 2. Elimination of exploitation: It has succeeded to properly
The Board of Governors has the power to nominate curtail (reduce) exploitation (cheating) or nefarious activities
the auditor to look into the finances of the of all oil companies.
organization with recommendations. (C) 3. Effective control of price leading to oil – price stability: It
has succeeded to eliminate wide fluctuation in crude oil price
THE SECRETARIAT in the world market as they have fixed price at which they sell
The Secretariat consist of the Secretary General which is to all consumers.
appointed by the Conference for a period of three years, 4. Taking unanimous action: They now act unanimously. They
which term of office may be renewed once for the same present a common front against oil producing companies and
period of time; and such staff as may be required. The consuming community.
secretariat shall carry out the executive functions of the 5. Setting up of OPEC fund: It has set up a common fund for
organisation in accordance with the provisions of the alleviating (resolving) financial problems of members as well
statute under the direction of the Board of Governors. as those of poor nations, especially third world countries like
A Nigerian, Alhaji Rilwanu Lukman was formerly non oil producing state.
OPEC’s Secretary General. 6. It has enhanced unity among members: It has created
desirable unity among oil producing states which enables
them to tackle their political, social and economic problems
Author’s Questions
harmoniously.
1. The headquarters of Organisation of Petroleum
7. Improve trade relationship: It has succeeded or it continues
Exporting Countries (OPEC) is located in to improve trade relationship among members and
A. Saudi Arabia B. Iran C. Iraq D. Vienna international community as a whole.
Answer 8. Protection of interest of members: It makes consistent efforts
OPEC’s secretariat is in Vienna, Austria where the to protect interest of its members.
headquarters is located. (D) 9. It seek favourable terms of trade for crude oil: It always seek
2. The Secretary–General of OPEC serves as the for good conditions for marketing crude oil among
A. head of supplies B. head of the secretariat consuming community.
C. head of mobilization 10. It has created forum for resolving conflicts: It has provided
D. head of information and communication a forum for both foreign oil companies and producing states
Answer to discuss and resolve their conflict amicably.
The Secretary–General of OPEC serves as the head of 11. Acquisition of equity share in oil companies: By 1982, it
secretariat or administrative officer of the passed a resolution that participation (equity share) of oil
organization. (B) companies should be acquired by members in order to have
3. The Secretary–General of the OPEC stays for a term of effective control in the oil industry.
A. four years B. three years C. five years 12. It provides employment: It created employment opportunities
D. six years for people to be employed. For instance, it has employed a
Answer large number of people from member countries.
The Secretary – General of the OPEC stays for a term
of three years. (B) 1995/58 Nov
One of the achievements of the Organisation of Petroleum
4. Who was the Nigerian that became the Secretary –
Exporting Countries (OPEC) is that it has
General of OPEC?
A. destabilizes the price of crude oil
A. Funsho Olowoniyi B. Abubakar Salami B. punished all member countries that violated its regulation
C. Rilwan Lukman D. David Ejoor D. remained a regional organization
Answer E. controlled the exportation of crude oil
Alhaji Rilwan Lukman a Nigerian, was formerly the Answer
OPEC’s Secretary-General. (C) The organization of Petroleum Exporting Countries (OPEC)
controlled the exportation of crude oil, that’s one of the
achievements of OPEC. (E)

592
1993/58 Nov 8. Global economic recession: A great fall in economic
Which of the following is an important function of OPEC? activities throughout the world has compelled many
A. providing money for Nigeria in times of falling prices consuming countries to reduce their demand for crude
B. fixing the price of petroleum for its members oil. This has lowered oil price.
C. rationing petroleum to the non-producing countries 9. Decline of loyalty: This has made members to ignore
D. guaranteeing the supply of petroleum to its members for or not very willing to obey OPEC’s rules, especially
life allotted production quotas and fixed prices to members
E. preventing the scale of petroleum to South Africa has become a great threat to its overall success.
Answer 10. Struggle for leadership: The continuous struggle for
Fixing the price of petroleum for its members is an important
leadership of OPEC by some members especially
function of Organisation of Petroleum Exporting Countries.
between Saudi Arabia and Iran poses a serious threat
(B)
to achievement of OPEC’s objectives.
1997/59 11. Oil glut: The problems of OPEC were compounded by
An International organization which has mainly economic the oil glut of 1980s. The situation compelled many
matters as its objectives is the OPEC’s members to grant price concession to many
A. Commonwealth of Nations B. League of Nations oil importing countries. That is, the downward
C. United Nations Organisation pressure on oil prices compelled many members to
D. Organisation of Petroleum Exporting Countries entirely violate the principles of OPEC by secretly
E. Organisation of African Unity reducing the fixed oil prices and exceeding their
Answer production quotas.
Organisation of Petroleum Exporting Countries is mainly an
international organization which has mainly economic
matters as its objectives. (D)
2013/50 UTME
OPEC has strong influence with the
PROBLEMS OR FAILURES OF OPEC A. EU B. ADB C. AU D. IMF
Problems of OPEC Answer – D
1. Violation of production quotas: There is much Organization of Petroleum Exporting Countries has strong
problem of convincing OPEC members to accept the influence with the International Monetary Fund. The IMF was
production quotas. In most cases, some members have established in 1944 in the aftermath of the Great Depression
not always been honest among themselves and have of the 1930s. 44 founding member countries sought to build
openly or secretly raised production level above the a framework for International Economic Cooperation. Today,
its membership embraces 190 countries, with staff drawn
agreed quotas in order to raise more foreign exchange
from 150 nations.
to solve their economic problems
2. Absence of price’s stability: The stability of oil price,
2017/2018/99 (DELSU, ABRAKA)
which is the main aim of OPEC is still elusive One of the main objectives of OPEC is to
(impossible). This is mainly due to lack of cooperative A. assist multinational companies to monopolize market
attitude among members as they accord secret B. protect the interest of multinational companies
preferential treatment to many oil importing countries. C. stabilize the income of developing nations
3. Political disagreement between member nations: D. fix and allocate production to member nations
Disagreement on political front has jeopardize the Answer – D
relationship between member nations, for example One of the aim of organization of petroleum exporting
Iran and Iraq war created problems for the countries is to fix and allocate production to member nations.
organisation.
4. Absence of united front: There is much difficulty in 2004/12 UTME
presenting a common front in either rejecting or The responsibility for admitting new members of the OPEC
accepting the oil companies’ superfluous demands, rests with the
and curbing their nefarious activities or exploitation A. summit B. secretariat
tendency. Many members concede their actions, while C. conference D. board of governors
some object. Answer – C
5. Non implementation of OPEC’s policies: Some It’s the responsibility of the conference for admitting new
members are quite reluctant to accept the cartel’s members of the Organization of Petroleum Exporting
decision and faithfully implement its policies. These Countries. The conference organ of OPEC is the highest and
adversely affect the cartel’s effectiveness. the most powerful of all the organs. Member states are
represented by the ministers of petroleum who leads a
6. Conservation measures: Stock-piling of oil activities
delegation to OPEC meetings.
by some of the major importing countries (especially
USA) have created much problem of a great fall in
2005/44 UTME
demand and prices of crude oil. Nigeria is rated in the Organization of Petroleum Exporting
7. Keen competition: Members of OPEC are faced with Countries’ as the
keen competition from non-oil producing members A. third largest oil producer B. fifth largest oil producer
especially UK, Mexico and Norway. This has led to oil C. sixth largest oil producer D. seventh largest oil producer
glut (excess of supply of oil over its demand). This Answer – C
forces OPEC members to reduce their oil output and Nigeria is rated in the Organization of Petroleum Exporting
prices especially in 1980s. Countries as the sixth largest oil producer.
593
2015/44 1994/49 UTME
One of the organizational weaknesses of the Organization The major strategy used by OPEC to influence oil price is
of Petroleum Exporting Countries is its inability to by
A. collect membership dues promptly A. determining the quality of oil to be produced at any
B. punish erring members given period
C. assist poor countries B. influencing buyers at the international market to buy at
D. monitor global oil consumption high prices
Answer – B C. allowing member countries to produce at their
Nigeria is rated in the organization of petroleum exporting discretion
countries is its inability to punish erring members. D. increasing the supply of the commodity
Answer – A
2006/22 UTME The main strategy used by OPEC to influence oil price is
The highest decision-making organ of OPEC is the by determining the quality of oil to be produced at any
A. special fund B. board of governors given period.
C. secretariat D. conference
Answer – D 1999/44 UTME
The highest decision-making organ of organization of The major strategy used by OPEC to influence oil price is
petroleum exporting countries is the Conference. by
A. allocating production quotes to members
2015/2016/18 (UNIZIK, AWKA) B. influencing buyers at the international market to buy at
Nigeria became a member of Organization for Petroleum high prices
Exporting Countries (OPEC) in C. allowing member countries to produce at their
A. 1961 B. 1981 C. 1991 D. 1971 discretion
Answer – D D. increasing the supply of the commodity
Nigeria became a member of Organization of Petroleum Answer – A
Exporting Countries (OPEC) in 1971. The major strategy used by OPEC to influence oil price is
by allocating production quotas to member states.
2014/2015/79 (UI, IBADAN)
Which of these Nigerians has ever played a leading role in 2000/45 UTME
the operation of OPEC? One of the principal objectives of the OPEC is to
A. Alhaji Rilwanu Lukman B. Prof. Joe Garba A. harmonize the oil policies of member countries
C. Prof. Joy Ogwu D. Gen. Ike Nwachukwu B. discipline erring oil-producing countries
Answer – A C. determine oil prices in the international market
Prof. (Alhaji) Rilwanu Lukman was a servant to the D. assist non-oil-producing, developing states
Nigeria government and its petroleum industry. He played Answer – A
a major role in the history of Organization of Petroleum One of the aim of the organization of petroleum exporting
Exporting Countries (OPEC). He was widely recognized countries is to harmonize the oil policies of the member
and highly regarded in the global petroleum industry, a countries.
loyal and dedicated man, who had the best interests of
Nigeria and OPEC at heart. 2011/46 UTME
Who among her following served as Secretary General of
2003/38 UTME OPEC?
Nigeria’s influence in OPEC is determined by the A. Dan Etete B. Aret Adams
A. volume of her oil reserve B. sizes of her refineries C. Rilwanu Lukman D. Jibril Aminu
C. accessibility of her oil fields Answer – C
D. low sulphur content of her crude Rilwanu Lukman served as Secretary General of
Answer – A organization of petroleum exporting countries. Rilwanu
Nigeria’s influence in organization of petroleum exporting Lukman (26 August, 1938 – 21 July, 2014) was a Nigerian
countries is determined by the volume of her oil reserved. engineer who held several ministerial position in the
Nigerian Federal government before becoming Secretary
2003/44 UTME General of OPEC (organization of the petroleum exporting
The majority of the OPEC members are from countries) from 1 January 1995 to 31 December, 2000.
A. Latin America B. the Middle East C. Asia D. Africa
Answer – C 2008/2 UTME
Africa have the majority of the Organization of Petroleum The organization of petroleum exporting countries came
Exporting Countries (OPEC) members. Africa have seven into existence at a conference held in
countries in OPEC, Asia five and South America one. A. Tripoli B. Caracas C. Riyadh D. Baghdad
African countries that re members of OPEC: Algeria, Answer – D
Angola, Equatorial Guinea, Gabon, Libya, Republic of the The organization of the petroleum exporting countries
Congo and Nigeria. (OPEC) is a permanent, intergovernmental organization,
created at the Baghdad conference on September 10 – 14,
1960.

594
2009/21 UTME REVISION EXERCISES
Which of the following is a major threat of OPEC? 1. When was OPEC established?
A. persistence of war in the Middle East A. 1964 B. 1963 C. 1960 D. 1968
B. the discovery of crude oil in more countries
C. antagonism by the major world powers 2. Libya joined the Organisation of Petroleum
D. development of viable alternatives to crude oil Exporting Countries (OPEC) in
Answer – D A. 1968 B. 1962 C. 1969 D. 1970
Development of viable alternatives to crude oil is a major
threat of organization of petroleum exporting countries. 3. Which of the following is not a member of the
Organisation of Petroleum Exporting Countries
2011/50 UTME (OPEC)?
Each member state is represented on the Board of A. Kuwait B. Saudi Arabia C. Nigeria
Governors of OPEC for a period of D. Britain E. Venezuela
A. 4 years B. 1 year C. 2 years D. 3 years
Answer – C 4. The following are the functions of the conference
Member state is represented on the Board of Governors of organ of OPEC except
Organization of Petroleum Exporting Countries for a A. auditing B. budget C. policy formulation
period of 2 years. The Board of Governors is composed of D. marketing
nominated Governors by the Member countries and
confirmed by the conference. 5. Which of the following is a founding member of
OPEC
2012/50 UTME A. Nigeria B. Venezuela C. Indonesia D. Algeria
The founding members of OPEC are
A. Algeria, Iran, Iraq, Saudi Arabia and Kuwait
B. Nigeria, Libya, Iran, Iraq and Saudi Arabia
C. Venezuela, Nigeria, Libya, Iran and Iraq
D. Saudi Arabia, Iran, Iraq, Kuwait and Venezuela
Answer – D
There are five founding members of organization of
Petroleum Exporting Countries (OPEC) – Saudi Arabia,
Iran, Iraq, Kuwait and Venezuela.

2022/9 Neco
Explain six factors responsible for the success of
Organization of Petroleum Exporting Countries since
inception.
Answer
1. Regulation of output - fixing production quota: They
periodically fix production quota for their members;
and it must not be exceeded. This has made oil price
level to constantly move up.
2. Elimination of exploitation: It has succeeded to
properly curtail (reduce) exploitation (cheating) or
nefarious activities of all oil companies.
3. Effective control of price leading to oil – price
stability: It has succeeded to eliminate wide
fluctuation in crude oil price in the world market as
they have fixed price at which they sell to all
consumers.
4. It has enhanced unity among members: It has created
desirable unity among oil producing states which
enables them to tackle their political, social and
economic problems harmoniously.
5. Improve trade relationship: It has succeeded or it
continues to improve trade relationship among
members and the international community as a whole.
6. Protection of interest of members: It makes consistent
efforts to protect interest of its members.

595
2. How many goals does Millennium Development Goals?
Chapter Forty Five A. nine B. eight C. seven D. two
Answer
MILLENNIUM DEVELOPMENT GOAL Millennium Development Goals have eight goals. (B)
3. All United Nations members are __ interested in MDG
(MDG’S) A. 209 B. 196 C. 193 D. 203
The Millennium Development Goals (MDGs) were Answer
established in 2000 after the Millennium summit, held at All United Nations members are 193 interested in
the United Nations headquarters in New York City which Millennium Development Goals. (C)
was from 6 September to 8 September. It had in attendance 4. The international organizations have agreed to
heads of states and government, at the summit, the United achieve the Millennium Development Goals by year
Nations Millennium Declaration was adopted. The MDGs, A. 2007 B. 2018 C. 2012 D. 2015
as they are popularly known, are eight international Answer
development goals, which 193 United Organisation In 2015 the international organization has agreed to
member states have agreed to achieve by 2015. The sole achieve the Millennium Development Goals. (D)
aim is to encourage development by improving social and
economic conditions in the world’s poorest countries. The Exercise 45.1
forum had met in order to conclude a two – year Millennium Development Goals (MDG) was officially
consultation process covering issues such as poverty established in
eradication, environmental pollution, human rights and A. 2000 B. 2012 C. 2005 D. 2018
protection of the vulnerable (women and children).
The MDGs focus on three major areas of human
development, namely: strengthening the human capital; Goals of Millennium Development Goals (MDG)
improving infrastructure and increasing social, economic There are eight major goals of the MDGs with 21 targets
and political rights, with a view to improving the standard and a series of measurable indicators for each target. These
are as to:
of living. The MDGs have general policy suggestion, but
each country has specific needs with the policy framework. 1. Eradicate extreme poverty and hunger.
2. Achieve universal primary education.
3. Promote gender equality and empower women.
IMPORTANCE OF MDGs
1. The MDGs strengthen the commitment of developed 4. Reduce child mortality rates.
countries to help developing countries and encourage 5. Improve maternal health.
the flow of aids and information sharing. 6. Combating HIV/AIDS, malaria and other diseases.
2. The MDGs have helped in obtaining debt relief for 7. Ensure environmental sustainability.
Nigeria. The elimination of unsustainable annual debt 8. Develop a global partnership for development.
service payments to external debtors provides more
The targets for each of the goals are as follows:
resources for the country to provide primary education,
primary health care and rural infrastructure, as well as Goal 1
aids poverty reduction. (a) To reduce by half the proportion of people living on
3. The joint responsibility of both the developing and less than 1 US dollar a day.
developed countries for achieving the MDGs increases (b) To reduce by half the proportion of people who suffer
the likelihood of their success, which is reinforced by hunger.
their 189-country support. Goal 2
4. The MDGs help human development by providing a To ensure that all boys and girls complete a full course of
measurement that is not based solely on income, but primary schooling.
prioritizes interventions, such as in basic health and Goal 3
education. To eliminate general disparity in primary and secondary
5. Prioritizing interventions helps developing countries education, preferably by 2005 and at all levels by 2015.
with limited resources to make decisions about where Goal 4
to allocate their resources through public policies. To reduce by two-thirds the mortality rate among children
under five years.
6. The MDGs bring attention to the measurement of well-
Goal 5
being beyond income, and this helps bring funding
towards achieving the goals. To reduce by three-quarters the maternal mortality rate.
Goal 6
(a) To halt and begin to reverse the speed of HIV and
Author’s Question
AIDS.
1. MDG stands for
(b) To halt and begin to reverse the incidence of malaria
A. Millennium Development Goals
and other diseases.
B. Management Development Goer
Goal 7
C. Monetary Developing Goals
D. Monitoring Development Global To ensure environmental sustainability.
Goal 8
Answer
To develop a global partnership for development.
Millennium Development Goals is MDG. (A)

596
Author’s Questions NEEDS rest on four key pillars as follows:
1. The main aim of Millennium Development Goals are (i) Reforming the way government works and its
the following except institutions.
A. ensuring environmental sustainability (ii) Growing the private sector of the economy;
B. promote gender equality (iii) Implementing a social charter for the people;
C. eradicate extreme poverty and hunger (iv) Re-orientation of the people with an enduring African
D. provision of exclusive cars in 2015 value system.
Answer
Provision of exclusive cars in 2015 was not among Objectives of NEEDS
the main aims of the Millennium Development Goals. 1. Poverty eradication.
(D) 2. Employment generation.
2. Which of the following international Organisation 3. Wealth creation.
promote gender equality and empower women?
A. ECOWAS B. UNO C. OPEC D. MDG NEEDS Strategies are:
Answer (i) Accelerated privatization;
Millennium Development Goals (MDG) is an (ii) Liberalization and private sector development;
international organization that aimed at promoting (iii) Anti-corruption, transparency and accountability.
gender equality and empowerment of women. (D) (iv) Public sector reforms and governance and institutional
reforms.
NATIONAL ECONOMIC EMPOWERMENT AND
DEVELOPMENT STRATEGIES (NEEDS) Author’s Questions
NEEDS stands for National Economic Empowerment and 1. Outline three objectives of NEEDS.
Development Strategy. It was launched in November, Answer
2003. a. Poverty reduction.
b. Employment generation.
National Economic Empowerment Development Strategy c. Wealth creation.
(NEEDS) is described as a Nigeria’s plan for prosperity,
popularly Christened a “Home grown programme” by the Exercise 45.2
formal President of Nigeria Chief Aremu Olusegun The following are the objectives of NEEDS, except
Obasanjo, it is a four years medium term plan for the period A. poverty reduction B. wealth creation
of 2003 to 2007. C. employment generation D. vision policy

The concept of (NEEDS) National Economic

Empowerment and Development Strategy as a programme VISION 2020
emphasizes creation of employment opportunities, Vision 20:2020 was an articulation of the long-term intent
emphasis on self employment and self-reliant for economic to launch Nigeria back to the path of sustained social and
growth and development. economic progress and accelerate the emergence of a truly
prosperous and united Nigeria. Recognizing the enormous
Author’s Questions human and natural endowments of the nation, the blueprint
1. NEEDS stands for was an expression of Nigeria’s intent to improve the living
A. National eradication economic developing states standards of her citizens and place the country among the
B. Nigeria education eradication development strategies Top 20 economies in the world with a minimum GDP of
C. National economic empowerment and development $900 billion and a per capital income of no less than $4000
strategies per annum.
D. Nigerian empowerment emphasizes developing
states Nigeria’s targets for 2020 was based on a dynamic
Answer comparative analysis of the country’s potential growth rate
NEEDS stands for National Economic Empowerment and economic structure vis-à-vis those of other Top 40
and Development Strategy. (C) economies in the world. This implies that the Nigerian
2. When was National Economic Empowerment and economy was to grow at an average of 13.8% during the
Development strategy founded in time horizon, driven by the agricultural and industrial
A. 2013 B. 2003 C. 2019 D. 2002 sectors over the medium term while a transition to a
Answer service-based economy is envisaged from 2018.
National Economic Empowerment and Development
Strategy founded in 2003. (B)
3. Explain the concept of NEEDS. Objectives of Vision 2020
Answer Fundamental to the vision are two broad objectives
National Economic Empowerment and Development a. To make efficient the use of human and natural
Strategy as a programme emphasizes creation of resources to achieve rapid economic growth.
employment opportunities, emphasizes on self b. To translate the economic growth into equitable
employment and self reliant for economic growth and social development for all citizens.
development.

