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MICHAEL ZINN ROBERT HOGENSON

Basics of Music
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SCHIRMER
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THOMSON LEARNING

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Library of Congress Catalog Card Number: 93-3591

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printing number
A POL eae oreelO

Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data

Zinn, Michael.
Basics of music : opus 1 / Michael Zinn, Robert Hogenson.—2nd
ed.
rae is
Includes index.
ISBN 0-02-873012-7 (alk. paper)
1. Music—Theory, Elementary. 1. Hogenson, Robert. II. Title.
MieZia 994
781—dc20 93-3591
GIP
MN

The paper used in this publication meets the minimum requirements of American National Stan-
dard for Information Sciences—Permanence of Paper for Printed Library Materials. ANSI Z39.48-
1984. 6 ™
Contents
Preface xi
To the Student xiii
To the Instructor XV

CHAPTER ONE PROPERTIES OF SOUND—BASIC NOTATION 1

PART A: MUSIC AND MUSIC THEORY Z
Basic Properties of Sound 2
Musical Dynamics 5)
Development of Music Notation 5
PART B: MODERN STANDARD NOTATION 7
Modern Staff 7
Clefs ie
Musical Alphabet—Pitch Reading 8
Leger Lines and Spaces 9
Grand Staff and Brace ll
Special Uses for Clefs 11
Half Steps and Whole Steps ll
Chromatic Signs 12
Enharmonic Equivalents 13
Chromatic and Diatonic Motion 13
The Octave 14
Octave Sign 15
Octave Registers 15
PART C: ELEMENTS OF MUSICAL DURATION 18
Measure, Bar Line, and Double Bar Line 18
Notes, Stems, Flags, and Beams 19
Notes and Rests 19
Ties, Slurs, and Phrase Marks 19
Duration Dots 20
Stem Direction 21
Stem Length 22
Fermata 22
Chapter One Drills and Exercises 28,

CHAPTER Two RHYTHM 35

Terminology: Beat, Pulse, Tempo,
Rhythm 36
Simple and Compound Time 36
Beat Divisions 36
Regular Divisions 36
Borrowed Divisions: Duplets and
Triplets Sih
CONTENTS

Irregular Divisions and Subdivisions

Metronome Tempo Indications
Commonly Used Tempo Markings
Summary of Regular, Irregular, and
Borrowed Divisions
Chapter Two Drills and Exercises

CHAPTER THREE METER AND METER SIGNATURES

Meter
Simple Meter Signatures
Compound Meter Signatures
Meter Classifications
Meter Notation: Beat Units
Beaming of Rests
Syncopation
Chapter Three Drills and Exercises

CHAPTER FOUR SCALES I: SCALE STRUCTURES

Scale
Basic Diatonic Scales
Major Scales and Tetrachords
Minor Scales and Tetrachords
Harmonic Form of Minor 85
Melodic Form of Minor 85
Chromatic Scale
Whole-Tone Scales
Summary
Chapter Four Drills and Exercises

CHAPTER FIVE SCALES II: MAJOR, MINOR, AND

PENTATONIC SCALES
(SCALE STRUCTURES II)
Relative Major and Minor Scale
Structures
Parallel Major and Minor Scale
Structures
Scale-Degree Names
Pentatonic Scales
Chapter Five Drills and Exercises

CHAPTER SIX INTERVALS

Numerical Classification
Quality Classification
Perfect Intervals
Major and Minor Intervals
Augmented and Diminished Intervals
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CONTENTS

The Tritone
Interval Chart
Compound Intervals
Inversion of Intervals
Guidelines for Inversion of Intervals
Chapter Six Drills and Exercises

CHAPTER SEVEN SCALES III: (REVISITED)

Major Scale
Minor Scale
Natural Minor Scale 145
Harmonic Minor Scale 146
Melodic Minor Scale 146
Chapter Seven Drills and Exercises

CHAPTER EIGHT KEY SIGNATURES

Placement and Spacing of Flats
Placement and Spacing of Sharps
Major Key Signatures: Sharps
Major Key Signatures: Flats
Minor Key Signatures
Line of Fifths and Circle of Fifths
Key Signatures Revisited
Chapter Eight Drills and Exercises

CHAPTER NINE TRIADS

Triad Structure
Root Position 182
Basic Triads
Triad Qualities
Seven Basic Triads 185
Major Triads
Minor Triads
First Inversion
Second Inversion
Chapter Nine Drills and Exercises
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CHAPTER TEN DIATONIC TRIADS

Diatonic Triads in Major
Roman Numeral Identification
Diatonic Triads in Minor
Harmonic Minor 205
Natural Minor 207
Melodic Minor 208
Primary and Secondary Triads 209
vill CONTENTS

Primary and Secondary Triad

Relationships 209
Isolated Triads in Major and Minor 211
Chapter Ten Drills and Exercises 213

CHAPTER ELEVEN CADENCE STRUCTURES 229

Final Cadence Types 230
Authentic and Plagal Cadences 230
Perfect and Imperfect Cadences 231
Nonfinal Cadence Types 231
Half Cadence and Deceptive Cadence = 231
Cadence as Determined by Melodic
Demands 232
Chapter Eleven Drills and Exercises 235

CHAPTER TWELVE HARMONIZATION 245

Harmonizing a Melody 246
Step 1: Determine the Key 247
Step 2: Determine the Cadence Points 247
Step 3: Determine the Harmonic
(Rhythm) 248
Step 4: Sketch in Primary Triads 249 *
Secondary Substitution Chords: Adding
Harmonic Color 251
Chapter Twelve Drills and Exercises 253

CHAPTER THIRTEEN FORM IN MUSIC 261

Motive Structures 262
Repetition 262
Transposition 263
Sequence 264
Retrograde 264
Inversion 265
Retrograde Inversion 265
Augmentation and Diminution 266
Deletion and Embellishment 267
Intervallic Expansion and Contraction 267
Fragmentation 268
Musical Form 269
Phrase Structure 269
Period Form 269
Two-Part and Three-Part Form 270
Chapter Thirteen Drills and Exercises 273

APPENDIX A EAR- TRAINING EXERCISES 289 =

APPENDIX B KEYBOARD EXERCISES AND DRILLS 319

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THE WORLD SWAS)

Index 395
Pretace
DESIGN AND STRUCTURE

Basics of Music: Opus 1, second edition, is a textbook designed and structured for the
beginning student with little or no background in music. This concise, self-con-
tained text presents all the concepts necessary for a solid understanding of the basic
fundamentals of music theory. It represents the authors’ combined experience of
over fifty years of teaching, composing, and presenting concepts to students of all
ages. Written in a succinct, direct style, and richly illustrated with musical examples,
many from the literature, this text systematically teaches the essential concepts of
music theory, from basic notation to harmonization, cadence structures, motivic de-
velopment, and simple phrase structure and part forms. Taking a conceptual ap-
proach representative of the most current theoretical ideas, the authors emphasize
the broad concepts of music theory, minimizing memorization while facilitating
conceptual understanding and abstraction. Numerous exercises and drills at the end
of each chapter—plus six appendices, including three covering ear training, key-
board exercises and drills, and harmonic overtone series, and three more containing
reference charts for scales, key signatures, triads, and guitar fingerings, a complete
unit on modes and modal scale structures, and a collection of melodies—apply the
concepts presented in the text and provide for ample practice opportunities.

ORGANIZATION AND APPROACH

This text provides a complete teaching package—one that requires no further hand-
outs, manuscript paper, ear training, or keyboard supplements. Each chapter includes
educational goals and objectives, which state the concepts to be covered in the chap-
ter; concise, to-the-point explanations supported by clear musical examples, charts,
and diagrams; numerous practice exercises and drill materials; and blank staff
paper—perforated for easy removal—for in-class exercises and notes. The authors
have presented the material in the order they have found produces optimal results.
Since each chapter is self-contained, the instructor will be free to vary that order in
accord with personal teaching preferences. Topics covered, in order, include:

* properties of sound e basic scale concepts: diatonic,

e basic notation major, minor, whole-tone, and
e rhythm duration chromatic scales
¢ pitch notation e parallel and relative scale
e basic meters structures
PREFACE

* intervals ¢ basic harmonization

* transposition: majorand minor ¢ melodic motivic structures,
scales phrase structures, and part
¢ key signatures form
* triads (basic and diatonic) ¢ harmonic overtone series
¢ cadence structures * modal scales and transpositions

Concepts such as pitch notation, scales, and triads are covered at both the elemen-
tary and, in later chapters, the advanced levels, allowing a period of incubation
(with regard to student comprehension) to take place. Finally, the text includes
four chapters that discuss the function and use of triads, without dealing with the
more technical concepts of part writing or voice leading.
Since music fundamentals is often the only formal music course a student may
take, the broad coverage of this text is designed to provide the nonmajor with the
necessary background to continue lifelong musical skills as well as independent
music study. Among the features of this second edition are:

a complete, self-contained teaching package, including examples, exercises,

drills, optional ear-training and keyboard applications, and blank staff
paper; no additional materials are needed;
economical presentation; a terse, no-nonsense style featuring clear, concise de-
finitions supported by numerous diagrams, charts, and musical examples;
broad scope, streamlined and concise for quick comprehension, including
four chapters on the use and application of triads. This approach empha-
sizes application of theoretical concepts, thereby providing a solid founda-
tion for the future study and enjoyment of music;
chapter goals, to highlight key concepts presented in each chapter and to fa-
cilitate review;
numerous exercises and drills, direct and to the point, many from the litera-
ture, and perforated for easy removal—to provide ample practice of text
concepts;
ear-training and keyboard appendices, to provide the link between theoreti-
cal concepts and actual sound application and expression;
reference charts, providing quick access to all major and minor scales, key
signatures, all triads, and guitar chord fingerings;
cross-cultural collection of well-known melodies, providing extensive drill op-
portunities in harmonization and analysis.

The authors are grateful to the many students who have used this book and for
their comments and suggestions. The authors wish to express their appreciation to
Dr. David Herman, Chairperson, Department of Music, University of Delaware, for
his support and encouragement. Also the theory faculty, including Dr. Michael
Arenson and Dr. Peter McCarthy, whose suggestions were invaluable. The authors
also wish to express their gratitude to Maribeth Anderson Payne, Editor-in-Chief,
Schirmer Books, for her interest in and dedication to this project and her unending
patience; to theorists and colleagues, nationwide, who have contributed their com-
ments and criticisms in order to help make this a better edition; and to the many
theory and composition majors who have made valuable observations and com-
ments with regard to pedagogical approaches and techniques.
To the Student
Basics of Music: Opus 1 is carefully structured to maximize comprehension and to
minimize the time you must spend reading and memorizing. Designed to teach
concepts and skills to beginners or persons with little or no background in music,
each chapter presents a carefully prescribed amount of information.
‘Read each chapter carefully and then complete the drills and exercises that fol-
low. In order to encourage student—instructor interaction, answers are not given.
All pages are perforated so that exercises and drills can be removed and collected by
your instructor for evaluation. Self-tests are presented at the conclusion of the drills
and exercises in each chapter. These should provide you with instant feedback with
regard to your understanding of the material contained in each chapter. In addition,
a fold-out keyboard diagram is included in an envelope attached to the inside front
cover.
Appendix A deals with ear-training exercises, which are optional to many cours-
es in rudiments of music theory. Appendix B contains keyboard exercises that will
enhance your comprehension of the material and form a vital link between the
written word and the sound experience. Keyboard assignments provide an excel-
lent opportunity for nonverbal responses and allow you to express your under-
standing of concepts through simple motor skills. These keyboard assignments
require a minimal amount of technical proficiency, and all can be performed by the
beginner with little or no previous keyboard experience.
Appendix C presents optional coverage of the harmonic overtone series. Appen-
dix D contains reference charts for scales, key signatures, triad qualities, and guitar
chord fingerings; you might find these charts especially useful. Appendix E pre-
sents optional coverage of modes and modal scale structures. Appendix F is a col-
lection of melodies that can be used for additional practice in harmonization and
motivic analysis (chapters 12 and 13). At the conclusion of each chapter you will
find blank sheets of staff paper, also perforated for easy removal and provided so
that you may take notes or practice specific examples without having to purchase
blank staff paper.
To the Instructor
There are many theory fundamentals texts in the field today. Basics of Music: Opus 1
was inspired by the shortcomings of most of these texts. The authors were dissatis-
fied not only with the content, scope, and depth of coverage of most texts but also
with their presentation and format.
‘Texts written in a programmed instruction format can be useful to the student
with regard to self-pacing and immediate feedback; however, they provide little ref-
erence material and almost no continuity with classroom instruction. The authors
feel that nonprogrammed texts dealing with technical information should be suc-
cinct, straight to the point, and direct—encouraging student-teacher interaction
and promoting classroom discussion.
Educational goals are clearly displayed at the beginning of each chapter, thereby
affording easy access to the material in review. The book is intended to minimize
the amount of material that other texts expect students to memorize. In place of
blind memorization, a broader conceptualization is encouraged, an approach that
not only provides for student comprehension but also allows for the abstraction of
material essential to the understanding of music theory.
Each chapter is succinct in its text and richly illustrated with examples. Exercis-
es and drills follow each chapter and may be used for in-class drill and discussion
as well as for handed-in assignments; pages are perforated for easy removal. A wide
variety of material has been provided in the appendices. By selecting from those
drills, charts, and examples, you may shape the course material to the requirements
of your particular class. Appendices A and B are optional, although many classes
make use of ear-training skills (Appendix A) and keyboard applications (Appendix
B). Keyboard drills enhance the musical experience for the student by providing
the link between verbal abstraction and actual sounds. The keyboard assignments
require a nonverbal, musical expression from the student and do not require any
previous keyboard proficiency. Appendix C presents a full coverage of the harmon-
ic overtone series, which you may find to be a useful enhancement to student com-
prehension of tonal] materials. It can serve also as additional reinforcement of
interval skills. Appendix C is treated as a full, isolated chapter, having its own writ-
ten drills and exercises. Appendix D contains reference charts for all major and
minor scales, key signatures, and all qualities of triads. In addition, a guitar chord
fingering chart is included. Appendix E also presents a full coverage of modes,
modal scales, and transpositions. Many instructors include this information along
with the three chapters covering scale structures; many do not want this informa-
tion to “cloud” the scale presentation and may cover modes separately or even omit
this unit altogether. Appendix E is also treated as a full, isolated chapter, having its
own written drills and exercises. Appendix F contains a collection of melodies that
may be used for written, keyboard, and ear-training drills as well as for harmoniza-
tion, motivic and phrase analysis, as well as exercises in cadence structures.
Answer sheets for exercises and drills have not been provided in order to stimu-
late class discussion and to avoid providing answers, which the authors feel would
TO THE INSTRUCTOR

inhibit the conceptualization of the material. Answers are provided in the accompa-
nying Instructors’ Manual.
You may choose to present chapters out of their original order; feel free to do so,
since each chapter is a complete unit. The authors have presented the material in
its current order for the following reasons:

1. The presentation of pitch notation, followed by rhythm and duration, fol-

lowed by a return to pitch notation, allows a period of incubation
for student comprehension.
2. The concepts of intervals and of scale structures are best presented in the
order prescribed here. The idea of presenting scales first, followed
by intervals and related material, followed by a “scales revisited”
chapter attempts to interrelate scale structures with intervallic rela-
tionships—a beneficial abstraction and conceptualization of the
material.
3. Most theory texts deal with triads, and rightfully they should. This text
contains four chapters beyond triads that demonstrate the use of tri-
ads without delving into technical aspects of part writing and voice
leading. These aspects fall outside the scope of this book.
4. Since many students may never take advantage of further formal study in
music theory, this text is structured to provide the necessary back-
ground for the layperson to continue studying music literature and
history or a musical instrument.

Chapter 3 addresses the topic of meter. Many concepts with regard to meter have
recently been developed and have gradually moved into the arena of common prac-
tice. The reason that the authors chose a more traditional route in this text should
be obvious, as this text is intended for use in an introduction to music fundamen-
tals. The spirit of contemporary thought, however, permeates its pages.
In summary, this book presents a complete package—one that requires no sup-
plementary materials. It is intended as a rudiments edition, covering basic funda-
mentals of music theory. Some instructors may feel that the scope and content
may be beyond that of their own individual courses. Such items as pentatonic
scales, modal scales, the overtone series, and motivic melodic structures and
phrases may be considered optional material and their inclusion left to the discre-
tion of the instructor.
Cerrenom: | EF R OFAN.ee

Properties of Sound—
Basic Notation
SSHSSHHSSHSSHSHSSHOHSSHHHHHEHHHSSHHSSHSHHOHHSESSOSSHSOHSHHHHHSSHOSHHHSHHEHEHHHHHSHHHSOEHHOHHHHSHHHHHEOSHSHHSSHHEOHESESOHOSOSESETEOE

Part A
¢ The understanding of the concepts of
music and music theory

e The understanding of the basic prop-

erties of sound

¢ The ability to trace the development

of music notation

Part B
e The ability to identify and define the
basic elements of pitch notation

¢ The ability to identify and understand

commonly used musical signs and sym-
bols dealing with pitch

e The ability to write, in a clear and

concise manner, basic musical signs and
symbols

Part C
e The ability to identify and define the
basic elements of duration notation

¢ The ability to identify and understand

commonly used musical signs and sym-
bols dealing with duration

¢ The understanding of note values and

specific components of duration nota-
tion
2 PROPERTIES OF SOUND—BASIC NOTATION

COSHH SHHHSOHOSHHOHSSHHSHHHOHHHOHHS HEHEHE HHSSSSHSHOOHHHHHHHSHOSEHHFHHHSHHHEHHHFHSHHOSHSHFHHHSHHHOHSHHHSSHHOEEOHESD

PART A: MUSIC AND MUSIC THEORY

Music is one of the more abstract art forms because it is aural and therefore must
exist within a specific time span. In this respect, it is similar to dance and dramat-
ic arts (theater) because it requires what might be termed “durational memory.” It
is necessary to hold in your consciousness the events in the artform, the transi-
tion into and out of each of these events, and the interrelationships that exist be-
tween each of these events in order to fully appreciate the performance. The
visual arts can be viewed and appreciated in their entirety, and at one time, and
therefore do not require this unique element of time, although you can certainly
isolate your attention and concentrate specifically on textures, brush strokes,
blending of colors, composition, and so forth. As an artform, the live performance
of music might also be analogous to sculpture: both arts are limited by the space
in which they exist; and both are perceived by their respective audiences differ-
ently depending upon the physical location and position of those audiences.
Music utilizes space by means of the actual, physical location of its sound
source—that is, the location of the various instruments and groups of instruments
within an ensemble.
Music theory is the study of the specific elements of music—melody, harmony,
counterpoint, orchestration, form, and so on—which, when combined, can re-
flect performance practices according to historical periods and cultures. In this
text, the fundamentals of music theory are presented in the form of rules of com- a
mon practice pertaining to the functions of various musical components. A
knowledge of theory will provide a solid background in the performance practice
of your own instrument or voice. It also can provide some understanding with re-
spect to why a melodic phrase or specific harmony is interesting or perhaps bor-
ing; what makes a musical phrase work or causes it to fall apart; what actually
holds a piece of music together; or why a particular piece may sound disjointed
or lacking in unity.

BASIC PROPERTIES OF SOUND

The four basic properties of sound are:

1. frequency 3., cimbre
2. amplitude 4. duration

Frequency indicates how high or low the sound is perceived. The number of vibra-
tions per second (VPS), hertz (Hz), or cycles per second (CPS) are additional terms
used to define frequency. The actual frequency of a sound wave is referred to in mu-
sical terms as pitch.
Example 1.1a illustrates graphically a sound wave vibrating at one VPS; Exam-
ple 1.1b represents a sound wave vibrating at two VPS. ¢
Example 1.1
a.
Gita One Cycle aac b. — a Two Cycles ———

point Oe half cycle point

of rest of rest

:1 second :1 second
cycle 1 cycle 2

Example 1.1b represents a 2:1 ratio when compared to Example 1.la. This 2:1 fre-
quency ratio results in Example 1.1b sounding one octave higher than Example
1.la. The octave can be thought of acoustically as the most perfect interval (dis-
tance between two pitches) since the higher frequency gives the impression of
merely duplicating the lower one. As a perfect consonant interval, it is common to
all cultures; it is found in every scale and tuning system worldwide. The term dia-
pason (from the Greek, meaning “all the tones”) is also used to refer to the octave.
Consonant and dissonant intervals are differentiated by the relative, subjective
sense of either repose/relaxation (consonance) or stress/tension (dissonance).
Amplitude, or, in musical terminology, intensity, refers to how loud or soft a
sound is perceived—that is, volume.
The amplitude of a pitch can be shown graphically as in Example 1.2.

Example 2

point
amplitude amplitude
of rest P

The amplitude in Example 1.2a would sound louder than that in Example 1.2b be-
cause of the greater distance the sound wave moves away from the point of rest.

MUSICAL DYNAMICS

Musical volume is expressed as sound intensity or amplitude. This sound energy is

measured as decibels (db) levels. A decibel is a just-noticeable, or the smallest per-
ceptible difference in volume or amplitude. We live our everyday lives working
within a sound environment of various decibel levels. For example:
ui PROPERTIES OF SOUND—BASIC NOTATION

¢ the sound ofa quiet room is ca. 24-28 db

¢ the sound of normal conversation is ca. 65 db
¢ the sound of an operating factory or an orchestra at full volume is
ca. 100 db
e the sound of a jet plane taking off is ca. 140 db

Amplitude is expressed in musical terms as dynamics—a continuum of intensity

values, from very soft to extremely loud and strong. The more commonly used
terms are as follows:

Italian term Definition Symbol

Pianissimo Very soft pp
Piano Soft Pp
Mezzopiano Medium soft mp
Mezzoforte Medium loud mf
Forte Loud f
Fortissimo Very loud ff

Timbre refers to the tone quality of a sound and is the property enabling one to dis-
tinguish between different instruments or sound sources. The timbre or tone color
is determined by several factors:

¢ the material of which the instrument creating the sound is constructed

(wood, metal, string, vocal chords, etc.)
e the manner in which the sound is generated (plucked, bowed, struck,
blown, etc.)
¢ the number and intensity of the overtones’ present in the sound
e the acoustics of the environment in which the sound is produced

No acoustical musical instrument is capable of producing a pure sound or single

solitary pitch. All produce a composite sound, which consists of a principal (funda-
mental) pitch along with a number of other pitches (overtones) of lesser intensity.
For a complete discussion of this subject see Appendix C. Examples 1.3a and 1.3b
compare graphically the same frequency or pitch as sounded by instruments with
different timbres or tone qualities. Note that the wave lengths and intensities are
the same. The contour differences illustrate different timbres caused by the pres-
ence of different overtones.

‘See Appendix C, “Harmonic Overtone Series,” for a complete discussion of overtones.

Example 1.3

a. Trumpet

b. Clarinet

Duration is the property of sound that deals with all of the temporal (mensural) as-
pects of music. The time element in music includes concepts such as how long a
piece or musical phrase may last, the length of time a pitch may be sustained, or
how much time elapses between sounds. It may also refer to rhythm or the patterns
of sounds as they relate to a time frame. Durational aspects of music can also be
used to measure the basic distance between pulses or beats within a musical phrase,
thus determining the concept known as tempo, the rate of speed at which steady,
recurring pulses of time may pass. Chapter 2 will examine the various aspects of
duration in detail.

DEVELOPMENT OF MUSIC NOTATION

Musicians of other cultures have relied, and continue to rely, upon the oral (aural)
transmission of their musical art. Western musicians, however, have constantly
searched for notational techniques that would convey as precisely as possible the
true pitch, duration, and intensity, along with other nuances, of their aural art
forms. Inadequacies of earlier notational systems were and continue to be the prime
motivation in the search for clearer graphic representation. Current standard West-
ern notation—referring exclusively to musical cultures of Western Europe and
their influence worldwide—is the cumulative result of our attempts to arrive at a
more or less authentic score, one that is true to its actual sound.
Early attempts at musical notation witnessed the use of nonstaved scores, which
used letters, dots and dashes, or other signs and configurations to express relative
pitch. The durational aspect was excluded for the most part. The relative vertical
position of the written symbols was meant to suggest the highness or lowness of
the sounds. The durational aspects (mensuration) continued to be inadequately
represented until measured (durational) notation came into use approximately
1250 a.D. This thirteenth-century durational notation remains subject to interpreta-
tion by music scholars. Prior to the eleventh century, a one-line (Ex. 1.4) or some-
times two-line staff appeared; a red line represented the note F and a yellow (or
sometimes green) line represented the note C. The use of the four-line staff, which
Fe ae rey /

more than doubled the number of pitches that could be precisely notated, first ap-
peared as early as 1000 A.D., and eventually became the standard for plainsong’ no-
tation (Ex. 1.5). As early as the thirteenth century the five-line staff was used for
polyphonic music—music for several vocal or instrumental lines sounding simul-
taneously, each having a more or less individual character. It is speculated that this
fifth line was added to the existing four in order to more accurately represent and
accommodate, in notation, the human vocal range.

a es ee a oe BeyA 5 ): % Bh Der Treee

Plainsong (Gregorian Chant): Four-Line Staff with Modern Interpretation

AAGWEES SE Ga ONE bee So ma wi aoe oo eS al eg ee

Ho-di - e Chri - stus na - tus est:

modern interpretation

Various types of tablature notation were used between the fifteenth and seven-
teenth centuries, tablature being a general term to define notational devices using
systems other than the staff and notes to represent music. One of the more innova-
tive was lute tablature, where horizontal lines represented the actual strings of the
lute (Ex. 1.6). One of the major weaknesses of this notation was the fact that the
tuning of the strings was not standardized and had to be qualified. The use of two
staves for the notation of keyboard music came into use in the sixteenth century.

*Plainsong is commonly used to refer to Gregorian chant, a single-line music that is unaccompanied and nonmetric.
SOSSOHSSSHEHOHSHSHSSHSSHSSHSHSHSSHSHSHHSHSSOHHSHSHSHSHHHSHSHSOHHHSHTFHOHHHHOHOHSHHHSHHSHHOHHHOHHHHHHOHHHOSEHSOHSHOHEEEES

PART B: MODERN STANDARD NOTATION

MODERN STAFF

Most Western music today is written on an arrangement of five equally spaced hor-
izontal lines. The five lines and the four spaces that occur between the lines are
called a staff (plural staffs or, preferably, staves). The lines and spaces are numbered
upward from the bottom to the top (Ex. 1.7).

fourth space
_—ifth line
=—fourth line
third space ————
—— third line
second space ——
second line
first space
™ first line

CLEFS

Letter names cannot be given to the lines and spaces of a staff until a clef is em-
ployed. When this occurs, a letter name can be assigned to each line and space. The
8 most commonly used clefs are given in Example 1.8.
senna Seances

a. b. Cc. d. e.

== EE —s. {
Treble or Bass or Neutral clef Alto or Tenor
G clef F clef C clef clef

1. Example 1.8a shows the treble or G clef, in which the second line of the
staff is always G.
2. Example 1.8b shows the bass or F clef, in which the fourth line of the staff
is always F.
3. Example 1.8c shows the neutral clef, in which no exact letter name is as-
signed to any given line or space. This is frequently used for percus-
sion notation.
4. Example 1.8d shows the alto or C clef, in which the third line of the staff
is always C. The line or space on which it is placed is always middle
G:
5. Example 1.8e shows the tenor C clef, in which the fourth line of the staff
is always middle C.

MUSICAL ALPHABET—PITCH READING

The musical alphabet contains seven letters: A, B, C, D, E, F and G. Example 1.9 il-
lustrates the placement of the letter-named pitches assigned to specific lines and
spaces when various clefs are used.

Example 1.9

Alto = d ao = aise g 2 1-4 S =

Example 1.10a shows the musical alphabet as it appears on the keyboard and Ex-
ample 1.10b as it appears on the combined treble and bass clef staves.

*The C clef is a moveable clef. It may appear in different positions, naming various lines of the staff as C. Its flexible po-
sitioning avoids the excessive use of leger lines and spaces as it best accommodates the range of various instruments or
voices.
Example 1.10

LEGER LINES AND SPACES

When notes extend beyond the range of the staff, leger lines and leger spaces are
employed.* Leger lines and spaces are generally short-term extensions of the five-
line staff system. They enable one to write specified notes beyond the range of the
five-line staff (Exx. 1.11 and 1.12%).

Example 1.11

Leger Space Notes

‘Either “leger” or “ledger” are considered acceptable spellings.

a. Second leger line above the treble clef.
b. Third leger space above the treble clef.
c. Second leger line below the treble clef.
d. First leger space above the bass clef.
e. Third leger line above the bass clef.
f. First leger line below the bass clef.

Example 1.13 illustrates how notes written below the treble clef would be notated
at the same pitch in the bass clef.

a A eee q||
=
eel Satie ett: ee

= ===
Example 1.14 shows how notes written above the bass clef would be written at the
same pitch in the treble clef.

a. C

cs D f é we) A =
‘S oO = 2 Oo ss

| a
PROPERTIES OF SOUND—BASIC NOTATION 11

GRAND STAFF AND BRACE

When the treble and bass clefs are joined together with a brace, the two clefs are
called the grand staff. The C between the bass and treble clefs is called “middle” C.
It may also be notated as the first leger line above the bass clef. Note that only three
notes separate the treble and bass clefs: B, C, and D (Ex. 1.15).

Example 1.15

Brace——_

Bar line

SPECIAL USES FOR CLEFS

The C clef (Ex. 1.16a) is occasionally used for the tenor (high male) voice of a
choral composition and is placed in the third space. This placement enables the
singer to “think” in the treble clef because all of the lines and spaces have the same
letter names as those in the treble clef. The actual pitch will sound an octave lower.
Example 1.16b is also used for the tenor voice in some choral works. The notes
sound an octave lower than written. Example 1.16c indicates that the notes sound
an octave higher than written.

In notating by hand the various clefs, try to duplicate each clef exactly as it appears
in print. Careful notation is critical in order to facilitate the reading of music. You
should apply this principle of clear music notation to all signs and symbols used to
represent musical sound.

HALF STEPS AND WHOLE STEPS

On the keyboard, the interval of a half step is the difference in pitch between any
key and the key immediately above or below it. A whole step is an interval that
12 PROPERTIES OF SOUND—BASIC NOTATION

contains two half steps. Example 1.17 illustrates where half and whole steps appear
between white keys on the keyboard.

sdedssieth fA ae Ae ot Eeample LU 1h EE

LLL
WWW%WWYWWW
% WW

CHROMATIC SIGNS

There are five common chromatic signs that are used to alter the pitch of a written
note.* A chromatic sign affects only the pitch to which it is applied within a given
measure and only in the particular octave in which it appears (Ex. 1.18).

bb > : or HH
Double Flat Natural Sharp Double

When placed before a note:

a double flat lowers a note two half steps;

a flat lowers a note one half step;°
a natural cancels a previously placed chromatic sign;
a sharp raises a note one half step;°
a double sharp raises a note two half steps;
Soe
Se an individual chromatic sign alters only the specific note to which it is ap-
plied and no other octave occurrence of that note;
7. a bar line cancels a chromatic sign alteration.’

*The term “accidental” is a frequently encountered synonym for chromatic sign.

°*Chromatic signs are “relative” symbols. In a certain context, a flat can be used to raise a note (if preceded by a double
flat) and a sharp to lower one (if preceded by a double sharp).
‘Occasionally, a chromatic sign is inserted after a barline as a reminder to the performer, thus serving a redundant func-
tion.
PROPERTIES OF SOUND—BASIC NOTATION 13

ENHARMONIC EQUIVALENTS

Notes that are of the same pitch but that have a different spelling are called enhar-
monic. Example 1.19 illustrates the enharmonic equivalents for the black and
white keys of the keyboard.

Example 1.19
Db Eb Gb Ab Bb
c# Dt FR GR At

.) Co) ae ete) Cane Bp

BR. Cx “Dx ER) F* “Gx cAx
Dbb Ebb FL Gbb Abb Bbb Ch

CHROMATIC AND DIATONIC MOTION

A half step is labeled chromatic if the same letter of the musical alphabet is used for
both pitches. If adjacent letters are used, it is labeled a diatonic half step (Ex. 1.20).

Example 1.20

chromatic chromatic diatonic diatonic

Most whole steps are diatonic and are written with adjacent letters of the musical
8 alphabet (Exx. 1.21a, b, and c). Occasionally a chromatic whole step will appear
Cex: 121d):
Example 1.21
zi b. C: d.

—————_———
ry

diatonic diatonic diatonic chromatic

On the staff or keyboard, when chromatic signs are not used, diatonic half steps
naturally occur between E and F and between B and C. The rest of the adjacent let-
ter relationships are diatonic whole steps. Throughout this text these “naturally oc-
curring half steps” will be referred to as NOHS.

EE OGTAVE

An octave is an interval in which two notes are separated by the distance of twelve
half steps or six whole steps. Each of the two notes will have the same number and
kind of chromatic sign and will have the same letter name (Ex. 1.22).

Example ee
;
re
-
a

———
b.
a.

— So
=
Octaves

Example 1.23 illustrates octave intervals as they appear on the keyboard.

[a

‘ .
. ’ ’
a. White keys b. aa
ie Ss

figjajblc |dje|f|glajb|cidjelfigjajbic|djelfjgja|bic|dje

eeeee a ee ee
PROPERTIES OF SOUND—BASIC NOTATION 15

OCTAVE SIGN

The ottava (octave) sign is represented by the symbol 8, or 8”, and indicates that
the notes are:

1. to be played an octave higher if the sign is placed above the notes (Ex.
1.24a)
2. to be played an octave lower if the sign is placed below the notes (Ex.
1.24b)

Example 1.24.

The double octave sign is represented by the symbol 15, or 15ma (abbreviation for
quindicesima), and is used to indicate that the note or notes are to be played two
octaves higher or lower than written, depending upon the placement of the sign
(Ex. 1.25). Publishers and composers have occasionally used the erroneous symbol
“16va” to indicate a double octave displacement.

Example 1.25

OCTAVE REGISTERS

It is possible to be quite specific when referring to any pitch on the staff or key-
board. Examples 1.26a and b show the letter designations as well as the register
label. The distance encompassed by each register is one half step smaller than an
octave; all Cs initiate a change in register designation.
a s 15----- 1
5 in & = aes ia

=
Register: one line two line three line four line five line
Letter or prime
Designation: c' to b! c2 to b2 c3 to b3 c4 to b4 cé

Register: Small Great Contra Subcontra

Letter
Designation: ctob CtoB CC to BB AAA
BBB>
BBB
or A3, Bb3, B

Note that middle C has a superscript “1” and that the number increases by one with
each subsequent higher register. All notes from small c and above are lower-case
letters.
Note also that on the standard piano keyboard only three notes are found in the
subcontra register, the lowest note being AAA or A’. Only one note, c’, the highest
key on the piano keyboard, is found in the five-line register. The type of letter des-
ignation, that is c', d', e’, and so on, remains the same throughout each register.®
Example 1.27 shows octave registers from the subcontra to the five-line range as
they appear on the grand staff and standard piano keyboard.

