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Fig. 2,632.—Mazda (tungsten) lamp, showing rapid decrease to normal
current as filament heats up. 25 cycles.

Fig. 2,633.—Current wave in telephone line corresponding to sustained

vowel sound "i," as in machine; voice pitched at A 110.
Fig. 2,634.—Carbon lamp, showing rapid increase to normal current as
filament heats up. 25 cycles.

Fig. 2,635.—Short circuit current on direct current end of rotary

converter, 21,500 amperes maximum. Upper curve, direct current
voltage; lower curve, direct current amperage. Duration of short circuit
about .1 second.
CHAPTER LXIV
SWITCHBOARDS
General Principles of Switchboard
Connections.—The interconnection of generators,
transformers, lines, bus bars, and switches with their
relays, in modern switchboard practice is shown by the
diagrams, figs. 2,636 to 2,645. The figures being
lettered A to J for simplicity, the generators are
indicated by black discs, and the switches by open
circles, while each heavy line represents a set of bus
bars consisting of two or more bus bars according to
the system of distribution. It will be understood, also,
in this connection, that the number of pole of the
switches and the type of switch will depend upon the
particular system of distribution employed.
Diagram A, shows the simplest system, or one in
which a single generator feeds directly into the line.
There are no transformers or bus bars and only one
switch is sufficient.
In B, a single generator supplies two or more feeders
through a single set of bus bars, requiring a switch for
each feeder, and a single generator switch.
In C, two generators are employed and required and
the addition of a bus section switch.
D, represents a number of generators supplying two
independent circuits. The additional set of bus bars
employed for this purpose necessitates an additional bus
section switch, and also additional selector switches for
both feeders and generators.
E, shows a standard system of connection for a city
street railway system having a large number of feeders.
Figs. 2,645 and 2,646.—Diagrams illustrating general principles of
switchboard connections.

This arrangement allows any group of feeders to

be supplied from any group of generators.

Fig. 2,646.—Fort Wayne switchboard panel for one alternator and one
transfer circuit. Diagram giving dimensions, arrangement of
instruments of board, and method of wiring. The different forms of
standard alternating current switchboard panels for single phase
circuits made by the Fort Wayne Electric Works are designed to fulfill
all the usual requirements of switchboards for this class of work. The
line includes panels equipped for a single generator; for one generator
and two circuits; one generator and one transfer circuit; one
generator, an incandescent and an arc lighting circuit; and also feeder
panels of different kinds.

It also permits the addition of a generator switch for

each generator.
F, represents the simplest system with transformers.
It requires a single generator transformer bank,
switch and line. The arrangement as show at F is used
where a number of plants supply the same system.
G, represents a system having more than one line.
In this case a bus bar and transformer switch is used
on the high tension side.
H, shows a number of generators connected to a set
of low tension bus bars through generator switches, and
employing a low tension transformer switch.
I, shows the connections of a system having a large
number of feeders supplied by several small generators.
In this case, the plant is divided into two parts, each of
which may be operated independently.
J, represents the arrangement usually employed in
modern plants where the generator capacity is large
enough to permit of a generator transformer unit
combination with two outgoing lines. By operating in
parallel on the high tension side only, any generator can
be run with any transformer. The whole plant can be run
in parallel, or the two parts can be run separately.
Fig. 2,647.—General Electric small plant alternating current
switchboard, designed for use in small central stations and isolated
plants. They are for use with one set of bus bars, to which all
generators and feeders are connected by means of single throw lever
switches or circuit breakers, suitable provision being made for the
parallel operation of the generators.
Fig. 2,648.—Crouse-Hinds voltmeter and ground detector radial
switch, arranged for mounting on the switchboard. The switch proper
is placed on the rear of the board with hand wheel, dial, and indicator
only on the front side. The current carrying parts are of hard brass,
with contact surfaces machined after assembling. The contact parts
are of the plunger spring type, and the cross bar has fuse connections.
Ground detector circuits are marked G+ and G- for two wire system,
and G+, G-, GN+ and GN- for three wire system. When the voltmeter
switch is to be used as a ground detector, two circuits are required for
a two wire system, and four circuits for a three wire system, that is, a
six circuit voltmeter and ground detector switch for use on a two wire
system has two circuits for ground detector and four circuits for
voltmeter readings. A six circuit voltmeter and ground detector switch,
for use on a three wire system, has four circuits for ground detector
and two circuits for voltmeter readings.