597
These aspirations are defined across four dimensions: means of transportation. Not only would this bring
i. Social Dimensions: A peaceful, equitable, down the cost of doing business, it will also enhance the
harmonious and just society, where every citizen has growth of Gross Domestic Product (GDP) of the
a strong sense of national identity and citizens are country. An overview of the transportation sector cover
supported by an educational and healthcare system five area namely, inter- modal transportation, rail
that caters for all, and sustains a life expectancy of not transportation, road transportation, zonal intervention
less than 70 years. road projects across all six geopolitical zones and
ii. Economic dimension: A globally competitive marine transportation.
economy that is resilient and diversified with no 5. Land reform: The land reform issue is still at the
globally competitive manufacturing sector that is discussion stage and the question is can the next four
tightly integrated and contributes no less than 25% to years or so see anything concrete in land reform?
Gross Domestic Product. 6. Security: Security of life and property represents one
iii. Institutional Dimension: A stable and functional of the most important constitutional duties of any
democracy where the rights of the citizens to government. Security, the maintenance of law and
determine their leaders are guaranteed, and adequate order are the foundation on which the success of all
infrastructure exists to support a market friendly and initiatives of Government, in ensuring good
globally competitive business environment. governance is anchored. The primary challenge of
iv. Environmental dimension: A level of national security revolve around the ability of the
environmental consciousness that enables and government to discharge its responsibilities to the
supports sustainable management of the nation’s governed. A joint collaboration of all security
God-given natural endowments to ensure their organization in the country will help check mate such
preservation for the benefit of present and future threats to life and properties of the populace.
generations. 7. Education and Human Capital Development: The
provision of health, education and functional social
Author’s Questions safety nets are absolutely essential to achieving
Nigeria vision 2020 had how many focuses desirable human capital outcomes and addressing
A. three B. four C. two D. one some negative trends in the sector. One of the options
Answer would be domesticate the sectorial transformation in
The vision 2020 focuses on two broad objectives. (C) order to model globally acceptable health
1. To make efficient use of human and material resources transformation around the country’s unique national
to achieve rapid economic growth. culture and institutions.
2. To translate the economic growth into equitable social
development for all citizens. INSTITUTIONAL FRAMEWORK FOR VISION
20:2020
THE SEVEN POINTS AGENDA OF VISION 2020 A number of institutions were set up in Nigeria to ensure
1. Power and energy: This are two subsectors prioritize the successful driving of vision 20:2020.
under the seven point agenda. A power generation (a) National council on Vision 20:2020: It is the apex
target of 60,000MW was envisaged. institution chaired by the President, to provide
2. Food security and agriculture: Agriculture leadership and direction for the development plan.
contributes 42% of Nigeria’s GDP and engages over (b) National Steering Committee on Vision 20:2020:
65% of the country’s workforce. The sector is This is chaired by the Minister of National planning
constrained by enormous challenges and is and charged with the responsibility of:
characterised by low output, inefficient and (i) Developing the guidelines for implementation
antiquated production tools and infrastructures. The of vision 20:2020 and the monitoring and
Seven point agenda expects a “5-10 fold increase in evaluation strategy.
(ii) Encouraging the key MDAs, states and local
yield and production”, which would result in massive
governments, to prepare and implement their
domestic and commercial outputs and technological
component of vision 20:2020 in line with
knowledge transfer to farmers. national priorities.
3. Wealth creation and employment: More than two (iii) Developing a template for preparing the vision
thirds of Nigerians are poor. The incidence of poverty 20:2020 strategic plan and annual
has been increasing at a significant rate since communication of progress (COP), and
independence. By virtue of African’s undue reliance collating same to prepare the annual
on revenue from non–renewable sources such as oil, performance report for the National Council.
Nigeria has yet to develop industrially. On–going (c) Secretariat of the National Steering Committee.
reform is focused on wealth creation through (d) National Technical Working Group: This is to
diversified production, especially in the agricultural comprise about 20-25 groups of experts of experts
and solid mineral sector. for the identified thematic areas, to provide support
4. Transportation Sector: Transportation is one of the four to the national steering committee.
(4) sectors prioritized in the seven point agenda as a (e) Stakeholder Vision 20:2020: Comprises about 20-
result of its cross cutting implications for the 25 major stakeholder committee to prepare its vision
development of the Nigerian economy. The thrust of the 20:2020 document based on guidelines in line with
transport policy is the attainment of efficient inter – national goals and priorities, as improved by the
modal system that would effectively link the different National council.
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(f) Economic Management Team (EMT): The
chairman and vice-chairman are members of the
National Council and National Steering Committee.
This is to ensure that the vital link and adequate
feedback between the National Council and National
Steering Committee are established. The EMT is to
serve as a “Think Tank” for driving the visioning
process.

HOW VISION 20:20 WILL BE ACHIEVED

The economic transformation strategy for Nigeria is anchored
upon three thrust:
1. Creating the platform for success by urgently and
immediately addressing the most debilitating constraints
to Nigeria’s growth and competitiveness;
2. Forging ahead with diligence and focus in developing the
fabric of the envisioned economy by;
(a) Aggressively pursuing a structural transformation
from a mono-product economy to a diversified,
industrialized economy.
(b) Investing to transform the Nigerian people into
catalysts for growth and national renewal, and a
lasting source of comparative advantage; and
(c) Investing to create an environment that enables the
co-existence of growth and development on an
enduring and sustainable basis.
3. Developing and deepening the capability of government to
consistently translate national strategic intent into action and
results by instituting evidence-based decision making in
Nigeria’s public policy space.

CHALLENGES TO VISION 20:2020

(i) Inadequate data for planning.
(ii) Inconsistencies in government policies.
(iii) Inefficient human resources
(iv) Poor co-ordination of Vision 20:2020 projects.
(v) Conflict of interests.
(vi) Inadequate access to stipulated funds.
(vii) Poor monitoring and evaluation.
(viii) Corruption and mismanagement of funds.
(ix) Over-dependence on oil sector for government
revenue (80%).