*An alternate system exists for the labeling of octave registers. It consists of naming the lowest C on the piano keyboard
as C', the note one octave higher as C’, the note an additional octave higher as C’, and so on. In this system all letters are
capitalized and the superscript number remains the same for all notes in the register. The highest sound on the piano
keyboard would be C*, and the three lowest notes would be A®, B®, and B°. The problem with using this system is that it
tends to be limited to the 8 ranges of the acoustical piano, in that it assumes that this instrument is the standard and
the norm, not accounting for the extended range of electronic instruments (such as keyboards and synthesizers) of the
twentieth century.
e
eae | Re ie 2

:4a1s1Bay
e4}U09 Jea1H JEWS aUO aul] OM} QUl| aaiy}aul]
43}13] 40 4noy aul] aAly aul]
019999 awd
go) qolo 19 01 19
:uoleubisag 79 0} Zz 59 0} €q 49 0} pq g?

e) me)
/z2 | ¢9 I p2 | s2

/ / / iz
e4UODGNSe4JUOD yeas !
JEWS L/ 3ul| Z aul| € aul| fp
®IPPIW
O aull 6 oul
Example 1.28 displays notes from different registers along with their respective let-
ter designations.

Example 1.28

SPOSHSHSHSHHHSEHHSHHSHSHHSHSSHHSHHHHHHFTFHHHHHHSHTHHHSHHHHHHSHHHSHHSHTHHTHHSHTHHSHHHSHTHHHHHHTHHSHESHHHHESHHHESHESHESESEEHOESEHS

PART C: ELEMENTS OF MUSICAL DURATION

MEASURE, BAR LINE, AND DOUBLE BAR LINE

A measure is the staff space that occurs between two bar lines, and it contains a
measured amount of musical material (note and rest values). A bar line is repre-
sented by a single vertical line. It divides musical material into measures. A double
bar line is represented by a double vertical line. The double bar appears, for the
most part, at the end of a composition and may also appear at the end of a section
of a piece (Ex. 1.29).

Example 1.29

1)M
(1) (1) (1) - Ser ne
(3) Double bar line
PROPERTIES OF SOUND—BASIC NOTATION 19

NOTES, STEMS, FLAGS, AND BEAMS

The various parts of a note, as well as flags and beams, are illustrated in Example
1.30. Note that beams are frequently used instead of a series of flagged note values.

ee J Stem Nes Flag ggg Se Japs tye Ieee

Beam Flag
Note head

NOTES AND RESTS

The names given to notes and their corresponding rests are given in Example 1.31,
which shows the range of notes and rest values, from the longest to the shortest.
Each successive note or rest value equals one-half of the duration of the preceding
note or rest.

Example 1.31

Notes: FQ ° J J a) A i i ;
Breve or Whole Half Quarter Eighth 16th 32nd 128th
Double Whole j

Rests: @ - -_ é t | j j

TIES, SLURS, AND PHRASE MARKS

Slurs and ties are identical markings in terms of notation. Their functions are the
same regardless of which of the two terms you see. A tie is a curved line that con-
nects two or more adjacent notes of the same pitch. It asks the performer to con-
nect these notes, which, in this case, means to sustain the first pitch into the second
without a break or release. A slur is a curved line that connects two or more differ-
ent notes in a musical phrase. This time the same curved line means to perform
these notes as connected as possible. This type of articulation in which the notes
are connected in a smooth manner is called legato.
A phrase mark is a curved line that indicates a complete musical thought. Some
musicians like to think of a phrase as being analogous to a written sentence (see
@ =x. 132).
Example 1.32
(2) (2) (1)

icone (2)
(1) Tie Ne es le aac
(2) Slur (3)
(3) Phrase Mark

DURATION DOTS

Any note or rest may be followed by one or more dots (i.e., placed to the right of a
note head or rest).’ A single dot will increase the duration of a note or rest by half
again its original value. Additional dots add one-half the duration of each previous
dot. A dot placed above or below a note is not a durational dot but rather an articu-
lation dot; it indicates a short or staccato articulation. Example 1.33 illustrates how
dotted and doubly dotted notes would be represented if ties were employed in place
of the dots.

Example 1.33

*Earlier musical scores sometimes followed the practice of placing a dot after the bar line in place of tying a note across
the bar line (see Ex. 1.34); however, this system is no longer in practice.
PROPERTIES OF SOUND—BASIC NOTATION 7A)

STEM DIRECTION

The rules frequently followed for determining stem direction in a single-line

melody are given below.

1. Notes that occur on the middle line of the staff may have the stem going
upward or downward (Ex. 1.35a).
2. Notes below the middle line have stems that go upward (Ex. 1.35b).
Notes above the middle line have stems that go downward (Ex. 1.35c).
4. Stems generally extend to the next octave (a vertical distance encompass-
ing eight lines and spaces) from any given pitch, whether placed
above or below the note head.
5. Flags always appear on the right side of the note value, regardless of stem
direction.

Example 1.35.

Note that when the stem comes downward from the note head it is attached to the
left side of the head. When the stem goes upward it is attached to the right side of
the note head. The stem direction of a group of notes to be beamed together is de-
termined by the greater number of notes that lie either above or below the middle
line as well as by their proximity to the middle line (Ex. 1.36).

Example 1.36

It is sometimes acceptable to allow the stems of beamed notes to go in either direc-

tion (Ex. 1.37). Notice that when notes are beamed together, some stems may ex-
ceed an octave in length; however, the shortest stem must span the distance of an
octave on the staff.

or

1 —=—-s =e = 2 sas
22 PROPERTIES OF SOUND—BASIC NOTATION

In four-part choral writing with two voices sharing the same staff, it is customary to
have the stems of the soprano and tenor voices going upward and those of the alto
and bass voices going downward (Ex. 1.38).

Example 1.38

oo soprano
alto

: $ tenor
bass

STEM LENGTH

Note heads written two or more leger lines above or below the staff will generally
have stems extending to the middle line of the staff. Exceptions are 32nd and 64th
notes, which generally require slightly longer stems in order to accommodate the
additional flags or beams.

FERMATA

A fermata (~) is a symbol that can indicate one of two things.

1. The notes or rests above or below the fermata will have a longer, indeter-
minate duration.
2. The conclusion of the phrase. In this case, the final chord or note does not
necessarily receive a longer duration.

A type of fermata that indicates holding a given note, chord, or rest for a longer du-
ration, but to a lesser degree than the standard fermata, is the “short fermata” (m).
Some contemporary composers use this “square” fermata to indicate a longer dura-
tion by notating actual duration in seconds over it (=).
Complete the chapter 1 drill sheets on the following pages before continuing.
See Appendix A and Appendix B for further applications of this material.
SHEER O Sees ee eeaseeeeeeee eee ees ee ees eeseeHerESES EEE EEEEOTOSEOEE ROUGE EES ES SSEESEOEEEHESOEEOEHOEEOOSE OHH OH EOE EE HE OH EDO HE HEED HESS EEE EEDEHE RES EEED EEE SEEN ESOS EES EESEEUESESHEESESEO USER ESPESEESEUSSOESOESEOEEEEEO OSES ESEEESE SEE EEO ESEOS

CHAPTER ONE DRILLS AND EXERCISES

PARTS A & B: BASIC PROPERTIES OF SOUND

AND MUSICAL DYNAMICS

1. The four basic properties of sound are:

c
d
2. The property of sound that refers to a sound’s tone color is
3. The property of sound that refers to the highness or lowness of a pitch is
4 The property of sound that refers to how loudly or softly a sound is perceived is called

5. The property of sound that refers to how long the sound or silence is perceived is

6. The dynamic symbol used to indicate “softly” is

7. The dynamic symbol used to indicate “very loud” is
8. The dynamic symbol used to indicate “moderately loud” is

PART C: MUSIC NOTATION

1. Beam each group of notes as eighth notes.

24 PROPERTIES OF SOUND—BASIC NOTATION

2. Identify the pitches as notated below.

a.

ET ne ee en ee ee
3. Identify the intervals given as: Enh. (enharmonic), CH (chromatic half step), DH (diatonic half
step), DW (diatonic whole step), or CW (chromatic whole step).
26 PROPERTIES OF SOUND—BASIC NOTATION

4. Notate the requested type of motion (up T or down J).

D=diatonic Cz=chromatic We=wholestep H=halfstep Enh. = enharmonic
exe
a.

: DW t DH t CHt Enh. CW
b.

DW? DH 4 DWt CHy DH ¥

C.

a ee
DHy CH) DWt DH * Enh.
d.

ee Ee
Enh CHy DWy CHt CW
ee

DH4 DH t DHy Enh. DW 4

if

DW t DW \ DH ¢ CW CH 4
g.
OCS
—=—————— EE) ee ee eee a ee
SS
is a

DW ¥ Enh CHV CW t DH ¥
h.

Br DW) CH t CW DW 4
i.

DW 4 CHy DH 4 Enh. DH ¢

j
TARA NERO eee Cees eee ee ee EEE eHeE SEO eeeTESEEE EEO E EEO EHO OEE OER GEN EDeeHEHDE EEE THEE EH OHH OSEEUEOHHES SEETHER EEE HEHE RHEE EERE HEHE SEES EEE EH EEESEEHESSEEEEEEESEEEEESER EEE SEH EERSEREEEE EEE eEEEeEeeHEseeseEsSEESEESEEESOEH CHEESES EES OE HESS

PROPERTIES OF SOUND—BASIC NOTATION 21

5. In the following drill, pitches are notated in one of the two clefs of the grand staff. Renotate the
pitches given in the other clef so that each will sound at the “unison” (same pitch), and identify
each note with the appropriate register designation.

d.
2, 1
a
Se
ANY

8= 1S
- 2 S =
eye - = -
Oo I ees
7th
tite aa aa eae eg oar eee
PROPERTIES OF SOUND—BASIC NOTATION

6. Write the pitches indicated.

al d2 f#2 eb gf! cb b4 Fe el

GG ab cf A3 BB D BBBb

fe Identify each note with the proper register designation.

8. Identify each pitch in the example below according to its octave register designation.
NOTATION REVIEW (SELF-TEST: CHAPTER ONE)

The G clef is also known as the clef.

When the two dots of the F clef surround the fourth line of the staff it is also called the
clef.
When the C clef appears on the third line of the staff it is also called the
clef.
When the range of the music extends above or below the staff, notes are written on
lines or in spaces.
Stems are normally an (interval) in length.
An eighth note is written with flag(s) or beam(s).

A 16th note is written with flag(s) or beam(s).

Du A
oN is a curved line that connects two or more adjacent notes of the same
pitch.
A single dot placed after a note or rest increases its value by
A second dot increases the value of the note or rest by
The musical alphabet contains (number) letters.

NOHS occur on the staff and keyboard between and

and and
Chromatic half steps are written with (check one) adjacent/ the
same letters of the alphabet.
Diatonic half steps are written with (check one) adjacent/ the same
letters of the alphabet.
The sign 8va placed above notated pitches indicates
The sign 15ma placed below notated pitches indicates:
PROPERTIES OF SOUND—BASIC NOTATION 51

a aS paeia a
32 PROPERTIES OF SOUND—BASIC NOTATION
FOP eee eee e eee e eee e eaten ea ee ena e sean e sense es eneeeeseeseHseEH EEE EESEEEEEEE SEE ESSEESEE SEES EEEOEEEEEESESESEESESEEEESEESEESE ESTES EESEEEEEHEEESE ESR EEEE EEE EEEHTE EEE E HEHEHE HEEEEEHEEEESESETEEEH OEE EE SEEOSOESEESEEESEEEEEHESESEESE SEES

PROPERTIES OF SOUND—BASIC NOTATION Sis)

64 PROPERTIES OF SOUND—BASIC NOTATION
CretteeAs so) BY OR TT Ww oO

e An understanding of the terms used

to define the temporal aspects of music

e An understanding of simple and com-

pound beat units

¢ The ability to solve simple rhythmic

problems

¢ The ability to tap simple and complex

rhythmic patterns

e The ability to divide and subdivide

beat units into regular, irregular, or bor-
rowed divisions and subdivisions

35
RHYTHM

TERMINOLOGY: BEAT, PULSE, TEMPO, RHYTHM

The terms beat, pulse, or stress refer to regularly recurring pulses within a given
period of time. Tempo indicates the speed at which these pulses occur. Rhythm can
be defined as a temporal pattern played against a background of beat units, at times
corresponding to, and at times conflicting with, the beat, pulse, or stress. Any sin-
gle note value may serve as the designated beat unit of a composition. Meter and
tempo are two factors that help to determine this designation.

SIMPLE AND COMPOUND TIME

Simple and compound are terms that indicate how the beat unit divides (see Ex.
ZA

1. If the beat unit is an undotted note value, the unit will divide equally into
two parts and multiples of two (simple time).
2. If the beat unit is a dotted note value, the unit will divide equally into
three parts and multiples of three (compound time).

Example 2.1
SIMPLE COMPOUND

Beat unit J Beat unit .

Division Joa Division J J )

Subdivision apn Subdivision JRE

BEAT DIVISIONS

Regular Divisions
The divisions and subdivisions of a beat may be regular (or normal), irregular, or
borrowed. Example 2.2 illustrates how regular divisions and subdivisions would
occur in simple and compound time if the quarter note and dotted quarter note
were to serve as the beat unit.’

‘The beat-unit values chosen in Examples 2.2 and 2.3, although commonly used, were arbitrarily selected; any note
value can serve in this capacity.
Example 2.2
SIMPLE COMPOUND
Beat unit y Beat unit -h

Division nae Division d i 7

Subdivision deans Subdivision Wogedeo tae

Subdivision lems Subdivision bier mie erie

Subdivision Subdivision

Example 2.3 illustrates the regular divisions and subdivisions of the half note and
dotted half note.

Example 2.3
SIMPLE (undotted note) COMPOUND (dotted note)

Beat unit d Beat unit 4

Division (2) d d Division (3) d A A

Subdivision (4) d J B 5 Subdivision (6) ’ J J 7 Z 3

Subdivision (8) dJ Je J JA 5 Subdivision (12) ; 7 7 7 3 7 7 5 7 7 e 5

Subdivision (16) ddddddddddddddde Subdivision (24) dddddddddddddddddddddddd

Note that an undotted note divides and subdivides into patterns of 2, 4, 8, 16, 32,
and so forth. A dotted note divides and subdivides into patterns of 3, 6, 12, 24, and
so on. All of the divisions and subdivisions in Examples 2.2 and 2.3 are regular pat-
terns.

Borrowed Divisions: Duplets and Triplets

An irregular division is labeled borrowed when it appears as a division of a simple
beat unit into three equal parts or as a division of a compound beat unit into two
equal parts. Equal patterns of 6, 12, or 24 notes may be thought of as borrowed
subdivisions of a simple beat, and equal patterns of 4, 8, 16, or 32 notes may be
thought of as borrowed subdivisions of a compound beat. Generally, only irregular
divisions of two or three equal parts (duplets and triplets) are termed borrowed.
Example 2.4 illustrates borrowed divisions (duplets and triplets) for various
simple and compound beat units.
Beat unit ) a) 4 J. J sh

Borrowed division fr i. fer im J } J d d

The notation for the duplet is not standardized; it occurs in compound time with
different note values, depending on the composer or publisher. A duplet appearing
as a borrowed pattern with a beat unit of a dotted quarter note has been found in
published compositions as illustrated in Example 2.5. Similar duplet notational dis-
crepancies can be found based on other compound beat-unit values as well.

—2
a. J if era ge Oe?

Irregular Divisions and Subdivisions

It is possible to have a beat unit divide into any desired number of notes of equal du-
ration. If the number of notes is not a regular division or subdivision, the pattern is
called irregular. Example 2.6 shows regular and irregular divisions of a quarter note.

Regular Irregular

: (beat unit)

(2) a ll
8th not
notes a te te ne

aodae
16th notes 5

& dddeddde
32nd notes
9) ddddddddd
RHYTHM 39

For determining the correct note values for irregular divisions and subdivisions,
the guidelines listed below should be followed.

1. Keep in mind the note values of the regular divisions and subdivisions.
2. To determine the note values to be used, employ the note values of the
regular division or subdivision that occur prior to the number of
notes in the irregular pattern (Ex. 2.6). When considering note
values for duplets, since there is no previously used division
value, the assigned note value should be the same as it appears in
the division.
-3. Foran irregular pattern, the number of notes in the pattern must be writ-
ten above or below the unit, as an Arabic numeral (usually at stem
or beam side).
4. If the group of notes in the irregular pattern are not beamed together
(quarter notes or longer note values), they must be grouped within
a bracket.

In Example 2.6, with the quarter note as the unit, irregular divisions of 5, 6, and 7
notes appear as 16th notes. Sixteenth notes are appropriate for these irregular divi-
sions because the use of 32nd notes would not occur until at least 8 notes (regular
subdivision) were to be used. In Example 2.7a no bracket is necessary because the
7) notes are beamed together. In Example 2.7b a bracket is necessary.

Example, 2.7

3 dae
Soon ....
Example 2.8 illustrates irregular rhythmic patterns that require the use of a bracket.

Example 2.8
Beat Irregular divisions requiring brackets

—3—
d ee
dE: ali wie ial Ale ela ed
ee oe eekdieidccae
9a Regular divisions and subdivisions do not require the use of either the
bracket or number.
Necadeateedeusdesewcdsacacsecsucacevdtstacanneyeovacetartecescersceacstenecsavedesssea tate tersivenssessucaseronecncecnctsresstctvucesacseattededrseJdavedsd sxe st eases] egacaeat rate astces wetter sieetsere aap weas nt

Example 2.9 illustrates the regular, borrowed, and irregular subdivisions of a half
note and a dotted quarter note.

Example 2.9

J
Regular
i
Irregular Regular Irregular

Division d d

Subdivision ina i io mp
¢L

ee) 6
s'dsvarscee
J 1 J A pattern of 8 to 11
@@ notes would use 16th
7 notes.
a@eee@

ha) DEPRES fideddddddde

9 13

10
JepppEppER A pattern of 14 to 23
notes would use 32nd
11 notes.

12

@ Ceo
13

dedanavaceres 14

Jiddddddddddda 15

oe e

A pattern of 17 to 31 notes A pattern of 25 to

on a beat would use 32nd 47 notes would use
note values. 64th note values.
PPP errr errr rier rrrerrr rrr reer rer rere reer reser r errr errr rere reer ree reer rere reer reer reer errr rreee eeereer eee reer eee reer reer ere eee eee eee eee ee eee

RHYTHM 41

METRONOME TEMPO INDICATIONS

The tempo of a composition is usually indicated by a metronome marking at the

beginning of the piece; for example, M.M. (Malzel’s Metronome) J = 60. This means
that sixty quarter notes will occur within a minute’s duration, at a rate of one per
second.

COMMONLY USED TEMPO MARKINGS

Although somewhat subjective, the following Italian terms are frequently used to
describe the general range of tempos, from extremely slow to very fast.

Tempo Metronome Setting

Adagissimo (extremely slow) 40

Grave (slow, solemn)
Largo (slow)
Larghetto (slow, somewhat faster than largo)
Lento (slow)
Adagio (slow)
Andante (moderately slow) 60
Andantino (somewhat quicker than andante)
Moderato (a moderate tempo)
Allegretto (moderately fast)
Allegro (fast) 120
Presto (very fast) |
Prestissimo (as fast as possible) 208+

Because of the lack of universal agreement on the exact meanings and tempos of
these terms, it is recommended that a metronome indication be included with the
general tempo indication.

SUMMARY OF REGULAR, IRREGULAR,

AND BORROWED DIVISIONS

1. Given a simple beat unit, a pattern of 2 equal notes is a regular division,

and patterns of 4, 8, 16, 32, and so forth equal notes are regular sub-
divisions.
2. Given a compound beat unit, a pattern of 3 equal notes is a regular divi-
sion, and patterns of 6, 12, 24, 48, and so on equal notes are regular
subdivisions.
en
ie rer rr rrrr reer errr irrtrrr titttrrrr irri irtitty

RHYTHM

Irregular patterns of 2 and 3 (duplet and triplet) are given the special des-
ignation of borrowed. Generally only duplets and triplets are labeled
borrowed.
In simple time, equal note patterns of 6, 12, 24, and so on may be termed
borrowed subdivisions. Generally, they are referred to as irregular.
Wh In compound time, equal note patterns of 4, 8, 16, and so on may be
termed borrowed subdivisions. Generally, they are referred to as ir-
regular.
Egual note patterns other than 2, 3, 4, 6, 8, 12, 16, 24, 32, and similar
multiples are always labeled as irregular, regardless of the value of
the beat unit.
~ Borrowed divisions are “borrowed” only from divisions of a similar beat
unit, the only difference being the addition or omission of the dot.
Therefore, a beat unit of a quarter note borrows rhythmic patterns
from a beat unit of a dotted quarter note and vice versa. This proce-
dure applies to borrowed divisions for all beat-unit values.

Complete the chapter 2 drill sheets on the following pages before continuing. Also,
see Appendix A for ear-training exercises.
CHAPTER IWOsSDRICES*AND EXERCISES

1. Divide each beat unit into regular divisions and subdivisions.

a. Beat unit ne ra Pe

Division ee

Sondvicion jeies

Subdivision lererPPe:

b. Beat unit d. oo O°
Division

Subdivision

Subdivision

2. Notate the divisions and subdivisions indicated for each beat unit. The number of notes in each
pattern is given in parentheses. Classify as regular, irregular or borrowed.

a. Beat unit Division or Classification

subdivision
3
4 ex. (3) oS a pee > Borrowed
44 RHYTHM
bbb bbe heat rrr rrr rrr rirririrterrrrrirrrerrrrr errr rrr etree rrerrr ere erirerie rre rrr rireere errerrr rreereeereerrerreeerereeereerr errr eer)
RHYTHM se)

3. Classify the rhythmic patterns given as regular, irregular, or borrowed.

Beat Pattern Classification

a x ¢ Sima Reg. Z
5

o) : : @.

Sess
(=
.
Om

4. Complete the following:

ex. A d = 4 (number) 16th notes A Qs i eighth notes

An d) = ______ 32nd notes A o- = ____ 16thnotes

A O- = quarter notes A 4 = __ 16th notes

A 2) = ___ 16th notes An 2) = ___ 16th notes

A d = __ 32th notes A Af = eighth notes

A y = ____ eighth notes A o = quarter notes

A a; = ___ 16thnotes A QO- = half notes

A 4 = ___ 32ndnotes A aR = ____ 32nd notes

A d = ___ eighth notes A A = ____ quarter notes

46 RHYTHM

5. Complete the following:

ex. A eee tests A ae 2 oF. 7 szests

An 7 = _ ¥ rests A rh = ss ¥_~—s rests

A = = £2? ‘fésts A O me) = — 7 _~—~—s rests

A Ce Sere 7 rests A sige = _ss ¥_~—s rests

A se ee Ji Poets A Os =< i 2 rests

6. Rewrite the examples given using dots.

er oe

7. Describe the tempos of the musical terms given.

Largo Allegro

Lento Presto

Andante Adagio

Grave Allegretto
RHYTHM

8. Fill in the blanks, giving the correct number of divisions and subdivisions.

ex. A o ayes

Andes
ad 2
and =)
oe A

| Ee oe Se eel |
‘lay ef af ef ef ef af af J)
‘Tel ef ef ef ef af af af I)
(a GR ES ee BS ees

423 (Tel af ef a] af ef af a] af af af a/ af af of af J)
Tel of af af ef af a] af af al af af of of af af ||
jel
ef ef ef (Tel aj af ef al a/ af af af ef af af ef af af af Tf]
1S 59 Ge ee ae SS a BB
48 RHYTHM

9. Classify the bracketed patterns in the musical examples given as regular (R), irregular (I) or bor-
rowed (B). The beat unit is given with the metronome marking.
This Old Man, English Folk Song
Allegretto M.M. J = 100
ex. R

ye
ee
a= es — — == |

Old Joe Clark (variation), American Folk Song

Moderato M.M. J = 144
> a

aoe
a —~e >

ie) On Saacer.

ae

Invention No. 8, J. S. Bach

Vivace (lively) M.M. J = 144 | oo

a es
Invention No. 13, J. S. Bach
Allegro M.M. J = 104

SSS Ss
Prelude No. 1, Alexander Scriabin

Andante M.M. J = 72
ee ere |

ee SE. ee : ==

b) 5

i oak — ; ae ae j
nee fee amit ee aha race Oa Sinister mero netoennaninsenatnhvin nanan
49

Variations and Fugue on a Théme by Handel (Var. 2), Brahms

Animato M.M. J ca. 104

To Spring, Edvard Grieg

Allegro M.M. J. = 84

Fugue in G Minor (The Little), J. S. Bach

Andantino M.M. J = 88

Carnaval, R. Schumann
Lento M.M. J ca. 54 Saal
Seppreeerenrrrrrrerrrrerrerrrrrr rrttt rrr rrr trite

50 RHYTHM

10. To solve the following metronome problems, determine the ratio between the note value given
and the note value requested. Multiply or divide as necessary, as in Exercise 10a below. In obtain-
ing the answers to 10a, the following methods were employed.

1. The ratio of a quarter note to a half note is 2:1 (half as many). Divide 60 by
ae!)
2. The ratio of a quarter note to an eighth note is 1:2 (twice as many). Multi-
ply by 2. J = 120.
3. The ratio of a quarter note to a 16th note is 1:4 (four times as many). Mul-
tiply by 4. S= 240.

a. Given M.M. J= 60, what would be the tempos (metronome markings) of the following note values?
ex wl ee 230 2. J =120 a = 2240
b. Given M.M. J.= 30, what would be the tempos of the following note values?
l. J= pe aSees ae
c. Given M.M. J. = 120, what would be the tempos
temp¢ of the following note values?
1. j= Tied oe
d. Given M.M. J.= 60, what would be the tempos of the following note values?
ae eee ae
e. Given M.M. J= 120, what would be the tempos of the following note values?
le he ee
f. Given M.M. , = 48, what would be the tempos of the following note values?

Ik We De = 3 =
g. Given M.M. J= 108, what would be the tempos of the following note values?
1, = 2. J= aoe a ja, Je!

RHYTHM REVIEW (SELF-TEST: CHAPTER TWO)

1. Simple time means

2. Compound time means
3. In simple time, the beat unit divides and subdivides into regular patterns of ;
>? or equal notes.
4. In compound time, the beat unit divides and subdivides into regular patterns of
> or equal notes.
5. Aduplet is a borrowed pattern in
6. A triplet is a borrowed pattern in
7. Circle the subdivisions that are always labeled irregular.
fl 7 emake 19 geWt ed SE oh fo ee)
SPONSE eeeeeeeeeeseeeeeseeseeeeeseEs eee eee ee se ESE E SEES OE Tae EE EEE aE EE SEES OH EHEEEEEOE ETE SEHESEEEDESEUE EOE EHEHEHEHHEUEEEH HEED ONSET ESHEETS ERS EOHEESEE HEH ESDEEEESDEUEOHEDEEEOESHEESEEEEETESES ESSE OES E REESE HEHE EEEEEH EEE EEEE EH eeeseeseees

RHYTHM 51

Additional terms used to identify the beat are and

M.M. | = 60 means
M.M. J= 120 means
M.M. = 144 means
Brackets are used to enclose an irregular pattern if the note values are quarter notes or longer
note values. True False
The tempo of a composition refers to
Borrowed divisions are “borrowed” from :
Only simple beat units can divide or subdivide into any number of equal notes. True
False
1A. Note values for irregular patterns (except for the duplet) use the note values of the regular divi-
sion or subdivision that occur prior to the number of notes in the irregular pattern. True
False
Lo: The assigned note value for a duplet is the same as it appears in the regular division. True
False
16. As a borrowed division, duplets are the only irregular pattern that requires an actual expansion of
note values in time. True False
SSavaiee ee be we eee eeswenseeseesvnetesececccceeesvac
onentabace
RHYTHM

Ki
56 RHYTHM
Meter and Meter
Signatures
e The understanding of the concepts of
meter

e The ability to classify compound and

simple meters

¢ The ability to determine beat units in

any given meter

* The ability to correctly notate accord-

ing to meter

Di
"METER
AND METER SIGNATURES

METER

Meter is the grouping of beats into units known as measures. This grouping is not a
contrived phenomenon but rather a combination of the natural tendencies of beats
to group themselves into measures according to musical elements (melodic, har-
monic, rhythmic, etc.). Using the symbols below, meter can be determined by the
perception of stressed or strong beats, which contrast with nonstressed or weak
beats.

> = strong or stressed beat

U = weak or nonstressed beat

Meters can be duple (two beats), triple (three beats), quadruple (four beats), quin-
tuple (five beats), septuple (seven beats), and so forth (Ex. 3.1).

aj =v ve uy Ce wwe

3 Beats/Triple meter 4 Beats/Quadruple meter

b > v¥> vy Oth

ae SS OO GG

2 Beats/Duple meter 5 Beats/Quintuple meter

Meters containing four or more beats often contain a secondary stress within the
measure (Ex. 3.2).

Example 3.2

> v (>) vv SUS)cr U

a) Quadruple (4 beats) c) Sextuple (6 beats)

> Vv(>)v vu Se (SyOU

b) Quintuple (5 beats) d) Septuple (7 beats)

SIMPLE METER SIGNATURES

A meter signature appears as two numbers, one over the other, such as 3. This does
not represent a fraction and should not be thought of as such. No fraction line
should appear between these numbers. This chapter will focus primarily on tradi-
tional practice while at the same time incorporating some contemporary thought
and opinion.
weet ee ete eee tee TOOT CONNEC NCEE OEE O HOE O NERO ETO O HAE EE HOHE OE OS EEOC UTES TOU DOOSTEEEN UES ODE EES EEEOEH SEE OO SOOT ERED OS DOEEOEOHESEE EEE EESE SEE ESEESEESSEESEHSSESOSESSESSESDSES OSSD ESESSOSEOEEESSOHESESOSESSEESOHSSESOS SEES SSE EE EES EES
METER AND METER SIGNATURES 59

In the meter signature of }, for example, it should be noted that these numbers
tell you very little with regard to the number of beats in a given measure, type of
note that receives a beat, or how quickly these beats will occur. It would be a mis-
take to think of ; as a measure always containing three beats with the quarter note
always equaling the beat.
While this might be the case, it certainly does not account for the tempo, which
may well be the determining factor with regard to what note value will receive the
beat and how many beats will be perceived within a measure. In a slow-to-moderate
tempo, for example, three beats will be evident, the quarter note receiving the beat.
In a fast tempo, however, there might seem to be only one beat per measure, and
the dotted half note might be perceived as the beat.
The entire concept of meter is very closely related to tempo, and it is difficult to
think of meter outside of a temporal context. It would be far more accurate to think
of ; as a meter signature indicating that each measure will contain the equivalent of
three quarter notes—period. One should refrain from pinning down the concept of
beat with regard to ; as a meter until one examines the tempo indication. In a slow-
to-moderate context three distinct beats will be felt; in a moderately fast context
one may feel only one beat in a measure.
In a simple meter signature, while the upper number usually represents the
number of beats per measure, the lower number refers to a note value; 1 refers to a
whole note, 2 refers to a half note, 4 a quarter note, 8 an eighth note, and so on. At
first, these numbers seem to be almost interchangeable, but on closer examination
certain note-value numbers are more appropriate to a given situation than others.
Since the lower number sometimes refers to a beat unit, a musical example with
complex levels of division would best be served by a number representing a longer
duration, such as 2 (half note) or 4 (quarter note). A meter signature with a lower
(bottom) number such as 8 or 16 would quickly become rather cumbersome when
dealing with divisions resulting in 64th and 128th notes. On the other hand, a mu-
sical example exhibiting rather few and simple divisions of the beat might best be
served by a lower number such as 4, 8, or 16. The meter signatures in Example 3.3
are representative of simple meter.

Example 33

Perhaps the most common simple meter is }, which sometimes appears as €, a sym-
bol for “common time.” The symbol ¢ appears as a substitute for 3, representing
“cut time,” or alla breve.
In a moderate tempo, Example 3.3a would represent duple meter with either the
half note, quarter note, eighth note, or sixteenth note as a beat unit. Example 3.3b
would represent a triple meter; 3.3c a quadruple meter; 3.3d a quintuple meter; anda
3.3e a septuple meter. In addition, Examples 3.3d and 3.3e illustrate asymmetrical
meters—that is, meters that cannot be divided into two or three equal parts. In 3,
for example, one may feel a grouping of 2 + 3 or 3 + 2. A more accurate signature
might well be 3:? or 233. The signature 7 yields even further asymmetrical combina-
tionsisichiag,,,00 3) Or

COMPOUND METER SIGNATURES

The terms “simple” and “compound,” as they are applied to beat units in the previ-
ous chapter, also apply to meter signatures. A simple meter signature makes use of
simple beats units—beat units that divide and subdivide normally into two, four,
eight, and sixteen parts. Compound meter signatures employ compound beat
units—dotted beat units that divide and subdivide normally into three, six, and
twelve equal parts.
Let us examine g as a model compound meter signature. In dealing with com-
pound signatures one cannot apply the overly simplistic rule that states that the top
number tells you how many beats are contained in the measure and the bottom
number tells you the value of each beat. This is not the case in compound signa-
tures. In a moderate tempo, a § measure will normally contain two beats units, each
the value of the dotted quarter note. Actually, the contemporary signature of * more
accurately illustrates what is taking place. It conveys two important facts: (1) the
number of beats in the measure and (2) the value of the beat unit.
In deciphering which are simple signatures and which are compound, a simple
rule will enable you to quickly determine the answer:

If the upper number in the signature is six or larger, and is evenly divisible by
three, the signature is compound.

It is assumed that the classification of compound signatures calls for a moderate-to-

fast tempo since at slow tempos even compound signatures are pulsed at the divi-
sion of the beat rather than pulsed at the beat unit. For example, in a very slow
tempo, a g meter can be perceived as having six simple beat units, each unit being
an eighth note. In a fast tempo, the same § meter is described as having two beats,
each unit being the dotted quarter note. Conversely, in a fast triple simple meter
where the beat unit is represented by an eighth note or less ( 3 or 5, etc.), all of the
notes in the measure may be beamed together as if representing a single compound
beat unit (Ex. 3.4).

Symphony No. 2 (2nd movement), Beethoven

Larghetto ( §=92)

a ™,
bah hehehehehe eee errr iri rit titre riririririrrerrrrrrrrrrrirrrirrrrrii rire errr rrriii rrr rri erie reerire ererier reir terrier erie Terrie ee eer

METER AND METER SIGNATURES 61

Allegro from Suite No. 10, Handel

Meter signatures having as an upper number a 6, 9, 12, or 15 are normally consid-

ered compound signatures. Meter signatures having as an upper number a 2, 3, 4,
5, or 7 are normally considered simple signatures. The chart in Example 3.5 can be
useful in defining some of the more standard meter signatures.

METER CLASSIFICATIONS

Example, 3.5
METER BEAT UNIT No. of Beats in CLASSIFICATION
Measure

Triple-compound

In a compound meter signature, the number of beats in a measure (duple, triple,

quadruple, quintuple) can be determined by dividing the top number in the meter
signature by 3. The actual beat unit will be three times the duration represented by
the bottom number. For example, in a given § meter, the upper number (6) divided
by 3 will yield two beats units (duple); the lower number (4) represents a quarter
note value, which, multiplied by 3, yields the value of a dotted half note beat unit.
METER AND METER SIGNATURES

METER NOTATION: BEAT UNITS

The notation used in any given meter must reflect the beat unit.