Switchboard Panels.—The term "panel" means

the slab of marble or slate upon which is mounted the
switches, and the indicating and controlling devices.
There are usually several panels comprising
switchboards of moderate or large size, these panels
being classified according to the division of the system
that they control, as for instance:
1. Generator panel;
2. Feeder panel;
3. Regulator panel, etc.
In construction, the marble or slate should be free
from metallic veins, and for pressures above, say, 600
volts, live connections, terminals, etc., should preferably
be insulated from the panels by ebonite, mica, or
removed from them altogether, as is generally the case
with the alternating gear where the switches are of the
oil type.
Figs. 2,649 and 2,650,—Wiring diagrams of Crouse-Hinds voltmeter
and ground detector switches. Fig. 2,649 voltmeter switch; fig. 2,650
voltmeter and ground detector switch. A view of the switch is shown in
fig. 2,648; it is designed for use on two or three wire systems up to
300 volts.

The bus bars and connections should be supported

by the framework at the back of the board, or in
separate cells, and the instruments should be operated
at low pressure through instrument transformers.
The panels are generally held in position by bolting
them to an angle iron, or a strip iron framework behind
them.

Generator Panel.—This section of a switchboard

carries the instruments and apparatus for measuring
and electrically controlling the generators. On a well
designed switchboard each generator has, as a rule,
its own panel.

Figs. 2,651 to 2,653.—Diagrams of connections for generator panels.

Key to symbols: A, ammeter; A.S., ammeter switch; C.T., current
transformer; F., fuse; F.A., direct current field ammeter; F.S., field
switch; G.C.S., governor control switch; L.S., limit switch (included
with governor motor); O.S., oil switch; P.I.W., polyphase indicating
wattmeter; P.W.M., polyphase watthour meter; P.R., pressure
receptacle; P.P., pressure plug; Rheo., rheostat; S., shunt; S.R.,
synchronizing receptacle; S.P., synchronizing plugs; T.B., terminal
board for instrument leads; V, alternating current voltmeter.

Figs. 2,654 and 2,655.—Diagrams illustrating a simple method of

determining bus capacity as suggested by the General Electric Co.
Fig. 2,654 relates to any panel; the method is as follows: 1. Make a
rough plan of the entire board, regardless of the number of panels to
be ordered. The order of panels shown is recommended, it being most
economical of copper and best adapted to future extensions. 2. To
avoid confusion keep on one side of board everything pertaining to
exciter buses, and on other side everything pertaining to A. C. buses.
3. With single lines represent the exciter and A. C. buses across such
panels as they actually extend and by means of arrows indicate that
portion of each bus which is connected to feeders and that portion
which is connected to generators. Remember that "Generator" and
"Feeder" arrows must always point toward each other, otherwise the
rules given below do not hold. Note also that the field circuits of
alternator panels are treated as D. C. feeders for the exciter bus. 4.
On each panel mark its ampere rating, that is, the maximum current it
supplies to or takes from the bus. For A. C. alternator panels the D. C.
rating is the excitation of the machines. 5. Apply the following rules
consecutively, and note their application in fig. 2,654. (For the sake of
clearness ampere ratings are shown in light face type and bus
capacities in large type.) A. Always begin with the tail of the arrow and
treat "generator" and "feeder" sections of the bus separately. B. Bus
capacity for first panel = ampere rating of panel. C. Bus capacity for
each succeeding panel = ampere rating of panel plus bus capacity for
preceding panel. (See sums marked above the buses in fig. 2,654.) D.
For a panel not connected to a bus extending across it, use the smaller
value of the bus capacities already obtained for the two adjoining
panels. (See exciter bus for panel C.) E. The bus capacity for any
feeder panel need not exceed the maximum for the generator panels
(see A. C. bus for panel G) and vice versa (see exciter bus for panel
B). Hence the corrections made in values obtained by applying rules B
and C. The arrangement of panels shown in fig. 2,654 is the one
which is mostly used. The above method may, however, be applied to
other arrangements, one of which is shown in fig. 2,655. Here the
generators must feed both ways to the feeders at either end of the
board so that in determining A. C. bus capacities it is necessary to first
consider the generators with the feeders at one end, and then with
the feeders at the other end as shown by the dotted A. C. buses. The
required bus capacities are then obtained by taking the maximum
values for the two cases.
Fig. 2,656.—End view showing general arrangement of
switchboards for 240, 480, and 600 volt alternating current. The cut
shows a single throw oil switch mounted on the panel.