Author’s Questions
1. Outline the seven points Agenda of vision 2020.
Answer
I. Power and energy.
II. Food security and agriculture.
III. Wealth creation and employment.
IV. Mass transportation.
V. Land reform.
VI. Security.
VII. Qualitative and functional education.
2. Explain objectives of vision 2020.
I. The environmental dimension: Envisions
effective management of our natural
environmental.
II. The institutional dimension: Expects a stable
democracy.
III. The social dimension: Envisions an equal society
that can sustain a life expectancy of at least 70
years.
IV. The economic dimension: Envisages a vibrant
economy, where manufacturing sector can
contribute at least 25 percent to Gross Domestic
Production (GDP).
599
b. Running a voluntary counselling and testing
Chapter Forty Six (VCT) programme.
c. Providing primary, secondary and tertiary
ANTI-TRAFFICKING INITIATIVES IN education assistance to economically poor
students to deter them from becoming victims of
NIGERIA traffickers.
d. Developing training materials, conducting
MAJOR CIVIL SOCIETY ORGANISATIONS research and publishing best practices.
(CSOS) NIGERIA COMBATING TRAFFICKING IN e. Training youth in life skills, empowerment,
PERSONS confidence and character.
(i) Women trafficking and Child Labour f. Advocating government and policy-makers for
Eradication Foundation (WOTCLEF): the rights of trafficked persons.
WOTCLEF is a major anti-human trafficking civil g. Running a campaign against child labour, for
society organization in Nigeria. It was initiated and examples, working in conjunction with the
founded in 1999 as a non-profit organisation by NURTW in relation to the use of under aged
Chief Mrs. Amina Titi Atiku Abubakar, the wife of boys as public transport conductors.
Atiku Abubakar, the former Vice President of the
Federal Republic of Nigeria. This non-governmental The activities of WOTCLEF led to the enactment of
organization has made significant contributions in the Trafficking in Persons (Prohibition) Law
combating human trafficking, child labour violent Enforcement and Administration Act 2003, and the
abuse of women in society as well as HIV/AIDS establishment of the National Agency for
through several means. Prohibition of Trafficking in Persons and Other
Related Matters (NAPTIP) by the Federal
WOTCLEF engages in aggressive advocacy and Government of Nigeria.
public enlightenment to educate the people on the (ii) Women Consortium of Nigeria (WOCON):
dangers of human trafficking and child labour. Women Consortium of Nigeria is a non-profit
Given the inhuman treatment meted on Nigerian making, non-partisan and non-religious organization
girls in European countries, WOTCLEF provides that has made immense contributions to fighting
rescue and rehabilitation services to trafficked trafficking in persons. WOCON is a human rights
victims by giving them psycho-social support. This organization established in 1993 by Chief Olabisi
involves counselling to help repatriated victims Olateru Olagbegi with its headquarters in Lagos. It
successfully reinstate into society and engage in is committed to the enforcement and promotion of
other genuine profitable businesses within their local the rights of women and children in Nigeria with its
environments. These victims are, whenever possible, main focus on child and women trafficking, gender
reunited with their families. violence, civic education, grassroots advocacy and
political empowerment. The organization does these
This foundation also engages in mobilization and through sensitization of the local people.
advocacy for reproductive and sexual health and
youth development. When HIV/AIDS was the major (iii) Idia Renaissance (IR): Idia Renaissance (IR) is a
health concern in Nigeria, WOTCLEF embarked on non-governmental and non-profit making
awareness campaigns which involve workshops, organization founded by Mrs. Eki Igbinedion, the
seminars, conferences, media advocacy and musical former first lady of Edo State. It was founded with a
concerts all over Nigeria. As a result, Nigerians mission to challenge the society to be more
became informed about the dangers of HIV/AIDS. It responsive to the needs and aspirations of the less
does this in conjunction with other bodies and privileged with a view to restoring hope and dignity
organizations. to the lives of children, youths and women. It is a
visionary organization that intends to promote
Women trafficking and Child Labour Eradication positive cultural values in order to restore human
Foundation (WOTCLEF) has covered the national dignity through education, information,
landscape of Nigeria with offices in every state of communication, advocacy, mobilization and
the federation. With the awareness campaign carried counselling.
out by WOTCLEF, people have become committed In order to combat the scourge of trafficking in
watchdogs against trafficking in persons and child persons. Idia Renaissance (IR) engages in research
labour. and enlightenment of youths and children in Nigeria.
The intervention of Idia Renaissance (IR) is aimed at
WOTCLEF further engages in a diverse range of restoring the dignity of women in the society. Given
strategies designed to achieve the organisation’s the damage done to young citizens of Nigeria as a
mandate. These are: results of trafficking, and this non-profit making
a. Running a rehabilitation centre that offers, organizations equipped itself with the necessary
lodging, protection, school assistance, meals and human and material resources to combat the evils of
vocational training. trafficking in persons, prostitution, drug abuse,
youth restiveness, HIV/AIDS and other social and
health problems.
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GOVERNMENT INTERVENTION IN COMBATING (v) Some civil society organisation offer medical and
TRAFFICKING IN PERSONS (TIP) legal services to trafficked victims and also support
In combating the criminal activity of trafficking in persons their rehabilitation.
that is dehumanizing Nigerians abroad, the Federal (vi) Their activity is geared towards restoring human
Government of Nigeria established an agency to check the dignity by empowering and educating the victims and
excesses of human traffickers. This agency is the National wider society.
Agency for Prohibition of Trafficking in Persons and the (vii) They combat trafficking in persons by engaging in
other Related Matters (NAPTIP). It was established by the human rights protection and protection against
Trafficking in Persons Prohibition Law Enforcement and exploitation and abuse.
Administration Act 2003 with the following
responsibilities: THE ROLES OF INDIVIDUALS IN COMBATING
(i) To coordinate all laws in trafficking in persons and TRAFFICKING IN PERSONS
other related offences. A society is not created by isolated individuals. A society
(ii) To adopt measures that will increase the is established by the positive day-to-day interactions of
effectiveness of eradication of trafficking in persons. people. This human interaction in society is guided by the
(iii) To adopt witness protection measures. value system of the people. The dominance of criminal
(iv) To enhance the effectiveness of law enforcement values in the society results to social vices and negative
agents to suppress trafficking in persons. development. It is in this regard that individuals become
(v) To establish proper communication channels, key stakeholders in the fight against trafficking in persons.
conduct research and work at improving
international cooperation on the suppression of Individuals need to interrogate their conscience and actions
trafficking in persons by air, land and water ways. for the best interest of all in society. It is at this level that
(vi) To reinforce and implement measures in bilateral individuals’ contributions to the solution to the problem of
and multilateral treaties and conventions on trafficking in persons begins. They start by refraining from
trafficking in persons. getting involved in human trafficking. It is the achievement
(vii) To work in collaboration with other agencies or of self-refrain that can serve as a push factor for individuals
bodies that will ensure the elimination and to attack the scourge of human trafficking by playing the
prevention of the root causes of the problem of following roles:
trafficking in persons. (i) Education of family members: Individuals can
(viii) To strengthen and enhance effective legal means for educate the members of their immediate family on the
international cooperation in criminal matters for evils of trafficking in persons. Members of the family
suppressing the international activities of traffickers. can be well informed right from the home about the
(ix) To strengthen the cooperation between the Attorney consequences of trafficking in persons such as
General of the Federation, the Nigeria Police, physical assault, exposure to illegal drugs, separation
Nigerian Immigration Services, Nigerian Customs from family members, denial of rights, exposure to
Services, Nigerian Prison Services, welfare officials various health hazards, and sometimes death.
and all other agencies in the eradication of (ii) Whistle blowing: Individuals can serve as foot
trafficking in persons. soldiers for the law enforcement agents by disclosing
(x) To take charge, supervise, control and coordinate the vital information about the hideouts and routes of
rehabilitation of trafficked persons. traffickers.
(xi) To investigate and prosecute traffickers. (iii) Monetary donations: Individuals can contribute to
combating trafficking in persons by donating money,
THE ROLES OF CIVIL SOCIETY ORGANISATION no matter how small, to aid public enlightenment.
IN COMBATING TRAFFICKING IN PERSONS (iv) Acceptance into society: Individuals can assist in the
Civil Society Organisation (CSOs) play important roles in rehabilitation process of the victims by absorbing them
the fight against trafficking in persons. They are often into the society.
members of the societies where this crime is being
committed. They, therefore have the opportunity to lay the THE ROLES OF DEVELOPMENT PARTNERS IN
foundation for the total eradication of the crime of COMBATING TRAFFICKING IN PERSONS
trafficking in persons, among which include the following: (i) International Organisation (IOM): The
(i) Civil society organisation educate the people on the International Organisation for Migration (IOM) is an
dangers of trafficking in persons and the gravity of inter-governmental organization established in 1951. It
punishment for the traffickers through public was first established as the Inter-government
enlightenment and advocacy. Committee for European Migration (ICEM) with the
(ii) They engage government agencies to seek direct sole responsibility of resettling people displaced by
support for trafficked victims. World War II. In September 2016, it became a related
(iii) They engage government agencies to seek direct organization of the United Nations. As of June 2016,
support for victims who are physically distressed. the International Organisation for Migration had 166
(iv) Government agencies and private organisation make member-states and eight – observer states.
effective use of the expert knowledge of the civil
society organizations in designing and implementing The main purpose of IOM is to ensure the orderly and
policies and also support their rehabilitation. humane management of migration, promote
international cooperation on migration issues, assist in
601
the search for practical solutions to migration ii. Legal and other assistances are to be provided to
problems and provide humanitarian assistance to trafficked persons for the duration of any criminal,
migrants. civil or other actions against suspected traffickers. It is
compulsory for countries or provide protection and
(ii) International Center for Migration Policy temporary resident permits to victims and witnesses
Development (ICMPD): The International Center for during legal proceedings.
Migration Policy Development (ICMPD) was iii. Children who are victims must be given special care
established in 1993 by Austria and Switzerland with and attention. Their interests shall be considered
headquarters in Vienna, Austria. It was founded to paramount at all times. Relevant authorities must take
carry out research projects and activities that are into consideration their special vulnerabilities, rights
related to migration issues. They also provide policy and needs.
recommendations to government agencies of state as iv. Safe return of trafficked persons shall be guaranteed
well as intergovernmental agencies across national by both receiving state and the state of origin.
boundaries. Trafficked persons shall be offered legal alternatives
to repatriation in case where it is reasonable to
In an attempt to solve migration, ICMPD cooperates conclude that such repatriation would pose a serious
with governments of various states, international risk to their safety and/or to the safety of their families.
organisation, research institutes and members of civil v. Confiscated assets of the traffickers may be used to
society in developing policies that concern migration. support and compensate victims of trafficking.
They also organize training on dealing with migration Countries must ensure that trafficked persons are given
issues for member-states. Although it is focused on access to effective and appropriate legal remedies.
European countries, it however has observer status at vi. Provision of shelter for trafficked persons must be
the United Nations Organisation. done by relevant authorities. A safe and adequate
shelter that meets the needs of trafficked persons is
(iii) United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime made available. The provision of such shelter is not
(UNODC): The United Nations Office on Drugs and made contingent on the willingness of the victims to
Crime (UNODC) emerged from the former United give evidence in criminal proceedings. Trafficked
Nations office for Drug Control and Crime Prevention persons should not be held in immigration detention
established in 1997. This agency of the United Nations centres, other detention facilities or vagrant houses.
was renamed in 2002 as United Nations Office on vii. Health care must be given to the trafficked persons.
Drugs and Crime. Trafficked victims are given access to primary health
care and counselling assistance and they should not be
UNODC was established to assist the United Nations to subjected to mandatory testing for diseases, including
effectively address the interrelated issues of illicit HIV/AIDS.
trafficking in persons, abuse of drugs, crime prevention,
crime justice, international terrorism and political TRAFFICKING IN PERSONS IN INTERNATIONAL
corruption. They achieve these objectives through PERSPECTIVE
research, guidance and giving support to governments in Trafficking in persons in one of the most tragic violation
the adoption and implementation of various crime, drug, of human rights issues in the world. There is no country
terrorism and corruption-related conventions, treaties and which is not affected by the phenomenon. In 2006,
protocols. They also provide technical, financial, UNODC published a report on Trafficking in Human
technological, logistics and manpower support to Beings, Global Characters, where one hundred and
governments to enable them combat the aforementioned twenty-seven (127) states were identified as countries of
challenges. origin for trafficking, ninety-eight (98) as countries of
transit, and thirty-seven (37) as countries of destination. It
is estimated that annually, more than five million persons
PROTECTION AND ASSISTANCE OF are trafficked in the world, especially women and children.
TRAFFICKING IN PERSONS (TIP) VICTIMS Today, men and boys who become victims of trafficking
The protection and support of TIP victims are guaranteed for forced labour and other exploitative practices is on the
under the laws of every state. A trafficked victim requires increase. It is a serious crime, which robs human beings of
protection and support without discrimination for proper their freedom and their dignity. It separates families,
reintegration into the society. Protection and assistance distorts global markets, undermines the rule of law and
may be in the following forms: spurs other transnational criminal activities. It threatens
i. Trafficked persons must not be detained, charged or public safety, national security and economic growth of
prosecuted for the illegality of their entry into or affected nations. It is therefore, necessary for all nations to
residence in countries of transit and destination or for put an end to the scourge of trafficking in persons. Nigeria
their involvement in unlawful activities. Countries are must be in the forefront in the fight against trafficking in
expected to protect trafficked persons from further persons as the scourge is very prevalent in the country.
exploitation and harm; and enable them have access to
adequate physical and psychological care. Such Nigeria is a source, transit and distribution country for
protection and care shall not be made conditional upon women and children for trafficking in persons. Trafficked
the capacity or willingness of the trafficked person to Nigerian women and children are usually recruited from
cooperate in legal proceedings. rural areas within the country’s borders. Trafficking in
602
persons occurs within Nigerian borders, in neighbouring i. UN Convention Against Trans-National
countries, and many European countries. The women and Organised Crime.
girls are used for involuntary domestic servitude, forced ii. Protocol to Prevent, Suppress and Punish
labour, forced prohibition, sexual exploitation, while boys Trafficking in Persons, especially Women and
are used for forced labour in street vending, domestic Children.
servitude, mining and begging. Nigerian women and iii. United Nations’ Protocol against the
children are taken from Nigeria to African countries like Smuggling of Migrants by land, sea and air.
Togo, Niger, Chad, Cameroon, Gabon, Burkina Faso, iv. Convention on the Rights of the Child.
Benin, Cape Verde, The Gambia, etc. Likewise, children v. Optimal Protocol to the Convention on the
from African states like Togo, Gabon, etc. are also forced Rights of the Child, on the Sale of Children,
to work in Nigeria. Nigerian women and girls are taken to Child Prostitution and Child Pornography.
Europe, particularly Italy, Spain, the Netherlands, vi. Convention on the Elimination of all Forms of
Germany, France, the Middle East and North Africa for Discrimination Against Women.
forced prostitution. vii. Recommended principles on Human Rights
and Trafficking in Human beings of the UN
It is rather unfortunate that Nigeria is one of the notorious Economic and Social Council
countries involved in trafficking in persons. Report of the viii. Other legal instruments in combating
US State Department’s Office of Trafficking in Persons trafficking in persons are:
placed Nigeria in “Tier 2 Watch List” in 2017. This a) European Convention on Extradition, 1957
signifies a middle range success in combating human b) European Convention on Legal Assistance in
trafficking. Moreover, the United Nations Education, Criminal Matters, 1959
Scientific and Cultural Organization (UNESCO) affirmed
that Nigeria was one of the leading African countries in 2. National Response to Trafficking in Persons in
trafficking in persons with cross border and internal Nigeria
trafficking. The victims are used for low-skilled labour in Nigeria has criminal laws which make trafficking in
agriculture and other services. It is estimated that about persons a crime. Nigeria has two codes of Criminal
twenty (20) million Nigerians live abroad seeking for Law, namely the criminal code for the Southern states,
education, jobs, etc. Thus, the reason why Nigerians and the penal code for the North. For instance, the
migrate to other countries in the bid to help their families criminal code provides various offences against liberty
out of extreme poverty by getting employment abroad and or slave dealing which could be used to prosecute
sending money home. trafficking in persons. This is punishable by
imprisonment of the fourteen (14) years. The criminal
Nigeria has however recorded numerous arrests and code deals with unlawful confinement against a
prosecution of human traffickers. In 2012, NAPTIP and person’s will or compelling someone to do something
the police conducted one hundred and seventeen (117) by threats or intimidation.
trafficking investigations and successfully convicted Other laws and policies to curb trafficking in persons
twenty-five (25) traffickers. Government has also are in operation in Nigeria. Such responses are:
conducted training in collaboration with foreign i. The ratification of the Palermo Protocol on
governments and international organizations on strategies December 28 June, 2001.
and procedures in identifying potential victims and ii. Enactment of the TIPPLEA Act 2003 on 14 July,
traffickers, and has made some progress in addressing the 2003.
problem: it can still do more to prevent trafficking in iii. Establishment of NAPTIP on the 14 July, 2003.
persons. iv. Amendment of the Trafficking in Persons
(Prohibition) Law Enforcement and
COMBATING TRAFFICKING IN PERSONS Administration Act, (TIPPLEA) 2003 in
The war against trafficking in persons require common December, 2005.
efforts amongst nations, considering its trans-border v. Re-enactment of the Trafficking in Persons
nature. The anti-trafficking methods being carried out by (Prohibition) Enforcement and Administration Act
different countries will fail if there is no cooperation, 2015 on 26 March, 2015.
intelligence exchange and sharing of best practices. vi. Setting up the National Task Force on TIP on
Similarly, there must be active participation by all social October 4, 2006.
actors from different countries to prevent, discover, vii. Establishment of the Victims of Trafficking Trust
prosecute the traffickers and to provide the best services to Fund in 2008.
the victims in ensuring an effective reintegration into the viii. Singing of bilateral and multilateral agreements.
community. ix. Approval of the National Policy on Protection and
Assistance to Trafficked Persons in Nigeria by the
1. International Cooperation: Federal Executive Council on 12 November, 2008.
The international cooperation is viral in combating any x. Approval of the National Plan of Action on TIP by
trans-border trafficking in persons. Countries engage the Federal Executive Council in 2018.
in bilateral agreements, regional alliances and
international conventions to combat trafficking in
persons. This cooperation involves application of the
following legislations and principles:
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3. Protection Instruments workers to integrate the women into society once they
NAPTIP has articulated frameworks and instruments gain their individual independence.
to support its mandate in combating trafficking in Government also offers protective services to victims
persons. The main instrument is the National Policy on and has funded eight (8) shelters that can provide
Protection and Assistance to Trafficked Persons in services for victims. In particular, the National Agency
Nigeria 2008. for the Prohibition of Trafficking in Persons (NAPTIP)
The Policy adopts a holistic approach in the protection has made impressive efforts in combating trafficking
and assistance of trafficked persons through in persons in Nigeria. Government has established a
rehabilitation programmes that provide appropriate skill acquisition centre in Benin which provides free
integration into their various communities. It includes vocational training programmes such as sewing,
reception, identification, sheltering, counseling, catering and computer skills to women and girls.
family tracing, return/repatriation, integration, 5. Witness Protection: Witnessing is very key in the
empowerment, follow-up/after-care and prosecution of cases of trafficking in persons. The victim
disengagement. is a principal witness. It is particularly important that a
victim makes an informed decision before witnessing in
Types of Protection and Assistance Services for court. A victim may require a reasonable length of time
Trafficked Victims to make up his/her mind about charges and/or acting as a
We have various protection and assistance services for witness. Witnessing may have severe consequences for
proper rehabilitation and reintegration of trafficked the safety and privacy of both the victim and his children
victims. and other family members.
Trafficked persons who act as witnesses must be
1. Sheltering Services: Government agencies often refer
provided with effective protection from harm, threats,
trafficked victims to NAPTIP for sheltering and other
potential retaliation and intimidation by traffickers and
protective services. NAPTIP usually assess the needs associated persons throughout the investigation, trail
of victims upon arrival and provide food, clothing, process and conviction. This may include giving
shelter, recreation activities, and instructions and testimony in a way to ensure their safety, for example
various skills including vocational training. Victims through video links, identification of a safe place in the
are often allowed to stay in government shelters for six country of destination; protection of identity during legal
weeks. If a longer time is needed, civil society partner proceedings; and identification of options for continued
is contacted to take in the victim. stay, resettlement or repatriation.
2. Counselling Services: Counselling services is very 6. Medical Care: Proper health care must be given to the
important in reintegrating the victims back to the trafficked persons. Victim must be in a good state of
society. Psychological counselling is provided for health. Trafficked persons are given access to primary
severe cases. The 2005 Trafficking in Persons Law health care and other health facilities, without subjecting
Enforcement and Administration (as amended) them to mandatory testing for diseases including
provides for treatment, protection and non- HIV/AIDS.
discriminatory practices for victims. The law states 7. Family Support for Victims of Trafficking in Persons:
that no trafficked victim could be detained for any Family support is one of the ways for a proper
offence committed as a result of being trafficked to reintegration of trafficked person back into the
avoid further depression. community. Family members must be ready to accept the
Moreover, trafficked persons are provided with victim as part of them. Family members and close
counselling and information on their legal rights in a relations must render immediate assistance in terms of
provision of food, clothing and accommodation. They
language they understand in order to make informed
must willingly associate with the victims to demonstrate
decisions.
their acceptability in the family. Family has a great role
3. Public Enlightenment Programme: NAPTIP’s in restoring the confidence of trafficked victims as
Public Enlightenment Unit often carries out awareness reasonable members of the society.
programmes in rural communities. It has introduced
grassrooot programmes to educate the masses on the HOW TO ACCESS PROTECTION AND
evil effects of trafficking in persons. The Public ASSISTANCE SERVICES FOR TRAFFICKED
Enlightenment Unit of NAPTIP partnered with VICTIMS
Develop Centre for African Development to educate The protection and assistance services may be accessed in
over five thousand (5,000) women, teenagers, the following ways:
educators and youth on how to prevent human 1. Referral Assistance
trafficking. The awareness programme focused on Referral is an act of sending a victim to a specialist for
advocacy, training, counselling and publication of further assistance for proper care or check-up as a result
flyers. of psychological trauma. A trafficked victim may be
4. Empowerment and Reintegration of Victims: directed to an appropriate specialist or agency for
Nigeria has continued to intensify efforts in taking care consultation, review or further action on emotional issues
of the welfare of the victims. NAPTIP partners with or reintegration into the society. Most of the victims
Develop Centre for Africa Development, and the require assistance for proper integration. Stigmatization
Italian government to reduce the level of human is a serious threat to the life of a trafficked person. They
trafficking that occurs in Italy. Italy has not only had require counselling from specialists to ensure emotional
officers shutting down brothels in major cities, but the balance. Services rendered to a trafficked victim are free
government has set up programmes with social of charge.
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2. Direct Assistance 3. Write short notes on the following:
Direct assistance to a trafficked victim may be cash or (a) Women Trafficking and Child Labour
material things. Shelter is very important to a victim. Eradication Foundation (WOTCLEF)
Health care must be guaranteed to live a healthy life. (b) Women Consortium of Nigeria (WOCON)
Government and other civil society organizations (c) Idia Renaissance (IR)
should assist in providing basic things of life like (d) International Organisation (IOM)
shelter, clothing and food. Skill acquisition centres (e) International Center for Migration Policy
should be provided where victims could learn certain Development (ICMPD)
trades a means of livelihood. (f) United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime
3. Empowerment of Victims by Government (UNODC).
Institutions and Civil Society Organizations
In partnership with non-governmental organizations,
government should ensure that trafficked persons who
return to their country of origin are provided with
assistance and support for their well-being. Skill
acquisition centres where the victims will acquire
relevant skills to facilitate their social integration and
prevent re-trafficking, must be established by relevant
bodies. Government should provide appropriate
physical and psychological support such a health care,
housing, education and employment services for the
returning trafficked victims. The civil society
organizations which champion the war against
trafficking in persons in Nigeria are:
a. Devatop Centre for Africa Development
(DCAD): This is a non-profit organization with
focus on combating human trafficking, gender-
based violence, child abuse and providing
educational supports to vulnerable children. It is a
youth-led organization fighting human trafficking
and other related matters. The organization has
been engaging young people in building a national
without trafficking.
b. Women Trafficking and Child Labour
Eradication Foundation (WOTCLEF): This is a
non-profit organization that takes a strong stand
against women trafficking and child labour.
WOTCLEF advocated the establishment of
NAPTIP.
c. Women’s Consortium of Nigeria (WCN) wages
war against child forced labour and sexual
exploitation.
d. Coalition Against Human Trafficking and Sexual
Exploitation of Children.
e. Viable Knowledge Masters (VKM): This is a
research and consulting firm that has worked
extensively on baby factories and the trafficking in
infants and young women. It has published many
journals on baby factories for peer-review.
4. Other bodies are the media, ministry of information,
religious organizations, community leaders, market
women association, drivers’ union, okada riders etc.

REVISION EXERCISES
1. A major consequence of human trafficking is?
A. promotion of rural – urban drift
B. decline in literacy rate
C. increase rate of youth employment
D. increase exploitation of the ignorant
2. State 7 obligations of National Agency for Prohibition
of Trafficking in Persons and the other Related Matters
(NAPTIP).
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Author’s Question
Chapter Forty Seven Define electronic governance.
Answer
E-GOVERNMENT E–governance is the application of information technology
for delivering government services, exchange of information,
E–government is the use of technological communications communication transactions, and integration of various
devices, such as computers and the internet to provide stand–alone systems between governments to citizens.
public services to citizens and other persons in a country The delivery models of E–governance can be through
or region. Electronic government or E–government is the A. G2C B. G4D C. G3C D. CDM
application of Information and Communication Answer
Technologies (ICTs) to government functions and The delivery models of E–governance can be through G2C
procedures with the purpose of increasing efficiency, meaning Government–to–Citizens or Government–to–
transparency and citizen participation. Consumer (G2C). (A)

E-government is the use of Information and Exercise 47.2

Communication Technologies (ICTs) to improve the What does CRM stands for?
activities of public sector organization, which is, achieving A. citizen relation mobilization
public ends through digital means. B. customer relationship management
C. convenient relationship monitoring
E-government covers the following: D. communication relation model
1. Improving government processes through E–
administration. Examples of E–Government and E–Governance
2. Connecting citizens through E–citizens and E–services. E–Governance is of four examples depending on the
3. Building external alterations through E–society. specific types of services.
1. Government-to-Citizen (G2C): The Government-to-
Author’s Question citizen mentions the government services that are
1. Define E–government? acquired by the familiar people. Most of the
Answer government services come under G2C. Similarly, the
E–government is defined as the employment of the primary aim of Government-to-citizen is to supply the
internet and the worldwide web for delivery facilities to the citizens. It also helps the ordinary
government information and services to the citizens. people to minimize the time and cost to carry out a
2. What does E–government promotes? transaction. A citizen can retrieve the facilities
A. unity B. love anytime from anywhere. Similarly, spending the
C. contribution to national and community development administrative fee online is also possible due to G2C.
D. facilitate employment of citizens 2. Government-to-business (G2B): The Government–
Answer to–business is the interchange of services between
E–government promotes and improves broad Government and Business firms. It is productive for
stakeholder’s contribution to national and community both government and business firms. G2B provides
development as well as deepens the governance access to pertinent forms needed to observe. It also
processes. (C) contains many services interchanged between
business sectors and government.
Exercise 47.1 3. Government–to–Government (G2G): The
E–government deals heavily with Government–to–Government mentions the interaction
A. internet B. iPhone C. Jamb D. SSCE between different government departments, firms and
agencies. This increases the efficiency of government
MEANING OF E–GOVERNANCE processes. In G2B, government agencies can share the
Electronic governance or E–governance is the application same database using online communication. The
of information technology (IT) for delivering government government departments can work together. These
services, exchange of information, communication services can increase international discretion and
transactions, integration of various stand–alone systems relations.
between Government to Citizens (G2C), Government to 4. Government–to–Employee (G2E): The Government
Business (G2B), government to government (G2G), –to–Employee is the internal part of G2G section. It
Government to Employees (G2E) as well as back office aims to bring employees together and improvise
processes and interactions within the entire government knowledge sharing. It provides online facilities to the
frame work. Simply stated, it refers providing employees. Similarly, applying for leave, reviewing
governmental services that are accessible through the salary payment record and checking the balance of
internet. Through E–governance, government services are holiday. The G2E sector yields human resource training
made available to citizens in a convenient, efficient and and development. So, G2E is also the correlation
transparent manner. The three main target groups that can between employees and government institutions.
be distinguished in governance concepts are government,
citizens and businesses/interest groups. In E–governance
there are no distinct boundaries.

606
Examples of E–government can be various services government service as we live in what is now termed as the
offered for citizens or businesses or between public knowledge era.
institutions, such as E–procurement, filling tax returns, 8. E–governance means using electronic technology by the
renew ID, passport or driving license, apply for extract government. Electronic technologies make
from the criminal register. communication better, and faster. It will take very less time
for any policy, or scheme to reach to the people.
There are also two major examples of e–governance and 9. It makes all policies available to the citizens.
e–government. 10. The use of e-government is very cheap to manage; it
1. Non–internet E–Government. saves the costs of buying pens, papers and printers. The
remaining money can be further used for other
2. Internet and non–internet application.
development.
11. E-governments is offering some convenience for
E–Government is often thought of as “Online residents. For example, currently in many Chinese
Government” or “internet based government”. Many non– cities, one can book an appointment online for public
internet “electronic government” technologies can be used hospitals.
in this context. Some non-internet forms include 12. The system is eliminating distances.
telephone, fax, SMS, text messaging, MMS wireless 13. Individuals with disabilities or conditions no longer
networks and services, Bluetooth, CCTV tracing systems, have to be mobile to be active in government and can be
biometric identification, road traffic management and in the comfort of their own homes, accessing
regulatory enforcement, identity cards, smart cards, etc.. information.
14. E-government reduces the use of too much paper in
Most agencies, departments and ministries deal heavily governance e.g. employment seekers can apply easily
with internet and non–internet applications. For example: on-line.
1. Nigerian Immigration Services.
2. Nigerian Customs. Demerits of E-Governments.
3. Federal Road Safety Commission (FRSC). 1. The main disadvantage concerning E–government is the
4. NDLEA. lack of equality in public access to the internet,
5. EFCC. reliability of information on the web, and hidden
6. Federal Inland Revenue Service (FIRS). agendas of government groups that could influence and
7. Jamb, WAEC, Neco, etc. bias public opinions.
2. Potential implications of implementing and designing
E–government, include disintermediation of the
Author’s Question
government and citizens, impacts on economic, social
1. Enumerate any five non–internets electronic
and political factors, vulnerability to cyber-attacks and
government. disturbance to the status quo in these areas.
Answer 3. It leads to lack of privacy for civilians as their government
Non–internet electronic government can be used in obtains more and more information on them.
telephone, fax, SMS, MMS, Bluetooth, CCTV, 4. Large amount of money is spent on the development and
biometric identification, road traffic management and implementation of E–government.
regulatory enforcement, identify cards, smart cards, 5. An E–government site that provides web based access
etc. and support often does not offer the potential to reach
2. State three departments that deals heavily with many users including those who live in the remote areas,
internet. have low literacy levels and exist on poverty line
I. Nigeria Immigration Services. incomes.
II. Nigerian Customs Services. 6. This system losses the person to person interaction
III. Federal Road Safety Commission (FRSC). which is valued by a lot of people in today’s society.
IV. JAMB, WASCE, NECO, etc. 7. The E–government information can be added or
V. Federal Inland Revenue Service (FIRS). removed from the public eyes.
8. The implementation of an e–government service is that,
Merits of E–Government with many technology based services, it is often easy to
1. Improves delivery and efficiency of government make the excuse the server has gone down, that
services. problems with the service provided are because of the
2. Improved government interactions with business and technology.
industry. 9. People in the rural areas cannot easily gain access to E–
3. Citizens’ empowerment through access to information. government.
4. More efficient government management. 10. E–government cannot be used successfully in
5. Less corruption in the administration. developing countries due to low literacy level.
6. E–procurement facilitates G2G and B2B communication;
this will permit smaller business to compete for REVISION EXERCISES
government contracts as well as larger business. 1. What is the meaning E-government?
7. The society is moving towards the mobile connections and 2. Write short note on E-governance.
the ability of an E–government service to be accessible to 3. Enumerate five merit and demerits of E-
citizens irrespective of location throughout the country government.
brings the next and potentially biggest benefit of e– 4. Give the examples of E-governance you know.