Example 3.6a illustrates the appropriate notation for a 3 measure. Since the beat
unit is considered to be a dotted quarter note, the eighth notes must be beamed so
the sum of their durations equals the duration of the beat unit—namely, the dotted
quarter note. Example 3.6b illustrates the appropriate notation for a } measure.
Since the beat unit is the quarter note, the eighth notes (representing a division of
the beat) must be beamed so that their grouping reflects the quarter note value.
This rule of notation, in which beamed groups reflect the total duration of the beat
unit, applies to all meter signatures and serves as an aid in determining the appro-
priate meter signature for any given measure of notation, regardless of its complica-
tion. For instance, in Example 3.7, each beat unit is clarified by the beaming. Each
beat is made clear by its separation from other beats in the measure. All one has to
do to identify the meter is to add up the total durations within each beamed beat
unit. In doing so, it is discovered that each beamed unit contains a total of three
eighth notes (or a dotted quarter note). There are three such beat units; therefore,
the appropriate meter signature would be 3.

As a general rule, the notation may obscure one beat but may not obscure two or
more consecutive beats in the measure. The term “obscure” implies that the nota-
tion may mask the exact point at which a beat begins.

SS Cad
Stee eee reneeseeseaeeeeeeeeseeseeseeseeseee TEST ees ee eeeeeesses OHS Eset OEE EEE OES OEEEEFEESEHSEEESEHOOOSSESEESE ESSE SEE ESEEEEESOSEEESSESESESOHESOEEESEEEEEESOEESSUOEEESEEEOEESEERESSESE ESE OSEEEEEEEESOOEH EEE OHEHEES

METER AND METER SIGNATURES

Example 3.8a illustrates an incorrect notation in 4. We can see that beats 2 and 3 are
obscured by notation that would be difficult to play or read. The notation is further
complicated by incorrect beaming or grouping of beat units. The same rhythm is
correctly notated in Example 3.8b, which allows for the visual clarity of beat units.
Note that beat 2 is obscured by the dotted quarter note, but this is acceptable since
only one beat is obscured.
Two or more consecutive beat units, notated in division, may not be obscured by
the notation. For example, in simple time, with the quarter note as the beat unit,
the rhythmic pattern i. 2 is frequently encountered and acceptable. However, the
rhythmic pattern J. should be avoided since a J, must originate (in simple time) at
the beginning of a beat.
The actual meter employed can determine how a certain rhythm should be no-
tated. The chart in Example 3.9 illustrates awkwardly notated rhythmic patterns
and shows what the correct notation should be in order to conform to the beat unit.
It should be observed that correctly notated patterns do not change the sounding
thythms—only how they appear in notation.

Example 3.9

Meter Pattern to Correct Reason

avoid version (see list below)

2
(eles,

|
mee
HA™D
WS
HOO
OO
Hem
Od
Hr~
METER AND METER SIGNATURES

Reasons for Corrections

a. Complete consecutive beat units should not be tied together if a single

larger note value can be used.
b. An incomplete first beat must show the completion of that beat in nota-
tion.
c. Beat units should be clearly visible and conform to the type of beat unit
(simple or compound) being used.
d. Any note values tied together within a beat unit must be replaced by the
simplest notation (fewest number of notes) possible.
e. Divisions of the beat must be representative of the beat unit.

BEAMING OF RESTS

Recent notational practice has included rests within the beaming of divisions and
subdivisions of beat units. This practice offers the performer the option to more
clearly see all of the notes and rests that occur within a single given beat. Some ex-
amples of this type of notation are given in Example 3.10.

notated as 7 7 e. a 7 5 notated as

notated as J Y 7 eerie notated as

notated as 72) 5 a ee dada notatedas

——
notatedas 7 fe notated as

SYNCOPATION

Rhythmic patterns may be described as metric (or metrical) if they conform to the
regular recurring stress patterns indicated by the meter signature. Syncopation ex-
ploits rhythmic patterns that do not conform to the regular metric accents, thereby
stressing weak beats or weak portions of a beat. Syncopation can be achieved by
tying or sustaining notes that occur on weak beats into strong ones or by using
rests where strong beats normally occur (Ex. 3.11).
‘Example 3.11
Metric - Original

og ee dae
Syncopated - Variation 1

9S eeERE hl Seepeeeh cay

Syncopated - Variation 2

7a
4
Soe ie Baki cee PPEbig Fe
Meter must not be thought of as a set of molds into which musical ideas are poured.
On the contrary, existing concepts of meter are applied to musical expression as a
means of temporal organization. Many times, standard or traditional meters cannot
serve the meter demands of more recent contemporary music. For instance, meter
signatures might be changed or alternated from measure to measure to accommo-
date a musical idea. Meter, therefore, should be thought of as a secondary consider-
ation (although a necessary one) in facilitating the written transmission of musical
ideas.
Complete the chapter 3 drill sheets on the following pages before continuing.
Also, see Appendix A and Appendix B for further study.
> 2’
a — Sie a Se
qrond® pa tek= yeeal te
ie es
ie pn ais.
oats a ae
ae 3ie ont sical ieSee
SSHSHSHSHSHSHSHSHHOSHHHSHSHHTHHHSHSHSHHHOHHHHHSHSHSHHHHHSHSHHSHOHSHHHSHHHSHHHSHOHHHHHOHHOFHSHSHOHHHTHOHHHHOHSHHOHHSHHHHOOHHOHOSOEHOHOHHOEEHHEOOE

GHAP TER MIRE DRILLS <ANDIEXERCISES

1 Given the stress patterns below, determine the meter in the following examples:

> vu vu |e. d >

e e ° TRIPLE * e e e e

2. Insert bar lines where appropriate in the following examples:

Simple Meters

2S PS Soe === Sees ae Se

= === = SS
===
=
SS
SSS
=Se a |
METER AND METER SIGNATURES

3. Insert bar lines where appropriate in the following examples:

eS SI
=a ean se eee
Se

2S =
4. Insert an appropriate meter signature for each example given.

2 ee SS eee
sssSSS ——== =
ee
SSS SSS ¢
5. In the following examples, a note or rest is missing; add to the appropriate beat unit the one note,
9 rest, or dot that will complete the measure.

SS === SS = ——
sp = =: ———

= == ==

SSS SS
= SEaeaeaae ee = SI
°. SS
70 METER AND METER SIGNATURES

6. Given the following signatures, complete the chart by supplying the appropriate beat unit, num-
ber of beats in the measure, and appropriate meter classification.
NO. OF BEATS
METER BEAT UNIT IN A MEASURE CLASSIFICATION

= ifF 2 Deuple Compovud

subedce
bb
i
:
“G3
i

7. Correctly beam the beat units in the following examples. Utilize ascending stems as in the first
measure.

= SS EE
SSS ee
=]
AAP eee ene eee eee eee eee eee eee sense seen en eee eee sHEeEEER EEE ESSE EO ESEEEOEESESEHH HEED SUEHSEEESOEEEEEEOSOE ESOS EOSESE EEE EEEES ESE ESOS EEE SEOESEEESESESESHESEENES EER EEEEEEEEHER EES ED EEE H HOO EEHO EEE SOESESESSEEEEEEEEEEEEEEESEEEOOEEEET OES OS

_ METER AND METER SIGNATURES 71

oe
SS
2S Se
8. The following examples may contain notational errors—namely, incorrect groupings of beat
units. Some of the beats may be correctly notated and not need revision. Renotate the errors
while maintaining the integrity of the rhythms indicated. You may use the same staves, making
corrections by notating on the fourth space of the staff.

=
SSS SSS
SSS
SoS eaSS
===
SSSSS Sa
= SS
= Ee
= SS =
72 METER AND METER SIGNATURES

eS = Sra Saas cae

= ee See
9. Continue correcting notational errors where necessary.
Compound Meters
Example:

ee
Compound Meters
METER AND METER SIGNATURES

10. Continue correcting notational errors where necessary. The following examples are somewhat
more challenging. Notate in the fourth space as in Exercises 8 and 9.

’a eT
RE IE (SF OF SS PE)» CE SE) LED ASD SEED ws SETS
ee ee Oe
4,

METER REVIEW (SELF-TEST: CHAPTER THREE)

1. Using the symbols > for strong or stressed beat and U for weak or nonstressed beat, give the
stress patterns of the meters indicated.
®& Ape ee Pa ae ee
b. Duple
Seen een nena nee een en ese eee esse esas eseese eee EFeE ESE EEE EE ESERESEESEO SEES SEER EES ON SESE ESOT USTED EEEE SEH U SEE ORE HALE OE SEH EEH HEH EE DESH OHNOS SHEE OSES EEESESSEDSEEOUSOSSSSSS ESOS EOE SHOGESEESSH EES USESESEO ESS SLOEOTHOLSETO HOEY

cueOuintiplesets Sereiiiet
srt -syee Orn Foi Bertie leases
hx Sep tery ee a ne ey ie
0) Dn heat Ri Re Es ae ne a a
or
e. Quadruple
The tempo of a composition may be the determining factor with regard to which note value will
receive the beat. True False
The lower number in the meter signature refers to a note value. True False
A lower number one (1) in the meter signature refers to a note (note value).
A lower number four (4) in the meter signature refers to a note.

A lower number two (2) in the meter signature refers to a note.

In all meter signatures, the upper number usually indicates the number of beats per measure.
True False
The meter signature for “common time” is indicated by the symbol
The meter signature for “cut time” or alla breve is indicated by the symbol
Meter signatures having as upper number . : ROE are normally con-
sidered to be compound meter signatures.
Meter signatures having an upper number ; or aLe Nor
mally considered to be simple meter signatures.
“Cut time” or alla breve usually has a (note value) as a beat unit.
The number of beats in a compound meter signature can be determined by dividing the top num-
ber in the signature (6, 9, 12, 15) by
In a compound meter signature, the beat unit is three times the value (duration) of the note value
represented by the bottom number. True False
ARS In compound meter, the beat unit is always a dotted note. True False
Lae Complete the following:
a. Ifthe bottom number of a compound meter signature is a 4 (quarter note), the beat unit will
De ayeer eee ee TOE.
b. Ifthe bottom number of a compound meter signature is an 8 (eighth note), the beat unit will
bea note.
c. Ifthe bottom number of a compound meter signature is a 16 (16th note), the beat unit will
bea note.

d. If the bottom number of a compound meter signature is a 2 (half note), the beat unit will be
eeeae PET Ore.
|
oy A fraction line always appears between the upper and lower numbers in the meter signature. True
False
16. In a compound meter signature, the top number usually indicates the number of beats per mea-
sure. True___——_—sCFFaise
POOP eee eee eseeenecceeccesceceeeeeeseseccsec
ssees TESAtSeSesseene ss cececheeeuace sees seeseenasse
dsenaveeessccecae seevecese
Ane eee ee eee eeeeaveeeeeeeesseeseesaeeseeseeSSeESSEESOESES EES EES OES RE SEES SEES EEEEESEESEEESEEEESESEEOESEE ESSE SEES EH ER ESSE EEE EE EEE O HOSE SS EEEHEEE EEE EEE SESE ESESEEEOSESOETEOHESETESESSSESEESOEHSEHEHSESHSSHSSSESSOHSOESESO ESTE LOSS EES

76 METER AND METER SIGNATURES

PESTON SASLSLCCCRSCCOETESETONCSEOSE NESSES EBLE DODDS EEO ES Ese eecesdeceesenconeonaneseconeeeeEoeoe be eeeeeeeueceseeeseneereeseSEESenereeeseeeesucEcececenceeneseneeeeseneeereuesoueneceeo
oeseeenceeeenseesesevesscesseecceceocesocceosconcese.
78 METER AND METER SIGNATURES
Ceres PR Po Kk

Scale Structures
eeeeceeeeeeeeeeeeeoeeeeeeeeeeeeeeee SeSCHSSHFC
SHES eeeeeeee SESSHHHHSHEHESHHHHSHSHSHSHHEHSHHSSHHSHHOHHEHSHSHHHEHHHSHESHEHEHEHOHHOESEEOD

COA US
e The understanding of scale concepts
as applied to basic, diatonic, chromatic,
and whole-tone scales

e The understanding of major-scale

structures

e The understanding of minor-scale

structures and variation forms

¢ The ability to write and identify the

above-mentioned types of scales, begin-
ning on any pitch

79
SCALE STRUCTURES

SCALE

A scale may be defined as a series of incremental pitches, contained within an oc-

tave; however, to be more specific, one may say that most scales are constructed as
a series of diatonic step increments. Scale pitches are assembled in either ascending
or descending configurations without the repetition or omission of any letter
names. The scale usually concludes with a repeated octave at the end of the series.
Example 4.1 illustrates a basic (without chromatic alterations) diatonic scale.

tha ie rome at meen

Basic Diatonic Scale

*

ee *Repeated 8Y4 tone

BASIC DIATONIC SCALES

The diatonic-scale configuration, with one exception to be discussed later, consists

of specific patterns of whole and half steps. To construct a basic diatonic scale
(without chromatic alterations), you may begin on any pitch and move in consecu-
tive order, either ascending or descending, without omitting or repeating any notes,
until all seven pitches have been presented. The eighth note will be an octave repe-
tition (Ex. 4.2). Since there are seven basic diatonic pitches, this scale may begin on
any one of them and end with the octave repetition.

Diatonic Scale

SSS

Non-Diatonic Scale

———=
SCALE STRUCTURES

Example 4.3 illustrates a nondiatonic scale structure because of the chromatically

altered and repeated note, F, F # Since all basic diatonic scales encompass all seven
unaltered tones, each scale would contain two sets of NOHS: the E-F as well as the
B-C half step. Therefore, it may be stated that all basic diatonic scales contain two
half steps, the remaining five scale steps being whole steps (Ex. 4.4).

Example 4.4

GCs DHE eie Fen GrvAe 8°.C

D> E.* Fas.-Gic JA Ba Gacy D
B= 6b G+ A [=een @eter @Jer ea —
SG Ao ee Osa Oe es
GEA OP eG Dee ee (Poe Gl
AC (Ba Ce De Ear G = A
Bip 3G 9 Des TE Fe eG AB

*NOHS (Naturally Occurring Half Steps)

Since any of the seven basic pitches can serve as the beginning note of a scale, seven
diatonic scales can be notated as basic scales (i.e., without any chromatic alter-
ations). Each of these incorporates the two NOHS (naturally occurring half steps)
in different locations within the scales. The ascending diatonic scale written from C
to C positions the NOHS between the third and fourth scale degrees and also be-
tween the seventh and eighth (octave) scale degrees.

(ere a FEA! Rome b-saag sae? 1728-518)

1 1 Ya 1 1 1 ,

Therefore, in the ascending scale from C to C, half steps occur between steps 3 and
4 and steps 7 and 8. This arrangement of whole and half steps creates what is
known as a major scale.

MAJOR SCALES AND TETRACHORDS

In dealing with specific diatonic tonal scales, such as major and minor scales, the
concept of tetrachord structure is quite helpful. A tetrachord is a four-note section
or portion of a scale structure; it must be either the first, or lower, four notes of the
scale or the last, or upper, four notes. Only four possible configurations exist for
any given basic tetrachord (Ex. 4.6).
(1-1-1)

Whole/Whole/Half
(1-1- ¥%)

(1 - %- 1) 7

(Y2-1- 1) 37

Every diatonic scale (seven tones plus the octave repetition) contains two tetra-
chords, one upper and one lower tetrachord (Ex. 4.7).
Baeble ae

1 1 V2 1 1 1 Ya

SS

LOWER TETRACHORD UPPER TETRACHORD

Note in Example 4.7 that the whole- and half-step configuration of the first, or
lower, tetrachord is identical to the configuration in the second, or upper tetra-
chord—namely, whole/whole/half. The two tetrachords in a major scale are sym-
metrical in terms of whole- and half-step configurations. Also note that the two
tetrachords are connected by a whole step. This connection of tetrachords will hold
constant in all major and minor scales, that is, the two tetrachords will always con-
nected by a whole step. Therefore, the configuration for any major scale is as shown
in Example 4.8.

. Example 4.8
1-1-%-1-1-1-%

T.1 Ine

connection
SCALE STRUCTURES 83

This whole/whole/half configuration is the only element that must be memorized

for major scales. Since the tetrachords are symmetrical and connect by a whole
step, any pitch can be selected as a starting note, and a major scale can be con-
structed quite easily by following these procedural steps (also see Ex. 4.9).

1. Given a starting pitch, construct a basic scale, including the octave repeti-
tion.
ra Number the scale degrees and divide them into two tetrachords.
3. Begin with the first tone and adjust, if necessary, the next (second) tone to
conform with the step configuration (W—W-H). Continue in this
manner through the fourth tone (last of the lower tetrachord).
4. Connect the first tetrachord to the second tetrachord by a whole step.
5. Repeat step 3 to complete the upper tetrachord of the scale.

Example 4.9.
Procedure for Writing Out a Major Scale on E
STEP 1: Construct Basic Scale

Se

STEP 2: Divide into Tetrachords

STEP 3: Add Chromatic Signs to Lower Tetrachord

enon 2S
so
1 2 3 4

STEPS 4 & 5: Connect by Whole Step and Adjust Upper Tetrachord

1 1 Y 1 1 1 Ye

1 2 3 a 5 6 7 8

The basic scale beginning on C has NOHS already between scale degrees 3 and 4
and between degrees 7 and 8; therefore, the C-major scale needs no further chro-
matic alteration (sharps or flats). It is the only major scale requiring no alterations.
All others must have one or more chromatic sign(s) present.
SCALE STRUCTURES

MINOR SCALES AND TETRACHORDS

The basic scale beginning on C, as previously discussed, is the “model” for the
major scale; likewise, the basic scale beginning on A becomes the “model” for
minor scales. The basic scale beginning on A also contains no chromatic signs or al-
terations and forms what is known as the minor scale. The two tetrachords (lower
and upper) are not symmetrical as they are in major scales; in fact, the upper tetra-
chord in minor has three possible variations, while the lower tetrachord remains
constant. This variable upper tetrachord is a unique property of minor scales, un-
like the consistent tetrachord structure of major scales (Ex. 4.10).

Te a ae emer mples #10 se r |rn

The Minor Scale with Variations

Y2-1-1 Var. 1 “Natural Minor’

1-1-%, Var. Il ‘“Melodic Minor’

Lower Tetrachord Y2-1%2- V2 Var. Ill ‘Harmonic Minor’

Upper Tetrachord

It would be incorrect to think of the minor as being three distinct minor scales;
rather, one minor scale has three possible variations in the upper tetrachord. (The
lower tetrachord will always be the configuration whole/half/whole.) Example 4.11
shows the notation of the upper tetrachord’s three variations of the minor scale be-
ginning on A.

Melodic minor

h- Ik%#- %&
: &
eZ aa = Harmonic minor
SCALE STRUCTURES

Harmonic Form of Minor

The harmonic form of minor incorporates the same lower tetrachord found in nat-
ural minor (whole/half/whole) and connects to its upper tetrachord by a whole
step. The upper tetrachord begins with the same half step from the fifth to the sixth
scale degrees as in natural minor but adds an additional half step between the sev-
enth and eighth scale degrees by raising the seventh one half step. This results in a
one-and-one-half-step increment between the sixth and seventh scale degrees.
Thus the harmonic form of minor uses three sets of half steps, between scale de-
grees 2 and 3, 5 and 6, and 7 and 8 (refer back to Ex. 4.11).

Melodic Form of Minor

It must be noted that the whole- and half-step configurations for melodic minor
refer to only the ascending form. The scale reverts to natural minor when it appears
in descending form. All scales should be identifiable as major or minor by hearing or
seeing in notation the first four notes (tetrachord) in either direction (ascending or
descending). Only the upper tetrachord of the melodic minor form can be confus-
ing, in that it is identical to the upper tetrachord configuration in a major scale
(W-W-H). Since it can be confused with the upper tetrachord of major, and there-
fore its quality may not be determined until the lower tetrachord is notated or
heard, melodic minor always descends as a natural minor scale; that is, it is altered
so as to appear the same as the natural minor form. In other words, melodic minor
has an ascending as well as a descending form (Ex. 4.12).

f Minor Scale (Melodic)

2 ee ee ee Se Se =
a

Ascending Form Descending Form

It is interesting to note, as in Example 4.12, that the upper tetrachord in the melod-
ic minor form of the scale has the same whole- and half-step configuration as does
the upper tetrachord in major scales. It is also interesting to note that the upper
tetrachord of the natural minor form contains the whole- and half-step configura-
tion in exact reverse order of that found in the upper tetrachord of the melodic
form of the minor scale (Ex. 4.13).
Vigtee WIA acades 1 bari g tla gle ls

SSS SS ——
Major scale on C
(Ren
(eRe ty

ae ee ATs Ye

=e ————

Melodic minor scale on C Natural minor scale on C

UPPER TETRACHORD UPPER TETRACHORD

CHROMATIC SCALE

A chromatic scale is constructed entirely of half steps. In each chromatic scale

there are twelve half steps within the octave. The repetition of the octave creates the
thirteenth note of the scale. Chromatic scales are represented by a combination of
diatonic as well as chromatic half-step motion. If the scale were entirely structured
in chromatic motion, then one would never change letter names within the scale
(Ex. 4.14). e-

All Chromatic Half Steps

ae etc.

By alternating between diatonic and chromatic half-step motion, one can easily no-
tate either an ascending or descending chromatic scale with a minimum amount of
necessary chromatic signs (Ex. 4.15).
SCALE STRUCTURES 87

Note that, when ascending, sharps are used (Ex. 4.15a); conversely, when descend-
ing, flats are used (Ex. 4.15b). This practice avoids the redundant usage of natural
signs, which would be required if flats were to be used in an ascending scale and
sharps used in a descending scale (Exx. 4.16a and b).

WHOLE-TONE SCALES

The whole-tone scale is perhaps the simplest of all scale forms to understand. It is
composed solely of whole steps and includes the repeated octave tone. Somewhere
within the scale an enharmonic spelling must occur. In spelling these enharmonic
whole steps, one letter of the diatonic musical alphabet is omitted between adjacent
scale degrees; for example, E, G>, or Ct, E>, or B, D’, and so on. Without this enhar-
monic spelling, the scale would not end on the same letter-name pitch with which
it began (Exx. 4.17 and 4.18). The whole-tone scale is a perfectly symmetrical scale
structure and has no half steps whatsoever.

(eee
without enharmonic spelling

Example 4.18

———
*with enharmonic spelling
88 SCALE STRUCTURES

SUMMARY

To summarize the three types of scale configurations presented so far, let us use the
following diagrams.

|. |DIATONIC (seven-tone scale plus the octave repetition):

Ce Deeg ean ce = As=)B i> Cc

Dieabus shee aw Ace Bor cae
Eee bes Gre Ar Bai Can Disc
Bo 6G A--> B 2 CD Le
G- A Bo C’-4D ee be 4G
Ae BC. De tee sr Gear
Bai Cia Di eot Ree. Gro ae
*NOHS Var ah 1 Ya 1 1 1

Il. CHROMATIC (12-tone scale plus the octave repetition).

It can begin and end on any pitch:

C-CR-D-DR-E*F-FR-G-GR-A-A#-B*C — Ascending
C*B-Bb-A-Ab-G-Gb-F*E-Eb-D-Db-C Descending

Ill. WHOLE-TONE (Six-tone scale plus the octave repetition):

C-D-E-FR-Ab-Bb-C
(should contain an enharmonic spelling)

The major/minor scale system—a system known as tonality—governs the pitch

content of music. The tonal center of a piece of music is considered the keynote
(first scale degree) of the major or minor scale upon which both melody and har-
mony are based. This system is evident today in popular music and has been with
us since the beginning of the eighteenth century. A modal system of scale structures
predates the major/minor system. The basic scales not only provide us with the
models for the major/minor system but also with the models for modal scale struc-
tures. (Modal scale concepts are presented as an optional unit in Appendix E.)
Complete the chapter 4 drill sheets on the following pages before continuing.
Also, see Appendix A and Appendix B.
CHAPTER FOUR DRiBESSUND EXERCISES

SCALES I

1. Write out the following basic scales, beginning on the given pitches, and indicate the half-step lo-
cations as shown.

2. Given the whole- and half-step configurations below, name the basic diatonic scale represented by
each one.

a. (ex.) 1-%-1-1-1-%2-1 = basic scale on D.

b. 1-1-1-%-1-1-%=
CG. Y-1-1-1-%-1-1- =
ave 11-1-1-
e Pete =
fAe t-e =
g 1-%-1-1-¥-1-1-=

3. Write out the following chromatic scales, beginning on the given pitches, in the direction indicated.
a.

£ = et

(descending)

b.

(ascending)

- =
(ascending)
90 SCALE STRUCTURES

4. Notate WHOLE-TONE scales, begining on the indicated pitch:

a. (ascending)
ex. b. (descending)

io ees

c. (ascending) d. (descending)

= oe =
5. Given the following basic scales, convert each to major by adding the appropriate chromatic signs.
Consider the starting pitch as tonic.

6. Given the following basic scales, convert each to natural minor by adding the appriopriate chro-
matic signs. Consider the starting pitch as tonic.
a. eX. b.
—e
6 es Zoe ——— = SS |

i d. eo
ae
= — =
= ==
e. f
bah dhe cheba hath D oe Corer er eer eir rire errr rire rrrrrrrerirrrisrrrrrrrireirr errr rrerriririr rrr irrerrrrrrrrreerrerrrerceerrrrrrrererereere creer rrrreer eer rrrs

SCALE STRUCTURES 91

7. Given the natural minor scales below, convert each one to the requested form by adding the appro-
priate chromatic signs.
Given Convert to

Harmonic

b.
: 7 7 FO 2 |

Asc. melodic

Harmonic

==
d.

Major

oe ~ eee ee

Harmonic

SS Ss SS
Asc. melodic

Harmonic
92 SCALE STRUCTURES

8. In each of the examples below, a tetrachord is given. Determine the whole- and half-step configu-
ration of each tetrachord, decide whether to use thegiven tetrachord as a lower or an upper tetra-
chord, then incorporate it into either a major or minor scale in notation.

F: 1mais 7 fear
” 6eale}
b.

a = Scale)
e
Che 5

= sie : FF =f

er —— (Scale)

(Scale)

= $ =
a

= mee

———= e SS
Beale) ¢
SCALES I REVIEW (SELF-TEST: CHAPTER FOUR)

There are (number) basic diatonic scales.

Each basic diatonic scale contains (number) half steps and (number) whole steps.
In the basic diatonic scale beginning on C, half steps occur between and (scale-
degree letters) and between and
In the basic diatonic scale beginning on A, half steps occur between and (scale
degree numbers) and between and
In a basic diatonic scale, no chromaticism occurs between scale degrees. True False

All basic diatonic scales contain (number) different pitches with an octave repetition
of the beginning pitch.
Naturally occurring half steps (NOHS) in basic diatonic scales occur between and
(letters) and between __s and ___
A chromatic scale contains (number) different pitches with an octave repetition of the
beginning pitch.
In a chromatic scale, (sharps or flats) are employed in the ascending form of the scale
and (sharps or flats) are used in the descending form of the scale.

10. Whole-tone scales contain (number) different pitches plus an octave repetition of the
beginning pitch.
Ly Whole-tone scales contain at least one enharmonic whole step, for example GB’, At-C, FA-A?, in
order for the scale to end an octave above (or below) the beginning pitch. True False
SCALE STRUCTURES

Some whole-tone scales contain a half step between adjacent scale degrees. True False

13: Any given major scale contains mostly whole steps and two sets of half steps, which always fall
between and (scale-degree numbers) and between and

Te. Tetrachords in major scales are always symmetrical (lower and upper the same). True
False
To: Tetrachords in minor scales (natural) are always symmetrical (lower and upper the same). True
False
16. All major and minor (all forms) scales have two sets of half steps. True False

bg The descending form of the melodic minor scale has the same tetrachord configuration as
minor.
18. In all major and minor (all forms) scales, there is always a whole step between tetrachords. True
False
SCALE STRUCTURES 95
96 SCALE STRUCIURES

se Se)
SCALE STRUCTURES Ll
Cu ltierA-aee sD. E> oR Hegiey,*E

Major, Minor, and

Pentatonic Scales
(Scale Structures II)
¢ The understanding of relative and
parallel major and minor scale relation-
ships

e The ability to convert any major scale

to any form of minor scale and vice
versa

e The understanding of and ability to

write anhemitonic and hemitonic penta-
tonic scale structures

e The understanding of terms naming

diatonic scale degrees for major and
minor scales

99
MAJOR, MINOR, AND PENTATONIC SCALES (SCALE STRUCTURES II)

RELATIVE MAJOR AND MINOR SCALE STRUCTURES

Every major scale uses the same pitches or notes and chromatic signs as does a cor-
responding natural minor scale. These corresponding major and minor scales are
identified as relative major and minor scales (Ex. 5.1).

MINOR

ee eS
The notes and their order, or placement, in each of the above scales are the same.
One could say that the only difference is where one begins and ends the spelling of
the scale. The minor (natural form) is the same series of pitches, except that it be-
gins on the sixth scale degree of the major scale (Ex. 5.2).

In Example 5.2, the scales used as illustration are C major and a minor. Note that
lower-case letters are used when referring to minor scales while upper-case letters
indicate major scales. Given any major scale, the relative minor scale always uti-
lizes the same pitches, but it begins on the sixth scale degree of its major counter-
part. Relative minor, therefore, can be defined as a minor scale having the same
notes as its relative major, but with a different starting (and ending) pitch. Whatev-
er chromatic signs appear in the major scale will also appear in the relative minor.
These same chromatically altered pitches will, in the relative minor, have different
placement with respect to scale degree (Ex. 5.3).

MAJOR MINOR (natural)

(half steps between (half steps between Sada ty
3-4 and 7-8) 2-3 and 5-6)
MAJOR, MINOR, AND PENTATONIC SCALES (SCALE STRUCTURES II) 101

Given any minor (natural form) scale, to find the relative major, merely use the
same pitches found in the given minor scale and spell the scale beginning on the
third scale degree. As in Example 5.4, only the numbering changes, and this, in
turn, alters the position of whole and half steps. The pitches remain the same as well
as all chromatic alterations.

Mino@ gat ee eZee es 4

Major 14 2

PARALLEL MAJOR AND MINOR SCALE STRUCTURES

The only other relationship between major and minor scale structures is the par-
allel relationship. In this respect, both major as well as minor scales begin and
end on the same pitch. Having the identical starting pitch, the scales will differ in
terms of chromatic signs. Since both scales begin on the same pitch, different
chromatic alterations are necessary in order to conform to the standard whole-
and half-step requirements of each scale (major = 1—1-1/2—1—1-1-1/2; and
minor = 1—1/2—1—1—1/2-1-1). In other words, to convert a given major scale
to a parallel minor (natural form): (1) begin on the same pitch as with the major;
(2) spell the scale using the same chromatic alterations as they apply to the same
pitches in the major scale; then (3) lower the third, sixth, and seventh scale de-
grees of the major scale by one chromatic half step (Ex. 5.5).

‘Example 5.5.

$e Parallel Minor (natural)

Major

Given a minor scale (natural form), to find the parallel major, do just the reverse:
(1) begin the major scale on the same note as the minor; (2) spell the scale using
the same pitches and chromatic alterations as they appear in the minor; then (3)
raise the third, sixth, and seventh scale degrees by one chromatic half step.
When comparing and constructing major and minor scales, the chart in Exam-
ple 5.6 should prove useful. It refers to parallel relationships (scales having the
same starting note).
GIVEN TO FORM:
Natural min. Harmonic min. | Melodic min.

—— lower 3, 6, 7 lower 3, 6 lower 3

Natural min. raise 3, 6, 7 — raise 7 raise 6, 7

Harmonic min. raise 3, 6 lower 7 -- raise 6

Melodic min. raise 3 lower 6, 7 lower 6 —

SCALE-DEGREE NAMES

Standard terminology exists to refer to specific scale-degree notes for major and
minor scales. The terms are as follows:

SCALE DEGREES NAMES

aah RNAse ea ere: TONIC

dg Om Ne caennNE SUPERTONIC (one whole step above tonic)
SPP ere einen oreMEDIANT (half way between 1 and 5) (third above tonic)
al OR ied ah de SUBDOMINANT (the fifth below tonic)
Stee eee: DOMINANT (the fifth above tonic)
GH. ore See SUBMEDIANT (the third below tonic)
Tey Gi pets LEADING TONE—when 12 step below tonic
SUBTONIC—when a whole-step below tonic (as in
natural minor scales)

PENTATONIC SCALES

A pentatonic scale is a scale configuration that consists of only five tones plus the
repeated octave tone. Any five tones within the octave may be used (Ex. 5.8); how-
ever, standard forms of pentatonic scales tend to spread out the tones of the scale
throughout the octave (Ex. 5.9).

leap
cluster
Example 5.9

even distribution

Example 5.8 represents a scale structure that exhibits a “cluster” or tight grouping
of tones; Example 5.9 illustrates a more even distribution of tones within the oc-
tave. Standard forms of pentatonic scales include the anhemitonic pentatonic and
the hemitonic pentatonic configurations. The anhemitonic form (which means
without half steps) contains only whole-step and one-and-one-half-step incre-
ments. Examples 5.10 and 5.11 illustrate two types of anhemitonic structures.

1 1 ie 1%

ee

These two anhemitonic structures (Exx. 5.10 and 5.11) contain the same step con-
figurations; that is, they both contain whole-step and one-and-one-half-step incre-
ments. Essentially, Example 5.11 is the same as Example 5.10 if you were to follow
the configuration of increments beginning at the fourth tone of Example 5.10. Ex-
ample 5.11 contains the same step-increment configuration as found in Example
5.10 if you were to begin on the third tone (F) instead of on C (Ex. 5.12).

Example 5.12
€
The hemitonic forms consist of whole-, half-, and two-whole-step configurations
(1-1/2-2) as illustrated in Examples 5.13 and 5.14.

Again, you should note that Example 5.14 is essentially the same as Example 5.13,
if you were to follow the configuration of increments beginning at the fourth note
of Example 5.13; that is, Example 5.14 contains the same step increments as found ¢-
in Example 5.13 when beginning on F instead of on C (Ex. 5.15).

DEES nc La a
BE apn Daeeee POP
Example ce 1 5

4 OCROe ae Seekiet (OMe

oe
1
ete Ge at UE Bo peVO OS,
same

Another way to construct either anhemitonic or hemitonic pentatonic scales is to

“extract” them from either major or natural minor scale systems. Given either a
major or natural minor scale, with each of the scale degrees numbered (1 through
8), one can extract a pentatonic scale by selecting only the 1, 2, 3,5, 6, and 1 (or 8)
scale degrees from each scale. In other words, delete degrees 4 and 7. To illustrate
this, the C-major and parallel c-minor scales are examined (Exx. 5.16a and b). ¢ -
o-
Degrees 1 OOS (a) a5 S677) 2 38 1 62. on (4) 6ra(7) 8

Pentatonic 1 oo a 6 8 libres ato 8 6 8

ANHEMITONIC HEMITONIC

When selecting the pentatonic scale degrees (1, 2, 3, 5, 6, and 8) from the major
scale system, no half steps occur, thus forming the anhemitonic pentatonic scale.
When doing the same from the minor system (1, 2, 3, 5, 6, and 8), half steps will
occur between 2 and 3, and between 5 and 6, as they would normally occur in nat-
ural minor, thus forming the hemitonic pentatonic scale.
This manner of constructing either anhemitonic or hemitonic pentatonic scales
eliminates the necessity of counting whole-step, half-step, one-and-a-half-step, or
two-whole-step increments in the scale’s construction. You will have to rely upon
your understanding of, and accuracy in writing, major and minor scales.
In summary, any anhemitonic pentatonic scale can be written on any given pitch
by writing a major scale structure, then extracting and using only the scale degrees
1, 2, 3, 5, 6, and 8. Likewise, any hemitonic pentatonic scale can be written on any
7) given pitch by writing a natural minor scale structure, then extracting and using
only the same (1, 2, 3, 5, 6, and 8) scale degrees.
Pentatonic scale structures were at one time thought to have Asian origins, but
in fact they sprang almost simultaneously from several different world cultures and
are therefore equally indigenous to many musical cultures, including that of the na-
tive American Indian. One might say that the pentatonic scale structure is common
to more world cultures than any other scale system.
In summary, pentatonic scales consist of five tones plus the octave repetition.
The following charts illustrate the standard anhemitonic and hemitonic configura-
tions beginning on C.