In the case of a dynamo, a good representative

panel would have mounted upon it a reverse current
circuit breaker, an ammeter, a double pole main switch
(or perhaps a single pole switch, since the circuit
breaker could also be used as a switch) a double pole
socket into which a plug could be inserted to make
connection with a voltmeter mounted on a swinging
bracket at the end of the board; a rheostat handle, the
spindle of which operates the shunt rheostat of the
machine, the rheostat being placed either directly
behind the spindle, if of small size, or lower down with
chain drive from the hand wheel spindle, if of larger
size, a field discharge switch and resistance, a lamp
near the top of the panel for illuminating purposes, a
fuse for the voltmeter socket, and, if desired, a
watthour meter. If the dynamo be compound wound,
the equalizing switch will generally be mounted on the
frame of the machine, and in some cases the field
rheostat will be operated from a pillar mounted in
front of the switchboard gallery. If the generator be
for traction purposes, the circuit breaker is more often
of the maximum current type, and a lightning arrester
is often added, without a choke coil, the latter as well
as further lightning arresters being mounted on the
feeder panels.
Figs. 2,657 and 2,658.—Two views of a feeder panel, showing
general arrangement of the devices assembled thereon. A, circuit
breaker; B, ammeter; C, voltmeter; D, switches.

In the case of a high pressure alternating current

plant of considerable size, the bus bars oil switches,
and the current and pressure transformers are
generally mounted either in stoneware cells, or built
on a framework in a space guarded by expanded
metal walls, and no high pressure apparatus of any
sort is brought on to the panels themselves.

Figs. 2,659 to 2,666.—Diagram of connections for three phase feeder

panels. Key to symbols: A, ammeter; A.S., three way ammeter
switch; B.A.S., bell alarm switch; C.T., current transformer; F, fuse;
O.S., oil switch; P.I.W., polyphase indicating wattmeter; P.W.M.,
polyphase watthour meter; T.B., terminal board; T.C., trip coils for oil
switch.

Feeder Panel.—The indicating and control

apparatus for a feeder circuit is assembled on a panel
called the feeder panel.
The most common equipment in the case of a
direct current feeder panel comprises an ammeter, a
double pole switch, and double pole fuses or instead
of the fuses, a circuit breaker on one or both poles; in
the case of a traction feeder a choke coil and a
lightning arrester are often added.
Figs. 2,667 and 2,668.—Diagrams of connections for two phase and
three phase installations: A and A1, ammeter; C.C., constant current
transformer; C.T., current transformer; D.R., discharge resistance; F,
fuse; F.S., field switch; L.A., lightning arrester; O.S., oil switch; P.P.,
pressure plug; P.R., pressure receptacle; P.T., pressure transformer; S
and S1, plug switches; T.C., oil switch trip coil; V, voltmeter.