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5. Authenticity and self-awareness: One of the key
Chapter Forty Eight ways to become a great leader is to be self-aware
enough to understand your strengths and flaws, and to
LEADERSHIP AND FOLLOWERSHIP build an authentic leadership style that’s true to who
you are and how you do your best work. You want to
Leadership is a process of social influence, which be the best possible leader you can be, not try to fit into
maximizes the efforts of others towards the achievement a mold set by someone else. Try to embrace the things
of a goal. Leadership is about influencing people by what that make you who you are, and that will naturally
you say and do. Good leadership is influencing someone to translate into you developing an authentic leadership
do something well or better. Great leadership is when you style.
influence someone to be the very best they can be. 6. Open mindedness and creativity: Being a good
leader means being open to new ideas, possibilities,
Leadership is the art of motivating a group of people to act and perspectives, and understanding that there’s no
towards achieving a common goal. Leadership is the “right” way to do things. Leadership involves the
inspiration for and director of the action. knowledge that success comes with a willingness to
change how things are done and to bring in fresh eyes
Author’s Question to inspire new ideas, in addition to trying to think
Explain leadership. outside the box as much as possible. Leaders must be
Answer able to listen, observe, and be willing to change course
Leadership can also be defined as the art or process of when necessary.
influencing people so that they will willingly strive towards 7. Flexibility: Leadership also means being adaptable
the achievement of the goals of a society or group. and nimble when the situation calls for it. Nothing ever
goes according to plan – whether you encounter minor
QUALITIES OF A GOOD LEADER roadblocks or large obstacles, you will need to be
A leader is an individual (someone) who can see how prepared to stop, re-plan, and determine a new course
things can be improved and who rallies people to move of action. Good leaders will embrace the ever-
toward that better vision. They are interested in the changing nature of business and meet challenges with
direction, vision, goals, objectives, intentions, purpose and a flexible attitude – and be able to inspire that same
effectiveness of the group, organization or society which willingness to adapt in those around them.
they are responsible for. 8. Responsibility and dependability: One of the most
important qualities a leader can have is a sense of
The following are the qualities of a good leader: responsibility and dependability. This means
1. Vision: Perhaps the greatest quality any leader can displaying those traits in your individual work, but also
have is vision – the ability to see the big picture of demonstrating them in your interactions with others.
where the organization or team they are working Your team members need to know that they can
within is headed, what it’s capable of, and what it will depend on you to take on your fair share of work and
take to get there. follow through, support them through tough times, and
2. Inspiration: Equally as important as having a vision help them meet both shared and individual goals.
is the ability to convey that vision to others, and get 9. Patience and tenacity: A good leader knows how to take
the long view, whether it is of a strategy, a situation, or a
them excited about it. This means maintaining a
goal. Being able to take on any bumps in the road and
positive yet realistic presence within the organization
persist on without getting frustrated or defeated is key –
helping team members stay motivated and engaged, from small projects to corporate vision, patience is a trait
and remember what it is that they are working for. that is essential to strong leadership.
3. Strategic and critical thinking: A good leader must 10. Continuous improvement: True leaders know that
be able to think critically about the organization or perfection is a myth – there is always room for
team they work within, and develop a clear improvement on all levels, from the personal to the team
understanding of its strength, weakness, opportunities, to the overall organization. They will always be willing
and threats (and how they as an individual can work to to help team members find ways to develop new skills or
support or overcome these). They’ll be able to course- improve upon a weakness, be able to identify and
correct when necessary, and be able to assess the work implement strategies for helping the organization as a
they do to determine how it fits into overall whole grow, and perhaps most importantly, be able to
organizational strategy and goals. look inward and identify the areas they would like to
4. Interpersonal Communication: A good leader must work on – and then act on them.
be able to interact with other people in a way that feels Author’s Question
genuine. This does not mean you have to be an The following are the qualities of good leaders, except
extrovert or a people-person to be a leader – there are A. commitment B. strong and firm
many excellent leaders who self-identify as introverts! C. open minded D. cruel and wicked
Rather, it means being able to demonstrate empathy, Answer
engaging in active listening and building meaningful Cruelty and wickedness is not a quality of good leadership.
working relationships with those around you, whether (B)
they are a peer or a direct report.

608
FOLLOWERSHIP 11. Proactive and take initiative: Followers need not wait
Followership is the action of someone in a subordinate until they are instructed. They should use their
role. The capacity or willingness to follow a leader. It can initiative.
also be considered as a specific set of skills that 12. Honesty: Allows a leader to know a person can be
complement leadership, a role within a hierarchical trusted to accurately represent the leader’s vision
organization, a social construct that is integral to the and/or principles with the highest standards of
leadership process, or the behaviours engaged in while integrity.
interacting with leaders in an effort to meet organizational 13. Persistence: The tenacity to attack a problem with
objectives. As such, followership is best defined as an gusto and stay with it until it is either solved or all
intentional practice of the part of the subordinate to conceivable possibilities have been exhausted.
enhance the synergetic interchange between the follower 14. Practicality: Being grounded enough to face a
and the leader. problem head on and come up with thoughtful,
positive suggestions about how to resolve it, even
Author’s Question when the possibility of success seems bleak.
Define followership 15. Communicative: The personal commitment to keep
Answer one’s leader abreast of important developments before
Followership is the actions of someone in a subordinate they come as surprising news from others who might
role. A subordinate is someone who is lower in rank to put the leader in the awkward position of having to
another or subject to another’s control. play catch-up from a position of disadvantage.
16. Helpfulness: The constant willingness to lend a hand
Qualities of a Good Follower to further the leader’s vision and/or to uphold the
A follower is an individual who follows the ideas, goals, leader’s principles.
or tasks of a leader. Followers are developed by working 17. Complementary: The willingness to lend a hand in
together to identify goals, objectives, intentions and such a way that one’s thought and actions complement
carrying out effective strategies to actualize the set goals – rather than compete with those of one’s leader in
or objectives. achieving a particular end.
The following are the qualities of a good follower 18. Cheerfulness: The choice and determination to
1. Loyalty: This implies commitment not only to the maintain an even-tempered disposition come what
leader and the leader’s vision but also to the principles may; hence the ability to smile in the face of adversity
of sound leadership. Loyalty manifests itself in one’s and make things a little brighter for everyone.
willingness to daily work with enthusiasm on your 19. Hardworking: Followers should not be docile.
leader’s behalf. Followers shall be diligent and committed to the
2. Understanding: This is the ability to articulate and organization.
integrate into one’s daily life the vision and principles 20. Participatory follower: Followers are not to be aloof
espoused by one’s leader. but take an active part in carrying out their duties in the
3. Candor: This is the courage to speak one’s mind organization.
clearly, succinctly, and authentically to one’s leader
and fellow followers but gracefully and in private. Author’s Question
4. Listening: This demands attention and care and must A good followers need to have the following attributes,
be coupled with observing the subtle nuances of a except
leader’s speech and behaviour if maximum clarity of A. discipline B. temperament C. commitment
understanding is to be achieved. D. dependable
5. Predictability: This implies to be accountable for Answer
one’s own behaviour in such a way that one’s leader A good follower needs to avoid temperament emotion to
knows who can be counted on when the need arises. succeed in his/her career. Temperament is not a good
6. Creativity: This is all about having a beginner’s mind attribute of a good follower. (B)
that allows one to discover or help discover novel
solutions to the problems of leadership as they arise. Exercise 48.1
7. Enlightenment: Followers are well informed of their A good follower should be
roles, roles of the leaders, objectives and activities of A. foolish B. cruel C. abusive D. responsible
the organization.
8. Effectiveness: This implies getting things done in a
manner that helps accomplishing the intent of the goals LEADERSHIP AND FOLLOWERSHIP ROLES IN
and objective of the team led by a leader. POLITICS AND GOVERNMENT
9. Efficiency: Getting things done in the most expedient
and cost-effective manner without compromising Roles of Leaders:
either the quality or principles of sound leadership. 1. Mobilization: The leaders mobilize the followers by
10. Insightfulness: The ability to ask relevant, probing sensitizing them on the political and social issues
questions and foster innovative ways of seeing and facing the country.
thinking about ordinary things; the ability to advance 2. Societal problems: Leadership identifies the problem
new perspectives, which set the tenor of the success of the society; it suggests and decides on the best
that follows. solutions and best method of implementation.

609
3. Consultation: It is the duty of the leaders to consult visionary and works by infusing high amount of
her followers before implementing most policies of energy and enthusiasm in his team. He serves as a role
government. model for his team and drives others to show a high
4. Orderly functioning of the society: For proper and level of performance through his honesty, tolerance,
orderly functioning of the society, leadership and hardwork, humble spirit, selflessness, etc.
followership need to favourably and systematically 4. Traditional leadership: This is mostly achieved
work in tandem. through inheritance or award of chieftaincy titles to
5. Political education: Leadership gives political deserving indigenes that contribute to the
education to followership. development of the community.
6. Provision of adequate security: This should be 5. Constitutional leadership: This type of leadership is
paramount in the eyes of leadership, for the wellbeing derivable from the constitution of the country. It is a
of the followers. legal or legitimate authority bestowed on a person or
7. Mass support: Leadership equally depends on the persons by the will of the generality of the people. It
followership for support during elections i.e. stating is a leadership that is constituted through elections.
reasons why they should vote for their parties during 6. Autocratic leadership: Autocratic leadership
any political election. (sometimes called authoritarian) is an aggressive
leadership style that is based on control. This type of
Roles of Followers: leadership allows the autocratic leaders to take the
1. Check the excesses of the leader: Effective followers ultimate control of taking decisions without
ensure the leaders carry out their duties. They check consulting others. An autocratic leader possesses a
bad leaders. high level of power and authority and imposes its will
2. Contribute to public decision making: Followers on his subordinate.
take part in decision making. They vote in elections to 7. Democratic leadership: This leadership is rooted in
elect their leaders. democratic theory as it allows for participative
3. Election of leaders: Followers choose their leaders, a leadership. The essence is to involve team members
times through free and fair election. in the decision making process. Team members thus
4. Legitimacy: The support and approval of any feel included, engaged and motivated to contribute.
government comes through followership. The leader will normally have the last word in the
Followership gives legitimacy to government in decision-making processes. It is a non–authoritarian
power by voting for them. leadership type.
5. Execution of policy: The Followers should always
endeavour to carry out the laid down policies
governing a state. Author’s Question
6. Hold the leaders accountable and responsible: The Which of the following is a leadership type?
followers ensure that leaders account for their A. society B. nation C. community
stewardship in office. D. principle
7. Support the leader: Followers must give support, Answer
acceptance, loyalty and cooperation to the leaders to Community leadership as a type of leadership could be
ensure the achievement of organisational goals. achieved through traditional titles, the oldest chief or the
8. Respect Constituted Authority: Followers must highest rank chief in the community, while in some
respect constituted authorities, (the leaders). Only community it could be through philanthropic engagements
then can they work together to achieve stated goals. and the number of interest shown to the community. It
9. People’s wellbeing: Followership places support and could also be through the ability the individual has to
hope on leadership for the attainment of goals that organize and supervise the community. (C)
touches on the people’s economic and social wellbeing.

Types of Leadership Styles of Leadership

The following are the types of leadership. 1. Autocratic leadership: Autocratic leadership is
1. Family leadership: This is decided by age, defined by a top-down approach when it comes to all
hereditary, etc., especially in an extended family, but decision making, procedures, and policies within an
in a nuclear family, the father is the head of the organization or government. An autocratic leader
family. focuses less on collecting input from team members
2. Community leadership: This could be achieved and tends to make executive decisions that others are
through traditional titles, the oldest chief or the expected to follow.
highest rank chief in the community, while in some
community it could be through philanthropic You may be an autocratic leader if you:
engagements and the number of interests shown to the (i) Have self-confidence.
community. It can also be through the ability the (ii) Are self-motivated.
individual has to organize and supervise communal (iii) Communicate clearly and consistently.
activities successfully. (iv) Follow the rules.
3. Charismatic leadership: This could be achieved (v) Are dependable.
through natural or divine gifts. The people will elect (vi) Value highly structured environments.
and want him to be their ruler because he is a (vii) Believe in supervised work environments.
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Pros You may be a bureaucratic leader if you:
(i) Can be efficient, especially when it comes to (i) Are detail-oriented and task-focused.
decision making. (ii) Value rules and structure.
(ii) Keep teams cohesive and consistent since one (iii) Have a great work ethic.
person is taking charge. (iv) Are strong-willed.
(iii) May make everyone’s individual roles clearer (v) Have a commitment to your organization.
since they’ll be delegated specific duties and (vi) Are self-disciplined.
won’t be encouraged to step outside of that
role. Pros
(i) Stable in terms of job security and outcomes.
Cons (ii) Removes favouritism from the equation.
(i) Can stifle creativity, collaboration and (iii) Very clear roles, responsibilities and
innovation. expectations.
(ii) Doesn’t lead to diversity in thought. (iv) A highly visible set of processes and
(iii) May lead to disengaged individuals and teams regulations.
who feel like they don’t have a voice.
(iv) Doesn’t allow any room for mentorship or Cons
professional growth. (i) Inefficient since everything has to go through
a chain of command.
2. Transactional leadership: Transactional leadership (ii) Doesn’t encourage an individual’s personal or
is defined by control, organization, and short term professional growth.
planning. Leaders who adopt this style rely on a system (iii) Stifles creativity, innovation, and free
of rewards and punishment to motivate their followers. thinking.
As you can see, there are many similarities between (iv) Doesn’t foster collaboration or relationship
transactional leadership and autocratic leadership. The building within teams.
main difference is that transactional leadership, as the (v) Can make it difficult to respond to change.
name implies, involves a clear exchange between the
leader and the team members. For instance, in 4. Charismatic leadership: Charismatic leadership is
exchange for compliance and high performance, an defined by a leader who uses their communication
employee might be rewarded with a promotion. skills, persuasiveness and charm to influence others.
Charismatic leader are visionaries who works by
You may be a transactional leader if you: infusing a high amount of energy and enthusiasm in his
(i) Value corporate structure team. Charismatic leaders, given their ability to
(ii) Micromanage connect with people on a deep level, are especially
(iii) Don’t question authority valuable within organizations that are facing a crisis or
(iv) Are practical and pragmatic are struggling to move forward. He sets a role model
(v) Value goal-hitting for his team and drives others to show a high level of
(vi) Are reactionary performance. This type of leader is committed to the
organization and believes more in him rather than his
Pros team. The presence of a charismatic leader’s works as
(i) Can be an efficient way to reach short term a boost for the rest of the employees and therefore such
goals. type of leader should be committed to the organization
(ii) Clearly defines expected behaviour from team for the long run.
members due to system of reward and
punishment. You may be a charismatic leader if you are:
(iii) Provides structure and stability. (i) Persistent and bold
(ii) Strategic
Cons (iii) Risk-taking
(i) Limits creativity, growth and initiative. (iv) Inspirational
(ii) May not be impactful on people who aren’t (v) Optimistic
driven by extrinsic motivation. (vi) Innovative
(iii) Can be discouraging for those who are looking (vii) Magnetic
for professional and personal development
opportunities. Pros
(i) Highly inspirational and motivating.
3. Bureaucratic leadership: Bureaucratic leadership (ii) Encourages a sense of camaraderie,
relies on a clear chain of command, strict regulations, collaboration and union.
and conformation by its followers. As the name (iii) Makes followers feel heard and understood.
implies, this is a leadership style that is commonly (iv) Creates movement toward positive change.
found in government entities, as well as military and
public organizations.