ANHEMITONIC HEMITONIC

(C-D-E--G-A--C) (C-D-Eb-G-Ab-C)
1-1-1%-1-1% 1-%-2-%-2
(or) ———_______.—_ (or) ———_________
(C-D--F-G-A--C) (C -Db-F-G-Ab-C)
1-1%-1-1-1% We-2-1-%-2

Complete the chapter 5 drill sheets on the following pages before continuing.
Also, see Appendix A and Appendix B.
MAJOR, MINOR, AND PENTATONIC SCALES (SCALE STRUCTURES II) 107

@ SOSSHSTHOSHSSHHHSHHSHHHTHHHHOHHOROHOHHSOHOHHTEHHOHSHOHHSEHESOOHELE CCCKLSCCOHLESEELEHEOLOe SHOSHOHHOROHHSHHSHOHHSHEHSOHSCHHEHTEOHEHSOOEEOE e

Ghar DER PIN PaDREEES ANE EXERCISES

1. Given the following major scales, write out both the parallel as well as the relative minor scales
(natural).
a. Parallel minor

Se -
Relative minor

Parallel minor

Relative minor

Parallel minor

Relative minor

d. Parallel minor

ee

ae,
ee fgnaee One Le ee eee
108 MAJOR, MINOR, AND PENTATONIC SCALES (SCALE STRUCTURES II)

2. Given'the scales notated below, analyze the whole- and half-step configurations in each and identi-
fy each scale.

Fee: Major
(Scale)

; (Scale)

; (Scale)

E (Scale)

} (Scale)

; (Scale)

: (Scale)

; (Scale)

: (Scale)

(Scale)
MAJOR, MINOR, AND PENTATONIC SCALES (SCALE STRUCTURES II) 109

3. Write out anhemitonic pentatonic scales beginning on the given pitches and label the step incre-
ments in each scale.
. b.

:.
4. Write out hemitonic pentatonic scales beginning on the given pitches:

SCALES II REVIEW (SELF-TEST: CHAPTER FIVE)

1. In terms of whole and half steps, what is the upper tetrachord structure of:
a. Natural minor
b. Ascending melodic minor
c. Harmonic minor
d. Major
2. Half steps in major must occur between the and and between the and
scale degrees.
3. All tetrachords in major and minor scales are connected by a whole step. True False
4. Both upper and lower tetrachords in major scales have the same configuration of whole and half
steps. True False.

5. The subdominants of any given major and its parallel minor (natural) are the same notes.
True Falsew =. _
6. The dominants of any given minor scale and its relative major are the same notes. True
False
7. Aminor scale and its relative major have the same starting pitches. True False
MAJOR, MINOR, AND PENTATONIC SCALES (SCALE STRUCTURES II)

The mediant scale degree in major becomes the starting note for its relative minor. True
False
Naturally occurring half steps (NOHS) can be found between and and between
and
A pentatonic scale contains (number) different pitches plus an octave repetition of the
beginning pitch.
A hemitonic pentatonic scale contains at least one (whole step/half step).
An anhemitonic pentatonic scale contains no (whole steps/half steps).
A hemitonic pentatonic scale can be extracted from a major scale by omitting the fourth and sev-
enth scale degrees. True False
ee Pentatonic scales extracted from the minor scale will contain half steps. True False
i All forms of minor have a different descending structure. True False
een aon ecuncasaremnnen nee cenheec es Cub yenen statis Ses euce Nene eshess ante euesersenaescscnvesdecdcassaseossesdstsesebcoasersssnescesecabesecuscesvalecas
ssesdsecssevceerecauestievascssenscnedesece
bi2 MAJOR, MINOR, AND PENTATONIC SCALES (SCALE STRUCTURES II)
PPPTTTTTITTTTTT TTT TTT Tee TTTTPTTTrrrerritiiirri Titi
Li4 MAJOR, MINOR, AND PENTATONIC SCALES (SCALE STRUCTURES II)
e The ability to write any interval on
the staff

¢ The ability to identify any interval au-

rally

e The ability to sing any interval

e The ability to play any interval on the

keyboard

e The ability to analyze intervals in a

musical score

ELS
INTERVALS

A knowledge of intervals is perhaps one of the most important skills that a musi-
cian must possess. For reading and analyzing music, performing, composing,
studying harmony and counterpoint, or learning a new musical style, a complete
knowledge of intervals is essential.
An interval is described as the distance, space, or difference in frequency be-
tween two pitches. An interval is labeled melodic if the two pitches are played in
succession and is labeled harmonic if the two pitches are played simultaneously
(Ex. 6.1).
ae | — Se

. ee eS ee
Ascending Melodic Descending Melodic Harmonic

In order to analyze an interval, it is necessary to determine both the numerical size

and the quality.

NUMERICAL CLASSIFICATION

This procedure simply involves counting every line and space from one pitch up or
down to the next pitch. The starting pitch (the first line or space) is always counted
as number one.
Example 6.2 illustrates basic intervals (unaltered by chromatic signs) from the
unison, or prime, to the octave.
Peer era REN, ) Pane RD rape eee

; - S (SES a =I08 q

oo 7 RCD S ae =e. r= o—
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
unison second third fourth fifth sixth seventh octave

The addition of chromatic signs does not change the numerical classification. The
intervals given in Example 6.3 are a seventh, unison, sixth, fourth, octave, third,
second, and fifth.

a eee
7 6 4 8 3 2 3)
INTERVALS Lz

QUALITY CLASSIFICATION

The quality names for intervals are perfect, major, minor, augmented, and dimin-
ished. The capital or lower-case letters given below are used to identify the proper
quality classification.

P= periect d = diminished
M = major AA = doubly augmented
m = minor dd = doubly diminished
A = augmented

Doubly augmented and doubly diminished intervals are rarely found in music.

PERFECT INTERVALS

Only the intervals of a unison, octave, fifth, and fourth can be termed perfect in-
tervals.
A perfect unison is the repetition or the simultaneous playing of the same pitch
with the same spelling. There is no space or distance between the pitches of a per-
. fect unison (Ex. 6.4).

A perfect octave is an interval in which two tones have the same spelling but are
separated by a distance of twelve half steps or six whole steps. In order to retain a
perfect quality, both notes must have the same number and kind of chromatic signs
(Exe).

be-
(_
ea ei bo te
P8 P8 P8 P8 P8

When determining the numerical classification of an interval, the first note (upper
‘ or lower) is always counted as number one. When determining the number of half
steps or whole steps in an interval, the starting note is always counted as zero.
INTERVALS

A perfect fifth contains seven half steps or three-and-a-half whole steps. Both
notes of the interval of a fifth will be written either on lines or in spaces (Ex. 6.6).

o Q
=
oO = LP:
GB eee

Re SSF —5 Woe
o ie

(lines) (spaces)

All basic fifths are perfect except the fifth B to F, which is one half step smaller than
a perfect fifth. In order for it to be perfect, the interval must be expanded by one
half step; that is, the F must be raised one half step with a sharp (B-F#) or the B
must be lowered to B’ (BF) (Ex. 6.7).

Example 6.7

A fifth will be perfect if it spans one NOHS (naturally occurring half step). If the
fifth spans two NOHS, it will be one half step smaller than a perfect fifth, thus mak-
ing it diminished.

(NOHS: Naturally Occurring Half Steps)

In Example 6.8, note that the interval B to F spans both the B to C as well as the E
to F NOHS. As a result, this fifth is diminished.
An analysis of the basic fifths in Example 6.7 can provide a system of thinking
that can make the spelling of perfect fifths relatively easy. In spelling perfect fifths,
both the upper and lower notes will have the same number and kind of chromatic
signs, except when B (or B altered) is the lower note. In this case, in order to re-
tain a perfect quality, the upper note will be one chromatic sign higher than the
lower note.
In each pair of notes in Example 6.9, both the upper and lower notes have the
same number and kind of chromatic signs, and, as a result, all are perfect fifths.
Example 6.9

If B (or B altered) is the lower note of a perfect fifth, the upper note is always one
chromatic sign higher than the lower note (Ex. 6.10).

ALL MAJOR AND MINOR SCALES CONTAIN A PERFECT FIFTH (ASCEND-

ING) FROM TONIC TO DOMINANT.

A perfect fourth contains five half steps or two-and-a-half whole steps. Note
that a perfect fourth is one diatonic whole step smaller than a perfect fifth.
All basic fourths are perfect except the fourth from F to B, which is one half step
larger than a perfect fourth. In order to make it perfect, the B must be lowered to B?,
or the F must be raised to F¥. A basic fourth will be perfect if it spans one NOHS. If
it does not span one NOHS, it will be one half step larger than a perfect fourth, thus
making it augmented (Ex. 6.11).

| ~Examiple 6.11 |

| SS a
eee
P4 P4 P4 A4 P4 P4 P4

An analysis of the basic fourths in Example 6.11 can again provide a thought
process that can aid in the spelling of perfect fourths. In spelling perfect fourths,
both the upper and lower notes will have the same number and kind of chromatic
signs, except when F (or F altered) is the lower note. In this case, the upper note
will be one chromatic sign lower.
In the pairs of notes in Example 6.12, both the upper and lower notes have the
same number and kind of chromatic signs, and, as a result, all are perfect fourths.

Example 6.12
INTERVALS

If F (or F altered) is the lower note of a perfect fourth, the upper note is always one

ere a a ee
chromatic sign lower (Ex. 6.13).

——— No
ALL MAJOR AND MINOR SCALES CONTAIN A PERFECT FOURTH (ASCEND-
ING) FROM TONIC TO SUBDOMINANT.

MAJOR AND MINOR INTERVALS

Only the intervals of a second, third, sixth, and seventh can be termed major or
minor intervals. (Ninths and other intervals larger than an octave will be discussed
later in this chapter.)
A minor second contains one diatonic half step, and it is always spelled with ad-
jacent letters in the musical alphabet.
A major second contains one diatonic whole step (or two half steps, one diaton-
ic and one chromatic), and it is always spelled with adjacent letters in the musical
alphabet. A major second is one chromatic half step larger than a minor second.
Of the seven basic seconds, five are major and two are minor. Note that all sec-
onds are written on adjacent lines and spaces on the staff (Ex. 6.14).
Bee ye eee Peanple Lt g .

M2 M2 m2 M2 M2 M2 m2

A minor third contains three half steps or one-and-a-half whole steps.

A major third contains four half steps or two whole steps. A major third is one
chromatic half step larger than a minor third and one diatonic whole step larger
than a major second. When spelling a third of any quality, always skip one letter of
the musical alphabet between the lower and higher notes (Ex. 6.15).
aie Satine enon maciede | Eeancle 65 Pere
te 2 eee

M3 M3 m3 m3

C.-d. &. -~6 eas Bocaire Q- Ax bDx-C

(toe ee) 4
INTERVALS ne

Of the basic thirds, three are major and four are minor. Note that all thirds are writ-
ten either on two adjacent lines or on two adjacent spaces. A basic minor third
spans one NOHS, and a basic major third spans no NOHS (Ex. 6.16).

—S
es ae

M3 m3 m3 M3 M3 m3 m3

A minor sixth contains eight half steps or four whole steps. A minor sixth is one di-
atonic half step larger than a perfect fifth.
A major sixth contains nine half steps or four-and-a-half whole steps. A major
sixth is one chromatic half step larger than a minor sixth and one diatonic whole
step larger than a perfect fifth.
Of the seven basic sixths, four are major and three are minor. Note that a basic
major sixth spans one NOHS and a basic minor sixth spans two NOHS (Ex. 6.17).

Example 6.17

A minor seventh contains ten half steps or five whole steps. A minor seventh is a
diatonic whole step smaller than a perfect octave and a diatonic half step larger
than a major sixth.
A major seventh contains eleven half steps or five-and-a-half whole steps. A
major seventh is one diatonic half step smaller than a perfect octave and one dia-
tonic whole step larger than a major sixth.
Of the seven basic sevenths, two are major and five are minor. Note than a
basic minor seventh spans two NOHS and a basic major seventh spans one NOHS
(Ex. 6.18).
INTERVALS

All major scales contain major seconds, major thirds, major sixths, and major sev-
enths ascending from tonic. In a minor scale (harmonic form) the ascending inter-
vals (second, third, sixth, seventh) above the tonic are M2, m3, m6, and M7.

AUGMENTED AND DIMINISHED INTERVALS

All intervals can be written and classified as augmented or diminished, except for
the unison, which can only be augmented. The chart in Example 6.19 shows how
the classification of an interval can change by making it one half step larger or
smaller. Read the chart from the middle to the right and then from the middle to
the left. It is assumed that all changes will be chromatic half steps.

a =
Diminished decreased A Perfect Interval increased Augmented
in size in size
Minor by one A Major Interval by one Augmented
half step half step
Diminished becomes A Minor Interval becomes Major

Perfect An Augmented Doubly

Interval (1,4,5, or 8) Augmented

Major An Augmented Doubly

Interval (2,3,6, or 7) Augmented

Doubly A Diminished Perfect

Diminished Interval (4,5, or 8)

Doubly A Diminished
Diminished Interval (2,3,6, or 7)

Example 6.20 illustrates the use of the interval classification chart for augmented
and diminished intervals.
Example 6.20

P4 A4 AA4 M6 A6 AA6

Note that the perfect unison becomes augmented when it is increased in size by one
half step. A diminished unison cannot exist, since it merely results in an augmented
unison in the opposite direction (Ex. 6.21). Diminished seconds are rarely encoun-
tered as they are enharmonic with a perfect unison.

Example 6.21

Se
Al P41 Al
(descending) (ascending)

THE TRITONE

The interval of a tritone contains three whole steps (hence the name tritone) and
may be written as an augmented fourth or as a diminished fifth. When identifying
this interval by ear, it is impossible to distinguish between the two possibilities un-
less it is heard in a melodic or harmonic context. However, when analyzing or writ-
ing the interval of a tritone, it is necessary to be specific—that is, to identify or
write the interval as an A4 or d5 (Ex. 6.22).

Example 6.22
124 INTERVALS

In all of the preceding examples in this unit, intervals have been measured from the
lower note to the upper note. All of the principles given apply as well when mea-
suring descending intervals (from the upper note down to the lower note).

INTERVAL CHART

Example 6.23 illustrates intervals that occur above and below middle C, with each
interval being a half step larger than the previous one. The number of half steps con-
tained in each interval is given, along with frequently used enharmonic equivalents.

Ascending
(1) halfsteps (2) (3) (4)

m2 Ad A2

) (6) (7) (8)

——_ P4 A4
re
d5
———
P5 m6 A5

(9) (10) (11) (12)

oOo oe Oo Oo eo oO eo
M6 d7 m7 A6 M7 d8 P8
Descending
(1) half steps Rie ae (2) (3) (4)

=: SE = =
m2 Al M2 m3 A2 M3
(5) (6) (7) (8)
oe oe
te f
oe
Pe a =
¥ @ = ro

P4 A4 d5 PS m6 A5
INTERVALS £25

The intervals presented in Example 6.23 are defined by the number of whole steps,
half steps, or both contained in each interval. Keep in mind that (1) half steps may
be diatonic or chromatic and (2) whole steps may be diatonic, chromatic, or dimin-
ished thirds (enharmonic whole steps), for example, E—G’, CHE, B—D», At-C.
Writing an interval is always a two-step process; you should first determine the
basic letter-name spelling of the interval—the number of lines and spaces on the
staff required for the interval. Do not try to write intervals by using only diatonic
whole and half steps because, as mentioned above, half steps can be chromatic or
diatonic, and whole steps can be diatonic, chromatic, or enharmonic diminished
thirds (d3), thus causing you to arrive at an incorrect letter name, even though the
whole- or half-step distance may be correct.
When analyzing a given interval, you should first determine the numerical clas-
sification by counting the number of lines and spaces involved; then, if necessary,
you could determine the quality by counting the number of whole and half steps.

COMPOUND INTERVALS

Simple intervals are those that have a numerical classification of an octave or less;
they include all intervals discussed thus far. Compound intervals have a numerical
classification larger than an octave. Note: Augmented octaves (A8) are classified as
simple intervals even though they are enharmonic with the interval of a minor
ninth (m9).
Compound intervals may be analyzed with numbers such as 9, 10, 11, 12, and
so on, up to the double octave, which would be a 15, and beyond. When analyzing
compound intervals, reduce the interval to its simple form and insert the letter “C”
(for compound) before the quality and numerical classification. Note that the qual-
ity classification remains the same when reducing a compound interval to a simple
one (or vice versa) (Ex. 6.24).

—y bo
oS > S > Ge eo
M9 or m9 or P12 0r d12 or P11 or A11th or
CM2 Cm2 CP5 Cd5 CP4 CA4

Musicians are frequently careless about including the classification when dis-
cussing or analyzing compound intervals. It is common to hear or see the terms
tenth, eleventh, twelfth, and so forth with the quality classification omitted. To be
specific, the quality analysis must be included.
For extremely large intervals, the terms “doubly compound” (CC) and “triply
compound” (CCC) may be used. Keep in mind that each capital C represents one
octave (Ex. 6.25).
sesauessedavepavadidddsdensscueasaedacou
seneeeen
Example 6. 25

oe

CCM3 CCP5 CCCM2 CCP4

INVERSION OF INTERVALS

A knowledge of how intervals can be inverted can be helpful in writing and analyz-
ing intervals.
Inversion of simple intervals at the octave merely means that the lower note is
placed one octave higher while the upper note remains the same, or the upper note
is placed one octave lower while the lower note remains the same (Ex. 6.26).

Example 6.26
a. b. t.

ss
re = Fa o
Te

P5 P4 P5 P4

In Example 6.26a, the note C was moved up one octave while the G remained the
same. In Example 6.26b, the G was moved down one octave while the C remained
the same.

GUIDELINES FOR INVERSION OF INTERVALS

The following guidelines, in the form of two statements, offer the knowledge need-
ed to understand the inversion of intervals at the octave.

1. The numerical sum of a simple interval and its inversion will always equal
nine (Ex. 6.27). This is because the note that remains stationary is
counted twice.

e A unison inverts to an octave (and an octave to a unison).

e A second inverts to a seventh (and a seventh to a second).
¢ A third inverts to a sixth (and a sixth to a third).
o
¢ A fourth inverts to a fifth (and a fifth to a fourth).
Example 6.27

¢ 65: aig Se I = : or
Pit P8 M2 m7 M3 m6 P4 P5

2. Perfect intervals remain perfect when inverted. All others change quality
when inversion takes place (Ex. 6.28).

¢ A major interval inverts to a minor interval (and minor to major).

¢ An augmented interval inverts to a diminished interval (and dimin-
ished to augmented).
¢ A doubly augmented interval inverts to a doubly diminished interval
(and vice versa).

Example 6.28

(=
M3 m6 P4 PS M2 m i A2 d7 dd5 AA4

A knowledge of how intervals are inverted at the octave can be helpful in writing
intervals and, in turn, serve as a means for checking the accuracy of a written inter-
val. For instance, if the challenge is to write a minor seventh above F, you may
choose to think of the interval that is found a major second down from F; then, no-
tate this F> as an answer, one octave higher (above the F) (Ex. 6.29).

Example 6:29

If the problem is to write a minor sixth above F you may choose to think a major
third down and then place this lower note up an octave (Ex. 6.30).

M3 m6
INTERVALS

This thought process can apply to the writing of any interval, ascending or de-
scending. It is particularly helpful with intervals larger than a perfect fifth or with
complicated chromatic alterations in larger intervals.
Complete the chapter 6 drill sheets on the following pages before continuing.
Also, see Appendix A and Appendix B.
SOOSOHSESOSHHSHSEH OHSS OOH SEHHE TOE SOEESH OHO SET O EE OOO SSH SEH EHH EET OSH SHS SOS EHS OOHOHHSTESEHSOOTOSHOSHHOH OH OSHTESEOOOEOEOE

Otie Reo eboney ER CLES

1. Write the basic intervals indicated above or below the note given ( T above, J below).

= ex. 2 ft 6t oT 9y 7V 8t

b.
: Q
2 ee a —
ot 84 St 3y 5Y 6 t

4t 64 24 10% 4\ 7h

2. Write the perfect intervals indicated.

ee P5t P5/ P5\ P5t P5t P54

=== aa: = ae
P4t PA) P4) P4t P4* PA

Ne
* == = Se
P8t P8) Rot Pot PAY PA
HARA RA NOHO eee e een eaeensenaeeneenesenseesseeseessEeseseeestESsEESEESEEESEESEESEESSEESEEES ESSE ESE EEEEEEEEEEEEEESEESSEESEESESEEESSESSEESEESESESESSEESESSEES EEE E EEE EEEEH ESTEE EEE ES EEEESEEEEEEHEEEEESEEE OES EEESESEESESESHEE SEES ESTEE E OHS

130 INTERVALS

f
3. Write the major or minor intervals indicated.
a.

ee met M24 m2t m2 M2 t M2 4

b.

22 —$S a3 : = = | = ——_——
M3* m3y mst M34 M3* mst

M6t m6) Mé6t ew M64 m6 4

d. |

m7* M7 4 m7¥ M7t m7 M74

A4y A3t A4y d5* A34 d54

CG:

= SSS Se
A5dt* A544 Ady A6*t A6Y d6t
d.
be

—s ——————————
dét d7y d7* dst d8gy d&g

A8t A84 A8\ d3t det AASt €

sO A aa aaa er

Ds Analyze the intervals given.

6. Write the compound intervals indicated.

ex. m9 t m9 Mot M94 Cm3t CM3¥

CP4t CPS Cmét Cm/7t* CM7+

“INTERVALS

ie Specify the melodic intervals contained in the melodies given.

Down in the Valley, American Folk Song
(2)

(10) (11) (12

Clementine, American Folk Song

(1)

Dona Nobis Pacem, German Round

saree

Brandenburg Concerto No. 6, Bach

The Well-Tempered Clavier, Book |, Fugue 10, Bach

Album for the Young, No. 14, Schumann

9. At the octave, invert the intervals given. The solid note heads indicate stationary pitches. Analyze
both intervals.
OOOO eee eee eee ene eenee
hbbhbahhh hhheee
hhheeeH nese eeeeeeeeereseeseesseeeeeED
teeter err ire terre rire irri rere errr rere rire rrr rrre rrrr ierrre rire reer rere rrr eer errr reer reer eerie reer eee ere

INTERVALS 135

INTERVAL REVIEW (SELF-TEST: CHAPTER SIX)

1. The five common quality classifications for intervals are:

d.
e

2. Complete the following:

a. A perfect interval inverts to a interval.
b. A major interval inverts to a interval.
c. A minor interval inverts to a interval.
d. A diminished interval inverts to an interval.
e. An augmented interval inverts to a interval.
3. Complete the following:
a A sixth inverts to a
b. A seventh inverts toa

c. A third inverts toa

d. Asecond inverts toa
e. A fourth inverts to a
f. A fifth inverts toa
An octave inverts toa

=ga A unison inverts to a

INTERVALS

A harmonic interval is one in which the two pitches are sounding

A melodic interval is one in which the two pitches are sounding
Complete the following:
a. A P8 contains half steps or whole steps.
b. A m7 contains half steps or whole steps.
© A m6 contains half steps or whole steps.
d. A M3 contains half steps or whole steps.
(ee A M2 contains half steps or whole steps.
fi, A m2 contains half step.
g. A d5 contains half steps or whole steps.
Complete the following:
An A5 is enharmonic with a

b. A m7 is enharmonic with a
c. A m3 is enharmonic witha
d. AnAl is enharmonic witha
e. A M3 is enharmonic witha
f. A d5 is enharmonic witha
g. AM7is enharmonic with a
A tritone contains three whole steps and is written either as a (interval) or a
(interval).

Complete the following:

a. A m6 is one diatonic half step larger than a
b. A m7 is one diatonic half step larger than a
C: An A4 is one chromatic half step larger than a
d. A M7 is one diatonic half step smaller than a
(Se A m3 is one chromatic half step smaller than a
f. A M2 is one chromatic half step smaller than an
10. Complete the following:
a. If a perfect interval is increased in size by one chromatic half step it becomes
b. If a major interval is increased in size by one chromatic half step it becomes
C; If a minor interval is increased in size by one chromatic half step it becomes
If an augmented interval is increased in size by one chromatic half step it becomes
INTERVALS et

e. If a diminished interval is increased in size by one chromatic half step it becomes

or
f. Ifa perfect interval is decreased in size by one chromatic half step it becomes
g. Ifa major interval is decreased in size by one chromatic half step it becomes
h. Ifa minor interval is decreased in size by one chromatic half step it becomes
i. If a diminished interval is decreased in size by one chromatic half step it becomes

j. If an augmented interval is decreased in size by one chromatic haif step it becomes

or
11. Complete the following:
a. A major tenth can also be analyzed as a
b. A minor tenth can also be analyzed as a
A major thirteenth can also be analyzed as a
a9 A perfect twelfth can also be analyzed as a
e. A minor fourteenth can also be analyzed as a
Lema] A perfect eleventh can also be analyzed as a
4 g. A diminished twelfth can also be analyzed as a
INTERVALS
139
Pe ee ree eence cece ner eerecereeee cece eeseeeescccoceeeeeecesseceeoeecee
Caria Awer al cE R See Vee oN

e The ability to recognize all diatonic

intervals as they appear in major and
minor scale structures

¢ The ability to relate concepts of scale

structures to the melodic intervals com-
prising diatonic scales.

lee
SCALES III (REVISITED)

Up to this point, isolated skills have been presented chapter by chapter. We now
begin to unify some of those concepts by revisiting major and minor scales, ap-
proaching them through intervallic structures. This facet of scale study, which
should follow the unit on intervals, will provide a firmer, more stable basis for
scale-structure comprehension while also reinforcing interval recognition. The two
concepts (scales and intervals) are so complementary as to be almost inseparable; it
is difficult to learn one without the other.

MAJOR SCALE
We can now view the major scale as constructed of either major or perfect intervals
as measured up from the tonic. The scale increments are either major seconds or
minor seconds. The second, third, sixth, and seventh scale degrees are major inter-
vals when measured up from the tonic pitch. The fourth, fifth, and octave (again,
measured up from the tonic) are perfect intervals (Ex. 7.1).

Fite ee | :8Ae iEeat ec Sees mspa te eee

D Major Scale

Oo z a
ee =e
Scale Degree 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
intervals, (-—-2 gp i a = gg tl Te

M3 |
| = =P4
INTERVALS
FROM TONIC

Note: Minor seconds are found between scale degrees 3 and 4 and between 7 and 8.

MINOR SCALE

In all minor scales, the ascending interval from the tonic to the mediant (third scale
degree) is a minor third. In fact, the lower tetrachord is the same for all forms of the
minor scale; that is, the intervals are major second, minor second, major second
(Ex. 7.2). The f minor scale is used as a model in all of the following examples. = |
Example 7.2

=: Oo Bo
—
Scale Degree 1 2 ree 4
Intervals “—M2 —— m2 ——m2—

Natural Minor Scale

In the upper tetrachord in natural minor we are dealing with a minor second (from
the dominant up to the submediant), a major second (from the submediant up to
the subtonic), and a major second (from the subtonic up to the tonic) (Ex. 7.3).

: Example 7.3
Upper Tetrachord of a Natural Minor Scale

Scale Degree 5 6 7 8
Intervals =L— m2 —+— m2—+—_ m2 —

Note: In all forms of minor as well as in major, the fourth, fifth, and octave are al-
ways perfect intervals and retain their perfect quality. They are, respectively, a per-
fect fourth, perfect fifth, and perfect octave up from the given tonic. Also, in all
major as well as minor scales the connection between tetrachords is always a major
second.
Both tetrachords of the natural minor scale combine to form the scale structure
shown in Example 7.4.

_ : =

Scale Degree 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
intervals =P= Ag i in en a —

INTERVALS
FROM TONIC

Note: Minor seconds are found between scale degrees 2 and 3 and between 5 and 6.
Harmonic Minor Scale
As stated before, the lower tetrachord in the harmonic form of the minor scale is
identical to the lower tetrachord in natural minor. The upper tetrachord, beginning
on the dominant pitch of the scale, contains the following ascending intervals:
minor second (from dominant up to submediant), augmented second (from sub-
mediant up to leading tone), and minor second (from leading tone up to tonic)
(Exe):

Upper Tetrachord of fHarmonic Minor

Scale Degree 5 : 6 Z ; 8
intervals L=m2=--—_a2—L
— 2—

Both tetrachords combine in harmonic minor to form the structure shown in Ex-
ample 7.6.

ee 0 oe Pe —— =
Scale Degree 1 2 3 4 5 6 Ii 8
Intenvalste le
MO ie ee See page
2 age ee
M2 . |
m3
INTERVALS P4 ps5 |

at
FROM TONIC m6

Note: Minor seconds are found between scale degrees 2 and 3, between 5 and 6,
and between 7 and 8. This scale form represents the only diatonic scale having
three sets of half steps.

Melodic Minor Scale

Again, the lower tetrachord is identical to the other two forms of the minor scale,
having the characteristic minor third. The upper tetrachord in ascending melodic
minor’ contains the same intervals found in the upper tetrachord in major: a major
second (from the dominant up to the submediant), a major second (from the sub-

‘In actual music, it is fairly common to find the ascending form of the melodic minor scale in melodic lines, regardless
of the direction of a melody; for instance, the ascending form may appear in a descending melodic line.
SCALES Ill (REVISITED) 147

mediant up to the leading tone), and a minor second (from the leading tone up to
the tonic). When descending, it follows the configuration of descending natural
minor: major second (from tonic down to subtonic), major second (from subtonic
down to submediant), and minor second (from submediant down to dominant)
(Exo 77):

Example 7.7
ASCENDING MELODIC SCALE
(Upper tetrachord; f minor) DESCENDING MELODIC SCALE

Scale Degree 5 6
a 7 8 8
ee
7 6 5
Interval i= Ne ts pe (ee ye

Both tetrachords combine to form the ascending and descending forms found in
Example 7.8.

Example 7.8
= 2 o- o- 12.4 7

Scale Degree 1 23 et EO Ont Oo ai GeO eA 32 1

Intervals LM2-m2-M2- M2-M2-M2- m2! LM2 - M2- m2- M2- M2- m2-M2/

INTERVALS
FROM TONIC

Complete the chapter 7 drill sheets on the following pages before continuing. Also,
see Appendix A, and refer to Appendix D for a complete chart of major and minor
scales.
PPP reer rrr errr reer rere errr rrr rrr rier r errr rere rere ere errere e reer errr Tre

SHOSSHSHSHHSHHHOSSHHHHHSHHHHHHHHSHHHHSHOOHHSHOHHSHOOOHOHHHHHSOHHOHHSHSSTHOHHHHHOHOHTEHHHOHHSHOHOHOHOHHHTSHOHOOHOSHTOHESEOEEEO

Ci
AR ERIS EV END Ri ESaiuN DeEXERCISES

1. Ineach of the following, a scale is given. First, identify the given scale; second, extract, in notation,
the requested interval; and third, label each interval.
a. ex.

———— = (scale) &Major

1. From the mediant up to the dominant. (oes

2. From the subdominant up to the tonic. SS

1. From the mediant up to the dominant. (Ss

2. From the subdominant up to the tonic. SSS

3. From the supertonic up to the submediant. =

4. From the tonic down to the dominant. =

5. From the submediant down to the supertonic. a

SCALES III (REVISITED)

(G},

Se SS,
1. From the supertonic up to the leading tone. ———
2. From the mediant down to the submediant. ee
3. From the tonic up to the submediant. es
4. From the subdominant up to the supertonic. ——
5. From the dominant down to the leading tone. ——

= (scale)

1. From the mediant up to the dominant.

2. From the subdominant down to the submediant.

3. From the supertonic up to the submediant.

4. From the dominant down to the subtonic.

5. From the mediant up to the subtonic.

seco eee eee eee eee eee ee eee oes eeeeeeeeeeeETeneeeHee ees eee Ee Hee O SEEDED SOT OO EEE SDE EEN ODEEEEOOE OOS OOEOOSEO OEE EDSS SOS OD OSES OLE OENODESEEEOEEOOESEE EEE DESEOEEEEOSOS ESSE SOE EREOOESEESH ESO SESESOSEOOS OES ORESSEOE ESSE SOSH ORES EESEE SSE SCE OOS

= (scale)

1. From the supertonic up to the leading tone. 2 ea eS

2. From the subdominant up to the mediant. ee

3. From the tonic down to the submediant. ee

4. From the leading tone down to the mediant. 2 ee

5. From the submediant up to the supertonic. 2

SCALES III REVIEW (SELF-TEST: CHAPTER SEVEN)

1. The intervals found in a major scale (as measured up from the tonic) are either major or perfect.
True False
2. The intervals found in natural minor scales (as measured up from the tonic) are all either minor
or perfect. True False
3. Name the ascending interval found in major scales between:
a. the mediant and the dominant.

b. the subdominant and the tonic.

c. the submediant and the mediant.

d. the dominant and the leading tone.

e. the supertonic and the dominant.
Loman) the leading tone and the supertonic.
g. the mediant and the tonic.
SCALES Ill (REVISITED)

Name the ascending interval found in natural minor scales between:

a. the supertonic and the subtonic.
b. the mediant and the dominant.
c. the submediant and the subdominant.
d. the subdominant and the mediant.
e. the mediant and the tonic.
Name the ascending interval found in harmonic minor scales between:
a. the tonic and the submediant.
b. the supertonic and the mediant.
the mediant and the leading tone.
d. the leading tone and the mediant.
e. the supertonic and the submediant.
The only intervals up from tonic that remain constant when converting from major to the parallel
minor (any form) are:
eeee en
ee ATI
The upper tetrachord in ascending melodic minor is the same as the tetrachord in

The upper tetrachord in descending melodic minor is the same as the tetrachord in

Of all major and minor (all forms) scales, only two scales have mixed chromatic signs (sharps
along with flats). These two are and
Only the scale, as a diatonic scale, has three sets of half steps within the scale.

Only the lower tetrachord varies from form to form in minor scales. True___ False

The only diatonic scale containing an augmented second is the scale.

When converting a major scale to its parallel natural minor, the (scale degree(s))
must be (circle one):

a. raised a half step.

b. lowered a half step.
SCALES III (REVISITED) 153
SCALES III (REVISITED) 155
156
SCALES III (REVISITED)
Curries. Eo |EON lope ©tage @heel

Key Signatures
¢ The ability to write key signatures for
every major and minor key in the treble
and bass clefs

¢ The ability to identify the major or

minor key represented by the key signa-
ture

LST
KEY SIGNATURES

In some contemporary compositions, composers have elected either to dispense

with key signatures or to use unusual arrangements of sharps, flats, or both that
best meet the needs of the music, performer, or scale resource being used. This
chapter deals with traditional key signatures, which comprise the arrangement of
chromatic signs that are either all sharps, all flats, or no chromatic signs at all.
Key signatures serve as a type of “shorthand” for the composer, copyist, or pub-
lisher. The beginning of most musical scores will provide the type of information in
Example 8.1.