The equipment of a typical high pressure three

phase feeder panel is an ammeter (sometimes three
ammeters, one in each phase) operated by a current
transformer, and oil break switch with two overload
release coils, or three if the neutral of the circuit be
earthed, the releases being operated by current
transformers.
Fig. 2,669.—Crouse-Hinds radial ammeter switch, arranged for
mounting directly on the switchboard. It is designed for use with
external shunt ammeters of any make or capacity, and in connection
with the required number of shunts, makes possible the taking of
current readings of a corresponding number of circuits by means of
one ammeter. The wiring diagram is shown in fig. 2,670.

The switch when on a large system is often in a

cell some distance behind the panel, and is then
controlled by a system of levers, or by a small motor
which is started and stopped by a throw over switch
on the panel, in which case there is generally a lamp
or lamps on the panel to show whether the switch is
open or closed.
Air brake switches or links are placed between the
bus bars and the oil switch to allow of the latter being
isolated for inspection purposes, and as a general rule
no apparatus carrying high pressure current is allowed
on the front of the panel. With both direct and
alternating current feeders, a watthour meter is often
added to show the total consumption of the circuit.

Fig. 2,670.—Wiring diagram for Crouse-Hinds radial ammeter switch as

illustrated in fig. 2,669. The switch proper is on the rear of the
switchboard, and the hand wheel dial and indicator on the front.

A typical three phase generator panel is provided

with three ammeters, one in each phase, operated from
three current transformers, one to each ammeter, a volt
meter, a power factor indicator, and an indicating
watthour meter, all operated from one or more pressure
transformers, and the necessary current transformers,
the operating handle of the oil switch, which is
connected to the switch itself by means of rods, two
maximum releases operated by current transformers, or
a reverse relay for automatically tripping the switch,
lamps for indicating when the switch is tripped, a socket
for taking the plug which makes connection between the
secondary of a pressure transformer and the
synchronizer on the synchronizing panel, and a lamp for
illuminating purposes, while on the base of the panel or
on a pillar at the front of the gallery is mounted the gear
for the field circuit. This consists of a double pole field
switch and a discharge resistance, an ammeter, a handle
for the rheostat in the generator field, and (if each
alternator have its own direct coupled exciter) possibly
also a small rheostat for the exciter field.

NOTE.—In some cases where the capacity of the

plant is not very great, the oil switch is mounted on the
back of the panel, and the bus bars, current
transformers, &c., on the framework, also just at the
back of the panel, but under no circumstances, in good
modern practice, is high pressure apparatus permitted
on the front of the board. Where the capacity of the
plant is very large, the oil switches are operated
electrically by means of small motors, and in this case
the small switch gear for starting and stopping this
motor is mounted on the generator panel, also the lamp
or lamps to indicate when the switch is open, and when
closed.
CHAPTER LXV
ALTERNATING CURRENT WIRING
In the case of alternating current, because of its
peculiar behaviour, there are several effects which
must be considered in making wiring calculations,
which do not enter into the problem with direct
current.
Accordingly, in determining the size of wires,
allowance must be made for
1. Self-induction;
2. Mutual-induction;
3. Power factor;
4. Skin effect;
5. Corona effect;
6. Frequency;
7. Resistance.
Most of these items have already been explained at
such length, that only a brief summary of facts need be
added, to point out their connection and importance
with alternating current wiring.

Induction.—The effect of induction, whether self-

induction or mutual induction, is to set up a back
pressure of spurious resistance, which must be
considered, as it sometimes materially affects the
calculation of circuits even in interior wiring.
Self-induction is the effect produced by the action of
the electric current upon itself during variations in
strength.