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Cons Pros
(i) Can become more focused on themselves than (i) Encourages two-way communication and
their people. collaboration.
(ii) Has the potential to become self-serving. (ii) Involves lots of constructive feedback.
(iii) Frequently viewed as shallow or (iii) Facilitates the personal and professional
disingenuous. development of individuals.
(iv) Focuses on being supportive, not judgmental.
5. Transformational Leadership: Transformational (v) Creates opportunities for growth and creative
leaders create a vision based on identified needs and thinking.
guide their teams toward that unified goal through
Cons
inspiration and motivation. The main difference
(i) Resource intensive since it requires a lot of time
between transformational leadership and the other
and energy.
styles we’ve covered so far is that this one is focused
(ii) Doesn’t always lead to the fastest, most efficient
on changing the systems and processes that aren’t
results.
working – unlike transactional leadership or
(iii) May not be the ideal choice for high-pressure or
bureaucratic leadership, which don’t aim to change the
strictly results-driven companies.
status quo.
7. Democratic Leadership: Democratic leadership,
which is also commonly known as participative
You may be a transformational leader if you: leadership, is about letting multiple people participate
(i) Have mutual respect with your team. in the decision-making process. This type of leadership
(ii) Provide encouragement. can be seen in a wide range of contexts, from
(iii) Inspires others to achieve their goals. businesses to schools to governments.
(iv) Think of the big picture.
(v) Places value on intellectually challenging your You may be a democratic/participative leader if you:
team. (i) Value group discussions.
(vi) Are creative. (ii) Provide all information to the team when
(vii) Have a good understanding of organizational making decisions.
needs. (iii) Promote a work environment where everyone
shares their ideas.
Pros (iv) Are rational.
(i) Motivating for the team (v) Are flexible.
(ii) Conducive to building strong relationships and (vi) Are good at mediation.
encouraging collaboration.
(iii) Gives team member’s autonomy to do their jobs. Pros
(iv) Can lead to more creativity, growth, and empathy on (i) Encourages collaboration
teams. (ii) Inclusive of a variety of opinions and ways of
thinking.
Cons (iii) Leads to higher group engagement and productivity.
(i) May not be the best fit for specific organizations (i.e. (iv) Can result in more creative solutions.
bureaucratic). (v) The outcome is supported by the majority.
(ii) Can cause feelings of instability while disrupting the
Cons
status quo.
(i) The minority opinion is overridden
(iii) Lots of pressure on the leader, who needs to lead by
(ii) The involvement of multiple people can lead to
example.
more
(iii) Communication gaps and confusion.
6. Coaching Leadership: Coaching leadership is a style
(iv) Can take a longer time to come to a decision
defined by collaboration, support, and guidance.
(v) An unskilled or untrained group can result in
Coaching leaders are focused on bringing out the best
more decision making.
in their teams by guiding them through goals and
obstacles. 8. Collaborative Leadership: Collaborative leadership
is focused on encouraging people to work together
You may be a coaching leader if you: across functional and organizational boundaries. The
(i) Are supportive. purpose of this leadership style is to encourage
(ii) Offer guidance instead of giving commands. collaboration with other teams and departments to
(iii) Value learning as a way of growing. accomplish shared goals.
(iv) Ask guided questions.
(v) Balance relaying knowledge and helping others Pros
find it themselves. (i) Can lead to more creative, innovative ways of
(vi) Are self-aware. thinking.
(ii) More opportunities for diversity.
(iii) Can strengthen cross-team relationships.
(iv) Builds trust within an organization.
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Cons Cons
(i) May lead to ambiguity in roles and responsibilities. (i) Can result in low productivity.
(ii) Can create cross-team conflict. (ii) Conflict amongst team members is common.
(iii) Potential power struggle between leaders. (iii) May lead to confusion about roles and
responsibilities.
9. Servant Leadership: Servant leadership puts the (iv) Won’t be effective with an unskilled or unmotivated
needs and wellbeing of followers first. In other words, team.
these types of leaders adopt a serve-first approach and
growth mindset to prioritize their organization, Others include:
employees, and community above themselves. 11. Supportive Leadership: Supportive Leadership
show concern for the needs of the employees, the
You may be a servant leader if you: leader is friendly and approachable. Supportive
(i) Motivate your team. Leadership would be more suitable for highly
(ii) Have excellent communication skills. structured tasks, under bureaucratic and formal
(iii) Personally care about your team. authority relationship. In supportive Leadership,
(iv) Encourage collaboration and engagement. leaders support their subordinates officially and
(v) Commit to growing your team professionally. sometimes personally also. A leader always tries to
fulfill their requirements; it boosts employees’ morale
Pros also
(i) Focuses on the development and growth of others.
(ii) Can lead to improved performance, innovation, and 12. Situational Leadership: The situational leadership
collaboration. style is based on the relationship between leaders and
(iii) Creates a safe environment where people aren’t afraid followers and provides a framework to analyse each
to fail. situation base on the performance readiness level that
(iv) Reduces turnover and disengagement. a follower exhibits in performing a specific task,
(v) Increases trust with leaders. function or objective. Then, based on the leader
diagnosis, the necessary amounts of relationship
Cons behaviour and task behaviour are applied and
(i) Servant leaders can become more easily burnt out. communicated to the follower in order to support their
(ii) Resource intensive. needs and advance development.
(iii) Difficult to train other leaders in the serve-first
mindset.
(iv) Can take longer to see results or reach goals. 13. Directive Leadership: Directive Leadership
(v) Has the potential to be perceived as ‘weak’. provides guidance about what should be done and
how to do it, scheduling work, and maintaining
10. Laissez-Faire Leadership: Laissez-faire leadership standards of performance. Thus, it may be inferred
takes a hands-off approach to leadership and gives others that directive leadership is effective as the
the freedom to make decisions. subordinators have an external locus of Control, lacks
While leaders still provide their teams with the resources experience, has a high need for clarity, or a low need
and tools they need to succeed, they remain largely for achievement. Also, when the task is unstructured,
uninvolved in the day-to-day work. This is a leadership or there is a conflict between workgroups, a more
style you will commonly find in creative settings, such as directive style would be useful.
advertising agencies or startups, due to its encouragement
of independent thinking.
14. Achievement Oriented Leadership: Achievement-
You may be a laissez-faire leader if you: oriented Leadership encourages employees to perform
(i) Effectively delegate. at their highest level by setting challenging goals,
(ii) Believe in freedom of choice. emphasizing excellence, and demonstrating
(iii) Provide sufficient resources and tools. confidence in employees’ abilities. Achievement
(iv) Will take control if needed. Oriented Leadership is largely suitable for
(v) Offer constructive criticism. unstructured tasks, where the subordinate need for
(vi) Foster leadership qualities in your team. achievement is high.
(vii) Promote an autonomous work
environment. 15. Paternalistic Leadership: This is a leadership style in
which a dominant, assertive figure acts as the
matriarch or patriarch and treats employees and
Pros partners as though they are members of a larger,
(i) Empowers individuals to practice their leadership extended family. In exchange, the leader expects
skills. loyalty and trust from employees, as well as obedience.
(ii) Can lead to increased creativity and innovation. It lays huge importance on the needs of the employees
(iii) Less fear of failure. of the organization. Professionals employing the
(iv) Encourages trust between team members and leader. paternalistic leadership style are concerned about their
(v) Instill a sense of independence. workers best interest.
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The paternalistic management style involves leaders 5. A leadership style that is based on fatherly
making unilateral decisions. They inform employees benevolence is called
that the decision making are acting from a position of A. democratic B. laissez faire C. paternalistic
competence and legitimacy. Employees are expected D. pseudo
to have faith in their leaders’ calls and not question Answer
them. Paternalistic leadership is a type of leadership acts
like a father leader. (C)
16. Pseudo – Democratic Leadership: This is a 6. A leadership where the opinion of the people are
leadership style that identifies itself as democratic in sought but never utilized is called
nature but in reality, offers no real choice for the A. people’s style B. visionary style
followers. In government scenarios, limitation in C. pseudo democratic style D. situational style
choices comes from a limited amount of diverse parties Answer
who are considered eligible for a vote and specific Correct option is C. Pseudo – democratic or
power structures that are in reality, not affected by any manipulative leadership is based on deceit and
vote. It is a leadership style based on deceit, pretense pretense. The opinions of the members are sought but
and manipulation. never utilized.
7. The style of leadership is based on the kind of
17. People–Oriented leadership: This leadership style is situation that arises is called
also called relations–oriented leadership, it is the A. situation leader B. manipulative leader
opposite of task–oriented leadership, the leader is C. autocratic leader D. participative leader
totally focused on organizing, supporting and Answer
developing the people in the leaders’ team. A Correct option is A. Situational leader is a leadership
participative style, it is in practice, most leaders use style where situation that arises determines the
both task – oriented and people – oriented styles of leadership role.
leadership. 8. State the types of leadership styles.
Answer
Author’s Question I. Democratic leadership.
1. The leadership style that is democratic is also known as II. Autocratic leadership.
_____ leadership style. III. Laissez – faire leadership.
A. situational B. conceptual C. participative
IV. Transformation – visionary leadership.
D. demonstrative
V. Bureaucratic leadership.
Answer
Democratic leader style is also known as participative
VI. Paternalistic leadership.
leadership style. If is the type of leadership that is open VII. Pseudo-democratic leadership.
and demonstrates respect for every person, groups in the VIII. Situational leadership.
society. Elected governments are based on democratic 9. Define bureaucratic leadership.
leadership. The opinions of people are considered in Answer
decision making. (C) Bureaucratic leadership is a style which is strictly
2. Autocratic leadership is also known as based on rules and regulations and is incumbent on
A. obedient leadership B. discipline leadership the followers to adhere to such rules and regulations.
C. democratic leadership D. authoritarian leadership As the name implies, this is a leadership style is
Answer commonly found in government entities, as well as
Autocratic leadership style is also known as military and public organizations.
authoritarian style. The leadership decisions are 10. Explain people-oriented leadership.
exclusively made by the leader, who is an autocrat, he Answer
believed that human beings are weak, unwilling to work, People-oriented leadership style is also called
incapable of making and taking decisions, has limited relations–oriented leadership, it is the opposite of
reasoning, etc. (D) task–oriented leadership, the leader is totally focused
3. A dictatorship leader is a type of leadership style under on organizing, supporting and developing the people
A. democratic B. autocratic C. laissez – faire in the leader’s team.
D. transformation – visionary
Answer
Autocratic leadership is also known as dictatorship style
which does not give room for followers to make choice.
(B)
4. When a leader is invited to encourage employees and
create leadership attributes in them is called
A. bureaucratic leadership B. situational leadership
C. transformation – visionary leadership
D. pseudo – democratic leadership
Answer
Transformation–visionary leadership is a leadership that is
invited to encourage employee and motivate them to work
to create leadership attributes in them. (C)

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REVISION EXERCISES
1. A visionary leader is a person, who has a clear idea of
how the future should look is a
A. people – oriented leader B. transformation
leader C. pseudo – democratic leader
D. manipulative leader
2. A leadership with the leader expects loyalty and trust
from employee is called
A. situational B. pseudo-democratic C. people –
oriented D. paternalistic
3. A leadership where the opinion of the people are
sought but never utilized is called
A. people’s style B. visionary style C. pseudo –
democratic style D. situational style
4. The leadership that is open and demonstrate respect
for every person, groups in the society is called
A. family leadership B. traditional leadership
C. democratic leadership D. laissez – faire
leadership
5. Which leadership style emphasize collaboration and
the free flow of ideas
A. participative B. autocratic C. people oriented
D. paternalistic
6. When a leader made exclusive decisions without
carrying along the members is known as
A. autocratic leader B. democratic leader
C. people oriented leader D. situational leader
7. A leader that consider that human beings must be
direct, motivated, pushed and forced to work is a
A. pseudo-democratic or manipulative leader
B. paternalistic leader C. authoritarian leader
D. bureaucratic leader
8. Delegative leadership style is also known as
A. laissez – faire B. transformation –visionary
C. people – oriented D. pseudo democratic
9. A leadership style which leaders are hand-off is called
A. situational style B. laissez – faire style
C. democratic style D. paternalistic style
10. A leadership style where the leader have no authority
and members appear to have equal status is called
A. conditional B. confronting C. laissez-faire
D. bureaucratic
11. Which leadership style breeds confusion, anarchy,
breakdown of law and order in the community?
A. people – oriented B. paternalistic C. pseudo-
democratic D. Laissez-faire

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Fundamental Principles of Realism
Chapter Forty Nine 1. The world is synonymous with nature and the
understanding of it is by the use of our senses and
experience.
CLASSICAL POLITICAL THOUGHTS
2. Everything works in conformity with the laws of nature.
Political thought, or political philosophy, studies questions
3. There is a harmonious relationship between the body
about power, justice, rights, law, and other issues related to
and mind. They are of equal importance and inseparable.
governance. While some believe these concept are static. 4. Realism permits the individual to determine his beliefs
Political thoughts asks how they originated and to what effect.
based on his experience of the world.
5. The use of scientific experiments helps us to unfold and
Basic Concept of Idealism interpret the truth.
Idealism is the metaphysical view that associates reality to
ideas in the mind rather than to material objects. It lays
Author’s Question
emphasis on the mental or spiritual components of experience
Explain the concept of realism.
and renounces the notion of material existence. Besides the
Answer
physical or material universe, there is also a spiritual universe
Realism is concerned with facts or reality and rejection of the
which is permeated by the universal mind of God. He is the
impractical and visionary. Realism is a doctrine that universe
creator and others are the created. Human mind is a part of exist outside the mind. It is a theory that objects of sense of
the universal mind and is dependent of Him. God or the
perception or cognition exist independently of the mind.
universal mind is the source of all human values and the goal
of all human activities is the realization of this universal mind Highlight five basic concepts of realism.
is one’s own self.
Answer
1. The world is synonymous with nature and the
Fundamental Principles of Idealism understanding of it is by the use of our senses and
1. Idealism believes in the Universal mind.
experience.
2. Idealism regards man as a spiritual being. 2. Everything works in conformity with the laws of nature.
3. The world of ideas and values is more important than
3. There is a harmonious relationship between the body
the world of matter.
and mind. They are of equal importance and inseparable.
4. Real knowledge is perceived in mind.
4. Realism permits the individual to determine his beliefs
5. Stress on the principle of unity of diversity.
based on his experience of the world.
6. Importance of personality development. 5. The use of scientific experiments helps us to discover
and interpret the truth.
Author’s Question
1. The metaphysical view that associates reality to ideas in
the mind rather than to material objects is
ARISTOTLE (384-322B.C)
A. idealism B. realism C. conceptism
Aristotle was a towering figure in ancient Greek philosophy,
D. ideology
he made important contributions to logic, criticism, rhetoric,
Answer
physics, biology, psychology, mathematics, metaphysics,
Idealism is the metaphysical view that associates reality
ethics and politics.
to ideas in the mind rather than to material objects. (A)
2. Idealism lays its emphasis on the _____ and _____
He was an exponent of realism and regarded education as a
components of experience
fundamental part of politics. He was a pupil of Plato who was
A. creation and recreation
an advocate of ideas rather than specific things which his
B. motivation or material and activities
student (Aristotle) focused on. Aristotle claimed that three
C. mental or spiritual and renounces
issues are involved in education.
D. physical and spiritual
1. Nature.
Answer
2. Habit.
Idealism lays its emphasis on the mental or spiritual and
3. Reason.
renounces components experiences. (C)
Like other realists, he saw God as the prime mover of all
Basic Concepts of Realism
things. He advocated for two types of education
Realism is derived from the Greek word “RES” which means
1. Liberal education: This is a system of education
real which further is related to object. Realism means a belief
suitable for the cultivation of a free and unrestricted
or theory which looks upon the world as it seems to be a mere
human being. It is a philosophy of education that
phenomenon. It asserts that there is a real world of things
empowers men with core knowledge and transferable
behind and corresponding to the objects of our perception.
skills, and a strong sense of ethics, values, and civic
Thus, realism is an outlook about the existence of an object
engagement.
according to which the objects of the world are real, that is,
they are like they appear to us. 2. Practical education: This type of education according
Realism is an angle of vision according to which, what we see to Aristotle was for the slaves i.e. those not free. He
and perceive are realities. Realist believe that knowledge argued that slaves are occupied with a kind of trade that
acquired by senses is true. Hence, whatever we perceive by destroys the body and disturbs the mind, thereby making
our senses is real nature and the true entity of the world. them incapable of pursing wisdom or vision.

616
To Aristotle, his thought on politics was that man is by PLATO (428-347 BC)
nature a political animal and this means that. Plato was a philosopher during the 5th century BC. He was a
1. The social instinct is implanted in all men by nature. student of Socrates and later taught Aristotle. He wrote many
2. Man can attain his full stature only through the philosophical text, at least 25. He tried to describe an ideal
enablement of the state. state as one that embodies justice and dedicated his life to
3. The state which originated for the sake of life learning and teaching, he is hailed as one of the founders of
continues ‘for the sake of the best life’. Western philosophy. He founded a philosophical school
named the “Academy”
He considered political science as the master science,
studied human being in a political society suggesting that In Plato’s work, ‘The Republic’, there is a systematic
questioning of being, as the Republic itself is an attempt to
human being can lead an eloquent life as a member of state.
answer a problem in human behaviour: justice. To deal with
He describe politics as a practical science because it deals
the problem of justice, Plato considers the ideal polis (state),
with making citizens happy. a collective unit of self-government, and the relationship
between the structure of the Republic and the attainment of
Aristotle’s political studies combined observation and justice. Plato argues that kings should become philosophers
theory. He and his students documented the constitution of or philosophers’ should become kings, thereby becoming the
158 states – one of which, The Constitution of Athens, has rulers as they possess a special level of intellectual capacity
survived on papyrus. The aim of the politics, Aristotle (education) which is required to rule the republic
says, is to investigate, on the basis of the constitutions successfully.
collected what makes for good government and what
makes for bad government and to identify the factors Plato’s ideal state was a republic with three categories of
favourable or unfavourable to the preservation of a citizens: artisans, auxiliaries, and philosopher – kings, each of
constitution. whom possessed distinct natures and capacities. In Plato’s
view, these rulers were not merely elite intellectuals, but
Author’s Questions moral leaders.
1. Aristotle was in existence between
A. 384–322B.C B. 322–382AD C. 389–321BC Plato’s ideas can be summarized in these seven ways.
D. 381–392BC 1. He formulated a theoretical design for a perfect state.
Answer 2. The state should pursue justice to its conclusive end.
Aristotle existed between (384–322BC) was a Greek 3. In his Republic, he advocated that an intellectual elite or
philosopher, polymath during the classic period in a philosopher king should govern rather than the
military caste.
Ancient Greece. He was the founder of the Lyceum,
4. Only men with special level of intellectual capacity
the Peripatetic school of philosophy, and the
should govern the state.
Aristotelian tradition. (A) 5. He maintained that all men should contribute to the
2. Aristotle was an exponent of general welfare of the state according to their abilities.
A. nature and culture B. idealism and realism 6. As an idealist, he believed that ideas are buried in the
C. realism and education D. reasons and education mind and not developed.
Answer 7. He also pointed out that to live in a society is to live
He was an exponent of realism and regarded within the context of discipline, and discipline of course
education as a fundamental part of politics. (C) means curtailment of some of our desires and interests.
3. Aristotle claimed that three issues are involved in
education. Author’s Questions
A. learning, teaching and understanding 1. Plato was a student of
B. knowledge, nature and retentive memory A. Socrates B. haven C. Toronto D. Canada
C. nature, habit and reason Answer
D. conclusive atmosphere, learning and understanding Plato was a student of Socrates. (A)
Answer 2. Plato was an ancient Greek.
Aristotle claimed that three major issues are involved A. Doctor B. Traditionalist C. Political Philosopher
in education, nature, habit and reason. (C) D. Anatomy
4. Aristotle focused on Answer
A. general things B. specific things Plato was an ancient Greek political philosopher and
C. claimed things D. matter things a conservative. (C)
Answer 3. Plato in his book “The Republic” believes that
Aristotle was focused on specific things while Plato A. education was the bedrock of deciding a ruler in a
was an advocate of ideas. (B) state
5. Aristotle saw God as the B. wealth as the bedrock of deciding a ruler in a state
A. prime mover of all things B. doer of all things C. charismatic as the bedrock of deciding a ruler in a
C. maker of all things D. creator of all things state
Answer D. influence as the bedrock of deciding a ruler
Aristotle saw God as the prime mover of all things. (A) Answer
Plato in his book “The Republic” believes that education
was the bedrock of deciding a ruler in a state. (A)