LTE I Example 8.1 | oo

(1) (2) (3)

1. The clef
N The key signature
3. The meter signature

There are three things you must learn in order to write key signatures with fluency
and accuracy:

1. the number of sharps or flats to employ

2. the correct order in which the sharps or flats appear in the key signature
3. the correct line or space on the staff for the placement of the sharps or
flats

Because there are seven letters in the musical alphabet, a key signature may contain
up to seven sharps or seven flats.

PLACEMENT AND SPACING OF FLATS

The order in which flats appear in a key signature is B>, E>, Ab, D>, G>, C>, F». After
the first flat (B’), each additional flat is a perfect fourth above (Ex. 8.2).

Example 8.2
KEY SIGNATURES 159

Note the exact line or space on which each flat appears as well as the interval pat-
tern of “up a fourth, down a fifth” after the first B> is written.
If the flats in the key signature are spaced properly, it will be possible to draw di-
agonal lines through the seven flats as illustrated in Example 8.3.

Example 8.3

Staff placement of the flats is important. Do not insert a flat out of its proper se-
quence. Check to see that each flat is in its proper register.
Practice writing the key signature of seven flats in the treble and bass clefs before
continuing.

PLACEMENT AND SPACING OF SHARPS

The order in which sharps appear in a key signature is Ft ct Gt, Dt, At EF Be.
After the first sharp (F*), each additional sharp is a perfect fifth above (Ex. 8.4).
. This is the same ordering as flats, only backwards (Ex. 8.5).

Example 8.4

Flats: BrP eo al: aGae Cun

Sharps: Fe Ge eG: @Die vga.

Example 8.5

Note the exact line or space on which each sharp appears (Ex. 8.4). The interval
pattern for the placement of sharps after the first sharp (F*) is down a P4, up a P5,
4 down a P4, down a P4, up a P5, and down a P4:
KEY SIGNATURES

i; 4,
P47GP5 EG Reet oe Ps
J 1 JL L
If the sharps in the key signature are spaced properly, it will be possible to draw di-
agonal lines through the seven sharps as illustrated in Example 8.6.

Practice writing the key signature of seven sharps in the treble and bass clefs before
continuing.

MAJOR KEY SIGNATURES: SHARPS

When determining the major key when sharps are involved, the age-old method of
finding the last sharp on the right and moving up to the next line or space to find
the major key is one of the easiest systems.

1. Find the last sharp to the right in the key signature. This is always the
leading tone of the major key.
2. Move up to the next adjacent line or space (a minor second) to find the
tonic or keynote of the major key.

a. b. C d. es

In Example 8.7a, the last sharp to the right (and only sharp) is F*. Considering F# as
the leading tone, move up to the next adjacent space, and the letter name for that
space (G) will be the major key represented by one sharp. The interval from the last
sharp upward is always a minor second (leading tone to tonic).
- KEY SIGNATURES 161

The remaining major keys for the key signatures in Example 8.7 are: 8.7b, D
major; 8.7c, A major; 8.7d, E major; and 8.7e, F major.
Note that if the line or space to which one moves has a previously placed sharp
in that position, it must be included in the labeling of the key. Thus, Example 8.7e
is Ft major (and not F major) because F# appears previously in the key signature.
It should be mentioned that while individual chromatic signs apply only to the
line or space on which they occur, a flat or sharp in the key signature applies to all
lines and spaces with the same letter name, regardless of the octave.
The “line of fifths” in Example 8.8 gives the names of the major keys that have
sharps in the key signature above the line, and the number of sharps in each key
below the line.

Example 8.8
P5 higher

Key GC. _.G D A E B Fe CH

Number of 1 2 3 2 5 6 7
asks Fe FH FR FR FR FR FE
Cle Ob Ch ee Che Cheol
Gt Gt Gt =ct. ct
3 ia elBuon) By eum 5)
3 At At Ag
Et Et
BE

Each new key is a perfect fifth above the previous key, with one additional sharp
being added to the key signature each time. Note that the number of sharps em-
ployed corresponds to the same number of perfect fifths above C that you must
count in order to find the letter name of the key. For example, B is found by count-
ing five perfect fifths above C. Therefore, the key of B major will contain five
sharps.

MAJOR KEY SIGNATURES: FLATS

When determining the major key from a key signature of flats, the method of find-
ing the second-to-last flat and labeling it as the major key is one of the systems
used. Another method is to descend a perfect fourth from the last flat in the key sig-
nature and labeling that line or space as the tonic in the key. Either method will
provide the same answer.

1. Find the second-to-last flat in the key signature.

2. The letter name of that flat is the major key.
r)
Example 8.9

= Se
In Example 8.9a, there is only one flat, so it is impossible to find the second flat
from the right. In this case, you may count down a P4 from B? to find the key, which
is F F is the only plain-letter major key that employs flats. All other plain-letter
names are major keys employing sharps, the exception being C major, which has
no sharps or flats in its key signature.
In Example 8.9b, the second flat from the right is B’, so B’ would be the major
key represented by a key signature of two flats. Example 8.9c would represent
major, 8.9d is A’ major, and 8.9e is G’ major.
The “line of fifths” in Example 8.10 gives the names of the major keys that have
flats in the key signature above the line and the number of flats in each key below
the line.

Example 8:10
P5 lower

Key Cc 5 Bb Eb Ab Db Gb Cb
Number of 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
Flats

Eb Eb Eb Eb Eb Eb

Gb Gb Gb
Cb Ch
Fb

Each new key is a perfect fifth below the previous key, with one additional flat
being added to the key signature each time. Note that the number of flats employed
corresponds to the same number of perfect fifths below C that you must count in
order to find the letter name of the key. For example, A’ is found by counting four
perfect fifths below C. Therefore, the key of A> major will contain four flats.

MINOR KEY SIGNATURES

A minor key shares the same key signature with its relative major. For example,
both C major and a minor (natural form) have the same key signature of no sharps
or flats.
¢:
KEY SIGNATURES 163

Determining the possible minor key, when presented with a key signature of
sharps or flats, simply involves naming the major key represented and then finding
the relative minor.

1. Determine the major key represented by the key signature.

2. Find the relative minor of the major key. The relative minor is a minor
third below the tonic of the major key and is the submediant scale
degree of the relative major.

Example 8.11

In Example 8.11, the major key is indicated with a capital letter and the relative
minor with a lower-case letter.

LINE OF FIFTHS AND CIRCLE OF FIFTHS

Example 8.12 gives the “line of fifths,” which includes all major keys, the relative
minor keys, and the number of flats or sharps in both types of keys.
Note that there are fifteen major keys and fifteen minor keys: seven of each with
sharps, seven of each with flats, and C major and a minor, which contain no sharps
or flats.

Example 8.12 :
P5 below P5 above

Urs a6
|

feb chwuGh. oDhaaatbrsl (Ebelabhl

Minor ab eb _—sibb_—sf c God a e b ihe ssot-nisightiastd!: “at
0
Bb Bb Bb Bb Bb Bb Bb FH Fe Fe Ft Fit FH Ft
EL Eb Eb Eb Eb Eb Ci ACE oe ChuaeCie 9 (ChmmGe
Ab Ab Ab Ab Ab Gt Gt Gt Gt Gt
Oh Ob rb Ob Di* "Die bs-—8 Di
Gb Gab Gb At A At
Chu keh Et ef
KEY SIGNATURES

A key signature does not necessarily give you the key (keynote/tonic) of a composi-
tion. The key signature could represent a major key, minor key, or some other scale
system. To determine the key, you must look beyond the signature and analyze the
music. It is also important to note that key signatures for minor represent only the
natural form; harmonic and melodic minor alterations always require the addition
of chromatic signs to the music. These alterations for the harmonic and melodic
forms of minor never appear as part of a key signature.
Example 8.13, the circle of fifths, is an alternate method of illustrating the con-
tinuum of key signatures. Both Examples 8.12 and 8.13 can enable you to visualize
the logic of progressively adding either sharps or flats in the construction of key
signatures using ascending or descending perfect fifths.

Example 8.13

The circle of fifths can be read clockwise or counterclockwise. The 1 o’clock mark
represents the key of G major or e minor, and its signature contains one sharp. The
2 o'clock position represents the key of D major or b minor, and its signature con-
tains two sharps, and so on.
When reading counterclockwise, instead of counting from 11 o'clock to 6
o'clock positions, you should think of “negative” 1 to negative 6 o’clock posi-
tions—that is, F major or d minor keys are found in the negative 1 o’clock position
and are represented by the signature of one flat. Think of sharps as clockwise mo-
tion from C major (12 o’clock) and flats as counterclockwise motion from C major.
By using this approach, the normal clock positions from 1 to 6 (positive or nega-
2 directly correlate to the number of sharps or flats in the key signature, respec-
tively.
. KEY SIGNATURES 165

The music in Example 8.14 illustrates the application of chromatic alterations to

compositions in minor keys. The letter name of the minor key is given at the begin-
ning of each composition, and each form of the minor scale is indicated in paren-
theses where it occurs.

(J=c. 88)

(Harmonic)

Shalom, Chaverim, Israeli Round

KEY SIGNATURES

Ballade in G minor, Op. 118, No. 3, Brahms

(Natural)
pat
rt

©
=

&
D
ut
te

=
oe
—

|
DA
e

(chromatic alteration)

47 46 ) (Natural )
is)

~2
—
>
©

te
Gis

2%
a

=
&
—
Ww

S
©o
oO
re)

— 0 o)
o

~~
i oO
£

S
=
=
‘S

Oo
=
=
2
2)
S
<=
o

>

°
AL hee eerie rerrrr Terre rrrrrrrrirrrrreerr rere errr rer rer rrr eer errr rere rrrir
KEY SIGNATURES 167

The Well-Tempered Clavier, Book 1, Fugue 2, Bach

Allegretto

2 a armonic) (Melodic)

KEY SIGNATURES REVISITED

Another method that may be used for quickly determining the major or minor key
is as follows:

1. For key signatures with sharps:

e find the last sharp to the right

¢ move up a minor second to find the possible major key; or move
down a major second to find the possible minor key (Ex. 8.15).

Example 8.15

G major

In Example 8.15, the last sharp to the right is F*. By moving up to the next space (a
minor second) you find the major key represented by one sharp is G major. By
moving down to the next space below the sharp (a major second) you find the
minor key is e minor.

2. For key signatures with flats:

¢ find the last flat to the right

e if the last flat is in a space, ascend to the next space (a major third) to
find the possible minor key, and ascend one more space (a
minor third) to find the possible major key (Ex. 8.16a)
e if the last flat is on a line, ascend to the next line (a major third) to
find the minor key, and ascend one more line (a minor third) to
find the major key (Ex. 8.16b).
a. b.
Eb major Db major
c minor bb minor

Remember that all minor keys represented by key signatures are natural form. Har-
monic and melodic variations must be indicated by additional chromatic signs and
placed individually in the music.
Complete the chapter 8 drill sheets on the following pages before continuing.
Refer to Appendix D for a complete chart of major and minor key signatures.
169

Phe here Chee Res eAN Dar PR CISES

1. On the grand staff, write the major key signatures indicated.

“KEY SIGNATURES

7a On the grand staff, write the minor key signatures indicated.

ho
|
LaEEEEUEL_
==
UH

PY a,"
USA?
lh * tel)
> Identify the major and minor keys for each example given.
Co
TS
ee

de
ee

28 Identify the minor key as well as the form of the minor scale in the musical examples given.
Joshua Fought the Battle of Jericho, Spiritual
Allegro Moderato (3)

ex. e: harmonic
“KEY SIGNATURES

Boom Dali Da, Israeli Folk Song

Nocturne, Op. 9 No. 1 , Chopin

’

Larghetto
(1)
gif , ge |
.@3 540 At
‘a 5
——-

The Hebrew Children (variation) ’ Spiritual

Lively

Two-Part Invention, No. 11, Bach

Moderato
Le Bananier ’ L. M. Gottschalk
Allegro moderatoJ 96

The Art of Fugue, Contrapunctus I, Bach

The Art of Fugue, Contrapunctus 3, Bach

(2)

Gavotta, D. Scarlatti

Sonata for Violin and Cembalo, Op. 5 No. 8, Corelli

’
KEY SIGNATURE REVIEW (SELF-TEST: CHAPTER EIGHT)

Complete the following:

a The key signature of A major contains (number) ___ (sharps/flats).
b. The key signature of B’ major contains
c. The key signature of B major contains
d. The key signature of C> major contains
e. The key signature of F major contains
f. The key signature of G> major contains
g. The key signature of E major contains
h. The key signature of G major contains
i. The key signature of D major contains __
j. The key signature of E> major contains
Complete the following:
a. The key signature of B minor contains i (number) (sharps/flats).
b. The key signature of G minor contains
c. The key signature of A minor contains
d. The key signature of E> minor contains
. The key signature of C# minor contains
f. The key signature of F* minor contains
g. The key signature of B> minor contains
h. The key signature of G* minor contains
i. The key signature of D minor contains
The order of flats as they appear in the key signature is
and
The order of sharps as they appear in the key signature is
and
Give the relative minor for each major key given. Use lower-case letters.
Ne ob Ae eb? OG eG PG. GS

bo ea do edie ce be et

A system for determining the major key when the key signature contains sharps is to
KEY SIGNATURES 175

8. A system for determining the major key when the key signature contains flats is to

9. The parallel minor of D major is

10. The parallel major of F minor is
11. Complete the following:
a. In the treble clef, the fourth sharp in the key signature is placed on the (number)
(line or space).
b. In the treble clef, the sixth sharp in the key signature is placed on the
c. In the bass clef, the third sharp in the key signature is placed on the
d. In the treble clef, the fifth flat in the key signature is placed on the
e. In the bass clef, the sixth flat in the key signature is placed on the
12. The key signature appears after the meter signature. True ___ False
13. All major keys with plain letter names (A, B, C, D, E, FE G) contain sharps. True
False
14. A flat or sharp in the key signature applies to all lines and spaces with the same letter name, re-
gardless of the octave. True___ False
15. Relative keys (major and minor) have the same key signature. True__ False
9% 16. Parallel keys (major and minor) have the same key signature. True___—s False
17. The tonic of a relative minor key is a minor third below the tonic of its relative major key. True
False
18. Key signatures for minor only represent the natural form of the minor scale. True ___ False
HARE NER e Renee nee e eee e eee e reese ee ee EEE SS ESSE ESEESEEES TESS ORES HES EEESEEEEEES EEE ESSER SEER EE EEE EEE EEE REESE ESE EEEEEEEEEELEE DES EEEEEEEEEEEEESOEOEEEOSSOSSEOECEEEEESEEEEEEELHEEHEROLOSEOEEHEEE HEHEHE OST OSS EEE H EOE SO OOH SEEHEOHEDSTEET HOES ESS

178 KEY SIGNATURES

POOR O eer aren recone eenaeseeecenseseessensece
180 KEY SIGNATURES
Cee riers 2 leek) R je
eS BN

e The ability to spell and write any note

as the root, third, or fifth of any major,
minor, augmented, or diminished triad

e The ability to distinguish by ear the

quality of triads

e The ability to perceive and sing the

root of any sounding triad

¢ The ability to play on a keyboard any

major, minor, augmented, or diminished
triad

181
Any three or more different, simultaneously sounding tones may form what is com-
monly termed a chord. This chapter deals with tertian triads—chords that are ver-
tical structures built by arranging any combination of two major or minor thirds
above a given note. These structures (triads) have provided the harmonic founda-
tion for many periods and styles of music.
A thorough knowledge of the intervals of the major and minor third, and the
order in which the thirds are arranged above a given note, are the two skills that
you must possess to write and identify any type of triad.

TRIAD STRUCTURE

Root Position
The three notes of a triad are referred to as the root, third, and fifth. If the structure
is arranged exclusively in thirds, the lowest note is the root, and the chord is de-
scribed as being in root position.
The middle note of the triad is called the “third” because it forms the interval of
a third above the root. The uppermost note of the triad is called the “fifth” as it
forms the interval of a fifth above the root of the triad (Ex. 9.1).

CEG FAC GBD

c triad F triad
(major) G triad
(major) (major)

BASIC TRIADS

It is necessary to understand that the spelling of triads in root position involves

skipping one letter of the musical alphabet between each note name in the triad.
The use of chromatic signs does not change this rule. The seven basic triads (triads
without chromatic signs), which may be constructed by using this procedure, are
illustrated in Example 9.2.
Example 9.2

ace

You should be able to spell basic triads with fluency before continuing with the
next concept.

TRIAD QUALITIES

The four qualities of triads found in traditional music literature are major, minor,
augmented, and diminished. The arrangement of major and minor thirds, from root
to third and third to fifth, in the four types of triads is as shown in Example 9.3.

Example 9.3
MAJOR MINOR AUGMENTED ice
lnm Ol epee a 5th
PS <3rd = m3 3rd M3 313 —|Ms dé 3—| m3
=
L— root M3 ia root m3 (eeeroot root m3

Major Minor Augmented Diminished

Arrangement of thirds above the roots of major, minor, augmented, and diminished
triads are as follows.

e Major triads A major third (root up to the third) and a

minor third (third up to the fifth)
¢ Minor triads A minor third (root up to the third) and a
major third (third up to the fifth)
e Augmented triads Two consecutive major thirds above the root
* Diminished triads Two consecutive minor thirds above the root

When a triad is in root position, the interval between the root and the fifth in a
major or minor triad is a perfect fifth. In an augmented triad the interval between
the root and the fifth is an augmented fifth, and in a diminished triad the interval
between the root and the fifth is a diminished fifth.
When analyzing triads, symbols are used to identify both the root as well as the
quality (Ex. 9.4).

A capital letter indicates a major triad (the actual letter indicates the root). é i

A capital letter with a superscript plus (+) indicates an augmented triad. Cpe

Ca

A lower-case letter indicates a minor triad. =

Cc

A lower-case letter with a superscript (0) indicates a diminished triad. é |og 4

cO

In Example 9.4, the note C is the root of each triad.

When constructing triads in root position, the three notes will be written on all
lines or all spaces. The use of chromatic signs does not change this rule (Ex. 9.5).
se ramp o>

g
ae = Se
(spaces) (lines)

——- ee =
Pere 4
(spaces) (lines)

Seven Basic Triads

In Example 9.6, the seven basic triads are identified according to their qualities.
Three are major (C,F G), three are minor (d, e, a), and one is diminished (b’).

—— m M M m d

A thought process that is helpful when spelling major or minor triads is to divide
the seven letters that can be used as roots into three groups, noting that (1) each
note of the triad could have the same number and kind of chromatic signs, (2) the
third could be one chromatic sign lower, or (3) the third and/or fifth could be one
chromatic sign higher. This concept remains true even when the root is altered with
a chromatic sign.

MAJOR TRIADS

Group l If C, E or G is the root (natural or chromatically altered), all

three notes have the same number and kind of chromatic
signs.
Group 2 If D, A, or E is the root, the third of the triad is one chromat-
ic sign higher than the root and fifth.
Group 3 If B is the root, the third and fifth are one chromatic sign
higher than the root.
Example 9.7

——- io? Aaaae Ba Le,

4 te H iaiisnee

MINOR TRIADS

Group 1 If C, Eor G is the root (natural or chromatically altered),

the ire of the triad is one chromatic sign lower than the
root and fifth.
Group 2 If D, A, or E is the root, all three notes have the same num-
ber and kind of chromatic signs.
Group 3 If B is the root, the fifth is one chromatic sign higher than
the root and third.
Example 9.8
Group 1: The third is one chromatic sign lower than the root and fifth.

Gg Note cf f fb fH g gb

ae
Group 3: The fifth is one chromatic sign higher.

FIRST INVERSION

If the third is the lowest note in a chord, the triad is described as being in first in-
version. The intervals above the bass (lowest voice) are now a third and a sixth.
The symbol for first inversion is § (Ex. 9.9).

Example 9.9

CEG FAC GBD

C triad F triad G triad
(major) (major) (major)
TRIADS

SECOND INVERSION

If the fifth is the lowest note in a chord, the triad is described as being in second in-
version. The intervals above the bass are now a fourth and a sixth. The symbol for
second inversion is 4 (Ex. 9.10).

CEG FAC GBD

C triad F triad G triad
(major) (major) (major)

Whether a triad is in root position, first inversion, or second inversion is deter-

mined by which part of the chord (root, third, fifth) is in the lowest voice. This ap-
plies to the three-voiced chords given in Examples 9.9 and 9.10 as well as to chords
that contain four or more voices.
A triad in first or second inversion will have the interval of a fourth (the inver-
sion of the fifth) present. The upper note of any appearing fourth is always the root
of the triad.
Complete the chapter 9 drill sheets on the following pages before continuing.
Also, see Appendix A and Appendix B. Refer to Appendix D for a complete chart of
triads.
189

GOA RUN TN Pap RRS SeAIND EXERCISES

i Write the major triads indicated.

ex.

Ab Eb at Bb

E Cc Db D c# pb?

Fe Fb Gb G a#

2. Write the minor triads indicated.

cH d eb g# bP

d# gb ap dp ebb
——————— Eb* B+ Ft C+ Bb + pb+

z: Gb+
z D#+
SS FH+
SSS SSS SS
Gt+ Af+ b+

————
CH+
—— D+ Ab+ G+ E+ A+
4. Write the diminished triads indicated.

————————————
cHo f¥o

= co
SS ae
dfo afo ao g° bfo

5. Identify the root and quality of each triad given.

——————— — — ———
=
= SSS SSS
SS SS SSee
TPES eee ene neeeneseeseeseseneseeHE eH Ee ee TEs esseEEEEHEeSE ESE HEOSHEEEHEEES EE EEEEEEEOEOEEEOEEEHEH EEE EEE EEE EHEEHEEEHEEEEEESEESEHEEESESESESEE ESE EEEESOESEEEEOHESESEOHSEESEEESOSEEOHER SHEETS EEEESE HEE EEE EHO EHS EEEEEEEEHEEEO ESE EOEE SES

TRIADS 19]

6. Identify the root and quality of the inverted triads given.

7. Write the chords indicated in (a) root position, (b) first inversion, and (c) second inversion. The
superscript numbers (figured bass symbols) to the right of the chord name indicate the basic in-
tervals above the lowest note in the chord. Chromatic signs need to be added according to the
quality of the chord requested.
192 TRIADS

8. Write the triads indicated. The root, third, or fifth and quality of the triad is given. The symbol
“3d” indicates the note is the third of a diminished triad; “1m” indicates the note is the root of a
minor triad, and so on.

9. Spell major triads with each letter given as the root, third, or fifth of a triad. Do not alter the given
letters chromatically.
ex.

C# ie

A (1) FA (3) A (5) C ° c D D D

F Fe

D
HHO REO RST HOHE eee ee eee eee eaanE eee en Hanae ese EEE EOS HeEenEe EH aHteaeeeseeeEEsnEHeHetnasnnenaseasensseaseEsEEsEnE SEES EE EEE SEES EHEEEEEEESEEEEESEEEEESEEEEEO SEES SEES ESSE ES EEEEEEEEHERESEEEEEEEOESEES EOE OESEESE ESTEE EEEE ESSE EEE EOE EE SHEETS

TRIADS 193

10. Spell minor triads with each letter given as the root, third, or fifth of a triad. Do not alter the
given letters chromatically.
ex.
B
wae
E E E F F F B B B
ae
A

C C C A A A G G

11. Spell diminished triads with each letter given as the root, third, or fifth of a triad. Do not alter the
given letters chromatically.
ex

C
E E
Ck Ct ce D D D B B B
12. Spell augmented triads with each letter given as the root, third, or fifth of a triad. Do not alter the
given letters chromatically.
ex.
o*

E E
C Cc e D D D A A A

EY
cb

Eb Eb Eb Fe FR Fe B B B

The following exercises provide additional drill with regard to triad quality classification. Note
that in a four-voice texture one note of the triad is doubled; however, this does not alter the iden-
tification process.
To determine the root and quality of a four-voiced chord, the following guidelines will be helpful:

1. Identify ali notes in the chord from the bass (lowest voice) to the soprano
(uppermost voice). If desired, write the letter names beside each
note.
2. Note which part of the chord (root, third, fifth) is doubled. Disregard the
doubled tone.
3. Arrange the three remaining notes in thirds to determine the root and
quality.

For example, if the notes in a chord from the bass to soprano are G, G, E, B, we note that the dou-
bled note is G and that the three remaining notes are G, E, B. By arranging these three notes in
thirds (E—G-B), we can determine the chord is E minor.
195

9 ek Identify the root and quality of each chord in the following Bach chorale excerpts. The circled
notes are not part of the chord and should not be considered in the analysis.

a. O Ewigkeit, du Donnerwort
:
—
,

b. Ach was soll ich SUnder machen

c. Ach Gott und Herr

d. Machs mit mir, Gott, nach deiner Gut

“ TRIADS

e. Vater unser im Himmelreich

f. Wer nur den lieben Gott

g. Komm, heiliger Geist

h. Erhalt’uns, Herr, bei deinem Wort

SPOR See eee eee essere servers ee eres ee eee ee tee en ete EIEN FDS SSOSS ODS O OEE O EOE E EEE DEEEEE SESE SSE OEE ESOS OHSS ET OSEOS ESE SS ESOS EEDEES SEES EEE EEE SED ESDESESESEEEEESESEEOEEEESHESOR ESE SOOEERESSESSESERESEESON ESOS SOOO OSCE EES SSESeH EES

TRIADS 197

TRIAD REVIEW (SELF-TEST: CHAPTER NINE)

The four types of tertian triads are: ‘ : and

The three parts (notes) of a triad are called the , , and

The arrangement of thirds in a major triad in root position is:

(interval from root to third)
(interval from third to fifth)

The arrangement of thirds in a minor triad in root position is:

(interval from root to third)
(interval from third to fifth)
The arrangement of thirds in an augmented triad in root position is:
(interval from root to third)

(interval from third to fifth)

The arrangement of thirds in a diminished triad in root position is:
(interval from root to third)

(interval from third to fifth)

The interval between the root and fifth in a major or minor triad in root position is:

The interval between the root and fifth in an augmented triad in root position is:

The interval between the root and fifth in a diminished triad in root position is:

Triads in root position, whether basic or chromatically altered, are always spelled by omitting one
letter of the musical alphabet between each note name in the triad. True False
Circle the major triad(s): F e°, G*, a, E> d.
Circle the minor triad(s): A*, G#, a, ©, Bb, &.

Circle the augmented triad(s): BP, d#, D*, a°, D*, E.

Circle the diminished triad(s): B, cy’, G*, E, b’, F.

If a triad is in first inversion, the (root, third, fifth) of the chord is in the lowest
voice.

If a triad is in second inversion, the of the chord is in the lowest voice.

A diminished triad in root position will have two minor thirds arranged above the root. True
False
An augmented triad in root position will have a major third and minor third arranged above the
root site =. = aralse
TRIADS

There are (number) basic triads.

Three of the basic triads are ___ (quality), three are , and one is

Dadhe If C, E or G (natural or chromatically altered) is the root of a major triad, all three notes
will will not (check one) have the same number and kind of
chromatic signs.
22. If D, E, or A (natural or chromatically altered) is the root of a major triad, the third of the triad
will be one chromatic sign (higher or lower) than the root and fifth.

23: If B (natural or chroraatically altered) is the root of a major triad, the third and fifth will be one
chromatic sign (higher or lower) than the root.

Dara A minor triad can be altered to become a major triad by (raising or lowering) the
third a chromatic half step.
25: A minor triad can be altered to become a diminished triad by (raising or lower-
ing) the fifth a chromatic half step.
26. A major triad can be altered to become an augmented triad by (raising or lower-
ing) the fifth a chromatic half step.
202 TRIADS
Cee cr pi R he era iN

¢ The ability to write the diatonic triads

that occur in major and minor keys

e The ability to write and analyze iso-

lated triads

e The ability to play at the keyboard all

of the diatonic triads found in any major
or minor key

e The ability to analyze diatonic triads

in a musical score

e The ability to write, analyze, and play

primary triads that occur in major and
minor keys

e An understanding of the relationship

of primary and secondary triads in
major and minor keys

203
A combined knowledge of scales, key signatures, intervals, and triads is a necessary
prerequisite in learning how diatonic triads are formed in major and minor keys. If
a problem with the conceptualization arises, it will probably be due to a lack of a
thorough understanding in one or more of the four skills mentioned above.
The concepts of diatonic triads form the foundation for the learning of seventh,
ninth, and eleventh chords as well as other extended tertian structures. Diatonic
triads frequently comprise the greatest number of chords found in a traditional
composition. A knowledge of how they are formed and their function is indispens-
able to understanding the elementary aspects of harmony. A mechanical knowledge
of triads truly becomes valuable when it can be applied to, and serves as a basis for,
harmony and the succession of chords within a musical context.

DIATONIC TRIADS IN MAJOR

Writing the diatonic triads that occur in a major key involves the following steps.

Supply the correct key signature.

Write the major scale being considered.
Write two thirds vertically above each scale degree.
Sr
ae Analyze with Roman numerals, chord symbols, or both.

ROMAN NUMERAL IDENTIFICATION

Upper-case Roman numerals are commonly used to identify major triads; lower-
case Roman numerals are used to identify minor triads. The addition of the super-
script zero (°) to the lower-case numeral and the addition of the superscript plus (*)
to the upper-case numeral indicate diminished and augmented triad qualities re-
spectively. For example:

Major triads PATO TV INS VI.

Minor triads i, li, 11, iv; vi
Diminished triads ii’, vii
Augmented triads ii

Example 10.1 illustrates the seven diatonic triads found in the key of C major and
the procedures for writing them.

- ry!
A
=4\
Example 10.1
(1) Key signature
(C major, no sharps or flats)

a
_—
(2) Write scale

(3) Write thirds

Cc I il ili IV V Vi vile
C e F G a b°

(4) Analyze

The terms used to label diatonic triads found in major and minor are the same as
those given to scale degrees on which they are constructed. The triad built on the
first scale degree is called the tonic triad; the triad built on the second scale degree
is called the supertonic triad; and so on through the scale degrees.

l. tonic 5. dominant
2. supertonic 6. submediant
3. mediant 7. leading tone or subtonic
4. subdominant

Note that in a major key (Ex. 10.1b), three of the chords are major (I, IV, V), three
chords are minor (ii, iii, vi), and one chord is diminished (vii°). These qualities
will remain the same for every set of diatonic triads constructed in a major key. Ina
major key, the chord built on the seventh scale degree is called the leading-tone
triad.
Practice writing the diatonic triads in several major keys (as in drill 1 at the end
of this chapter) before continuing. Playing the triads at a keyboard will help to rein-
force the understanding of this skill.

DIATONIC TRIADS IN MINOR

Harmonic Minor
Most compositions in minor keys exhibit, for the most part, the harmonic form of
minor. However, it is rather common to find more than one form of minor in the
same composition.
When writing diatonic triads in a minor key, the steps to follow are the same as
for a major key.

Provide the key signature.

Write the scale.
Write triads on each scale degree.
a Analyze.
Sa

The harmonic form of c minor is given in Example 10.2.

setitecatel eodae aco Example 10.2 i ok

1. Provide key signature.

2. Write scale.
3. Write thirds.
4. Analyze.

In the harmonic form of the minor scale, it is necessary to raise the seventh scale
degree one chromatic half step. This will alter the quality of all triads containing
the raised seventh scale degree as a root, third, or fifth—that is, the triads built on
the third (III), fifth (V), and seventh (vii) scale degrees. The alterations found in
the upper tetrachord of harmonic minor primarily function to accommodate a
major triad built on the dominant as well as the diminished triad built on the lead-
ing tone.
Note that in harmonic minor, two chords are minor (i, iv), two chords are major
(V, VI), two chords are diminished (ii’, vii®), and one is augmented (III*). This me-
diant triad appears as an augmented chord in the harmonic form of minor; howev-
er, in actual music practice, it often appears as a major chord (III). This quality is
the result of the natural form of the minor scale.
The chord qualities presented in Example 10.2 will remain the same for every
minor key (harmonic form).
Compare the similarities and differences between the chords that occur in a
major key and its parallel minor key (harmonic form) (Ex. 10.3).

aig)
wae
The names for the individual triads in a minor key (harmonic form) are the same as
the triad names for a major key: tonic, supertonic, and so forth. Another acceptable
way to label diatonic chords is to call the tonic triad the “one” chord, the superton-
ic triad the “two” chord, the mediant triad the “three” chord, and so on.
Practice writing diatonic triads in several minor keys (harmonic form) before
continuing.

Natural Minor
When writing the diatonic triads that occur in the natural form of a minor key, the
procedure is the same as before: provide the key signature; write the scale; write tri-
ads on each scale degree; analyze. The natural form of the c minor scale is given in
Example 10.4.

Example 10.4
1. Provide key signature.
2. Write scaie.
3. Write thirds.
4. Analyze.

C: i ie II iv Vv VI VII
C d° Eb f g Ab Bb

In natural minor no additional chromatic alterations are necessary. The names for
the individual chords are the same as for major and the harmonic form of minor,
except for the triad built on the seventh scale degree. In this case, it is called the
subtonic triad, because the seventh scale degree is one diatonic whole step (M2)
below the tonic.
Compare the similarities and differences between the triads in the natural form
of the minor scale and those triads in major and in the harmonic form of the minor
scale (Ex. 10.5).
ich ee ee | 7 Ea cs ae

a. Minor (natural form)

ee d M m m M M

D. Major

& M m m M M m d

c. Minor (harmonic form)

ee See ~——4
m d A m M M d

Melodic Minor
When writing the diatonic triads that appear in the melodic form of the minor
scale, there exists the possibility of having the choice of two different qualities of
chords on each scale degree (except for tonic). This is due to the fact that the sixth
and seventh degrees may be raised (as in major) or lowered (natural form). Exam-
ple 10.6 illustrates these possibilities.

a.

SSS SS
C: i ll I+ IV V vic vile
c d Eb+ E G a° De

ASCENDING FORM (raised sixth and seventh scale degrees)

aioe

DESCENDING FORM (lowered sixth and seventh scale degrees, natural form)
DIATONIC TRIADS

Note that the triads that occur in the descending form of melodic minor, with the
lowered sixth and seventh scale degrees (Ex. 10.6b), are the same as those triads
that appear in the natural form of the minor scale (Ex. 10.4).
Practice writing the diatonic triads in several minor keys (melodic form) before
continuing.

PRIMARY AND SECONDARY TRIADS

In major and minor keys, the triads that are built on the tonic, subdominant, and
dominant scale degrees are called primary triads. These triads are termed primary
because of their importance to tonality and their frequency of usage. Both the sub-
dominant and dominant triads are in a perfect fifth relationship to the tonic (below
and above respectively). Chords built on the remaining scale degrees are called sec-
ondary triads. The qualities of the primary triads found in major and minor are
given in Example 10.7.

Example 10.7
a. Major b. Minor (harmonic form)

In a major key the three primary triads are major: I, IV, and V.
In the harmonic form of minor, i and iv are minor and V is major.
In the natural form of minor, all three chords are minor: i, iv, v.
In the melodic form of minor, the tonic triad is minor (i), and the two re-
ee
maining triads can be either minor or major: iv/IV, or v/V.

PRIMARY AND SECONDARY TRIAD RELATIONSHIPS

Once the primary triads in either major or minor have been selected and identified,
the remaining triads are referred to as secondary triads.
(harmonic form) {: i 119 I+ iv Vv VI vii?