Ques. What conditions besides variations of

current strength governs the amount of self-
induction in a circuit?
Ans. The shape of the circuit, and the character of
the surrounding medium.
If the circuit be straight, there will be little self-
induction, but if coiled, the effect will become
pronounced. If the surrounding medium be air, the self-
induction is small, but if it be iron, the self-induction is
considerable.
Figs. 2,671 to 2,676.—The effect of self-induction. In a non-
inductive circuit, as in fig. 2,672, the whole of the virtual pressure is
available to cause current to flow through the lamp filament, hence it
will glow with maximum brilliancy. If an inductive coil be inserted in
the circuit as in fig. 2,674, the reverse pressure due to self-induction
will oppose the virtual pressure, hence the effective pressure (which is
the difference between the virtual and reverse pressures), will be
reduced and the current flow through the lamp diminished, thus
reducing the brilliancy of the illumination. The effect may be
intensified to such degree by interposing an iron core in the coil as in
fig. 2,676, as to extinguish the lamp.

Ques. With respect to self-induction, what

method should be followed in wiring?
Ans. When iron conduits are used, the wires of
each circuit should not be installed in separate
conduits, because such arrangement will cause
excessive self-induction.
The importance of this may be seen from the
experience of one contractor, who installed feeders and
mains in separate iron pipes. When the current was
turned on, it was found that the self-induction was so
great as to reduce the pressure to such an extent that
the lamps, instead of giving full candle power, were
barely red. This necessitated the removal of the feeders
and main and re-installing them, so that those of the
same circuit were in the same pipe.

Ques. What is mutual induction?

Ans. Mutual induction is the effect of one
alternating current circuit upon another.
Fig. 2,677.—Measurement of self induction when the frequency is
known. The apparatus required consists of a high resistance or
electrostatic a.c. voltmeter, d.c. ammeter, and a non-inductive
resistance. Connect the inductive resistance to be measured as shown,
and close switch M, short circuiting the ammeter. Connect alternator in
circuit and measure drop across R and across Xi. Disconnect alternator
and connect battery in circuit, then open switch M and vary the
continuous current until the drop across R is the same as with the
alternating current, both measurements being made with the same
voltmeter; read ammeter, and measure drop across Xi. Call the drop
across Xi with alternating current E, and with direct current Ei, and the
reading of the ammeter J. Then L = √E2 + Ei2 ÷ 2π f I. If the
resistance Xi be known, and the ammeter be suitable for use with
alternating current, the switch and R may be dispensed with.
Then L = √E2 - Xi2 Ii2 ÷ 2π f I, where Ii is the value of the
alternating current. The resistance of the voltmeter should be high
enough to render its current negligible as compared with that through
Xi .

Ques. How is it caused?

Ans. It is due to the magnetic field surrounding a
conductor cutting adjacent conductors and inducing
back pressures therein.
This effect as a rule in ordinary installations is
negligible.

Transpositions.—The effect of mutual induction

between two circuits is proportional to the inter-
linkage of the magnetic fluxes of the two lines. This in
turn depends upon the proximity of the lines and upon
the general relative arrangement of the conductors.

Fig. 2,678.—Transposition diagram for two parallel lines consisting of

two wires each.

Fig. 2,679.—Transposition diagram for three phase, three wire line,

transposing at the vertices of an equilateral triangle. The line is
originally balanced and becomes unbalanced on transposing, a
procedure which should be resorted to only to prevent mutual
induction.
Fig. 2,680.—Transposition diagram of three phase, three wire line, with
center arranged in a straight line.

The inductive effect of one line upon another is

equal to the algebraic sum of the fluxes due to the
different conductors of the first line, considered
separately, which link the secondary line.
The effect of mutual induction is to induce surges
in the line where a difference of frequency exists
between the two currents, and to induce high
electrostatic charges in lines carrying little or no
current, such as telephone lines.
INDUCTANCE PER MILE OF THREE PHASE
CIRCUIT

Diam. Distance Self Inductance

Size B.&S.
(inches) d L
(inches) (henrys)
0000 .46 12 .00234
18 .00256
24 .00270
48 .00312
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