617
4. Plato believes that justice must be the foundation of a The following are the central ideas of Locke’s theory:
A. school B. hospital C. academy D. state 1. That government is rested on the consent of the
Answer governed and it is valuable and democratic.
Plato believes that justice must be the foundation of a 2. Government should hold power on condition.
state. So that the goals of the state can be achieved. (D) 3. Locke further maintained that if the action of the
5. Plato founded a philosophical school named government is not in consonance with the interests of
A. school B. institute C. academy the community, a change of government is inevitable
D. learning centre and this should be effected without destroying the
Answer continuity of the civil society.
Plato founded a philosophical school named the
Academy. (C) NB: Locke’s theory is a result of a democratic or
constitutional government. It gave the theory of consent, a
JOHN LOCKE (1632-1704) permanent place in English politics.
John Locke was an English philosopher physician and
political theorist, widely regarded as one of the most
influential of enlightenment thinkers and commonly Author’s Questions
known as the “father of liberalism”, as he was the first 1. Who justified the English revolution of 1688?
systematic exposition and defense of political liberalism. A. Plato B. Aristotle C. Locke D. Rousseau
In his writings, Locke justified the English revolution of Answer
1688, where James the II was deposed from the throne. Locke justified the English revolution of 1688, when
James the II was deposed from the throne. (C)
State of Nature 2. State the three Locke’s arguments.
To Locke, man has three natural rights, these arguments a. That the law of nature of the law of reason
are as follows: commands that no one shall impair the life, the
1. Life: That the law of nature or the law of reason health, freedom or the possession of another.
commands that no one shall impair the life, the health, b. That man should be free and equal in all respect.
freedom or the possessions of another. c. That this freedom as stipulated is not licensed.
2. Liberty: That man should be free and equal in all 3. Describe three central ideals of Locke’s theory.
respect. That this freedom as stipulated is not a. That government is rested on the consent of the
licensed. governed and it is valuable and democratic.
3. Property: He uses the concept of property in both b. Government should hold power on condition.
broad and narrow terms: broadly, it covers a wide c. Locke further maintained that if the action of the
range of human interests and aspirations; more government is not in consonance with the
particularly, it refers to material goods. He argues that interests of the community, a change of
property is a natural right that is derived from labour. government is inevitable and this should be
effected without destroying the continuity of the
There is however, no common superior to enforce the law civil society.
of reason; each individual is mandated to work out his own
interpretation. The result is that while the state of nature is JEAN–JACQUES ROUSSEAU (1712-1778)
not a state of war (Hobbe’s view), it is still full of fear and He was a Swiss – born philosopher, writer, and political
insecurity affecting man’s enjoyment of rights and theorist whose treatise and novels inspired the leaders of
freedom. The state of nature is full of too many the French revolutions and the romantic generations.
inconveniences and so the state or the political society is in Rousseau was the least academic of modern philosophers
place to avert a state of war. and in many ways the most influential. His thoughts
marked the end of the European enlightenment (the “Age
For example, there should be: of Reason”). He propelled political and ethical thinking
1. A law with a common consent that will state the into new channels. He had a profound impact on people’s
standard of right and wrong and with the capacity of way of life, he taught parents to take new interest in their
deciding all controversial issues. children and to educate them differently; he furthered the
2. A known judge with authority to decide issues expression of emotions rather than polite restraint in
according to the established law. friendship and love. He introduced the cult of religious
3. A body with state power to give issues that have been sentiment among the people who discarded religious
decided the right executive. dogma. He opened people’s eyes to the beauties of nature,
and he made liberty an object of almost universal
According to Locke, the state is created through a contract, aspiration.
purporting every citizen to agree with every others to give
up to the community, the natural right of enforcing the law Rousseau social contract theory:
of reason. This will enhance a proper preservation of life, The “social contract” theory of Rousseau is important in
liberty and property. two important aspects.
1. It was an inspiration to the French Revolution of
Locke believed that powers should be given to the 1789, which brought about a revolt against the
community and not to the government. despotic monarch.
2. It was the basis of the theory of popular sovereignty.
618
According to Rousseau, man is essentially good and Author’s Questions
sympathetic. The state of nature is a period of happiness, 1. Explain the Rousseau (1712-78) social contract.
men being free and equal. It should be noted that with the Answer
introduction of private property and the growth in The ‘social contract’ theory of Rousseau is important in
numbers, quarrels arose and man is compelled to give up two important aspects.
his natural freedom. a. It was an inspiration to the French Resolution of
1989, which brought about revolt against the
The problem of man was therefore traceable to how he despotic monarch.
could find a form of association, which protects, with the b. It was the basis of the theory of the popular
whole common force, the person and property of each sovereignty.
2. State the agreement of men on social by Rousseau with
associate. This problem is however solved through a
Hobbes.
contract and the creation of civil society. In this contract
Answer
theory of Rousseau, everyone surrenders to the community a. That the state is the result of a contract entered into
all his rights, making the community sovereign. The by men who originally lived in a state of nature.
sovereignty of the community, according to Rousseau is b. That there was only a single contract and that the
absolute. government was not a party to it.
c. Those individuals surrendered their rights after the
There should be no limit to the sovereignty of the contract and that these rights have to be exercised
community, for the sovereign body being formed only of according to the law.
the individuals who constitute it can have no interest d. That sovereignty should be absolute. However,
contrary to theirs. On the other hand, the will of the Rousseau did not subscribe to the idea of Hobbes
individual may well be in conflict with the general will of that government is absolute; instead, he maintained
the community which constitutes the sovereign. that government should be dependent upon the
people, as postulated by Locke. Rousseau agreed
Therefore, the need for social contract is informed by the that the individual surrenders his rights to the
agreement that anyone refusing to comply to the general community and not to the ruler.
will shall be forced to do so by the whole body politics.
This is in conformity to the general will in guaranteeing to
every individual’s freedom from dependence on any other THOMAS HOBBES (1588-1679)
person or persons. He was an English philosopher, scientist, and historian,
best known for his political philosophy, especially as
Rousseau’s social contract got a remarkable influence from articulated in his masterpiece “Leviathan” (1651). Hobbes
that of Hobbes. For example, both men agreed on the argued that natural inequalities between humans are not so
following: great as to give anyone clear superiority, and thus all must
1. That the state is the result of a contract entered into live in constant fear of loss or violence; so that “during the
by men who originally lived in a state of nature. time men live without a common power to keep them all
2. That there was only a single contract and that the in awe, they are in that condition which is called war; and
government was not a party to it. such a war is of every man against every man”. In this state,
3. Those individuals surrendered their rights after the every person has a natural right to do anything one thinks
contract and that these rights have to be exercised necessary for preserving one’s own life, and life is
according to the law. “solitary, poor, nasty, brutish, and short”.
4. That sovereignty should be absolute. However, He described this natural conditions as “war of all against
Rousseau did not subscribe to the idea of Hobbes that all”.
government is absolute, instead, he maintained that A concise analysis by Hobbes on human nature is as
government should be dependent upon the people, as follows
postulated by Locke. Rousseau, agreed that the I. He saw man as essentially selfish and his actions are
individual surrenders his rights to the community and determined by his appetites, passions and desires.
to the ruler. II. That the state of nature is a state of struggle of all
against all, competition, love of glory, etc., and that
The importance of Rousseau in political thought could be law and justice are absent.
seen as follows: III. The life of man is solitary, poor, nasty, brutish and
1. His theory served as the basis for democracy. short.
2. Rousseau’s social contract theory is a justification of
revolutions against arbitrary rule and forces of In addition, Hobbes was of the view that some laws are
retrogression. observed in a primitive state. For example,
3. Rousseau further demonstrated that will and not force 1. Man has the liberty to preserve his own life.
should form the basis of the state, and that 2. Laws are meant to restore peace.
government depends on the consent of the governed. 3. That any law attempting to put aside the right man has
4. That the sovereign community was the only to all things if accepted and retained is capable of
constitutional law maker and has indirect effect of hindering the peace of man.
stimulating direct legislation through referendum and 4. The only antidote to peace is for men to give up so
the initiative. much of their natural rights and that a supreme
coercive power is instituted.
619
According to Hobbes, the state of nature exists at all times Author’s Questions
among independent countries, over whom there is no law 1. Thomas Hobbes lived between
(nor injustice) except for those natural precepts discovered A. 1441 – 1459 B. 1588 – 1679 C. 1666 – 1759
by reasons (“laws of nature”). His views on the state of D. 1902 – 1999
nature has helped to serve as basis for theories of Answer
international law and relations and even some theories Thomas Hobbes lived between 1588-1679. (B)
about domestic relations. 2. Thomas Hobbes was an
A. Englishman B. Spanish man C. Frenchman
A concise analysis on the state of nature by Hobbes is as D. Hausa man
follows Answer
1. The government is sovereign and such power of the Thomas Hobbes was an Englishman. (A)
sovereign should be absolute for the following reasons: 3. Thomas Hobbes began political investigating or
a. No condition is attached to the power of the inquiry in
sovereign, since the sovereign is the result of the A. the Corinthian 1551 B. the Ethiopia 1903
past, not a party to it. C. the Leviathan 1651 D. the Nigeria 1668
b. Men ought to surrender all their rights to the Answer
sovereign. Thomas Hobbes began his political investigation in
c. The will of everybody is embodied in the sovereign; the Leviathan 1651 with an analysis of human nature.
his actions are people’s actions. (C)
d. Man is anti-social and too consistent to be checked
4. State the results of the analysis of Thomas Hobbes on
except by absolute authority. For the peace and
human nature.
defence of his subject, the sovereign should be a
judge of what is real and capable of promoting a a. Hobbes saw man as essentially selfish and his
good life for the people. The sovereign has the right actions are determined by his appetites, passions
of making rules which are to guide the subjects in and desires.
knowing what property they are entitled to. b. That the state of nature is a state of struggle of all
against all, competition, love of glory, etc. and
He has the right of making war and peace, choosing that law and justice are absent.
capable hands as counselors also should have the c. The life of man is solitary, poor, nasty, brutish
power of judicature. However, it should be noted and short.
here that the sovereign articulated so far need not be
one individual; sovereignty is equally located in an CICERO (106-43 BC)
Assembly. Hobbes preferred monarch with the belief Cicero was a man of two worlds, that of Rome and Greece.
that it has greater consistency in policy formulation. He was a Roman statesman, lawyer, scholar, philosopher
and academic skeptic, who tried to uphold strong
2. Law in general should be a command. It should be to principles during the political crises that led to the
every subject. Those rules which the community has establishment of the Roman Empire. His extensive
commanded by word, writing, etc. as they determine the writings include treatises on rhetoric, philosophy and
distinction of right and wrong. politics, and he is considered one of Rome’s greatest
orators and prose stylists.
3. The liberty of the subjects consist of:
a. Those rights as permitted by the sovereign.
Contributions
b. Those rights that cannot be surrendered according
1. In the Roman senate, he was the major spokesman of
to nature. Nobody can compel the subject to take his
life, denying him access to food or medicine, etc.
the conservative faction.
c. The power of the sovereign to protect his subject. 2. His writing especially on the preparation of the orator
Therefore, the issue in question is that Hobbes greatly influenced western educational history.
based an absolute state on ‘free’ contract and 3. He studied Greek grammar and literature as well as
consent and the psychological basis of his theory is Latin literacy and History.
fear. Some schools of thought have criticized 4. He believed that oratory was practical for winning
Hobbes from different points of view. One is that debates in the Roman forum.
the theory of social contract is unrealistic, 5. His work on ‘De Oratore’ presented a summary of
unhistorical and this is because primitive societies both Roman Republic and the Greek conception of
reacted on status, not on contract. the educated man.
6. Cicero recommended that the Orator should acquire
Again, his assessment and view of human nature as general knowledge of ethics, science, psychology,
essentially selfish cannot be maintained or military, medicine, natural science, geography and
substantiated. Similarly, the principle involved in astronomy. He stated that history, law and philosophy
absolute sovereignty is wrong. An all-powerful were seen as the most important. He claimed that
sovereign may likely apply arbitrary rules in the history was to provide the student with the memory
administration of the state and the subjects must be of the past deeds of Roman greatness.
prepared to submit to such harsh and tyrannical
rules.

620
His works rank among the most influential in European Author’s Questions
culture, and today still constitute one of the most important 1. Thomas Aquinas was an
bodies of primary material for the writing and revision of A. Englishman B. Portuguese C. Italian
Roman history, especially the last days of the Roman D. Frenchman
Republic. Answer
Thomas Aquinas was an Italian churchman. (c)
Author’s Questions 2. Thomas Aquinas agreed with whom in his idea of God
1. Cicero lived between as a prime mover.
A. 106 – 43 B.C B. 101 – 41 BC C. 100-46 BC A. John Locke B. Aristotle C. Bentham
D. 105-40 BC D. J. S. Mill
Answer Answer
Cicero lived between 106-43 B.C. (A) Thomas Aquinas agreed with Aristotle in his idea of
2. Cicero was a great God as a Prime Mover. (b)
A. Frenchman B. Roman Orator C. Englishman 3. Who believed that God created matter, people,
environment and surroundings?
D. Nigerian
A. Aristotle B. Immanuel C. Locke D. Thomas
Answer
Answer
Cicero was a great Roman Orator. (B) Thomas Aquinas believed that God created matter,
3. Who was the man that had two worlds? people, environment and surroundings. (D)
A. Jeremy Betham B. J. S. Mill C. Cicero
D. John Hooke IMMANUEL KANT (1724-1804)
Answer Immanuel Kant was a German philosopher whose
Cicero was a man that had two worlds that of Rome comprehensive and systematic work in epistemology (the
and Greece. (C) theory of knowledge), ethics, and aesthetics greatly
influenced all subsequent philosophy, especially the various
THOMAS AQUINAS (1225-1274) schools of Kantianism and idealism.
The Italian Dominican theologian Saint Thomas Aquinas was Kant was one of the foremost thinkers of the ‘Enlightenment’
one of the most influential medieval thinkers of scholasticism and arguably one of the greatest philosophers of all time. In
and the father of the “Thomistic School of Theology”. him were subsumed new trends that had begun with
Combining the theological principles of faith with the rationalism (stressing reason) of Rene Descartes and the
philosophical principles of reason, Saint Thomas Aquinas empiricism (stressing experience) of Francis Bacon. He thus
who was an authority of the Roman Catholic Church and a inaugurated a new era in the development of philosophical
prolific writer ranked among the most influential thinkers of thought.
medieval Scholasticism.
In his doctrine of transcendental idealism, Kant argued that
He agreed with Aristotle in his idea of God as a prime mover. space and time are mere “forms of intuition” which structure
He taught that God created matter; people’s environment and all experience, they are nonetheless distinct from objects of
surroundings, and he believed in the reality of it. All this he experience. From this, it follows that the objects of experience
believed can be proven in five ways mainly by: are mere “appearance”, and that the nature of things as they
1. Observing movement in the world as proof of God, the are in themselves is consequently unknowable to us. One of
“immovable Mover”. his best known works is the “Critique of Pure Reason”.
2. Observing cause and effect and identifying God as the His basic ideas are the following:
cause of everything. 1. That every individual has a unified point of view and
3. The conclusion that the impermanent nature of beings observes the world from his own personal beliefs.
proves the existence of a necessary being, God, who 2. Has a very strong belief in ethics especially as it
originates only from within himself concerns universal laws and the soul’s immortality.
4. Noticing varying levels of human perfection and 3. He agreed with Rousseau and Locke that the law maker
determining that a supreme, perfect being must therefore or the legislator is under obligation to see that laws made
exist. are as if they were the outcome of a social contract.
5. Knowing that natural beings could not have intelligence 4. The civil society rests on the consent of the ruled and
without it being granted to them it by God not the ruler, making such claim an important factor in
the development of modern democracy.
Summary of Aquinas views are:
Thomas believed that the law of the state were, in fact, a Author’s Questions
natural product of human nature, and were crucial to social 1. In Immanuel philosophical write up, Kant combined
welfare. By abiding by social laws of the state, people could some aspects of
earn eternal salvation of their souls in the afterlife, he A. medicine and biology B. idealism and realism
purported. Saint Thomas Aquinas identified three types of C. culture and ethnic D. process and procedure
laws: natural, positive and eternal. According to his treatise, Answer
natural law prompts man to act in accordance with achieving In Immanuel Kant philosophical write up, Kant
his goals and governs man sense of right and wrong; positive combined some aspects of idealism and realism. (B)
law is the law of the state, or government, and should always 2. Immanuel Kant lived between
be a manifestation of the natural law; and eternal law, in the A. 1924-1804 B. 1902 – 1992
case of rational beings, depends on reason and is put into C. 1806 – 1873 D. 1842 – 1894
action through free will, which also works toward the Answer
accomplishment of man’s spiritual goals. Immanuel Kant lived between 1724-1804. (A)
621
KARL MARX (1818-1883) empiricists such as John Locke and David Hume, Bentham
Karl Marx a Prussian (present–day Germany) political developed an ethical theory grounded in a largely
economist, journalist, and activist, and author of the empiricist account of human nature. He famously held a
seminal works, “The communist Manifesto” and “Das hedonistic account of both motivation and value according
Kapital”, influenced many generation of political leaders to which what is fundamentally valuable and what
and socioeconomic thinkers. Also known as the father of ultimately motivates us is pleasure and pain.
Communism, Marx’s ideas gave rise to furious bloody The “principle of utility” tends to see good in whatever
revolutions, ushered in the toppling of centuries–old promotes happiness and evil as that which promote
government and serve as the foundation for political unhappiness. By happiness, it means pleasure and the
systems that still rule over more than twenty percent of the absence of pain and by unhappiness it means pain and the
world’s population. deprivation of pleasure. Thus, happiness, according to
Bentham, is a matter of experiencing pleasure and lack of
Summary of Marx’s views are: pain.
1. Thus, in Marxist classless society which he
envisioned, he hoped to see the state wither away and Although he never practiced law, Bentham did write a
in its place will arise a classless society where great deal of philosophy of law, spending most of his life
everybody would benefit from the equitable critiquing the existing law and strongly advocating legal
distribution of national resources. reform. Throughout his work, he critiques various natural
2. But between the socialist and the communist states, the accounts of law which claim, for example, that liberty,
state cannot but intervene to manage the affairs of men rights, and so on exist independent of government. In this
on behalf of all meaning that a dictatorial government is way, Bentham arguably developed an early form of what
inevitable at least at the transitional stage. is now often called “legal positivism”. Beyond such
3. In practice, socialism has conferred a greater role on critique, he ultimately maintained that putting his moral
the state and the state has become more and more like theory into consistent practice would yield results in legal
the Republic of Plato with its paternalistic role theory by providing justification for social, political and
(fatherly role). legal institutions.
4. With the Marxist ideological conception of the estate,
there are consequences for the perception of Bentham’s influence was minor during his life. But his
limitation to individual freedom. impact was greater in later years as his ideas were carried
5. The state has acquired increasing ability to interfere on by followers such as John Stuart Mill, John Austin, and
in the private life of people and consequently has other consequential.
reduced the freedom of individuals.

Author’s Questions J. S. MILL (1806-1873)