In tonal music, each of the primary triads carries a specific function as a harmony.
This refers to the normal or expected progression or resolution of a particular triad,
as based upon actual practice in music literature. There are three basic functions:

1. The tonic triad serves as a tonic function chord (I or i). Its function is that
of a chord free to move to any other diatonic chord; or it is one with
little activity—a chord of repose, as in the final chord in a musical
phrase.
2. The subdominant triad serves as a subdominant function chord (IV or iv).
Its primary function is to resolve to the dominant. It may also re-
solve directly to the tonic.
3. The dominant triad serves as a dominant function chord (V). Its primary
function is to resolve to the tonic chord.

Each of the secondary triads relates to a specific primary triad and may substitute
for that particular triad.

1. Tonic as a primary triad relates to submediant as its related secondary

triad (I-vi in major, or i-VI in minor).
2. Subdominant as a primary triad relates to the supertonic as its related sec-
ondary triad (IV-ii in major, iv—ii° in minor).
3. Dominant as a primary triad relates either to the mediant' or to the lead-
ing-tone triad as its secondary triad(s) (V—iii or V—vii° in major, or
V-III* or V—vii° in minor).

When substituted, the secondary triad carries the same function as does the prima-
ry (tonic, subdominant, or dominant). Example 10.9 illustrates each of the primary
triads and their secondary triad relationships.

‘Since the tonic, as a primary, also shares two common pitches with the mediant triad, the mediant is occasionally used
as a secondary substitution for the tonic triad as well.
Major key

Minor key
(harmonic form) i i VI iv ii © Vv I+ or vii

It should be noted that each primary and related secondary triad share two com-
mon tones; in addition, each primary triad contains one pitch that the related sec-
ondary triad does not, and vice versa.
In a chord progression, or succession of triads, it is quite common for a given
triad to be repeated, as, for example, in the common progression I, I, IV, V. In sucha
situation, the secondary substitution triad is often used in place of the repeated pri-
mary: I, vi, IV, V. In this case, the submediant (vi) triad substitutes for the repeated
tonic chord and carries the same (tonic) function. It serves to provide more har-
monic “color” and forward motion to the progression while maintaining the pro-
longed tonic function. This concept is explained in more detail in chapter 12,
“Harmonization.”

ISOLATED TRIADS IN MAJOR AND MINOR

The task of finding and labeling, by Roman numeral, a single, isolated chord in any
of the possible major or minor keys involves a thorough knowledge of several skills
that must be assembled to arrive at an accurate response. If, for example, the prob-
lem or question was to find the dominant triad (V) in the key of a minor (harmon-
ic form), the thought process necessary in finding this isolated triad would involve
the following steps:

1. Determine the key signature for a minor.

. Find the fifth scale degree (dominant).
3. Spell the triad based on the quality of the Roman numeral indicated (M,
m, d, A).
4. Check to see if any of the notes of the triad require a chromatic alteration
because of the particular form of the minor scale being used (this
will be necessary only with minor forms).

The correct answer to the problem is shown in Example 10.10.

Gg
e
a: V (Emajor)

Complete the chapter 10 drill sheets on the following pages before continuing.
Also, see Appendix A and Appendix B.
TPE E eee eee eee eee eee ees eee eee Teese EN Oe EEE Ee Ese eHeH EEE EOE EOEE LEH OES HEHE EEO EES EOH EEE H OHH EE EH EE HEE EHEEH EEE SES HEHEHE OEEEEEE OEE TEESE EE SEES SEES EEESEEEEEEOEEESEEEEESEEESSSESEOSEESESESEEEEEEEESEOEEEEEEEEEEEESEESEEEO EEE EE OES OEEES

GHA bE Rabe N=DRELES AND EXER GISES

1. Supply appropriate key signatures and write the diatonic triads that appear in the keys given. Ana-
lyze with Roman numerals and identify the root and quality of each triad. Use the harmonic form
for all minor keys.
Pe DIATONIC TRIADS

2. Supply appropriate key signatures and write the primary triads that appear in the keys given. Ana-
lyze with Roman numerals and identify the root and quality of each triad. Use the harmonic form
for all minor keys.

3. Using Roman numerals, identify each chord given. Indicate the root and quality of each triad.
DIATONIC TRIADS 215

4. Write the diatonic triads indicated.

ex.

5. Write the secondary triad(s) for each primary triad given. Analyze with Roman numerals and indi-
cate the root and quality of each chord. Use the harmonic form for all minor keys.
“DIATONIC TRIADS

6. Analyze each chord progression using Roman numerals. Identify the root and quality of each
4

chord. The circled notes are not part of the chord and should not be considered in the analysis.
ee - ae SCOPES ROCOOCEE CGEIECE BoC CLCOCRE ACSOEDEC CHP EOS ROCHE PEPE YAYOCA oy eR ERE EPEC

|pe aie ool

219
9 i Analyze each chord progression using Roman numerals. Identify the root and quality of each
chord. The circled notes are not part of the chord and should not be considered in the analysis.

Piano Concerto No. IV, Op. 58, Beethoven

a. Allegro moderato

Preludio No. XI, J.S. Bach

Allegretto
“DIATONIC TRIADS

The Wild Rider, Op. 68, No. 8, R. Schumann

Cc. Allegro con brio

Key

D.C. al fine *

* Repeat from the beginning to the word “‘fine.”’

Fe ee ater cages eimeorntstonaenteinenaidineaenohn
te

= Drink to Me Only with Thine Eyes, Old English Air

d. Moderately fast

4 Deep River, Spiritual

Slowly

it|
il
q
.
e
| ||
n
t h
f
:

4
ut
ee
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|
DIATONIC TRIADS REVIEW (SELF-TEST: CHAPTER TEN)

The three triads that are major in a major key are , and (Roman
numerals).

The three triads that are minor in a major key are ; , and

The one triad that is diminished in a major key is

The two triads that are minor in a minor key (harmonic form) are and
The two triads that are major in a minor key (harmonic form) are and
The two triads that are diminished in a minor key (harmonic form) are and

The one triad that is augmented in a minor key (harmonic form) is

tS
re
me
ee The names given to the diatonic triads found in major and minor (harmonic form) are (scale-
degree names):
ae
b.
C
d.
e.
f.
g.
In minor (harmonic form), raising the seventh scale degree a chromatic half step alters the
: , and triads (Roman numerals).

The two triads in major and minor (harmonic form) that have similar qualities are and
(Roman numerals).

BE In minor (natural form) the triad built on the seventh scale degree is called the triad.
|W In minor (melodic form) the quality of the subdominant triad can be or
TtPH Oe eee een eeeeeee eee asee es eenees eee eeseeseasEes ease n aes EESE SEE EE EES EEEEEEEEEEEEEESEESEEESEOSEEESEOSHHEEEEHEEHEH HEHE EE EEEEEEEEER EOE EE HEEEESREEE ESE OEEEEEEEEEEOEEHSEHEEHEEEEEEEHEOHSSESEHEOEHEESOSESESSOH HOSES ESEEEEEEEOEEES

DIATONIC TRIADS JANE

ey In a major key, the triad built on the seventh scale degree is called the triad.
(oR In minor (harmonic form), the triad built on the seventh scale degree is called the
triad.

es Complete the following:

a. Upper-case Roman numerals are used to identify triads (major, minor,
augmented, diminished).
b. Lower-case Roman numerals are used to identify triads.
c. An upper-case Roman numeral with a superscript plus (*) is used to identify an
triad.

d. A lower-case Roman numeral with a superscript zero (°) is used to identify a

triad.
16. The names for the diatonic triads (tonic, supertonic, mediant, etc.) built on the first six scale de-
grees in major and minor (all forms) are the same. True False

The diatonic triads formed when using the lowered sixth and seventh scale degrees in minor (de-
scending melodic) are the same as those formed when using the natural form of the minor scale.
True False
The first five notes (lower pentachord) of any form of a minor scale are the same. True
False
The three primary triads in a major key are___—,__-_—S—, and_____ (Roman numerals).

The three primary triads in a minor key (harmonic form) are_____,___—s and __.

In a major key, the secondary triads are__, ,_____, and ____ (Roman numerals).
In a minor key (harmonic form), the secondary triads are__,_ ys i
_ and

In a minor key (harmonic form), there are two triads that are diminished and two triads that are
augmented. True False
DIATONIC TRIADS 227,

|
Corres era TB oR Pe bere oy. CeoN

Cadence Structures
e The ability to identify any cadence

¢ The ability to classify any cadence

e The ability to write, in any key, an ap-

propriate cadence pattern

229
CADENCE STRUCTURES

The musical cadence is the means by which a musical phrase arrives at some type
¢.
se

of closure. In many ways it is analogous to phrase punctuation in English. There

are appropriate cadence types for interior phrases (phrases requiring an additional
phrase for conclusion) and, likewise, appropriate closing or final cadence types.
The term is from the Latin cadere, meaning “to fall,” and is used today to describe
the coming together or closing, either harmonically, melodically, or rhythmically, of
musical expression.
A cadence can be determined by examining and analyzing the last two triads or
sonorities in a musical phrase. The cadence can also be inferred from melodic pat-
terns. Chapter 12, “Harmonization,” will examine this concept in detail. This chap-
ter approaches the study of cadence by classifying them as final and nonfinal types.

FINAL CADENCE TYPES

Two specific chord progressions can serve as final cadences. Both of these progres-
sions are conclusive and focus one’s ear in the direction of the harmonic and
melodic “home base,” namely, tonic (Ex. 11.1).

ore rt eR Se Do

a. b.

GC: V I CG: IV I

Authentic and Plagal Cadences

In order to be considered a final cadence, the last chord must be a tonic triad. The
approach to the tonic may take two paths: (1) As in Example 11.1a, the tonic may
be approached through the dominant triad (V-I); or (2) it may be approached, as in
Example 11.1b, through the subdominant triad (IV-I). Example 11.la (V-I) illus-
trates what is called an authentic cadence. Example 11.1b (IV-1) illustrates an ex-
ample of a plagal cadence. The authentic cadence will sound very familiar to most
students. The plagal cadence sound is also recognizable; it is the very typical
“Amen” cadence concluding many hymns. Both of these cadences would appear in
minor keys as shown in Example 11.2.

‘The technical aspect of chord connection (voice leading/part writing) does not fall within the scope of this text, nor is
it a consideration in these or any subsequent examples dealing with chord connection.

‘fy\
Example 11.2
AUTHENTIC PLAGAL

ae i ae
(harmonic minor is implied)

Perfect and Imperfect Cadences

Both of these final types of cadences may be additionally classified as perfect or im-
perfect. If the root of both chords is in the lowest voice (bass), and if the tonic
(note) is in the highest voice of the final chord, the cadence is classified as perfect.
If any of these factors is not present, the cadence is classified as imperfect.

NONFINAL CADENCE TYPES

There are two types of nonfinal cadences. Both are inconclusive; that is, they may
not function as the last cadence in a phrase but rather serve to separate simple an-
tecedent and consequent phrase structures. Both nonfinal types are intended for,
and can be found in, analysis as interior-phrase closures (Ex. 11.3).

Example 11.3

[a es geae
vi

Half Cadence and Deceptive Cadence

In Example 11.3a, the final chord is the dominant. In this example, it is ap-
proached through the subdominant; however, almost any chord can precede this

>From approximately the sixteenth through the mid-eighteenth centuries, a major tonic triad was commonly substitut-
ed for a final minor tonic triad; the raised third of this chord was termed a Picardy third.
dominant and the cadence type will remain intact. It is called a half cadence and
can be described as a cadence on the dominant, approached by either a tonic or its
secondary substitution (I or vi) or by a subdominant or its secondary substitution
(IV or ii) triad. Example 11.3b illustrates what is known as a deceptive cadence.
This is a cadence that is prepared by the dominant (V) triad. The ear fully expects
the resolution to be to the tonic, but instead a secondary triad (vi) takes the place
of the final chord. The result is a “deceived ear,” accounting for the name of this ca-
dence type. Although the V—vi progression is the most commonly occurring type of
deceptive cadence, other progressions affecting such an “aural deception” are fre-
quently encountered. These interior cadences could appear in minor keys, as
shown in Example 11.4.

Example 11.4
HALF CADENCE DECEPTIVE CADENCE

|
Cc: iv Vv C: Vv VI

(harmonic minor is implied)

Note: In minor keys the Roman numerals for the approach and final chords in each
of the four cadence types are the same for all cadences as they were in major keys. €-
The only difference is that the key dictates the quality (major, minor, augmented,
or diminished) of some of these triads.

CADENCE AS DETERMINED BY MELODIC DEMANDS

In a piece of music, cadence points are usually determined by several factors.

1. Usually the rhythmic values of the melody notes become somewhat elon-
gated; that is, the melody seems to pause and “sit” momentarily.
2. In most Western tonal music, this pause usually occurs in the fourth,
eighth, twelfth, or sixteenth measure.
3. The notes in the melody at these cadence points are actual chord-tone fac-
tors (root, third, or fifth) and can be found in the pairs of triads that
form the above-described four stock cadence types.

A melody can therefore imply (sometimes dictate) the choice of cadence types. For
example, if the final melodic note contains the root, third, or fifth found in the
tonic chord, the tonic may be chosen to harmonize that final pitch of the melody.
The penultimate (next-to-last) note would be found to be a factor in either the
dominant triad (forming a V-I, or authentic, cadence—Ex. 11.5) or the subdomi- ;
nant triad (forming a IV-I, or plagal, cadence—Ex. 11.6). ¢=Leh
Example 11.5
Melody Implying an Authentic Cadence
3rd of Root of
dominant tonic

eee Example 11.6 “4 PRR

error Im. ie

Melody Implying a Plagal Cadence

5th of Root of
subdominant tonic
ae
SU CD
—=
Ci IV I

If the final melodic note in an identified cadence is a factor (root, third, or fifth) in
¢ the dominant triad (V), then it must be determined which triad could serve as the
penultimate or approach chord (Ex. 11.7).

Melody Implying a Half Cadence

Root of 3rd of
tonic dominant

oF i

Finally, if the final melodic note in an identified cadence is a factor in the submedi-
ant triad (vi), it must be approached through the dominant chord; that is, the
penultimate (approach) note in the melody must be a factor in the dominant triad
(V—Ex. 11.8).
Example 11.8
Melody Implying a Deceptive Cadence
3rd and
root of Root of
dominant submediant

Cc. Vv vi

Armed with only these four “stock cadence types,” one could effectively bring al-
most any tonal melodic phrase to a close, whether final or nonfinal.

Complete the chapter 11 drill sheets before continuing. Also, see Appendix A
and Appendix B for further drills.

=
SOSSHSSHHHHHSSHHOHSHHHHSOEHHHHHHEHHHHO FOOSE HHH SH OOHHHOHHSHH OOH HH HOHTHSSHSOSHHOOHHHHHHHOSHO SOSH OHHHOHHHPESHE HHO OOHEESESED

CheLE Ree bea BINGRies AN DakbxX ER CISES

1. Analyze by Roman numeral the following cadential patterns. Then identify each cadence by specif-
ic type.

Analysis: b: E: f:
Cadence Type:

Anaiysis: f: D: e:
Cadence Type:

2. Notate the two chords (triads) representing the requested cadence type. Then analyze. Use the har-
monic form for all examples in minor.

a. (€X.) Half Authentic Deceptive

CADENCE STRUCTURES

oF In the following examples, analyze the triads at the identified cadence points and label each type of
cadence.

The Wild Rider, Op. 68, No. 8, R. Schumann

Cc. Allegro con brio

oe =
= a
Re eS A PS SS Se ae OE Sd
Sy LD ap Gas (ssl
CADENCE STRUCTURES

5 Given the following melodic fragments select the appropriate stock cadence type that best accom-
?

modates the melodic demands of each example. Use harmonic form for all minor keys.
THOS eee eee eee eeeeeae sense sree eee ee eae ee eee HESS OEEES Hen EEE EHEEEEEEH EE OEEEEHEO SEE ES HEE EHD OESEEESESOSSES SESE S HOHE EEEEEESEEHEEE EEE SEEEEESEEEEEEEESEEEESESEEEEEESSESESES SEES EEE OEEEEEEEEEESEEEE OES E EEE EE EE ESTE EEEEEEEEEECE HESS EEE EEES

CADENCE STRUCTURES 239

CADENCE STRUCTURES REVIEW (SELF-TEST: CHAPTER ELEVEN)

1. The type of cadence employed can be determined by analyzing the last (number) chords
in a harmonic progression.
2. Two types of final cadences are the and cadences.
3. The chord progressions V-I (major) and V-i (minor, harmonic form) are classified as
cadences.
4. The chord progressions IV-I (major) and iv-i (minor, harmonic form) are classified as
cadences.

5. An authentic or plagal cadence is classified as perfect if

6. Two types of nonfinal cadences are the and

7. Ina deceptive cadence in a major key, the dominant triad (V) resolves to (Roman
numeral).
8. Ina deceptive cadence in a minor key (harmonic form), the dominant triad (V) resolves to
(Roman numeral).

9. Ina half cadence, the final chord is usually (Roman numeral).

10. Complete the following:

a. The penultimate chord in an authentic cadence (major) is
b. The penultimate chord in a plagal cadence (major) is
c. The final chord in a deceptive cadence in a minor key (harmonic) is
d. The final chord in a half cadence (major) is usually
11. If approaching a tonic triad as a final chord in a cadence, the penultimate, or approach, chord
must be either a V or a vi. True False
12. If approaching a submediant triad as a final chord in a cadence, the penultimate, or approach,
chord must be a V. True False
13. A dominant triad appearing as a penultimate triad can only resolve in a cadence to a ora
(Roman numerals).
Gerla teres © ChoeW
aE AL WV ek

Harmonization

¢ The ability to determine appropriate

harmony for any given melody

e The ability to determine a cadential

formula

e The ability to determine appropriate

secondary substitution chords and when
to use them

24D
One of the most useful and interesting skills in theory is the harmonization of
melody. This skill is the culmination of many previously learned concepts and re-
quires you to use the skills acquired in previous units. Harmonization is the process
of selecting appropriate harmonies for a given melody, deciding when to change
those selected harmonies, and deciding which notes in a melody will be chord
tones or nonchord tones (tones not accommodated by chords).
One might think that much of this skill is subjective—that is, dependent upon
one’s own taste and preferences; however, certain skills are necessary and can be
learned in order to make logical decisions with regard to which melody notes to
harmonize, when to change harmonies, and other matters.

HARMONIZING A MELODY

The following steps should be followed, in order, when selecting a simple harmony
for a given melody.

Determine the key.'

Determine the cadence points (interior as well as final).
Determine the harmonic rhythm.
he Sketch in primary triads.
manslaace

| ~
These steps will provide you with a simple first-draft harmonization (more com-
plex procedures will be discussed later in this chapter).
Step 4 will involve important decisions with respect to notes not accommodated
by the selected triads. In making these decisions you will need to take into consid-
eration factors such as:

harmonic rhythm
strong and weak beats in a given measure
prominent duration of notes
ee positioning of nonchord tones (nonharmonic tones).
es

Each step will now be discussed in detail. If any reference to a previously covered
skill is not clear, you will need to refer to the appropriate unit for review. The fol-
lowing areas are assumed knowledge for this unit.

1. intervals 4. triads
2. scales 5. diatonic triads
3. rhythm and meter 6. cadence-type identification skills

'In many cases, steps 1 and 2 will be combined.

HARMONIZATION 247

Step 1: Determine the Key

The key of any given melody can usually be accurately assessed by a few quick
checks or observations. First, observe the key signature. This will tell you that the
key indicated is either the major or the relative minor for that particular signature.
For example, a two-sharp signature would imply either D major or b minor. At this
point, observe the cadences (both interior and final), looking for “stock” cadence
types. Usually, interior cadences will be some type of half cadence, and the final ca-
dence will be either authentic or plagal.
In minor keys, somewhere within the melody, you may look for and notice chro-
matically altered leading tones (or altered submediant scale degrees). These chro-
matic alterations would be foreign to the major key yet are diatonic to the minor
(Ex) 2.1).

Example 12.1
Determining the Key
*

¢ *Points which determine the key of d minor.

In Example 12.1, Ct represents a leading tone in d minor with a cadence on D.

Step 2: Determine the Cadence Points

In order to complete this step, you must be able to identify where the cadence
points occur. These points can be identified as “points of repose” in a melody and
usually contain notes of longer durations. For example, if a melody is progressing
in quarter and eighth notes, a cadence point might exhibit half notes.
If you are able to sing through the melody, or to play it, these cadence points will
often stand out clearly. They will always conform to one of the “stock” cadence
types presented previously since the notes of the melody will contain notes found
in the triads of these cadences. They may be identified accordingly (Ex. 12.2).

Determining the Cadence Points

SSS eS ar
A (1)
. *Interior cadence point
**Final cadence point
HARMONIZATION

In Example 12.2, FE? major can be identified as the key, according to the procedures
in step 1. The cadence points are identified as having longer note durations. The in-
terior cadence (*) contains the note F, which is one of the notes of the dominant
triad (B’-D-F). This note can be harmonized with a V (dominant triad) and would
thus fulfill the requirements for a half cadence.
The final cadence (**) has the final note of FE? and could be accommodated by
the tonic triad (E’-G-—B’), thus constituting a cadence ending on the tonic (final).
The approach to the tonic triad at the end could consider E? (third-to-last note) as a
chord tone and could be harmonized by a plagal cadence (IV-ID); or the D (penulti-
mate note) could be considered as a chord tone, and it would accommodate a dom-
inant-to-tonic, authentic cadence (V-I).
Either of these two choices would be logical and would depend upon the prefer-
ence and personal taste of the person doing the harmonization. This process can
only lead you to logical choices—the final decision is ultimately subjective. For a more
complete discussion of how to select a chord for any given note, see step 4 in this
process.

Step 3: Determine the Harmonic Rhythm

Harmonic rhythm is the rate at which harmonies change. It could be once per beat,
once per measure, once every other measure, or almost any rate. It is primarily de-
termined by the notes or tempo (or both) of the melody. Slow-moving melody
notes might require a change on every beat, while rapidly moving melodic notes
might call for changes less often, with more nonchord tones.
Looking back, Example 12.1 could have a harmonic rhythm of a half note since
the melody seems to call for harmonic change every half note, or twice per mea-
sure. Example 12.2 could have a harmonic rhythm of a dotted half note as the
melody seems to call for a harmonic change every dotted half note, or once per
measure.
There is often a break or change in the harmonic rhythm when approaching a
cadence, and it is not uncommon to find a harmonic rhythm, such as in measure 7
of Example 12.2, calling for quicker change of harmony at the cadence points.
Example 12.3 illustrates steps 1 and 2 completed: The key is determined as D
major, the cadence types are identified (*) as a half cadence in measure 2, and a
final (authentic) cadence in measure 4.

ee
The harmonic rhythm in this example would be the half note as changes in harmo-
ny seem to be called for on every other beat, or twice each measure.
Roman numerals are used in the example to identify the harmonies, and it is un-
derstood that the labeled harmony remains in place until changed. The placement
of the numeral determines the point at which the change occurs. The key must be
HARMONIZATION 249

labeled in order for these Roman numerals to make sense. They must refer to dia-
tonic harmonies within a certain key. An alternate method of notating harmonic
change is given in step 4. Either method is acceptable; however, you should be con-
sistent.

Step 4: Sketch in Primary Triads

Once the key of a melody is determined, you should recall, and jot down if neces-
sary, the three primary triads found in that key. Almost any diatonic melody can be
harmonized by using only these three chords. As a first draft, we will employ these;
and later in the process we will make some substitutions that may sound more so-
phisticated and colorful. At this point, you need to know the information in steps 1
through 3, including the harmonic rhythm.
The melody should be examined, looking for rhythmically prominent thirds and
fifths (or their inversions), since both notes contained in either of these two inter-
vals can be found in the same chord. Keep in mind that triads are constructed in
thirds and that we will be looking for melodic patterns that can be accommodated
by primary triads.

: Example [2.4

(1) (2) (3) (4) (5) (6) (7) (8)

Eb: V I

In Example 12.4 it has been determined that the key is E> major, and the cadence
points have been identified (the first as a half cadence and the second as a final ca-
dence). The harmonic rhythm in this example would be the dotted half note, or the
full measure. Measure 4 has been identified as a cadence point because of the
pause, or lack of melodic activity (the dotted half note).
Keeping in mind the primary triads (1: E*-G-B»; IV: A\—C—EF?; V: B’-D-F) we find
that the pitch F in measure 4 is best accommodated by the dominant triad. This is
the only primary triad containing an F.
As you can see, we are looking for the appropriate primary triad that contains
the particular melodic note. Measure 1 contains the notes F>, F, and G. Since triads
are constructed in thirds and the harmonic rhythm is the dotted half note, we
should attempt to accommodate only the E> and the G. The F will be considered a
nonchord tone and will not be part of the sounding harmony. This decision is based
on the following observations.

1. Two out of the three notes can be chord tones.

2. The Fis ina rhythmically weak position in the measure.

Nonchord tones provide a necessary amount of dissonance or tension in a given sit-

uation. This balance between dissonance and consonance is a delicate one. Without
HARMONIZATION

dissonance, melodies could be boring and lack the tension-relaxation quality so

common in the art form. In accommodating the E? and G, we find that the tonic
triad is the most appropriate choice for measure 1. Measure 2 is a rather simple one
in determining the chord choice. It contains only A’ and C, both of which can be
found in the subdominant (IV) triad.
Measure 3 contains the notes B’ and A’. It is also the measure that approaches
the dominant triad in the half cadence. The B? is the more prominent note of the
measure; therefore, the A? will be left as a nonchord tone. In approaching the har-
monization of this B’, one must consider the harmony already assigned to the fol-
lowing measure, namely the dominant. To harmonize measure 3 with the dominant
would not only be redundant but would also take the “punch” out of measure 4;
therefore, the only other primary triad containing B’ would be the tonic. It would
be the best choice in this situation.
Measure 5 contains three notes in stepwise motion. This type of motion is called
conjunct motion. Once again, we need to determine which notes will be chord
tones and which will be nonchord tones. Since the A’ occurs between two notes
forming a third, we will select G and B’ as chord tones and the A’ as a nonchord
tone. G and B’ are part of the tonic triad, and, therefore, it is the best choice in this
instance.
Measure 6 is also a simple task. As in measure 2, it contains only two notes, a
third apart. Both the C and E’ can be found in the subdominant (IV) triad.
Measure 7 presents a more difficult situation in harmonization. We must look
ahead and note that measure 8 is the final cadence, harmonized by the tonic. We
would want to approach the tonic either through the dominant (V) or the subdom- rT
inant (IV) to form one of our stock final cadences. Two possible solutions present
themselves here, and both are viable:

Solution 1: Consider the F’ in measure 7 as a chord tone and the D as a non-

chord tone, and harmonize the measure with a subdominant, resulting in a
plagal (IV-I) cadence.

Solution 2: Consider the D in measure 7 as a chord tone and the F’ as a non-

chord tone. This will result in the rhythmically more prominent note being a
nonchord tone; however, this dramatic point of tension is appropriate at a
cadence point since it amounts to the “final tension” before the final resolu-
tion. This will result in an authentic cadence (V-I).

Either of these two solutions would work. Ideally, and until more experience is
gained, you should play both solutions and select the one that is audibly more ac-
ceptable to you, keeping in mind that this is a subjective decision.

Solution 3: As an alternative, you could also break the harmonic rhythm in

measure 7 and employ the tonic triad on the E’, changing to the dominant
on the D. This also would be acceptable since harmonic rhythm is often bro-
ken at the cadence points.
HARMONIZATION 251

As mentioned in step 3, an alternate method of notating harmony for a given

melody may be used (Ex. 12.5).

Example 12.5
Eb Ab Eb Bb Eb Ab Bb Eb

; (1) (2) (3) (4) (5) (6) (7) (8)

Using the same melody, chords can be notated using letters above (or below) the
given melody. These letters indicate the roots and qualities of the chords. This is
commonly found in sheet music and is known as “lead-sheet” chord abbreviations.
The letter abbreviations are not standardized. For example, “Am” as well as “a” can
indicate an a minor chord. “A dim,” “a dim,” and “a®” can indicate an a diminished
chord. In this style of notation, it is not necessary to indicate the key of the melody,
although knowing the key is essential to harmonizing the melody.

SECONDARY SUBSTITUTION CHORDS:

ADDING HARMONIC COLOR

Secondary triads (ii, iii, vi, vii? in major, and ii° II*, VI, vii? in minor, harmonic
form) may be used as substitution chords for their respective primaries. Substitu-
tion chords are located a diatonic third below the roots of the primary triads, the
exception being the vii’, which is a diatonic third above the dominant (Ex. 12.6).

Example 12.6
Major Minor

Primary: Paiva Primary: 1 iv V

Substitution: Veo l | ile Substitution: Vleet ke
li ELS

Secondary substitution chords have an important function in harmonization.

When a certain primary triad is to be repeated, its secondary triad may be used on
the repetition. This process allows for a change of harmonic color. For example, in
C major, a repeated tonic chord may be replaced by a submediant (vi). This subme-
diant differs from the tonic triad by one note (A), creating a minor harmonic quali-
ty while still retaining the tonic function. This change of harmonic quality can be
helpful in extending harmonies over longer time spans.
Peale fs x Ree eee Example 12.7 es
Me a en Neo

(3) (4)

(
(ieee ye SSS
I

In Example 12.7, the harmonic rhythm is felt as the dotted quarter note (two
changes per measure), yet in places the melody dictates that the same harmony
should be repeated (as in measures | and 3). In the second half of these measures,
the secondary substitution chord for the tonic (vi) could effectively be used. Thus,
inserting a d minor triad on the second beat of both the first and third measures
provides a more colorful and active harmony, while it does not change the tonic
function of those measures.
Note the dissonance on the dominant triad in the last measure (final cadence).
An alternate harmonization here would be to break the harmonic rhythm and use a
tonic on the first F, change to a dominant on the eighth note E, and return to the
tonic on the final F
Complete the chapter 12 drill sheets on the following pages before continuing.
Also, see Appendix A, Appendix B, and Appendix F

-
GHACE ReEWEE VE DRILLES AND EXERCISES

Harmonize the following examples according to the procedures outlined in chapter 12. It is sug-
gested that these melodies be played at the keyboard and that preliminary harmonization be at-
tempted using only primary triads. Secondary substitution chords may be employed after the
skeletal application of preliminary harmonies.
" ATG; >
- i *6 Ba
f..02 ee
a
ASB,

11. String Quartet, Op. 135 (3rd movement), Beethoven

AW
AW
‘ z Seas ies wes | ATE Ea AS
0-4 oe | a 4
€
See Appendix F for additional melodies to harmonize.

HARMONIZATION REVIEW (SELF-TEST: CHAPTER TWELVE)

Harmonic rhythm may be defined as

Determining cadence points and selecting the types of cadences to be used should be one of the
last procedures to consider when harmonizing a melody. True False
Nonchord (or nonharmonic) tones may be defined as

Complete the following:

a. In a major key, the substitute chord for the tonic triad (1) is (Roman numeral).

b. In a major key, the substitute chord for the dominant triad (V) is or
Ce In a major key, the substitute chord for the subdominant triad (IV) is

In a minor key (harmonic form), the substitute chord for the tonic triad (i) is

In a minor key (harmonic form), the substitute chord for the subdominant triad (iv) is

In a minor key (harmonic form), the substitute chord for the dominant triad (V) is or

The key of a melody can usually be determined by

Cadence points in a melody can usually be determined by observing where

HARMONIZATION

Most diatonic melodies can be harmonized by using only primary triads. True __ False

The term “conjunct motion” is used to describe melodies that

In a melodic situation in which three stepwise notes appear, which of the three should not be con-
sidered as a chord tone if all three notes are being harmonized by the same chord?
HARMONIZATION
259
Ciitoee
ele tok "Lh
kh ft EOE N

Fon in Music

¢ The ability to balance concepts of

unity and contrast

e The understanding of motivic con-

cepts and manipulations

¢ The ability to modify and extend, by

manipulations, any given motive

e The ability to analyze the motivic

structure of a musical phrase

e The ability to recognize and analyze

simple melodic phrases and part forms
in music

261
FORM IN MUSIC

Form in music requires a delicate balance between contrast and unity. This balance
can make the difference between a musical phrase that is interesting, yet under-
standable, and one in which ideas seem jumbled and unconnected. Form can be
thought of in both macro and micro terms. The macro type of form is concerned
with contrasting and similar phrase structure, overall contrast and repetition of the-
matic material, key relationships, and so on. The micro concepts of form deal
specifically with small fragments and the manner in which the composer connects,
interconnects, and, in general, manipulates these small ideas into larger musical
phrases. This chapter will address both of these concepts of form and organization,
beginning with the micro concepts, referring to the smallest unit, the “germ” idea,
as motive or motif.

MOTIVE STRUCTURES

Motive is the smallest structure from which additional material may be generated.
While the motive may, in fact, be harmonic or rhythmic, most motivic structures
are considered and analyzed as melodic components. A motive may generally con-
sist of two to eight notes. Once a motive is identified, you can trace various forms
of it as it is manipulated through the process of musical creation.
In order to understand motivic concepts, each of the known manipulations will
be discussed, explained, and illustrated by traditional notation as well as graphic
representation. It is hoped that the graphic notation will help you establish a firmer
grasp of the material and further serve as a memory aid.
The motive in Example 13.1 will be used throughout this chapter, along with its
graphic representation.

=
Traditional Notation

Graphic Notation

REPETITION

The simplest of all manipulations would be the literal repetition of a motive (Ex.
13.2):

i
ee,
tht ——]S——— SSS
While repetition might be the easiest to recognize and the simplest manipulation to
write, you must be careful to avoid inducing boredom. This type of motivic exten-
sion quickly becomes tiresome, and great care must be exercised in choosing when
and how often to use this device. Literal repetition, such as appears in Example
13.2, can be enhanced, however, by changes in dynamics, articulation, register, or
orchestration.

TRANSPOSITION

A repeated motive may begin on a different pitch level. That is, the repeated motive
would start on another pitch yet would follow accurately its original contour (Ex.
13.3). The transposition need not be immediate. There may be intervening material
between the original and the transposition.

ala ee a
1 Original
2 Transposition

Transposition affords the opportunity for a tremendous amount of variation. Many

repetitions can be tolerated by the listener, as long as these repetitions appear at dif-
ferent pitch levels.
Two types of transposition are possible: (1) literal, exact transposition, in which
the basic interval is retained and the exact quality of each successive interval is also
retained; (2) approximate transposition, in which only the basic interval is main-
tained and the quality of the melodic intervals may vary (Ex. 13.4).

— m2—-m2— M2— P4 (intervals) -M2—- M2— M2— P4

SSS——=> SS
8 Type 1: REAL TRANSPOSITION Type 2: TONAL TRANSPOSITION
of Example 13.3 of Example 13.3
FORM IN MUSIC

¢.
The terms used for these two types are given in Example 13.4: Exact (including
interval quality) transposition, type 1, is called real transposition, and the ap-
proximate, type 2, is called tonal transposition. It follows that tonal transposi-
tion is consistent with the tonality as set forth in the key center (or signature).
The real transposition may include chromatic signs in addition to those in the es-
tablished key.

SEQUENCE
Sequence can be defined as two or more appearances of the motive, each at a differ-
ent pitch level (transposed). To qualify as a sequence, at least two appearances are
required, and these appearances must be adjacent to each other (Ex. 13.5). Most of
the time, appearances of a motive in sequence begin on pitches that are also adja-
cent to each other, as in the beginning pitches in Example 13.5b (E, D, C).
UE cca SE ED | "Emel

an b.

A ad $a as
- wer |
SEQUENCE L_ SEQUENCE eS!

It is important to keep in mind that a sequence may continue through many trans-
positions. Sequence may be either tonal or real, depending upon whether or not the
composer chooses to chromatically alter the melodic content. The sequence in Ex-
ample 13.5b is tonal because the exact quality of some of the intervals is not main-
tained in the transpositions. Example 13.5b is therefore a tonal sequence.

RETROGRADE

The motive appearing backwards is a retrograde. Transposition and sequence may

also apply to retrogrades (Ex. 13.6) as well as to all other manipulations.

a. b.

“fk Hlti fi dn wa:

|
1 original motive 1 retrograde
allt
3
2 retrograde 2 transposed retrograde
3 transposed retrograde
4 retrograde sequence
FORM IN MUSIC 265

Retrograde appears as a vertical mirror image; that is, backwards. It should be

noted that the rhythmic component, as well as pitches, are reflected in retrograde
(Exale@y.

' Example 13.7

5 =
ORIGINAL RETROGRADE

INVERSION

The inversion of a motive represents a horizontal mirror image. That is, it would
appear upside down, as in a reflection in water. The motive will begin on the same
pitch as the original; then, as the original descends, the inversion correspondingly
ascends, following the same contour and intervals but in the opposite direction
(Ex. 13.8).

Example 13.8

el hy GSS ge
1 Original
2 Inversion

Inversion can be either real or tonal. Example 13.9a illustrates a tonal inversion. In
order to write a real inversion the D (second note) must appear as a Dt, and the F
and C (fourth and fifth notes) must appear as F# and C# (Ex. 13.9b).

2 2s 2 a
TONAL INVERSION REAL INVERSION

RETROGRADE INVERSION

While any of the above manipulations may be used in combination (for example, a
transposed retrograde), retrograde inversion is the only combination that has a for-
mal term. It is best to think of this device as a “backwards inversion,” or as a retro-
grade of the original inversion, since conceiving of this as an “inverted retrograde
is not a legitimate label for this manipulation.

RETROGRADE INVERSION INVERTED RETROGRADE

(Incorrect)

crepwc HEE HO

While both the RI (retrograde inversion) and the IR (inverted retrograde) look
identical in graphic representation, they appear quite different in actual notation.
The notated example of the IR (Ex. 13:10b) appears merely as a transposition of the
RI (Ex. 13.10a). The reason that the inverted retrograde is incorrect as a manipula-
tion is that the IR merely forms a transposition of the retrograde inversion and is
therefore a transposed RI. Example 13.10a is the correct version—the “backwards
inversion” (RI).

AUGMENTATION AND DIMINUTION

These devices affect the durational aspect of a given motive. Augmentation is the
term for increasing the durational values of the notes, while diminution is the label
applied to decreasing durational values (Ex. 13.11).

Example 13.11

|
ORIGINAL:

AUGMENTATION:

DIMINUTION: ft
FORM IN MUSIC 267

Note that in Example 13.11, augmentation results in two measures (twice the dura-
tion of the original). While doubling or halving the durations represent the most
common practices, any amount of durational adjustments may, in fact, result in
augmentation or diminution.

DELETION AND EMBELLISHMENT

These devices, when applied to a given motive, either eliminate notes from the
original (deletion) or append additional notes to the original (embellishment) (Ex.
ba h2).

Example 13.12 .

——————

EMBELLISHMENT: afi = (=e S=2

One can think of embellishment as a “filling-in” process that treats the original as a
skeleton structure. Conversely, deletion “skeletalizes” the original, leaving only
structural tones in place. In the process of deletion, some of the original notes of
the motive may appear in longer durations, absorbing the durations of those notes
omitted. Although this resembles augmentation, it does not extend the total dura-
tion of the motive as would augmentation.

INTERVALLIC EXPANSION AND CONTRACTION

These manipulations vary the size of intervals found in the original motive. Inter-
vallic expansion increases the size of some (any number), while intervallic con-
traction decreases the size (Ex. 13.13).
ORIGINAL: ref tH
———

Ad - === =
INTERVALLIC
EXPANSION:

i 6 a
INTERVALLIC
CONTRACTION:

FRAGMENTATION

This device entails the isolation of sections of a given motive and the application of
any combination of manipulations to these individual sections. Motivic fragments
may be referred to as submotives, if the occurrence of these manipulated fragments
is significant. Example 13.14 illustrates some of these fragmented manipulations.

a. ORIGINAL:

=== ee
a ===
Cc

ft ie? SESS a2e=55

Ts
SSS
A
na —
FORM IN MUSIC 269

Example 13.14b illustrates the sequential treatment of the eighth-note fragment F

E (tonal sequence). Example 13.14¢c illustrates the sequential treatment of the per-
fect fourth of the original (D—G). Notice that the last appearance of transposition in
the sequence also demonstrates the use of intervallic contraction (last two notes:
B-D).
Example 13.14d treats the second, third, and fourth notes of the original (E E,
D) as a fragment or submotive and runs three transpositions as a sequence, cadenc-
ing on the final note (B). In the key of C major, this would imply a half cadence.
Example 13.14e appears as a sequence, based on the retrograde of the first three
notes of the original (E, F E). Appearing three times in transposition (sequence),
this phrase cadences on the leading tone (B), implying a half cadence. This manip-
ulation may also be interpreted as a rhythmic variation of the first three notes of the
original motive.
These illustrations represent only a small sampling of possible manipulations
dealing specifically with fragmentation. It must be kept in mind that any of the ma-
nipulations discussed in this chapter may appear in any combinations.
When fragmentation is used extensively, one may choose, in analysis, to identify
the motive as a combined submotive A and submotive B. Another possible identifi-
cation might be to label these submotives individually as motive 1 and motive 2.
These alternate identifying terms are employed based upon a somewhat subjective
decision with regard to the submotives’ subsequent appearances as structural ele-
ments. In other words, one chooses the appropriate terminology based upon care-
ful observations of motivic appearances.

MUSICAL FORM

Phrase Structure
You have now covered all of the components needed to understand simple musical
phrase structure and simple forms in music. While the study of musical form is an
extremely complex endeavor, the understanding of simple phrase structure and
simple part forms is easily within grasp and will greatly enhance your understand-
ing of just how motivic manipulations contribute to the art of composition.
A phrase in tonal music consists of a given motive or motives, some form of ma-
nipulation of this motive, a rhythmic fabric and key context, and is framed by some
type of cadence structure. While a musical phrase can stand alone, it usually ap-
pears in sets of phrases, some concluding with a type of nonfinal cadence (half ca-
dence or deceptive cadence) and others bringing the musical statement to full
closure (by using authentic or plagal cadences). Phrases in music are similar to
phrases in any language. Most individual phrases rely upon others, or subsequent
phrases, in order to form larger, more complete statements.
A phrase is said to be regular when it conforms to the standard (in Western
tonal music) four- or eight-measure unit. An irregular phrase is one of any dura-
tion other than four or eight measures (for example, a three-measure or five-mea-
sure phrase). The melody in Example 13.15 illustrates a pair of regular,
four-measure phrases.
Note that the first phrase, ending in measure 4, concludes as an implied half ca-
dence, and in measure 8, the second phrase comes to full closure in the form of an
authentic cadence. On further examination, you will see that the entire second
phrase is a tonal transposition of the first four measures.

Period Form
The above example (Ex. 13.15) illustrates what is known as a two-phrase period. A
period is any musical statement consisting of two or more phrases that form a more
complete or coherent melodic statement. Most often, the first phrase in such a peri-
od ends on a nonfinal cadence, thus requiring the subsequent phrase in order to
bring the melodic idea to conclusion. If two phrases comprise a given period, they
may be similar phrases, as in Example 13.15, or contrasting phrases—that is,
phrases that are structurally different from each other (Ex. 13.16).

When phrases are melodically similar in construction, as in Example 13.15, the pe-
riod is said to be a parallel period. When the phrases are different, as in Example
13.16, the structure is known as a contrasting period.

Two-Part and Three-Part Form

Most compositions consist of more than one phrase or even more than one period.
When a second phrase or second period follows the first, it usually consists of dif-
ferent, or contrasting, material. This is known as two-part form and is sometimes
FORM IN MUSIC 211

termed binary form. It is usually represented, in analysis symbols, as an A-B form.

Sometimes one or both of the contrasting phrases may be repeated (AA—BB), but it
is still termed a binary or two-part form. The most common of all part forms is the
three-part form, or ternary form.
This structure consists of the same A-B binary construction, with the addition of
a restatement of the A material, resulting in an A-B—A form. You can think of this as
a “B sandwich,” or as a phrase, followed by a digression or contrasting phrase, fol-
lowed by a restatement of the first phrase.
eee sath ) Examele 317 PenT ee

HOME ON THE RANGE American Folk Tune

Example 13.17 is a ternary or A-B-A form with eight-measure phrases. Part A con-
cludes in measure 8 with a melodically implied half cadence. Measures 9-16 repeat
part A with slight cadential modification (the first four measures of the phrase are
the same, with a different closing in the last four measures, which conclude in an
implied authentic cadence). The first sixteen measures actually constitute a parallel
period. Beginning in measure 17 and for the following eight measures (up to the
cadence in measure 24) the melody is contrasting material, constituting a B section,
ending in an implied half cadence. The restatement of the A material in the con-
cluding eight measures represents a return to the A material, ending in an authentic
(V-I) cadence.
FORM IN MUSIC

This ternary form is also known as song form since it is, by far, the most com-
mon structure in popular Western tonal music.
Complete the chapter 13 drill sheets on the following pages before continuing.
Also, see Appendix A and Appendix B, and refer to Appendix F for additional exer-
cises in phrase and motivic analysis.
eeeecececevee @eeoeeeseesreveve0ee0 eeeeeeerevece SCHOSHSHHSHHESHEHSHSHSHSHSHHSSHESHHESHOHSHHHHHSHHSHOHHHHHSOHSHSHHEHHSHHHHHEHSHEHHHHEETOHESEOEED

CRAP TER PHI REE NED RIPE SsAMDub SER CTSES

1. Given the following motives, notate the requested manipulation on the staff provided.
a.

Tonal Transposition Real Transposition

ee
Tonal Sequence

S— a
Retrograde Embellishment

a ————
Inversion Retrograde Inversion

ee ee
Deletion Augmentation

Se (ee
Diminution Fragmentation
seeeoeeleee
Seeeeseeesenssceeeessesssesseesrecesececeseseseeesereeee sees es eseesses sees ress eer eeereesesesssssessssssessseessssssveesesseseseseressosouseneessessesvene

GIVEN MOTIVE

a —————
Tonal Transposition Real Transposition

——————
Tonal Sequence

S— ee
Retrograde Embellishment

a (ee
Inversion Retrograde Inversion

(Se es es
Deletion Augmentation

————— a
Diminution Fragmentation
FORM IN MUSIC 21D

Tonal Transposition Real Transposition

————
Tonal Sequence

a a=
Retrograde Embellishment

, ee ——
Inversion Retrograde Inversion

a SS
Deletion Augmentation

ee
Diminution Fragmentation
SHAT H EAE H AREA HEE SE ESE EE EE EAE OSES ESE ESESESESSESSSESEEESEEEEESEESEESSEEHEEEEESEESEEESEEEEEES OUST EEEEHSESESSOSEESESEEESESESSESIOUSEESSSOSSIESOSSUOSESEOHESHS ESTE EEESEH SHEED EEESS

276 FORM IN MUSIC

GIVEN MOTIVE

a Se
Tonal Transposition Real Transposition

ee
Tonal Sequence

Se ee
Retrograde Embellishment

¢.
Se an
Inversion Retrograde Inversion

————— ——
Deletion Augmentation

——— SO
Diminution Fragmentation

>

a
b: ‘
xg:

is In the following examples an original motive is given, followed by several modifications. Identify
each modification as it relates to the original.
a. Original

b. Original
c. Original

d. Original
€. Original

f. Original
g. Original

h. Original

2
éok
gy a For each of the following excerpts, identify the motive(s) and each manipulation (account for
every measure of music). Then analyze the phrase structure, identify (by bracketing) repeated, var-
ied, or different phrases. Finally, state the overall form of each excerpt.

French

Motive

Measure: ib
OI 60) Ft
OR
05

The phrase structure in the above excerpt is

(12) (13) (14) (15) (16)

Motive
Se) NrCh

Measure: 1.
No

The phrase structure in the above excerpt is

§.
Motive

Measure: :
NO
OK OW FT
Ow

The phrase structure in the above excerpt is

Motive

Measure: le
OO
=f
©
-Ovm ©

The phrase structure in the above excerpt is

See Appendix F for additional melodies that can be used for motivic and phrase analysis.
TOPO ere ee onan eeereeeeereerenesseeasensees
288
FORM IN MUSIC
POSS SHHSHHSHEHSHSSHESHTHSHSHSHSHEHHHHHSSHHOSSHHHSHHHHSHSHHSHHHHHHHHOHSHOHHHHHHHHOHHHHHHHOHHHHOHHOHSHHHHOHHOHHSHHHOHETEOHTHHAOODHOSEHEEOS

GHAPREER.|

1. WHOLE AND HALF STEP

Your instructor will play pairs of pitches. Identify them as either whole step (WS) or half step (HS).
Each may be played either melodically or harmonically.

a. fe
b. g.
Cc: h. m.
d. i. joe
e = ik O

Pp. u.
q. V.
r Wee aces
S. x. =
t. y.

Your instructor will predetermine the order of these examples for la—ly.

289
errerrerrr Terr errrrrrrrrrrrrrrrrrr tr rtrrttr rir rt ttt tt

290 EAR-TRAINING EXERCISES

(4) (5) (6) (7)

€
(1) (2) (3)

(Sa SS See
Q a

(8) (9) (10) (11) (12) (13) (14)

(== mane o—be-

= SS - fa
aS
ie. Ee

(15) (16) (17) (18) (19) (20) (21)

ee
3) $a ae {ae = Se See eee

(22) (23) (24) (25) (26) (27) (28)

ee
ee ee ee ee ee

SOHSSHSHOHHSHSHTHHSHSHSHSHTHHHSSHHHSHHSHSHHHHSHHSHOHHHSHSHHHHSHHHGHHGHHHHHSHHHSHHSHSHSHHSHHHSHHFFSHFSHSHHHHSHHSSHHSSHHSSHESHSHSHSHESHHHSHSSSESHESSHESHEEEHSEHS

Grate aR VWEEM

1. Practice tapping the following examples using the simple beat unit indicated as the pulse. Establish
and retain a steady beat with one hand while tapping the example given with the other hand.

a. 4 = beat unit (@ = two beat units)

PPP ree rrr errr errr rer terre errr rere rire r eerie Ty

' EAR-TRAINING EXERCISES 291

b. 4g)= beat unit ( = 4 beat units, ,|= 2 beat units)

4, 4 4 J J

fee ereer ey eee er eee ae Ee

Sag WOOaie ee is ee Pe la Per ee aE)
ince: Ui nedoto Nseee adeeeace salt a |
ree Se ee ee ee ee ee ee aeeee
eS eee sp eer eee fd) ee

=o oSS e
ee
d. Ne beat unit oe 2 beat units, Ne Ya beat unit and Ne Y4 beat unit)

eee
Se Dee saeSere Beesore Meee a
i ere) es ee
ee a er ro
eer a
AAO eee ene eee eeee eeet eeenee eeseeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeesseestESHSESSS ESSE EEE ESES EEE EEEE EEE E ES EE EAH SEES O EERE EEE EEE EHS EEHOEEOE TEES TEETH SHEET EHH HS EHHEEHEES EET OSHOESESYEESEEESESEEEH ESS ESESESSESHESEESEHSSHSSHEOEEETEESURESTEEEEHESTEESESESEES

292 EAR-TRAINING EXERCISES

e. Ne beat unit (J 4 beat units, AP two beat units, ve Ye beat unit)

2. Practice tapping the following examples using the compound beat unit indicated as the pulse. Estab- ©
lish and retain a steady beat with one hand while tapping the example given with the other hand.

a. ahs = beat unit ( g.= 2 beat units, ale Y3 beat unit)

' EAR-TRAINING EXERCISES 293

D. at = beat unit ee 2 beat units, ae V3 beat unit)

C. ets beat unit ( nF = 2 beat units, ah 1/3 beat unit, and i 1/6 beat unit)

Pee ee eee ee ee
eee CP a ee Sr er OP st
oP Pia 2 eeePPP
OP ee ae
5d ds
dide ed ee

d. ai beat unit ( oe 2 beat units, A. 1/3 beat unit, and A. 1/6 beat unit)

ee ae a
Far eee a ee ETP eee are
..) FS) ES )
i ele Se AE ore rererk Beto Pie
5. AaPEP apirip EOP A Ly | pp
294 EAR-TRAINING EXERCISES

3. The following examples illustrate various rhythmic patterns that can appear when the quarter or
dotted quarter notes are the beat unit. Establish a steady beat and practice tapping (or clapping)
each pattern one, two, three, four, or five times until the series for each beat pattern is completed.

a. QUARTER NOTE BEAT UNIT PATTERNS

a Paap
Inar eee Pa ined orhae
Peeps See eae ae

b. DOTTED QUARTER NOTE BEAT PATTERNS

1. . Nd im 20. ¢ a yl

2: ees dee J Prep asAe

aoe N 09. @ J J c

*Borrowed
295

CHAPTER 3: METER AND METER SIGNATURES

Lk Your instructor will play ten examples from the selection below. As you listen to each two -measure
example determine whether it is simple or compound time (based on your perceptions of beat di-
}

visions) and the number of beats in each measure.

~ TYPE OF DIVISION BEATS/MEASURE POSSIBLE METER

®x
Gh fey (8) Gel Col ot
feNE =
gee

ad
Your instructor will predetermine the order of the examples for la—1k.

(9) (10) (11)

EAR-TRAINING EXERCISES

2. Circle your choice (a, b, c, or d) as the correct metered rhythm played by your instructor.
EAR-TRAINING EXERCISES 297

9
3. The following examples are either two or three measures in length and include patterns consisting
of the beat unit, division, subdivision (borrowed division), as well as beat multiples (durations
larger than the beat unit). As your instructor plays each example, notate as accurately as possible.

ee i ee ee eee

Q =
WBS
bs ees

@
COC OOOO OOOO OOS OCIS IE TEN didi
ABCD EOCOD BOOUOODOCDOCODDCOOOOCOROORROOD ODOC OOO DIDOUOOCCUCOCUIUTOO

CHAPTER 4: SCALES I: SCALE STRUCTURES

1. Your instructor will play scales in groups of five. Label each one played according to the abbrevia-
tions below:
DIA—diatonic (seven-tone) scale
CH-chromatic scale
WT-whole-tone scale

1. 6. tt,
ap vk 12

3. 8. 13.
4. 2: 14.

5. 10. 15

16 2. 26
UTA es ei.

18 23. 28
ie) 24. 29

20 25. 30

COTS HSHOSHOHSHSSHSHHSHSHSSHSHSHHHSHHSHEEHSHOHSHHSHSHHSHHOHHHHTHSHHHHSHSHSHHSHHHSHHSHHHHEHEHSHHSHSHHSHHOHHHSOHHOHHEHSSEHSESH TOSSES EOEOTEEEEEEE

CHAPTER 5: SCALES II: MAJOR, MINOR, AND PENTATONIC SCALES

It is suggested that students first become familiar with the sound of major scales, since this is the scale
form given primary exposure. In listening for major scales, pay particular attention to the position and
“gravitational” effect of the half steps.
1. Your instructor will play two different scales; one will be either major or natural minor; the other
will be either the relative or the parallel scale. You must determine (1) what the first scale is (major
or minor) and (2) whether the second scale is the parallel or relative major or minor. One of the
two scales played will be major.
SFO O Cee eee eens eeeeeeeeseeeeeeeeee eee eeeeee SEE SOEOOEEEEEEE EEE EneH es sEeEO ESO E Ee eeE ESOT EEEEEEEHTEE DE HEE EEOESE EEE EEEE ESSE SEE ESESEEESSESEHESEEEOEESEEEEESSEERESOSEE REESE OEE E EEE SEES OL SOEESEESSESESEDS ESSE SS ES ESSE ESOS SEES eeeeeseseseeD

FIRST SCALE SECOND SCALE RELATIONSHIP

(quality) (quality)

o>

oP

2. Your instructor will play minor scales; determine the form of minor played and identify it as natur-
al, harmonic, or melodic minor.

a. n.
b. fo)
a p.
d. Qa

e. r
f S:

g. t

U.
i V.
j Ww. ms
K. Xx

| y.

m. z
300 EAR-TRAINING EXERCISES

eooeoe eeeceseeeoe eeeseveeeeeses eecoeeeeseseseoeoes eoeeeoeeeeeeseee SCHOSSSSHHSHHSHSHEHHHEHSSHHHSHEHHEHHHHEHEHEEEE

eeceovecescesesveeee0e

GHAPTERG.INTERVAES

Students, over time, have thought of many ear-training aids in order to identify a played interval. Some
of the more effective ones are listed below:

1. Some students will identify a melodic interval by associating the sound

within a major or minor scale context.
2. Most students find that associating an interval with a familiar song open-
ing (i.e., first two notes of a song) to be very successful. For exam-
ple, a P5 is easily identified as the first two pitches in “Twinkle,
Twinkle, Little Star.”
3. Some students can narrow down choices of possible intervals by degree of
consonance or dissonance and further narrow possibilities by the
span or distance of the interval. For example, if a M7 is played, it is
classified as a sharp dissonance, yet spread very wide.

Any of the above techniques might be effective as a learning tool for you. Most students will use more
than one technique, employing a given one in dealing with certain intervals and perhaps a differing one
on other occasions. It may be beneficial to learn several methods in order to use them most advan-
tageously.
It is suggested that intervals be learned in groups rather than all at the same time.

1. Begin by distinguishing the difference between like pairs of intervals such

as M2 and m2, M3 and m3, P4 and P5, M6 and m6, or M7 and m7.
2. Next, proceed to identify a mixture of the four perfect intervals, then the
four major intervals, then the four minor intervals. The tritone
should be treated as an interval that could appear with any group.
3. Only after the above has been mastered should dictation of all intervals be
undertaken.

Your instructor will play at least ten or fifteen intervals for identification each time interval dictation is
given. Take the dictation first row, left to right, then second row, left to right. Your instructor dictates
while you write:
ex. M2 m2 m2 M2 M2

m2 m2 M2 M2 2»

Be sure to make a clear distinction between the upper-case M (for major) and the lower-case m (for
minor). Use the spaces provided on the following pages for interval dictation.
HASHES Tee ESSE eee EeeeT ees eeS EEF EEE OH ESTES EEE EsEsE EHS EHO EEEEEEEES SEEHEESEEHOEEEDUSEEEEOSSE
SEH EEEESSE ASO EEEHEE EHS EEHEEH ONEEEETESEE SEES HERE SESSOE EEE EEEESESESEHEEESEEH SEES RHEE EEE EERE EEE OHEEESERHEEEE HEE OE TEESE HESEEEH ESE EEE EEO E EOD

EAR-TRAINING EXERCISES 301

1. INTERVAL PAIR DICTATION

COA SAIC VIS) ie Ca a we “De 2 9 age eC or en ce a ge rerelene 7

ne ee Rig aN? 2a e L
Stetina tp lenah

CIOS EAISCE: DiMA) A rue ee eae gg ere ees Dy tere en ee ee

ai iene tol) =ee

ee So a
een ea
4 Sa ta fee 0 ee Sa ne
PES aiil Pd jek Civie wateandy saree |,Slims ere 8 oc peter a eeNn ew Pe

et Se ee ee,
Phage eee ee eee
fe i eo ee 9 hy
Begg

(MCT ONC cette ae ee ee Deg a ee ee eee

ee ee eeeae ee
rao eer ea
a le er eigen
j= aie
Reece cece eeee erence sees sees sees eee ees esses eeee eee EEE eee Seee eH Oes SEES OEE SOE EROS SOO HOOSOOERESOES OSL OTOSES DEEDES SO OSOSOOH TOE SOEOETSEU SENSES OSESES ION IO SL ONSO HHO SETONTSEe

2. INTERVAL GROUP DICTATION (P1, P4, P5, P8)

(m2, m3, m6, m7)
(M2, M3, M6, M7)

Co Ot a ee ac SE, eee ee sett | Lage oS a ae by A ee

ee

Ce ee ee, See ee ae ie ep ee ee
2 ees

(Ch See SS Se a
ee Se eee aS a eae

3. ALL INTERVALS, MIXED

a. —————

Cc. =

e.
se eeeneeeeeeeeeeereseeeeseeese erases ereeeee ees ee eeEseeeOeseN SHOT ESSER SESE OEHOEEOS ESTOS OEEEOE TESST HES OH EE ETE EEE HOE EE EEEE ESSER EEE EESEE SOE ESESEEEEOEEOEESEESEEESEESEEEEEEEEEEDESESEUESSSOEEESESESESSEE EEE SEE SEES EESEHESes Sees eeEeeEs

(0[oath ema h a a

y ee Se eS

Koga 6 a eee. oo aes Nee. Ae ee

er a 22 ee

sa er Lee n

Os ee Dace a

4. ERROR DETECTION

The instructor will play the melodies while inserting chromatic signs (not shown) or different pitches.
Make corrections where needed.
Your instructor will determine specific alterations beforehand.
se
eS
SOOO eee eee eeeeeeee eee eee es eee ene ee EE ESOEEEeE Este ES OEE E ETHOS THEE EESEEEHEEESOOESOSENS SOOO SEE EE HOS OHSE ESE EEDEEEEEEDEEEEEEESEDEEEEERHSEROSEESEESESH EER OSESEOESESEEEED EEE REEEEEEEEESESESEOESONTEESESHS ETHOS EESEEEEEOEE HEED EEE ERE EERE

EAR-TRAINING EXERCISES 305

5. CLASSIFICATION OF INTERVALS

Classify all intervals, from a P1 to a P8, from what you believe to be the most consonant to the most
dissonant interval. (Intervals are sometimes placed into groups such as those listed below. This group-
ing may help you in establishing the rather subjective arrangement of intervals from consonant to
dissonant. )

perfect consonances: P1, P4, P5, and P8

imperfect consonances: m3, M3, m6, and M6
mildly dissonant: M2 and m7
sharp dissonances: m2 and M7
ee
2
i
cal
aeraunclassified (or appearing in one or more groups: tritone)
CONSONANT ~<« ————___—_—_—_—_—__—_—_———» DISSONANT

PROCEDURE

Play or sing the intervals in item 1 above (P1, P4, P5, and P8). Decide for
yourself which is the purest consonance and enter that interval on
the response line (consonant side).
Working backwards, play or sing the intervals in item 4 above (m2 and
M7). Decide which is the harshest dissonance and enter that inter-
val on the response line (dissonant side).
Fill in the interior intervals, after either singing or playing them, to repre-
sent a continuum of consonant-to-dissonant sound.

COPS SHSSSHSSHSSHSHSHHHSE HE HSH HSHSSSHHHOHSHHHOHSHHHOHHOSHSCHOHHOHHHOHHOHHIOSHSHHSHHHHSFOHOHSHHSSHOHHHOHSHSHSSHSHHHHOHHSOHEHESOSESEEHOEOE

CHAbLERe SCALES he GALeS REV ISHED

Practice singing the intervals found in various scales by using the following procedure:

Play the tonic of the scale.

Sing (match) the tonic.'
Think of the selected diatonic interval and try to sing it.
Check your accuracy by playing the interval at the keyboard.
de
a Approach each interval in order from small to large (seconds, thirds,
psec
fourths, etc.).

‘It is not necessary to sing these in the exact octave in which they are notated. They can be sung in any comfortable
octave.
306 EAR-TRAINING EXERCISES

On the following staves, the hollow note heads indicate pitches played; the solid note heads indicate
€
pitches to be sung. Begin with intervals found in major scales.

MAJOR DIATONIC INTERVALS

C MAJOR INTERVALS

é oe oe oe oe oOo eo eo e
(match) M2 M3 P4

é oe oe so oe oO
P5 M6 M7 P8

A MAJOR INTERVALS

(match) M2 M3 P4

ee P5
oe
M6
be
M7
he
P8

Ab MAJOR INTERVALS

(match) M2 M3 P4

2
——_ be be

P5 M6 M7 P8
EAR-TRAINING EXERCISES 307

MINOR DIATONIC INTERVALS

C MINOR INTERVALS (Harmonic)

(match) M2 m3 P4

B MINOR INTERVALS (Natural)

2 ee SS SS eee es
(match) M2 m3 P4

(match) M2 m3 P4

P5 m6 M7 P8

E MINOR INTERVALS (Natural)

SSS ee
(match) P4

: S = aero: See Salers arcs {

=5 6. o OO —@ Go oe

P5 m6 m7 P8

With practice, the above exercises can be performed quite rapidly, singing just before playing the pitch-
es. It is important to sing each pitch first, using the keyboard only as reinforcement.
Deen ence rece eect eeeseeeee eens seeeneeesessseeeeeseessee SEP eSPHEOREEEEESOEEEE SSE EEEHEEEEEEOEEESENEOESEOS ESSE DOSES ESOS Prerrrerrerrerrer
SOSOOSOOS TTS EEHEEEEO ESTE EEEESTSSSOESOIOSOEOH ESTOS SLO HH tree
ESOS EEHSOESESSOHOTHSe HES eeeeD

GIAPTERO ERIADS

After playing and singing triads at the keyboard, begin to identify the quality of the isolated triads by
ear. In the initial stages it may be helpful to concentrate on pairs of triad qualities, for instance,
major and minor, major and augmented, minor and diminished, and so forth, before including all
four triads.
Initially, triads may be played as broken chords (arpeggiated), but eventually one should be able to
identify the quality of a triad played in block (simultaneously) fashion. Ten to fifteen chords for triad
identification should be drilled as a “set” each time this is practiced.
Take dictation first row left to right, then second row, left to right. Your instructor will dictate while
you write:
ex. M m M_ eF @-0
Vee In a

1. TRIAD QUALITIES IN PAIRS

Your instructor will determine the order of triads beforehand.

(Major and Minor)

cle sess og ae Spee ies Le b.

(Major and Augmented)

a. b.
THEM ON PORE eee eee eeee eee e eee see eee Eee TEE HE esE OEE OHO TEES EEE EOE EEe SHEE EEEOSEREEEEEEOHEHEDEHEEEHE OHS OESESTSSOEEE SESE SEE ESEEES ESSE EEE EEE EEEEESEEEEEESEESEESEOES EES EEEEESEESSEEESEEELESEESEEESEEEEEEEEHEEEEEEE EES OESE HEE E SESE HESS EEE SEES

EAR-TRAINING EXERCISES 309

(Minor and Augmented)

a.

ot ees ee Be ee peeo ee eee d. pa DP et

(Augmented and Diminished)

Qi eer
= ee ee ee Se oe eer b.

a see ge eS |
ce age d L—<): 323 eS

2. ALL TRIAD QUALITIES

a. Try to perceive a triad as a possible chord to end a composition. If so, the chord will probably be
major or minor. If the triad cannot be perceived as a final chord, the quality will probably be aug-
mented or diminished.

(Major, Minor, Augmented and Diminished)

Se ee
ee ge

ea ae et ae Oe

wale SP eee
310 EAR-TRAINING EXERCISES

b. Your instructor will play a triad (any of the four qualities). You will:

1. listen to determine the root;

2. sing the root;
3. sing the triad.

SPOHOSSHHHHESHOHHOTHHOHHHOHHESHHHOHHSHHHSHHHHHSHSHHHSHSHSHSHHHHHHHHHSHHHHHHSHHSHSHHSHSHHOSHHEHSHHEHHSHSHESHEHHHSHSESHETHESHEHESHHESESESHHEEEESE

CHAPTER 10: DIATONIC TRIADS

1. Sing the following chord progressions, as illustrated, in several major and minor keys.
Meee OO e oO eee eee ee eoe ooo eseneseee eee ee ee eee neo eneTee eee eee eee eee eee e Dee eneneneebeeececeacesccccce
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2:
a.
—— i
—S 6 o- ——<
G I V I
b.

a a
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D
g: 1 V i

g i iv V i
e. :
=
Se o ==
| =

G I vii’ I
t

F I V I
b.
1?) 5 J) 71

f 1 V i
Cc

F I IV V I
d . o Q a

an = | gen = = ea = = {|
f: i iv V 1
e.

——= S =n
F: I vii® i
f.

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f i vii° i
4.

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———————————
e

£ D I vil° I

2 o-
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a
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EAR-TRAINING EXERCISES B13

SHSSHHHSHSHHSSHSHHSSHHSHHHHOSHHHHSHSSHEHEHSHSHHHOHSHHFHSHHHHHHOSHOHHOHHHEHHHHHOHOOHEHHHHEOHEHHOHHHHHHHHHOHHOHED eeeeseceeesevevecs

SPA PaE RSP eC ABENGE STRUCTURES

Your instructor will play cadence structures from the examples given. Identify each stock cadence type
and label. Your instructor will determine the order of the examples beforehand.

—_ —_ —

2. 2 a

3. 3 3.
4. 4 4.

5. 5 5.
6. 6 6.
1 i rf
8. 8 8.
9. 9 9.
10. eee 10. 10

qe

Your instructor will establish the tonality

with the chords shown on the left and then
proceed to the cadence in a, b, c, or d.
EAR-TRAINING EXERCISES
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CHAPTER 12: HARMONIZATION

The harmonization process is, at best, a subjective one that not only requires the ability to employ
primary and secondary harmonies but also demands some elementary keyboard skills in order to hear
a given triad along with its melodic component. Accompaniment patterns aid in maintaining a
given harmony by providing motion to carry and sustain the harmony. Since keyboard applications
are necessary for any ear training at this juncture, refer to “Chapter 12: Harmonization” in Appen-
dix B.
PPPPTTTTTTTTTITTTTTTIT TTT id)

After playing through the various accompaniment patterns and typical harmonic progressions, refer to
the collection of melodies, Appendix F for specific melodic examples.
Fill in an appropriate harmony, paying particular attention to items such as harmonic rhythm, cadence
patterns, primary and secondary triad relationships, and so on. In most situations, a choice of two or
possibly three different harmonies might be possible. It is at this juncture that one’s personal taste or
sound choice becomes critical. Follow the prescribed procedure in order to determine areas where
choices are to be made:

1. Write in all possible triad choices.

2. Play each triad in succession and listen.
3. Decide which triad creates forward motion and smooth connection both
to and from the harmony in question.

The following example illustrates the above procedure and the possible choices that can be made in
harmonizing a particular melody.

Battle Hymn of the Republic

Choice 1 I I I I
Choice 2 V I IV
Choice 3 CV)e 1 I vi vi
Choice 4 I vi ili vi
Choice 5 ili I vi ili IV
Choice 6 I V ili IV I vi IV

SHOHHSHSHHHOHHSHHHHHSHSHHOHHEHHSHHHHHHHHHHHHOHHHSHHSHHSHOTHSHHHHSHHHSHOHEHESOSHHHSSESESESOESHTSHHHHEHOOOEEEE OOOOH EEE OEE EEEESESES

CHAPTER 13: FORM IN MUSIC (MOTIVIC)

AND PHRASE STRUCTURES)

In each of the following examples you will hear the given motive followed by various manipulations.
Identify each of the manipulations as your instructor plays them. Your instructor will predetermine
their order.
(2) (3)

2. MOTIVE:

3. MOTIVE
"EAR- TRAINING EXERCISES

4. MOTIVE: ———— , } : ||

a. d.