1. Whose conception of the state is that of an institution John Stuart Mill was a leading figure in nineteenth – century
which is used by the ruling class to protect their intellectual life. He contributed to the fields of logic,
interests? economics, ethics, social and political philosophy. Today, he
A. John Locke B. Jeremy Bentham C. Karl Marx is best known for his related defenses of utilitarianism and
D. J. S. Mill liberalism. He accepted the utility principle (utilitarianism) as
Answer the standard of morality but found it necessary to modify the
Karl Marx conception of the state is that of an utilitarianism of Bentham so as to make it a more acceptable
institution which is used by the ruling class to protect theory of ethics.
their interest. (C)
The utilitarian doctrine is, that happiness is desirable, and the
2. Enumerate any four concepts of Karl Marx.
only thing desirable, as an end; all other things being only
Answer
desirable as means to that end – John Stuart Mill,
a. Classless society which he envisioned with equal Utilitarianism (1863). The canonical statement of Mill's
benefit of national resources. utilitarianism can be found in his book, Utilitarianism.
b. A dictatorial government is inevitable at least at Although this philosophy has a long tradition, Mill's account
the transitional stage. is primarily influenced by Jeremy Bentham and Mill's father
c. Socialism has conferred a greater role on the state. James Mill.
d. There are consequences for the perception of
limitation to individual freedom. John Stuart Mill believed in the philosophy of utilitarianism,
e. Reduction of the freedom of individuals. which he would describe as the principle that holds "that
actions are right in the proportion as they tend to promote
JEREMY BETHAM (1748–1832) happiness, wrong as they tend to produce the reverse of
Jeremy Bentham was an English philosopher and political happiness". By happiness he means, "intended pleasure, and
radical. He is primarily known today for his moral the absence of pain; by unhappiness, pain, and the privation
philosophy, especially his principle of utilitarianism, (he is of pleasure". It is clear that we do not all value virtues as a
usually referred to as the “father of utilitarianism”) which path to happiness and that we sometimes only value them for
evaluates actions based upon their consequences. selfish reasons. However, Mill asserts that upon reflection,
The relevant consequences, in particular, are the overall even when we value virtues for selfish reasons we are in fact
happiness created for everyone affected by the action. cherishing them as a part of our happiness.
Influenced by many enlightenment thinkers, especially
622
Bentham's famous formulation of utilitarianism is known rightfully exercised over any member of a civilized
as the greatest-happiness principle. It holds that one must community, against his will, is to prevent harm to others.
always act so as to produce the greatest aggregate He excuses those who are "incapable of self-government"
happiness among all sentient beings, within reason. In a from this principle, such as young children or those living
similar vein, Mill's method of determining the best utility in "backward states of society". More controversially, he
is that of a moral agent, when given the choice between also argues that the state may legitimately regulate
two or more actions, one ought to choose the action that marriage and child-bearing.
contributes most to (maximize) the total happiness in the
world. Happiness, in this context, is understood as the
production of pleasure or privation of pain. Given that This view on liberty was influenced by Joseph Priestley
determining the action that produces the most utility is not and Josiah Warren. Which says that individuals ought to
always so clear cut, Mill suggests that the utilitarian moral be free to do as they wished unless they caused harm to
agent, when attempting to rank the utility of different others. Individuals are rational enough to make decisions
actions, should refer to the general experience of persons. about their well-being. Government should interfere when
That is, if people generally experience more happiness it is for the protection of society.
following action X than they do action Y, the utilitarian
should conclude that action X produces more utility than The sole end for which mankind are warranted,
action Y, and so is to be preferred. individually or collectively, in interfering with the liberty
of action of any of their number, is self-protection. That’s
Utilitarianism is a consequentialist ethical theory, the only purpose for which power can be rightfully
meaning that it holds that acts are justified insofar as they exercised over any member of a civilized community,
produce a desirable outcome. The overarching goal of against his will, is to prevent harm to others. His own
utilitarianism—the ideal consequence—is to achieve the good, either physical or moral, is not sufficient warrant.
"greatest good for the greatest number as the end result of He cannot rightfully be compelled to do or forbear because
human action. In Utilitarianism, Mill states that it will be better for him to do so, because it will make him
"happiness is the sole end of human action". This happier, hence, in the opinion of others, to do so would be
statement aroused some controversy, which is why Mill wise, or even right.… The only part of the conduct of
took it a step further, explaining how the very nature of anyone, for which he is amenable to society, is that which
humans wanting happiness, and who "take it to be concerns others. In the part which merely concerns him,
reasonable under free consideration", demands that his independence is, of right, absolute. Over himself, over
happiness is indeed desirable. In other words, free will his own body and mind, the individual is sovereign.
leads everyone to make actions inclined on their own
happiness, unless reasoned that it would improve the Author’s Questions
happiness of others, in which case, the greatest utility is 1. Who was the Champion of modern utilitarianism?
still being achieved. To that extent, the utilitarianism that A. J. S. Mill B. Jeremy Bentham C. Karl Marx
Mill is describing is a default lifestyle that he believes is D. Immanuel Kant
what people who have not studied a specific opposing Answer
field of ethics would naturally and subconsciously use John Stuart Mill was the champion of the modern
when faced with a decision. utilitarianism. (A)
2. J. S. Mill lived between
Utilitarianism is thought of by some of its activists to be A. 1206 – 1304 B. 1806 – 1873 C. 1909 – 1999
a more developed and overarching ethical theory of D. 1842 – 1891
Immanuel Kant's belief in goodwill, and not just some Answer
default cognitive process of humans. Where Kant would J. S. Mill lived between 1806 – 1873. (B)
argue that reason can only be used properly by goodwill, 3. Mill agreed with who that pleasure is the foundation
Mill would say that the only way to universally create fair of morality.
laws and systems would be to step back to the A. Jeremy Bentham B. Immanuel Kant
consequences, whereby Kant's ethical theories become C. Karl Marx D. John Locke
based around the ultimate good—utility. By this logic the Answer
only valid way to discern what is the proper reason would Mill agreed with Jeremy Bentham that pleasure is the
be to view the consequences of any action and weigh the foundation of morality. (A)
good and the bad, even if on the surface, the ethical 4. Mill also disagreed with who that attempt to equate
reasoning seems to indicate a different train of thought. utilitarianism with egoism
A. Aristotle B. Plato C. John Locke
Mill's On Liberty (1859) addresses the nature and limits of D. Jeremy Bentham
the power that can be legitimately exercised by society Answer
over the individual. However, Mill is clear that his concern Mill also disagreed with Jeremy Bentham that
for liberty does not extend to all individuals and all attempted to equate utilitarianism with egoism. (D)
societies. He states that "Despotism is a legitimate mode
of government in dealing with Barbarians.
Mill states that it is not a crime to harm oneself as long as
the person doing so is not harming others. He favours the
harm principle: "The only purpose for which power can be
623
REVISION EXERCISES
1. Plato ideology was opposed to
A. philosophy B. conservative C. democratization
D. unitary
2. Plato founded a philosophical school named the
A. school B. institute C. academy
D. learning centre
3. Plato advocated that
A. only knowledgeable men should govern the state
B. only businessmen should govern the state
C. only farmers should govern the state
D. only philosophers should govern the state
4. Aristotle was a
A. philosopher B. student C. teacher D. doctor
5. Aristotle advocated two types of education
A. nomadic education and normal education
B. adult education and general education
C. liberal education and practical education
D. morning classes and evening classes
6. Aristotle studied how many constitutions.
A. 152 B. 159 C. 158 D. 156
7. The basic idea in utilitarianism is simply, all actions
must be judged by their results said by who
A. Immanuel Kant B. Plato C. J. S. Mill
D. Karl Marx
8. Cicero was a
A. politician B. teacher C. businessman
D. traditionalist
9. Idealism believes that besides the physical or material
universe. There is also a
A. mental universe B. renowned universe
C. spiritual universe D. creation universe
10. Idealism believes that God is the creator and others
are the
A. created B. producer C. maker D. manifestos
11. God of the universe mind is the source of all human
A. mind B. thought C. thinking D. words
12. Idealism regards man as a
A. spiritual contract B. spiritual connector
C. spiritual human D. spiritual mind
13. Real knowledge is perceived in
A. work B. duties C. activities D. mind

624
EXERCISES ANSWERS 11. 10. absence of the rule of law
12. 11. promote and protect the security of the nation
Chapter One 13. 13.
1.1. structures and systems for decision making in a 14. 14.
society 15. 15.
1.2. machinery established for exercising political parties 16. 16.
1.3. activities by which government policies are made and 17. 17.
implemented. 18. 18.
1.4. ruling people in the society 19. 19.
1.5. learn about their 20. 20.
1.6. build schools and hospitals 21 21.
1.7. 22.
Chapter Four 23.
REVISION EXERCISES 4.1 socialist 24.
1. it has legitimate power over citizens 4.2Private enterprise 25.
2. the orderly management and control of the affairs of 4.3 Karl Marx
a country 4.4 private ownership of the means of production Chapter Six
3. observance of fundamental human rights 4.5 dictatorship of the proletariat 6.1 stating the functions and limitations of citizens
4. the making of public policy 4.6 feudalism 6.2 body of rules, regulations and conventions
5. government 4.7 Benito Mussolini 6.3
6. 4.8 6.4 civil service regulations
7. 4.9 that aspires to control every aspect of a citizen’s life 6.5 public deliberations
8. 4.10 the leadership is composed of aristocrats and wealthy 6.6
9. merchants 6.7 mainfestoes of political parties
10. 4.11 Aristocrats 6.8 the principle of judicial interpretation
11. 6.9 written constitution
12. REVISION EXERCISES 6.10 Great Britain
13. 1. oligarchy 6.11 Nigeria and Ghana
14. 2. a single recognized party 6.12 it is not documented in a single volume
15. 3. supreme 6.13 rigid
4. agriculture 6.14 rigid
Chapter Two 5. capitalism 6.15 amendment procedures
2.1. territorial boundary 6. maxism 6.16 rigid
2.2 sovereign power 7. prohibited 6.17 New Zealand
2.3 history, language and culture 8. ownership of land is vested in the community 6.18 simple majority vote in the legislature
2.4 different state 9. 6.19 can be amended by a simple majority
2.5 Damaturu 10. 6.20 written and rigid
2.6 permanent 11. 6.21 promotes unity in diversity
2.7 sovereignty 12. 6.22 unitary constitution
2.8 state 13.
2.9 obligatory 14. REVISION EXERCISES
15. 1. body of rules, regulations and conventions.
REVISION EXERCISES 16. 2. A, B and C
1. permanent 17. 3. general arrangements, rules and national objectives
2. sovereignty 18. within which political activities are conducted
3. state 19. 4. which forms the basis upon which a government rules
4. Damaturu a given state
5. population, territory, government and sovereignty Chapter Five 5. amendment procedure
6. national state 5.1 central government 6. the supreme court
7. 5.2 a unitary state 7. rigid
8. 5.3 unitary government 8. common law
9. 5.4 the constitution is flexible 9. rigid
10. 5.5 the executive head of state 10.
11. 5.6 homogenous society 11.
12. 5.7 national government 12.
13. 5.8 Ghana 13.
14. 5.9 France 14.
15. 5.10 acts of the parliament at the centre 15.
16. 5.11 avoid administrative conflicts 16.
5.12 federal and local government 17.
Chapter Three 5.13 federal and state governments 18.
3.1 C. capacity to compel or influence others to do what they 5.14 defence 19.
would otherwise not do 5.15 federal government 20.
3.2 compel or influence obedience 5.16 bicameral legislature
3.3 allocation of resources and enforcement of decision 5.17 encourages unity in diversity Chapter Seven
3.4 legitimate right to be obeyed 5.18 there is unity in diversity 7.1 formulates and implements the policies of government
3.5 delegated 5.19 France 7.2 executive
3.6 political authority 5.20 concurrent list 7.3 interpretation of law
3.7 legitimate right to power 5.20 component units 7.3 Executive
3.8 legitimacy 5.21 presidential system 7.4 administer the laws
3.9 acceptance 5.22 independent of the executive 7.5 implement government policies
3.10 people 5.23 7.6
3.11 sovereignty 5.24 prime minister 7.7 National Assembly
3.12 all members of a community 5.25 virtually sovereign 7.8 the process of deliberations
3.13 Athens 5.26 two or more sovereign states with a weak centres 7.9 making of laws
3.14 majority rule 5.27 component units 7.10 approving government policies
3.15 limited franchise 5.28 sovereignty resides in the centre 7.11 demanding the review of any executive action
3.16 5.29 7.12 two
3.17 all the citizens of the state 5.30 weak central government 7.13 legislature with two chambers
3.18 a contract between the rulers and the ruled 5.31 monarchial 7.14 ensure equal representation of the component units
3.19 political culture 5.32 absolute and constitutional 7.15 passing of bills into acts is delayed
3.20 culture 5.33 absolute monarchy 7.16 prevents hasty passage of laws
3.21 participatory political culture 5.34 Haile Selassie of Ethiopia 7.17 unicameral legislature
3.22 political socialization 5.35 7.18 one house
3.23 political socialization 5.36 commander – in – chief of the armed forces 7.19 unicameralism
3.24 5.37 dictatorial 7.20 bill
3.25 power 5.38 legitimacy 7.21 third reading
7.22 a monetary bill
REVISION EXERCISES REVISION EXERCISES 7.23
1. coercive while influence is persuasive 1. national government 7.24 judiciary
2. ability to compel others to act in a particular way 2. with a relative small area and a homogenous population 7.25 judiciary
3. allocating values 3. President 7.26
4. international law 4. the cabinet 7.27 interprets laws
5. 5. unitary 7.28 judicial review
6. 6. an executive presidential system 7.29
7. 7. a fixed term 7.30 there is security of tenure of office for judges
8. 8. region 7.31 rights
9. 8. confederal 7.32 judicial service commission
10. 9. monarchy

625
REVISION EXERCISES 2. independently but cooperatively 9.
1. delegated legislation 3. prevent governments from becoming dictatorial 10.
2. the body that executes the policies of government 4. independent judiciary
3. implementing laws 5. political Chapter Thirteen
4. judiciary 6. senator 13.1 many parties are legally allowed but a particular one is
5. An important function of the legislature is 7. electoral system always victorious in elections
A. judicial review 8. 13.2 only one party meets the required conditions for election
B. review of executive policies and actions 9. 13.3 autocracy
C. lobbying 10. 13.4 Ghana
D. defending government policies 11. 13.5 the ruling party is the only legal party
6. a two chamber legislature 12. 13.6 dictatorship
7. The National Assembly 13. 13.7 only one party is established by law
8. the body which interprets the law 14. 13.8 encourages dictatorship
9. interpretation 15. 13.9 dominate the political scene
10. Supreme Court 13.10 dominate the political scene
11. Chapter Ten 13.11 choose freely between alternatives
12. 10.1 bribing an electoral office 13.12 national integration
13. 10.2 13.13 to form a government
14. 10.3 travelling to other countries 13.14 have the opportunity to be represented
15. 10.4 13.15 coalition government
16. 10.5 or hold political office 13.16 a multi party
17. 10.6 party system 13.17
18. 10.7 religion 13.18 proposed programme of a political party
19. 10.8 13.19
20. 10.9 unitary government
21. 10.10 unitary system REVISION EXERCISES
22. 10.11 What are the advantages of centralization? 1. political parties
23. 10.12 2. encourages the emergence of dictators
10.13 3. autocracy
Chapter Eight 10.14 4. the ruling party is the only legal one
8.1 that no one is above the law 10.15 other bodies authorized by the legislature 5. allows no official opposition
8.2 A. V. Dicey 10.16 delegated legislation 6. only party candidates contest
8.3 wherever laws are considered to be supreme 10.17 market men and women 7. is the alternative government
8.4 parliamentary 10.18 public opinion 8.
8.5 supremacy of the law over all the people in a state 10.19 to reduce the powers of the legislature 9.
8.6 rule of law 10.20 encroaches on parliamentary power 10.
8.7 the supremacy of the ordinary law 10.21 it is useful in times of emergencies 11.
8.8 the absence of 10.22 enables contingencies to be taken care of 12.
8.9 10.23 relieving the parliament of its workload 13.
8.10 immunity of some citizens 10.24 saving parliamentary time 14.
8.11 15.
8.12 REVISION EXERCISES 16.
8.13 promote the dignity of man 1. constitutional superiority of the executive over the 17.
8.14 guarantee the liberty of citizens legislature in branch of government 18.
8.15 life 2. bodies other than parliament. 19.
8.16 freedom enshrined in the constitution 3. 20.
8.17 protect the rights of individuals in the society 4.
8.18 claims the law allows him to make against the state 5. Chapter Fourteen
8.19 citizens 6. 14.1 interest groups
8.20 nobody has the rights to kill a fellow human being 7. 14.2
8.21 8. 14.3 pursue specific and narrow objectives
8.22 9. 14.4 an occupational group
8.23 laid down rules of public behaviour 10. 14.5 trade union congress
8.24 subject to constitutional provisions 11. 14.6 lobby the appropriate authority
8.25 12. 14.7
14.8 coup d’état
REVISION EXERCISES Chapter Eleven 14.9 pressure groups only want to influence government policy
1. laws are supreme 11.1 14.10 political parties try to win political power while
2. independent judiciary 11.2 birth pressure group seek to influence it
3. everyone is equal before the law 11.3 14.11 interest aggregation and articulation
4. involving emergency power 11.4 naturalization
5. 11.5 the granting of political asylum REVISION EXERCISES
6. 11.6 naturalization 1. oppose oppressive legislation
7. 11.7 nationalization 2. Farmers
8. 11.8 naturalization 3. influence government policy
9. 11.9 honorary citizenship 4. do not allow misrule
10. 11.10 holding a dual citizenship 5. seeks power, the latter influences it
11. 11.11 renounciation 6. have similar interests
12. 11.12 renounce it in exchange for another 7.
13. 11.13 8.
14. 11.14 be wealthy 9.
15. 11.15 social rights 10.
16. 11.16 11.
17. 12.
18. 13.
Chapter Twelve 14.
Chapter Nine 12.1 manifesto 15.
9.1 Baron Montesquieu 12.2 schools 16.
9.2 12.3 form of government
9.3 protect citizen’s rights and liberties 12.4 manifesto Chapter Fifteen
9.4 the prime minister and his cabinet ministers are also 12.5 elite party 15.1 minimum income of £100 per annum
members of parliament 12.6 broker party 15.2 voting right
9.5 parliamentary system of government 12.7 electing the leader of the party 15.3 vote and be voted for
9.6 prevents domination of one organ of government by 12.8 determination of national objectives 15.4 to be disqualified from voting
another 12.9 political powers 15.5 disenfranchised
9.7 prevents each organs of government from being 12.10 they educate the people on political issues 15.6 democracy
dictatorial 12.11 capture political power 15.7 adults are allowed to vote
9.8 checks and balances 12.12 15.8 qualified adult citizens
9.9 the ultimate power resides with the people 12.13 15.9
9.10
9.11 REVISION EXERCISES REVISION EXERCISES
9.12 a general election 1. capture state power 1. right to vote and be voted for
9.13 military rule 2. the electorate 2. limited and unlimited
9.14 mass illiteracy 3. 3. unlimited
9.15 4. 4. universal adult suffrage
5. 5. all adult male can vote
REVISION EXERCISES 6. 6. the right to choose representatives to the legislature
1. that all the branches of government have equal powers 7. 7. qualified adult citizens
and functions 8. 8. right to vote

626
9. criminals 18.11 conveys the feelings of the people to the government 15.
10. participation in public affairs 18.12 16.
11. male suffrage 18.13 tells government what action it must take 17.
12. allowing eligible persons the right to vote 18.14 the mass media 18.
13. 18.15 public opinion
14. 18.16 Chapter Twenty Two
15. 22.1 an act of parliament
16. REVISION EXERCISES 22.2 Joint Admissions and Matriculation Board
17. 1. Press freedom 22.3
18. 2. un-informed citizenry 22.4 provide essential services at low cost
19. 3. let’s the government know what the people want 22.5 provide utility services to the public at minimal costs
4. majority of the members of a society 22.6
Chapter Sixteen 5. held by the majority 22.7
16.1 Independent National Electoral Commission 6. 22.8
16.2 proportional representative 7.
16.3 Nigerian citizens who are 18 years old and above 8. REVISION EXERCISES
16.4 the electorate 9. 1. provide utility services to the public at minimal cost
16.5 it is easy to rig 10. 2. provide essential service
16.6 simple majority method 11. 3. to render essential service to the public
16.7 first-past-the-post system 12. 4. government
16.8 13. 5. Guarantee Trust Bank
16.9 encourages the proliferation of parties 6. danger of monopoly
16.10 proportional representation 7. public servants
16.11 proportional representation Chapter Nineteen 8. act of parliament
16.12 it gives the parties seat in proportion to their popular 19.1 9. personal saving
support 10. embezzlement of funds
16.13 absolute majority REVISION EXERCISES 11. quasi government development
16.14 alternative 1. political education 12.
16.15 absolute majority system. 2. people’s mouth-piece 13.
16.16 electoral purpose 3. communication outlet or tools used to store and 14.
16.17 constituencies deliver information 15.
16.18 gerrymandering 4. government as an institution 16.
16.19 gerrymandering 5. mass media 17.
16.20 constituency 6. 18.
7. 19.
REVISION EXERCISES 8. 20.
1. political system 9.
2. an indirect election 10. Chapter Twenty Three
3. it gives the parties seats in proportion to their popular 11. 23.1 public fiscal resources
support 12. 23.2 accountability
4. obtains the greatest number of voters cast 23.3 improve the efficiency of enterprises
5. favours small parties Chapter Twenty
6. the highest vote cast in favour of one candidate 20.1
7. co-option. 20.2 the civil service commission Chapter Twenty Four
8. absolute majority 20.3 formulating party programmes 24.1 1963
9. tends to preserve the multi-party system 20.4 are not credited or blamed for anything they do 24.2 bring the government nearer to the people
10. primary election 20.5 anonymity 24.3 train local people in the art of governance
11. 20.6 permanence 24.4 make bye laws
12. 20.7 disloyalty 24.5 preservation of the traditional institutions of the people
13. 20.8 24.6 providing training ground for natural political leaders
14. 20.9 Nigerian civil aviation authority 24.7 rates
15. 20.10 minister of education 24.8 duties on exportation of local products
16. 20.11 advising on policy formation 24.9 train local people in the art of governing
17. 20.12 implementing edicts 24.10 bring political administration nearer to the people
18. 24.11
19. REVISION EXERCISES 24.12 obtaining loans from banks
20. 1. receive neither praise nor blame 24.13 lack of sufficient number of local government
2. civil servants should be loyal to the government and 24.14 promulgate and enforce bye-laws
non-partisan 24.15 1976
Chapter Seventeen 3. praised or blamed publicly 24.16 establish uniformity in local governments
17.1 determine the population of a country. 4. do not take praises or blame for their performance
17.2 to form political parties 5. public/civil service commission REVISION EXERCISES
17.3 legitimization of the government 6. not credited or blamed for anything they do 1. wards
17.4 allow people to participate in choosing their leaders 7. are not allowed to be involved in partisan politics 2. devolution
17.5 ensures the anonymity of the voters 8. lyttleton constitution of 1954 3. rates
17.6 a by-election 9. the rigid dependence on routine by civil servants 4. grants from the central government
17.7 Referendum 10. bureaucracy 5. ward
17.8 referendum 11. 6. 449
17.9 helps the people to their popular sovereignty 12. 7. third tier of government
17.10 gerrymandered constituencies 13. 8. chairman
17.11 partial electoral administration 14. 9. 774
15. 10.
REVISION EXERCISES 16. 11.
1. referendum 17. 12.
2. voting by proxy 18. 13.
3. honesty and sincerity 19. 14.
4. an election 20. 15.
5. party chairman 16.
6. proportional representation 17.
7. presidential election Chapter Twenty One 18.
8. 21.1 enacting laws 19.
9. 21.2 maintain law and order 20.
10. 21.
11.
12. REVISION EXERCISES Chapter Twenty Five
13. 1. public complaints 25.1 Emirs of Gwandu and Sokoto
14. 2. ombudsman 25.2 Gwandu
3. ombudsman 25.3 Sokoto Caliphate
Chapter Eighteen 4. subordinate rank 25.4 Hakimi
18.1 5. good funding 25.5 the administrator of the capital city
18.2 view expressed by the majority 6. the torture the innocent 25.6 commander of the army
18.3 citizens regarding government policies or other issues 7. overall head of the police force nationwide 25.7 hierarchical
18.4 family 8. lowest rank 25.8
18.5 mass media 9. police force 25.9 age
18.6 10. police service commission 25.10 age grade
18.7 referendum 11. 25.11 administrative head of his kindred
18.8 public opinion 12. 25.12 council of elders
18.9 referendum 13. 25.13 not centralized
18.10 find out what the public think about the activities 14. 25.14

627
25.15Alaafin 3. assimilation 8. 1953 self government motion crisis put Nigeria at a
25.16 outright rejection by his subjects 4. France cross road
25.17 kingmakers 5. integration 9. 1950
25.18 persistently neglected the advice of his elders 6. French 10. emergence of political parties
25.19 lead to his destrolment 7. did not recognize African culture as good enough 11. limited franchise
8. education 12. introduction of elective principle
REVISION EXERCISES 9. concede territorial autonomy to French West African 13. 1954 constitution
1. had no power to install or depose a chief colonies 14. certain fundamental human rights be entrenched in
2. religious institution 10. assimilation the constitution
3. checks and balances 11. circles 15. 1954
4. D. Warrant Chiefs 12. African culture was inferior to that of the French 16. republican constitution
5. Waziri 13. 17. provided for a division of functions between the
6. Igbo political organization 14. centre and the component units
7. Yoruba 15. 18.
8. Igbo 16. 19.
9. 17. 20.
10. provincial heads 18. 21.
11. elders 19. 22.
12. communalism 20.
13. 21. Chapter Thirty
14. 30.1 Judicial committee of the Privy Council
15. Chapter Twenty Eight 30.2 Queen as head of state
16. 28.1 30.3
17. 28.2 rights of the people to choose their own form of 30.4 the Queen of England
18. government 30.5
19. 28.3 30.6 1963 constitution
20. 28.4 30.7 executive powers
21. 28.5 the end of colonial rule 30.8 republican constitution
22. 28.6 Nigerian National Democratic Party (NNDP) 30.9 35 years
23. 28.7 30.10 National Security Council
24. 28.8 Nnamdi Azikiwe 30.11 the reflection of federal character in public appointment
25. 28.9 European racial domination 30.12 U.S.A.
26. 28.10 Pan-Africanism
27. 28.11 France REVISION EXERCISES
28. 28.12 1. absence of marked equalities among the component
29. units
30. REVISION EXERCISES 2. 1960
31. 1. appointment of an African as a governor in each of the 3. House of Assembly
32. British colonial territories 4. 450
2. National Congress of British West Africa (NCBWA) 5. 1963
Chapter Twenty Six 3. have the right to their own independent government 6. the population of each state
4. attainment of political independence from the colonizers 7. October 1st
26.1 colonialism 5. French administrative policies did not allow for 8. The Queen of England
26.2 a need for raw materials and markets political agitations 9. Sir Henry Willink
26.3 6. the policy of assimilation 10. State House of Assembly
26.4 a territory acquired by the colonialists through 7. assimilation policy 11.
settlement or conquest 8. preferred dealing with the secretary of state to dealing 12. Lyttleton constitution
26.5 with the governor 13. Obafemi Awolowo
26.6 9. refusal of the Secretary of state to visit the colonies 14. Obafemi Awolowo
26.7 10. obtain cheap raw materials and secure ready markets 15. head of region
26.8 a system of local administration that makes use 11. rapid political and constitution development 16. head of state
26.9 12. the Loi-cadre 17. Olusegun Obasanjo
26.10 13. gaining independence 18. Shehu Shagari
26.11 14. 19.
26.12 15. 20.
26.13 16. 21.
26.14 17. 22.
18. 23.
19. 24.
REVISION EXERCISES 20. 25.
1. direct rule 21. 26.
2. a need for raw materials and market 22. 27.
3. administration through illiterate heads 23. 28.
4. direct rule of the colonial territories by the British 29.
home government Chapter Twenty Nine
5. warrant chiefs 29.1 1861 Chapter Thirty One
6. secretary of state 29.2
7. Nigeria 29.3 make for administrative convenience REVISION EXERCISES
8. Fredrick Lugard 29.4 1954 constitutional conference 1.
9. tax collectors 29.5 introduction of elective principle 2.
10. link between the colonial administration and the people 29.6 Accra
11. 29.7 appointment of the Secretary of state for the colonies Chapter Thirty Two
12. 29.8 32.1 concurrent
13. 29.9 Hugh Clifford 32.2 concurrent
14. 29.10 1922 32.3 1963
15. 29.11 Lagos and Calabar 32.4 1963
16. 29.12 establishment of a military government 32.5 province
17. 29.13 32.6 30th May, 1967
18. 29.14 32.7 2
19. 29.15 32.8 Yakubu Gowon
20. 29.16 limited application of the elective principle 32.9
21. 29.17 Ibadan 32.10 12 to 19
22. 29.18 Ibadan conference of 1950 32.11creation of the mid-west region in 1963
23. 29.19 the introduction of Electoral College 32.12
29.20 32.13 promotes unity in diversity
Chapter Twenty Seven 29.21 Chief Anthony Enahoro 32.14
27.1 29.22 Lyttleton constitution of 1954 32.15 NUT
27.2 Goree 29.23 32.16
27.3 inferior 29.24 32.17 national unity
27.4 nationalist activities were discouraged
27.5 it relegated the culture and customs of their people REVISION EXERCISES REVISION EXERCISES
27.6 1. 1957 1. 1976
27.7 assimilation and association. 2. registration of political parties by FEDCO 2. desire for union
27.8 3. opposition from traditional rulers 3. confederal
27.9 4. 1954 4. E. Alhaji Shehu Shagari
5. British citizens were allowed to vote 5. income
REVISION EXERCISES 6. a federal government be established with full federal 6. Edward David
1. African culture was deeply rooted functions 7. independence
2. delayed nationalism in French West Africa 7. introduction of elective principle 8. Richard’s constitution

628
9. two tiers 34.41 Samuel Olufalea 36.12 General Aguiyi Ironsi
10. geographical factor 34.42 Abdulsalam Abubakar 36.13 January 15, 1966
11. 1963 34.43 Goodluck Jonathan 36.14
12. Aguiyi Ironsi 34.44 Mohammed Buhari 36.15 check on communist penetration of government
13. Yakubu Gowon 34.45 2011 36.16 regular promotion of military officers
14. Emeka Ojukwu 34.46 1960-1964 36.17
15. 1976 34.47 21 states 36.18 Introduction of the Green Revolution
16. 1993 34.48 30 36.19 foreign policy
17. 1995 34.49 7 36.20
18. 1985 34.50 36.21
19. Babangida 36.22
20. 1993 REVISION EXERCISES 36.23 decrees
21. Richard’s commission (1972) 1. 1999, 2003, 2007, 2011, 2015 and 2019 36.24
22. the engagement problem 2. Goodluck Jonathan 36.25
23. 3. APP
24. 4. AD REVISION EXERCISES
25. 5. PDP 1. the breakdown of democratic institution
26. 6. PDP 2. edicts
27. 7. 1 3. peace agreement between nations
28. 8. 1993 – 1999 4. appointment of ministers
29. 9. Mosood Abiola 5. more fused than separated
30. 10. 6 6. Ibrahim Babangida
31. Aguiyi Ironsi 11. Federal Electoral commission 7. legitimacy
32. 12. Nigerian National Alliance (NNA) 8. legislature and executive
33. Yakubu Gowon 13. Muhammadu Buhari 9. lack of legitimacy
34. custom duties 14. Richard constitution 10. defend the nation from external aggression
15. NPC and NCNC 11. praetorian trap
16. Nigeria Advance Party (NAP) 12.
Chapter Thirty Three 17. state capital 13.
33.1 18. Nigerian National Democratic Party (NNDP) 14.
33.2 love 19. 15.
33.3 126.6 million 20. 16.
33.4 372 21. 17.
33.5 774 22. 18.
33.6 23. 19.
33.7 24. 20.
25.
26. political independence Chapter Thirty Seven
REVISION EXERCISES 27. National Congress of British West Africa 37.1
1. 1987 (NCBWA) 37.2
2. 1967 28. Aminu Kano 37.3 conducive atmosphere
3. North-west 29. 37.4 open
4. Edo 30. 37.5 support organization
5. Edo 31. 37.6 ego conflict.
6.
7. Chapter Thirty Five REVISION EXERCISES
8. 35.1 humiliation of Northern legislatures in Lagos 1.
9. 35.2 2.
10. 35.3 UPP 3. war
11. 35.4 the carving out of the mid-west region 4. mediation
12. 35.5 Justice G.B.A. Cokerto
13. 35.6 change of the colour of the naira Chapter Thirty Eight
14. 35.7 Shehu Shagari 38.1
15. 38.2
16. 38.3
17. REVISION EXERCISES
1. reconstruction, reconciliation and rehabilitation REVISION EXERCISES
Chapter Thirty Four 2. reconciliation, rehabilitation and reconstruction 1.
34.1 agitate for Nigeria’s independence 3. National Council of Nigeria Citizens and Northern 2.
34.2 were not national in outlook Elements Progressive Union 3.
34.3 Nigerian National Democratic Party 4. public service 4.
34.4 The Nigerian National Democratic Party 5. adoption of Abuja as the new Federal Capital 5.
34.5 1936 6. the Queen of England 6.
34.6 Nigeria Youth Movement (NYM) 7. John Mayor
34.7 Chief H. O. 8. Dr. Kwame Krumah
34.8 9. national unity Chapter Thirty Nine
34.9 National Council for Nigeria and the Cameroons (NCNC) 10. Kwame Nkrumah 39.1 national interest
34.10 11. controversy over the presidential election result 39.2 peaceful settlements of conflict with other nations
34.11 Herbert Macaulay 12. due to the interpretation of 1/4 of the vote cast 2/3 39.3 national interest
34.12 of all the states in the federation 39.4
34.13 Herbert Macaulay 13. Zambia 39.5 the general principles which govern a state
34.14 14. Alhaji Shehu Shagari 39.6 Tafawa Balewa
34.15 NPC 15. British was reluctant to supply Nigeria with the arms 39.7 cautious and relatively inactive
34.16 NPC she needed to prosecute the war 39.8 Zimbabwe
34.17 NPC 16. Aguiyi Ironsi 39.9 not smooth sailing
34.18 Northern People’s Congress (NPC) 17. 1963 39.10
34.19 11years 18. 39.11 assisted liberation struggles in Southern Africa
34.20 Olufunsho Ekundayo 19. 39.12 Liberia and Sierra-Leone
34.21 20. 39.13 economic diplomacy
34.22 AG and UMBC 21. 39.14 desire for peace and stability
34.23 Northern People’s Congress (NPC), National Council 22. 39.15 countries of the southern hemisphere
of Nigerian Citizens (NCNC) and Action Group (AG) 23. 39.16 Nigeria military ECOMOG provided over 70%
34.24 B and D above 24. 39.17 personality of political leaders
34.25 central political party 25. 39.18
34.26 1989 26. 39.19
34.27 1990 27. 39.20 promotes understanding between the leaders and the
34.28 Ibrahim Babangida led
34.29 SDP and NRC Chapter Thirty Six 39.21 promotion of national interest
34.30 December, 1991 36.1 centralized 39.22 promotion and protection of the countries national
34.31 Bashir Tofa 36.2 legitimacy interest
34.32 23rd August, 1993 36.3 dictatorial 39.23 Britain is very dear and good to Nigeria
34.33 Ernest Shonekan 36.4 decrees 39.24 prestige
34.34 Sani Abacha 36.5 decrees 39.25
34.35 1998 36.6 July 29, 1966 39.26
34.36 1999 36.7 January 1966 and December 1983 39.27 Africa as its centerpiece
34.37 Sani Abacha 36.8 political instability 39.28 of Nigeria’s leadership role in Africa
34.38 Abdulsalami Abubakar 36.9 Major Chukwuma Nzeogwu 39.29 peaceful co-existence
34.39 Abdulsalam Abubakar 36.10 1979 39.30 Tafawa Balewa
34.40 PDP, ANPP and AD 36.11 Murtala/Obasanjo

629
39.31 Nigeria is committed to either the west or the east in her 5. Monrovia 42.34 Economic and Social Council
foreign policy 6. dedication to the total emancipation of the African 42.35
39.31 Bandung 1955 territories which are still under political subjugation 42.36
39.32 does not belong to any of the power blocs 7. setting up an African high command 42.37 1919
39.33 8. council of ministers 42.38 international peace and security
39.34 9. Casablanca, Brazzaville and Monrovia group 42.39 of its control of outbreaks of another world war
10. Addis Ababa
11. Sierra – Leone REVISION EXERCISES
REVISION EXERCISES 1. promotes international peace and security
1. large population Chapter Forty One 2. North Atlantic Treaty Organisation (NATO)
2. Malawi 41.1 colonial ties 3. Security Council
3. occupation of Arab territories including Egypt 41.2 4. League of Nations
4. an extra – ordinary ambassador 41.3 Commonwealth of Nations 5. Security Council
5. interference in the internal affairs of other countries 41.4 voluntary association of the independent countries of 6. Kofi Annan
6. the federal government only the Former British Colonies 7. Britain
7. foreign policy 41.5 two years 8. International Court of Justice (ICJ)
8. only at independence do states proclaim their 41.6 Mozambique 9. General Joseph Garba
foreign policy 41.7 Britain and some of her former colonies 10.
9. General Murtala Muhammed 41.8 11.
10. strong ties with western powers 41.9 1949 12.
11. territory 41.10 13.
12. Major General Ike Nwachukwu 41.11 the prime minister conference 14.
13. France’s atomic test in the Sahara desert 41.12 a commonwealth secretariat 15.
14. creation of twelve states 41.13 1965 16.
15. Prof. Bolaji Akinyemi 41.14 17.
16. Nigeria’s economy was dependent on the western 41.15 18.
countries 41.16
17. Namibia 41.17 January 10, 1920 Chapter Forty There
18. 41.18 Nigeria
19. 41.19 REVISION EXERCISES
20. 41.20 nine members 1. fuse into one political entity
21. 41.21 settle international disputes 2. Lagos
22. 41.22 3. economic advantages
23. 41.23 4. maintain peace in troubled spots of West Africa
24. 41.24 5. Cape Verde
41.25
Chapter Forty Chapter Forty Four
40.1 Organisation of African Unity REVISION EXERCISES REVISION EXERCISES
40.2 Monrovia group 1. league of all nations 1. 1960
40.3 Casablanca, Brazzaville, Monrovia group 2. prevention of marriage 2. 1962
40.4 Addis Ababa 3. judiciary 3. D
40.5 a political organization 4. foreign policies 4. marketing
40.6 enthronement of democratic governments in Africa 5. foreign policy 5. Venezuela
40.7 to provide a framework and opportunity for cooperation 6. 1931
on common African problems 7. 19th century Chapter Forty Five
40.8 8. commonwealth 45.1 2000
40.9 Security Council 9. Nigeria 45.2 vision policy
40.10 Commission for mediation conciliation and arbitration 10. common understanding
40.11 commission for mediation, conciliation and 11. London Chapter Forty Six
arbitration 12. member state countries based on rotation basis REVISION EXERCISES
40.12 the Assembly of Heads of state and government 13. High Commissioner 1. increase exploitation of the ignorant
40.13 14. 1966 2.
40.14 the Assembly of Heads of State and Government 15. sponsors election observer teams to monitor the 3.
40.15 The Council of Ministers conduct of elections
40.16 Council of Ministers 16. Chapter Forty Seven
40.17 The Council of Ministers 17. 47.1 internet
40.18 the council of ministers 18. 47.2 customer relationship management
40.19 19.
40.20 The General Secretariat 20. REVISION EXERCISES
40.21 Secretary–General 21. The Hague 1.
40.22 four years 2.
40.23 General – Secretariats Chapter Forty Two 3.
40.24 Secretariat 42.1 United Nations Organisation 4.
40.25 General 42.2 League of Nations
40.26 the General Secretariat 42.3 League of Nations Chapter Forty Eight
40.27 the General–Secretariat 42.4 1945 48.1 responsible
40.28 the general secretariat 42.5 United Nations Organisation officially came into
40.29 General–Secretariat existence REVISION EXERCISES
40.30 42.6 Germany 1. transformation leader
40.31 Secretary – General 42.7 2. paternalistic
40.32 Secretary–General 42.8 3. pseudo – democratic style
40.33 Secretary–General 42.9 4. democratic leadership
40.34 Secretary–General 42.10 General Assembly 5. participative
40.35 Secretary–General 42.11 general assembly 6. autocratic leader
40.36 42.12 General Assembly 7. authoritarian leader
40.37 42.13 General Assembly 8. laissez – faire
40.38 42.14 9. laissez – faire style
40.39 55 member states 42.15 the Security Council 10. laissez-faire
40.40 26 May, 2001 42.16 consensus 11. Laissez-faire
40.41 Africa 42.17 all of the 5 permanent members
40.42 10 July, 2002 42.18 China Chapter Forty Nine
40.43 Durban 42.19 the five permanent members and other members REVISION EXERCISES
40.44 periodically elected 1. democratization
40.45 42.20 the Security Council 2. academy
40.46 42.21 a simple majority of the General Assembly for a 3. only knowledgeable men should govern the state
40.47 period of two years 4. philosopher
40.48 African Union 42.22 the permanent members of the Security Council 5. liberal education and practical education
40.49 37th session of Assembly 42.23 permanent members of the Security Council 6. 158
40.50 2002 42.24 permanent members of the Security Council on the 7. J. S. Mill
40.51 MAP and OMEGA recommendation of the General Assembly 8. politician
40.52 South Africa 42.25 interpreting the treaties 9. spiritual universe
40.53 42.26 responsible to the UN and not individual government 10. created
40.54 42.27 11. mind
42.28 12. spiritual human
REVISION EXERCISES 42.29 13. mind
1. EU 42.30 Hague
2. francophone African countries 42.31 15 members
3. Kinshasa 42.32 9 years
4. it amounts to interference in its internal affairs 42.33 encourage trade among members of the UNO

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