(4)

5. MOTIVE: oe oer ————

a. d.

f.

—— SS SS
) (

SS
(4)
SS
and Drills

SSSSSHSSSHSHSHHSSTSHSHSSSHSHSHHSHSHSHSSHSSHSHHSHSSEHTHSSOHOHHSSHHSHSHSHSHSHHHSSHSHOHGHOHHSHSHOHOHSHHHHHSHSHSHSHHHOHHSHHEHHSHOHHEHHHSSHSSHEHHEHHOHHHOTHHHOHOHTOSEEE

CHAPTER 1: PROPERTIES OF SOUND—BASIC NOTATION

1. Become familiar with the letter names of the keys and their relative posi-
tion on the keyboard.
2. Practice labeling keys on the keyboard with enharmonic spellings.
3. Become familiar with the different registers of the keyboard. Practice find-
ing isolated notes such as a’, b’, and so on.

LOCATE AND PLAY DRILLS

1. Locate and play isolated keys on the keyboard. For example, locate and play all As, then all Bs, and
so forth.

319
PPT Trrrrrrrrrrrrrrrrriririririirririiritit

320 KEYBOARD EXERCISES AND DRILLS

2. Locate and play all NOHS (naturally occurring half steps) on the keyboard.

ite cutee cen!

B-C NOHS i
__©@

; , — =
— ——
Yoa he

See ;
o = o =

——
E-F NOHS V

FE =
— =

3. Referring to written exercises at the end of chapter 1, locate and play these pitches at the keyboard.
4. Locate and play half steps, whole steps, and octaves above and below every key on the keyboard.
5. Locate and play the isolated notes given.

6. Locate and play the keys that represent the lines and spaces of the treble and bass clefs. Play in suc-
cession and as a block chord.

—— =
Treble

Se

E G B D
SS
Fae

E F
SE
A (
Ss
as

E
x denotes ‘‘middle”’ C.
Bass
He
POH OEE ee eee eee eer ee ee eee Ee eHee sen EEE HEE SEO ELEEOO EET OEE EEEESUSEREEEEEH ESSE SHEE HO EEHE HUES HEHEHE E EOE EE EERE ED EEUSEEEEEH EEO ESOHEHE SER EEEOEEEEEEEEEHUSEESEEEEHESESESESEEEEEESEET ORES EEE R EEE HEEEEE EHO EE SOHO EEOEEEESTEEEEEEEESE ESE OE EES

KEYBOARD EXERCISES AND DRILLS 321

7. Name all white keys on the keyboard going from low to high and from high to low. Name all black
keys in the same manner.

Note: If an actual keyboard instrument is not available for practice, use the keyboard insert located in the
inside back-cover pocket of this book for some of the exercises.

GHAPLER 2s METERAAND METER SIGNATURES

The following examples may be played on the piano, on any two pitches (octaves are suggested), using
the right hand for the upper part and the left hand for the lower part. They may also be tapped,
clapped, or sung on a neutral syllable by two or more people.

1. Part|

Part II

Zapata

Part II

3. Part |

Part Il
4. Part |

Part ||

Il

CHAPTER 4: SCALES I: SCALE STRUCTURES e

Locate and play the following scales on the keyboard.

1. All basic diatonic scales, noting the position of the NOHS (naturally occurring half steps) within
each scale.

x ae ee
ee

Ga Fe =
epee
KEYBOARD EXERCISES AND DRILLS 323

Note: Become familiar with the sounds of the intervals that occur between the tonic and the other scale
degrees. Play and sing as in the example given below. Apply this procedure when playing all scales.

ce a | 1 ese | 174. | 5 P=eee a 15.6 gat 4 de al

my 3 a i2 we od | , a
——_@——

eo

So vrs S268 Geo td 8 4 8 coun eal«| S28 6 1 8

(Intervals found in the basic diatonic scale on C)

2. Both ascending and descending chromatic scales, noting the enharmonic spellings (sharps and
flats).

ee eee
5S SS a SS : t
G

3. Whole-tone scales, both ascending and descending, noting the enharmonic spellings within each
one.

SS Se ee ee eee |

a ee et
Db
CHAPTER 5; S@CALEST: MAJOR MIN@OE:
AND PENTATONICSGALES

Playing scales at the keyboard will be beneficial to you and serves to reinforce the body of knowledge
acquired in this chapter. The tetrachord as a structural element of diatonic scales can fit comfortably as
a finger pattern for keyboard application. The lower tetrachord can be played by the left hand (finger
numbers 5, 4, 3, 2) and the upper tetrachord by the right hand (finger numbers 2, 3, 4, 5). The thumbs
need not be used, and no previous keyboard experience is necessary. Begin by playing the C-major
scale in tetrachords—four keys to each hand—and remember to connect the tetrachords by a whole
step. Drill: Play twelve major scales, each one beginning on a different pitch. It is suggested that you do
not approach each of the major scales chromatically but rather by fifths; that is, learn C major, then G
major, then D major, and so on. When all of the major scales incorporating sharps have been learned,
then return to C and move through the scales that employ flats (F B’, F’, etc.).

CP Gp) Ap EB CG DA he

Once all of the major scales have been learned, return to each major key and approach the minor scales
through the parallel structures; for example, C major, C minor (all three forms).

C Major
ascending W descending Ww

ee
Ww W Vy WwW W Vp % W W % W W
C Minor-Natural

Ww 2% W i WW. w W % Ww *% W
eer errr errr errr errr rer rer rrrerrr errr errr rr errerr errr eee reer rere

KEYBOARD EXERCISES AND DRILLS 325

By approaching the playing of scale structures through the tetrachord, you will find that you are ex-
pressing your knowledge through your hands rather than on paper. The keyboard application of this
material is quite important and useful in dealing with scale structure material.
It has been found that the playing of scale structures aids considerably in the development of aural per-
ception and ear-training skills. Listen carefully while playing scales at the keyboard.
Refer to Appendix D for all major and minor scales.

COSHH HSE SEH ESSE SHEOEHES

EL OHSEEEEOES @eeeeeeeceoeeeeeeeseeseseoee8 eeeeeovenseeveesece @ecesesecseseeese0ess eeonvcecce eeeceeeecoeoseoen

CHAPTER 6: INTERVALS

1. Practice playing all types of intervals above and below each key on the keyboard. Sing the interval
before and after it is played. It might be practical to concentrate on one interval at a time, such as
playing perfect fifths above and below each key. Once that is mastered, choose another interval.

PROCEDURE

Choose and sing a starting pitch.

Sing the interval.

Play the interval.
Sing the interval.
Choose a new starting key and repeat the procedure.

CHART OF INTERVALS ABOVE AND BELOW C:

326 KEYBOARD EXERCISES AND DRILLS

2. Begin on the note given, playing through the interval directions, and determine the final note.

a
= Descend 6 consecutive P4’s
nding 0 Se

ex. write in answer

— Descend 5 m6’s ending on: J——

Descend 4 m7’s ending on: = =|

oOo

Descend 4 M7’s ending on: }: |

b=
KEYBOARD EXERCISES AND DRILLS 3747

e SHSHSHSHSHHOHSHSSHOHHHHHSHOESHSOSHHHHHOHESEHHESOOHOHEE
SOHO OEEEEOOEE eeeceece SCHOHHHCHHOSHSHEESSEHOEHHHHSEEOOSEOES @eeceseceseoseseses

CHAPTER 9: TRIADS

Practice playing the four types of triads at the keyboard on every pitch. As the triads are played, sing
the triad in arpeggiated form using numbers.

a.- Maior b. Minor c. Augmented d. Diminished

Refer to Appendix D for a complete chart of triad qualities.

SOSSHOHOSHSHEHHSHSSSHHHHHHHHSHHSSHHHHHHHHEOOHOS eeoeoeeeeeceeosoeeeeoe0 eoeeeeeeeeeveeo0ee0 e@eeoeveceece CCCHCCEHEETOTHOCHLELESOOESEOEEE

CHAPTERS10; DIATONIG ERIADS

1. Practice playing the diatonic triads that occur in every major and minor key. Start on the tonic
triad and continue up the scale with each diatonic scale degree serving as the root until every triad
in the key has been played. Spell and sing each triad before and after playing.
328 KEYBOARD EXERCISES AND DRILLS

V(G) VI (Ab) vil° (b°) i (c)

2. Practice finding and playing isolated triads.

C: vi BY: iii Di a: III*

F: vii? A: IV EV E: vi
AP: ii B: iii d: iv e: ii°
g: VI Dav; c: iv ff. III"
f: vii’ ctv b’: vii® gt: V

3. Play the primary triads as given in every major and minor key.
a. Use the same fingering for each key.
b. Practice hands separately.
c. Spell the triads as they are played.

Major Harmonic minor

KEYBOARD EXERCISES AND DRILLS 329

4. Ornament the progression in this fashion:

b.
(Country-Western)
M.M. a = 32 simile

These drills are intended to facilitate the comprehension of primary-triad concepts. The techniques of
4 part writing and voice leading do not fall within the scope of this text.

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CHAPTER GADENGESTRUCLURES

1. Play a C-major scale to establish the tonality, and then select one of the cadences given. Continue
in c minor with the same procedure.
2. In each of the following examples, a major triad is given as a V chord. Play and resolve either to
tonic as an authentic cadence or to the submediant as a deceptive cadence.

Authentic Deceptive Authentic Deceptive

C:V to | or vl G:V to I or vi
c:V toi or VI g: V toi or VI

D:V to I or vi F:V to I or vi
d:V toi or VI f:V toi or VI

Ey. to | or vi A:V to | or vi
e:V toi or VI a:V to i or VI

B:V to I or vi Bb: V to | or vl
b: V to i or VI bb: V toi or VI
KEYBOARD EXERCISES AND DRILLS 55%

4 3. In each of the following examples a major or minor triad is given as a subdominant triad. Play and
resolve as a plagal cadence.

Plagal Plagal

=== 7
c: IV tol c:iv to i

== ===
D:1V to | d:iv to i

ct E:IV to I
== e:1V toi

i =
9 F:IV to I f:iv tol

a G:IV to I
eS g:lV to i

POOSSHSSHHEHHHHHEHHSHH SHH HSHHHHHHHFGOHSSOHSSHHHHHHHHHHHSHTHEHOHHSHHHHHHHHSHOHHHHHHSHHHSHFHSHSHHHHHHHHSSHSHEHHOHHES OSH SHSOEHOOOOESOEES

CHAPTER 12: HARMONIZATION

Practice playing these accompaniment patterns in all major and minor keys. Use these patterns to har-
monize the melodies in Appendix F
332 KEYBOARD EXERCISES AND DRILLS

7
ee
2S = —— a
2

I IV

=== a
Sei Siaiatatatorcicts
b
333

I Vv
14,
£2:

eee
ill vi il

Ill* or III VI We

vii® il

CHAPTER 13: FORM IN MUSIC (MOTIVIC AND

PHRASE STRUCTURES)

iL Play the original melody. “Twinkle, Twinkle, Little Star,” and the manipulations given. Attempt this
exercise with other familiar melodies.

Original

Transposition
Retrograde

——— SS SS
ie Seas oforaeee See eee
Retrograde Inversion

2. Improvise various manipulations of each motive example to create a four-measure phrase. To cre-
ate a convincing cadence, the last measure may be free material.

Sequence ST
a. eX. Transposition Retrograde Free

=
Harmonic
Overtone Series

¢ The ability to construct the overtone

series on any given pitch through the
eighth partial

¢ The understanding of frequency/pitch

ratios
HARMONIC OVERTONE SERIES

OVERTONE SERIES' AND FUNDAMENTAL

When a sound is produced, many subsidiary (composite) pitches are often pro-
duced simultaneously as part of the single sound source. The main pitch one hears
is more prominent because it has a greater amplitude than the subsidiary sounds.
The main sound perceived is called the fundamental, and the subsidiary pitches are
referred to as overtones, partials, or harmonics.
The lowest note in the overtone series serves as the fundamental. Example C.1
illustrates the overtone series from the fundamental of C through the sixteenth par-
tial. Note that the size of the intervals contained within the series become increas-
ingly smaller as the series progresses upward.

Example C.1

2 3

amental

It should be noted that only the octaves above the fundamental (2, 4, 8, and 16)
correspond to pitches found in equal temperament; the mainstream Western-cul-
ture tuning system that divides the octave into twelve equal half steps. The other
pitches correspond to tunings found in just intonation: a system of tuning in which
all intervals are determined by the acoustically pure fifth and pure third. The sey-
enth, eleventh, thirteenth, and fourteenth partials only approximate, to an even
lesser extent, equal temperament and are notated in Example C.1 with black note
heads.

OVERTONE, PARTIAL, AND HARMONIC

The terms “overtone,” “partial,” and “harmonic” are occasionally used interchange-
ably to describe the subsidiary tones found in the overtone series. Their exact
meanings vary slightly as described below.
Overtone: The label used to describe the subsidiary tones sounding above a given
fundamental. These overtones are numbered consecutively and do not include the
fundamental (Ex. C.2).

Also called harmonic series.

HARMONIC OVERTONE SERIES 557

Partial: The label used to describe the subsidiary tones sounding as part of the
harmonic overtone series. This term includes the fundamental in its numbering, so
that partial 1 = fundamental, partial 2 = first overtone, and so on (Ex. C.2).
Harmonic: A more general term employed for reference to any subsidiary sound
such as an isolated frequency in the series. It can be more accurately used as a mod-
ifier, such as “harmonic” partial or “harmonic” overtone. More precisely, overtones
may be labeled as harmonic if they have a symmetrical mathematical ratio with one
another. If not, they are labeled nonharmonic (for example, the asymmetric [non-
harmonic] timbre of bells). The term is often used in conjunction with stringed in-
struments to describe frequencies of a lighter quality produced by lightly touching
a string.

Example C.2
Numbering of Series for Partials and Overtones

Uo kes
o —

S
Partials 1 2 3 4 5 6 7)
Overtones 1 2 3 4 5 6 Z.

Example C.3 illustrates the intervals that occur in the overtone series through the
eighth partial.

Example C.3.

oo 2 =
oS

P4 M3 m3 m3 M2
: SSS SO

e pg P5
Partial 1 2 3 4 5 6 i 8
Numbers
338 HARMONIC OVERTONE SERIES

CONSTRUCTING THE SERIES

When constructing the series, the following steps facilitate writing the series.

1. Write the second, fourth, and eighth partials. Each partial will be a P8
above the previous partial (2:1 ratios).
se Aric a a a) 04d Example C4 aan ee

2. Write the interval of a perfect fifth (third partial) above the second partial
(3:2 ratio). The sixth partial will be a perfect octave above the third
partial (2:1 ratio).

(P5)

3. Only two partials remain to be written: the fifth partial, which is a major
third above the fourth (5:4 ratio), and the seventh partial, which is a
major second below the eighth (8:7 ratio).

Example C.6
TPO S eee neem eenereseeseaseasesseeeeeeessasseeseesessessnssensnestesenssessesseesE EEE EE EEtaHEnstEat TES EEEEEH ESE ESE EES ESEEEEE EEE EHE EEE EEEE ESSE ESE ESESSESSS ESSE EEE EEE ESSE EEE EEEEEEESESEE ESTOS ESTE ESTE EEE ESE EEEE EERE E EERE EEEEEEEEESESEES

HARMONIC OVERTONE SERIES 339

The ratios of intervals found in the overtone series (if the intervals are numbered as
partials) can be useful in determining the frequency of an interval if the frequency
of one of the pitches is known.’ For example:

1. Two notes comprising a perfect octave have a 2:1 frequency ratio since the
frequency doubles with each ascending octave.
2. Two notes comprising a perfect fifth have a 3:2 frequency ratio. This
means that the upper note of a perfect fifth will be vibrating (rela-
tively) three times a second while the lower note will be vibrating
twice a second (frequency of lower pitch x 3 + 2 = frequency of
higher pitch).

The overtone series provides information concerning the ratios of intervals as well
as a system for determining the frequency of intervals. In addition, the series pro-
vides a capsulized, historically chronological account of harmony from medieval
organum (singing or playing a melody doubled in octaves, fifths, and fourths),
through the tonal use of triads and more extended tertian structures, to the micro-
tonal innovations of twentieth-century composers. For many musicians, the series
has served as the scientific basis for explaining frequencies, tuning systems, harmo-
ny, and spacing of chords or for the creative evolution of new systems of melodic
and harmonic procedures.
Drill sheets and blank staff paper follow this appendix, which may be used as an
optional chapter.

>The frequency of various pitches in equal temperament are as follows: a' has a frequency of 440 vibrations per second
(VPS); “middle” C a frequency of 261 VPS; the highest note on the piano keyboard (c’) has a frequency of 4.176 VPS;
and the lowest note on the piano keyboard (A’*) has a frequency of 27.5 VPS.
TAPS RAO e Hee ee Eee Eee esEeereseeeese sees esses eeeEE Hes eesensnasaseeesensenseeseHHeHsasseesenEeesEEStOEEEEEEEEEEESESSEESESSSOEEEEEEEESEEEEESESEEOESESSE IEE EEEEESEEETEEEEEERESESSS OSES ESEESEEEEOESESES EEE EEE ESSE EEE HE EEE EEE SEE Eee eeeEeee

SSSSHSSHTHHHSHOHSHSHHSHSHSHHHSHSHHHHSHSHHSHHHOHHOHHSHSHSOSHHHHHHSSHOHHHSSHHHHHHHTOHSHHSHESHSHESTSHOSOHLHSHSHOHSHESHHHOHOSOHSESOHOHHHEOE

OME RAN Pes bnVe os R i EAN DEL XE RC TSE

1. Construct the overtone series through the eighth partial on each fundamental given.
an ex. b.

WH

eae
ESE
342 HARMONIC OVERTONE SERIES

2. Complete the following:

a. The interval from the first to the second partial is a (interval).
b. The interval from the third to the fourth partial is a
c. The interval from the second to the third partial is a
d. The interval from the fourth to the fifth partial is a
e. The interval from the fourth to the sixth partial is a
Lema} The interval from the fifth to the sixth partial is a
g. The interval from the second to the fourth partial is a
h. The interval from the third to the fifth partial is a
i. The interval from the fifth partial to the seventh overtone is a
j. The interval from the fourth partial to the second overtone is a
k. The interval from the sixth partial to the fifth overtone is a
3. Complete the following:
a. The frequency ratio of a perfect octave is
b. The frequency ratio of a perfect fifthis
c. The frequency ratio of a perfect fourthis
d. The frequency ratio of a major third is
4. Practice playing the overtone series through the eighth partial on several low pitches (below small
c) on the keyboard. The series with C as the fundamental is given.

EE
ES as EF

Partials:
intervals: P8 P5 P4 M3 m3 m3 M2
HARMONIC OVERTONE SERIES

6 5. Overtone experiment
a. On the piano keyboard silently depress and hold in place any lower pitch (below small c).
b. Predetermine the first eight partials of the series, considering the chosen pitch as the funda-
mental.
c. Strike and quickly release the piano keys corresponding to the individual partials in the series.
Result: This will cause a sympathetic vibration of that particular partial on the fundamental string
depressed, and the frequency of that partial will become audible and sustain.
HARMONIC OVERTONE SERIES 349

$$$ $$$$
$$" $$
346
HARMONIC OVERTONE SERIES

HHH
Seer ee eeeesensesereererereseessoneeeeseneeeeneseeeenetssccesccseseeecseneecceccesoocs

HARMONIC OVERTONE SERIES O47

°
eee
IN ty exe DD

Reference Charts

CHART OF MAJOR SCALES

Play, spell and sing each scale.

Cb major

349
350 REFERENCE CHARTS

CHART OF MINOR SCALES

Play, spell and sing each scale.

a (natural) a (harmonic)

Bo eS,
a (melodic)

oe =6— |
e (natural) e (harmonic)

c# (melodic)

SS ee
101
ion

g$ (natural) g# (harmonic)
SOAR eee eee eee eae ee esee eee eeeeEse eee e eee Hee eE eee HR EE EES HEE E HOH SESH HEHEHE EEO EEOHEEHEDU SOU EER U HEHE ESOS HERE EEE HE EEE HEEE EEE ESE ESE EE EEEEOSESEEHEEEOEEEEEEEEEESOEESSESEESESSES HEE E ESE EE EEE E EASON EEE EHE ESTE SOE SEOEEE EOS SEOEEO EEE E SESE ES

REFERENCE CHARTS 351

Chart of minor scales (cont.).

g# (melodic)

d# (natural) d# (harmonic)
————
Se Se ES Se

d# (melodic)

d (natural) d (harmonic)

d (melodic)

c (melodic)
“REFERENCE CHARTS
Chart of minor scales (cont.).

-&

— a
f (natural) f (harmonic)

f (melodic)

bb (natural) bb (harmonic)

bb (melodic)

eb (natural) eb (harmonic)

eb (melodic)

ab (natural) ab (harmonic)

ab (melodic)
CHART OF MAJOR AND MINOR KEY SIGNATURES

C major G major D major

a minor e minor b minor

A major E major
f# minor c# minor

Eb major Ab major
g minor c minor f minor
|

~~
ee

Db major Gb major Cb major

bb minor eb minor ab minor
354 REFERENCE CHARTS

e
CHART OF MAJOR, MINOR, AUGMENTED,
AND DIMINISHED TRIADS

Play, spell and sing each triad.

Tis Eee
CA

Dee Ey i
Se 9 7 SSS ME ho AI ve
ea) 9 EET J

SS (> (ae Se + BS Ge Re Me « 2s PS Tj
ee 0 cn be » Pe See 14 Ses ee « Te!
(SS | * OES ee « EY Dee ad

Le. ?
Gi? EE GB)i) nis =a
I (SSS 9 Mo EE
i ie)
[eee

B b Bt b° Ch cb cbt cb?
REFERENCE CHARTS irnnrraetcncncennacnennngernnenncarniointomeasnnenonaneantaesanset

9
GUITAR CHORD FINGERINGS

Sane
342010 xx 3421 Xi Siege te hx xx 1324 032410

ag
x, @).0)163.:2 x) 0.2..461 xx 4231 xx132 4 x.002.1.3

oe
O:-2s3-1-0.0 023000 KoX gs ah 260 MeoX A u2A 020100

Fingering Chart Symbols:

0 - open string 3 - left ring finger
X — string not played 4 - left little finger
1 — left index finger -~- Barre, finger across
2 — left middle finger two or more strings
REFERENCE CHARTS

uu
134111 Kaexe Onl Ol? dsm Ae

7,

Eee
28 0L0-0n3 ioe
By AP AI 7 xox eeOnOn4 KOXP Sae ee 3120004

ba

(0)
A sh xe os A) BY OR hia ie2

a°7

a
Whe t4e251

b°7
Xoo deeSan leeget XOX 22 1eGe 0 aCe Zola lex xX) 1038264 se 6) 2 LY ay x

# CH c#o7 C#7
ae

Kea es ee MEX 1S 25451 xx 1004 xx 132 4 XeXe lee:

Eb Ebt
(D#)
XexeSa2 lent KEK lela) XOX ASSO |

FH fi Fet
(Gb)

XE Xe eli 5 SE SE a a A XE Xe elie2 sO X=xX les 2. 4 XOXe lol aes

Gt gt G#t g#°7 Gt7

€ (Ab)
REFERENCE CHARTS

ELE
XEXI OG Set XEXEXE Ont XEXE 4 2a oie XExX =1oE2* 4 SX es

bb°7
iat)
Modal Scale
Structures
The seven basic diatonic scales (presented in chapter 4) served as the basis for the
music of the Medieval (ca. 600-1450) and Renaissance (ca. 1450-1600) periods.
Tonality, as we know it today, and for all practical purposes, emerged early in the
Baroque period (ca. 1600-1750) and replaced the earlier modal concepts. Each of
the basic diatonic scales represents one of the modal scales. They are as follows.

1. ionian: the basic scale from C to C (half steps between 3 and 4 and be-
tween 7 and 8)
2. dorian: the basic scale from D to D (half steps between 2 and 3 and be-
tween 6 and 7)
3. phrygian: the basic scale from E to E (half steps between 1 and 2 and be-
tween 5 and 6)
4. lydian: the basic scale from F to F (half steps between 4 and 5 and be-
tween 7 and 8)
5. mixolydian: the basic scale from G to G (half steps between 3 and 4 and
between 6 and 7)
6. aeolian: the basic scale from A to A (half steps between 2 and 3 and be-
tween 5 and 6)
7. locrian: the basic scale from B to B (half steps between 1 and 2 and be-
tween 4 and 5)

Note that each modal scale contains two half steps and five whole steps. Only the
dorian, phrygian, lydian, and mixolydian (and their plagal forms—hypodorian, hy-
pophrygian, etc.) were recognized modal scales of the medieval period. The plagal
forms were simply a means by which the range of the scale could be shifted down a
perfect fourth. The ionian (major) and aeolian (minor) modes were categorized
and added during the sixteenth century. The locrian mode was merely a theoretical
mode, constructed for the purpose of completing the series.
Memorization of the position of the half steps for each of the modal scales is not
necessary if you can visualize their keyboard positions and then determine where
the half steps occur (NOHS). If this is not possible, memorization might be neces-
sary. The keyboard visualization skill is well worth the effort because it is a skill ap-
plicable to almost all areas covered in this text and can aid in unifying the various
elements of music theory.

359
¢
The following keyboard diagrams illustrate the varying positions of the half
steps within the modal scales.
ee hr Mee (ne ce Feample El “ | < Wie Be

ath
uM Atul
lonian

He
Dorian Phrygian

WA
Mixolydian

Aeolian Locrian

Any modal scale can be written beginning on any given pitch as long as the desig-
nated whole- and half-step configuration is maintained. This can be achieved by al-
tering certain pitches through the use of chromatic signs. In doing this you should
adhere to the following guidelines:
MODAL SCALE STRUCTURES 361

1.Write the basic scale beginning on a given pitch (the beginning pitch
could be altered with a chromatic sign).
Determine the position of the half steps for the given mode.
a Number the scale degrees.
4. Begin at the first scale degree and adjust all subsequent notes (if neces-
sary) to conform to the whole- and half-step configuration of the
scale.
5. Continue in this manner until the last note (octave repetition) is reached.

Procedure for Writing a Phrygian Scale Beginning on the Pitch F

STEP 1: WRITE BASIC SCALE
a Peace = RENT
o= Go oe o a 2 =|

STEP 2: DETERMINE POSITION OF 2 STEPS

Phrygian = Y2-1-1-1-%-1-1

STEP 3: NUMBER SCALE DEGREES

TRANSPOSITION OF MODES

By following the steps given in Example E.2, the correct form and spelling of the
scale is virtually ensured. This procedure is called transposition: the technique of
rewriting or performing music beginning at a different pitch level. Therefore, any
modal scale is capable of beginning on any given pitch. Throughout the transpo-
sition process, the integrity of the whole- and half-step configuration must be
maintained.
Prrrrrrrrrrrrrrrr rere

MAJOR AND MINOR MODES

Modal scales may be categorized as basically major or minor by comparing their

similarities with major and minor (natural form) scales. Major modes have a tonic
triad that is major in quality, and minor modes have a minor tonic triad. Major and
minor scales can be altered to form other modal scales. To do this requires the rais-
ing or lowering of one of the scale degrees a chromatic half step. This altered pitch
represents the characteristic scale degree for the mode.

Major Modes
ionian same as major
lydian like major with a raised fourth scale degree
mixolydian like major with a lowered seventh scale degree

Minor Modes
aeolian same as minor (natural form)
dorian like minor with a raised sixth scale degree
phrygian like minor with a lowered second scale degree

The locrian mode may be thought of as being similar to minor with lowered second
and lowered fifth scale degrees. be

MODAL TETRACHORDS

Four different tetrachords are found in the seven modal scales: (1) W—-W-H; (2)
W-H-W; (3) H-W-W; and (4) W-W-W. The lower and upper tetrachords (first
four notes and upper four notes) for each mode are:

Lower Tetrachord
W— ionian and mixolydian
ligt= dorian and aeolian
—W phrygian and locrian
=
oaWh a= lydian

Upper Tetrachord
Sie ionian and lydian
ae mixolydian and dorian
Wi phrygian and aeolian
Ztle<e
ANN Sa locrian

Note that in modal scales, connection of tetrachords may be by either a whole or 5

half step. E
MODAL SCALE STRUCTURES 363

TRANSPOSITION OF MODES USING

MAJOR KEY SIGNATURES

In addition to transposing modal scales by employing the proper whole- and half-
step arrangement for each mode, you may also transpose and identify modal keys
and scales by using your knowledge of (1) major key signatures; (2) the intervals
that occur in major scales between the tonic and the remaining ascending scale de-
grees; and (3) the intervallic relationship of the tonics of the untransposed modes
(basic diatonic scales) to the tonic scale degree in the C-major scale. Example E.3
shows the intervallic relationships of the untransposed modes to the tonic in the C-
major scale. Note that in this example, all of the modes have the same key signa-
ture, C major (no sharps or flats).

Intervallic Relationship of the Basic Modes

to the Tonic Scale Degree in C Major
lonian Dorian Phrygian Lydian Mixolydian Aeolian Locrian

oS 'F)

same as M2 M3 P4 P5 M6 M7
major above above above above above above
tonic tonic tonic tonic tonic tonic

Example E.3 should help to clarify the following:

1. The transposed dorian mode will employ the key signature of the major
key that is a major second below the tonic of the transposed mode.
Think of a transposed dorian scale as a major scale beginning and
ending on the supertonic scale degree.
2. The transposed phrygian mode wiil employ the key signature of the major
key that is a major third below the tonic of the transposed mode.
Think of the transposed phrygian scale as a major scale beginning
and ending on the mediant scale degree.
3. The remaining modes may be transposed by following the same proce-
dure while using the proper intervallic relationship: (a) lydian
mode, use the major key signature that is a perfect fourth below the
tonic of the transposed mode; (b) mixolydian mode, a perfect fifth
below; (c) aeolian mode, a major sixth below; and (d) locrian mode,
a major seventh below.
364 MODAL SCALE STRUCTURES

In transposing the aeolian and locrian modes, you may choose to use the inversion
t
of the proper interval. That is, you may ascend a minor third (the inversion of a
major sixth) to find the key signature for the aeolian mode, a minor second (the in-
version of a major seventh) to find the key signature for the locrian mode.
To summarize: the basic dorian (D to D) scale can be thought of as a C-major
scale beginning and ending on the second (supertonic) scale degree; phrygian (E to
E) as a C-major scale beginning and ending on the third (mediant) scale degree,
and so on. In order to facilitate this skill, relate each of the basic modal scales to a
scale-degree number in C major:

dorian = second scale degree in C major

phrygian = third scale degree in C major
lydian = fourth scale degree in C major
mixolydian = fifth scale degree in C major
aeolian = sixth scale degree in C major
locrian = seventh scale degree in C major

Once this is understood, the basic analogy is as follows:

D dorian is to C major as E dorian is to D major.

Dorian on D is to C major (beginning and ending on the second scale de-
gree) as the dorian on E is to D major (beginning and ending on the second &
scale degree), employing the two sharps (F# and C#) that are needed for D
major.

Example E.4 illustrates transposed modes that would employ the key signature of
F> major.

Relationship of Modes to EF? Major

Aeolian

Lydian

a a 2Q Co cox a oe
A] & Bae S SSSI
Gruen u 5 Eee = Caaaranass ooo eninae samermnoneee Sos

Malor Be SS a
Key: Eb:
Locrian
hh hhh hahaa eee er ee rir irrrrrirrirr rrr rrerrr errr rrrrrer rrr errr errr errr errr rr reer cere reer eererrri
MODAL SCALE STRUCTURES 365

Procedures for transposing modal scales using key signatures:

¢ lonian: use the same key signature as major.

¢ Dorian: descend a major second from the tonic of the transposed mode to
find the (major) key signature.
¢ Phrygian: descend a major third to find the key signature.
¢ Lydian: descend a perfect fourth to find the key signature.
¢ Mixolydian: descend a perfect fifth to find the key signature.
¢ Aeolian: descend a major sixth (or ascend a minor third) to find the key
"signature.
¢ Locrian: descend a major seventh (or ascend a minor second) to find the
key signature.

The procedure for identifying a transposed mode (when the key signature and tonic
are given) is:

1. Determine the major key represented by the key signature (or examine
the number of flats or sharps appearing in the music).
2. Determine the ascending interval from the tonic of the major reference
key represented to the tonic of the transposed mode (the note that is
given). Refer to Example E.3 for the chart of intervallic relation-
ships.
3. Name the mode that has the determined intervallic relationship from the
tonic of the major reference key to the tonic of the transposed mode.

Phrygian dorian mixolydian lydian aeolian

(x indicates major reference key)

In Example E.5a, the key signature would represent the key of G major. The inter-
val from G (reference key) ascending to B (tonic of the transposed mode) is a major
third. Therefore, the mode beginning on B and utilizing the key signature of one
sharp would be phrygian.
In Example E.5b, the key signature would represent the key of E> major. The in-
terval from E> (reference key) ascending to F (tonic of the transposed mode) is a
major second. Therefore, the mode beginning on F and utilizing the key signature
of three flats would be dorian.
In Example E.5c, the key signature would represent the key of A major. The in-
terval from A (reference key) ascending to E (tonic of the transposed mode) is a
perfect fifth. Therefore, the mode would be mixolydian.
MODAL SCALE STRUCTURES

In Example E.5d, the interval from the major reference key (F) to the tonic of
the transposed mode (B?) is a perfect fourth, which would indicate a transposed ly-
dian mode. In Example E.5e, the interval from the major reference key (D) to the
tonic of the transposed mode (B) is a major sixth, which would indicate a trans-
posed aeolian mode.
In determining the intervallic relationship between the tonic of the major refer-
ence key and the tonic of the transposed mode, always choose the ascending inter-
val (from the tonic of the major reference key up to the tonic of the mode given).
In many modal compositions, publishers and composers tend to use the major
or minor key signature most closely associated with the tonic of the transposed
mode and then systematically add the chromatic signs that are needed to create
the desired mode. Because of this, you should examine the music carefully and
not rely solely on the key signature and tonic to determine the mode being used.
Also, keep in mind that several different modal keys could appear within the same
composition.
To determine the key signature of a transposed mode when the name and tonic
(keynote) of the mode are known factors, descend from the tonic of the transposed
mode to the major reference key using the interval appropriate to the given mode
(Ex. E.6).

Mixolydian Dorian Phrygian Lydian Locrian

(x indicates major reference key)

The correct key signatures for Example E.6 would be: (a) one flat; (b) two flats; (c)
two sharps; (d) three sharps; and (e) five flats.
To determine the tonic (keynote) of a transposed mode when the name of the
mode and key signature are known factors, ascend to the tonic of the transposed
mode from the tonic of the major reference key using the interval appropriate to
the given mode (Ex. E.7).

Aeolian Lydian Phrygian Dorian lonian

MODAL SCALE STRUCTURES 367

The correct tonics (keynotes) for Example E.7 would be: (a) C; (b) E; (c) D; (d) FR.
and (e) D>.
All modal scales contain two half steps and five whole steps. Changing the order
of these intervals can greatly alter the aural effect of a melody, as illustrated in the
following example. Play or sing as written, then change the mode by using the key
signatures given below the example.

-Example E.8

Lullaby, Brahms
lonian mode (major) (1) (2) (3)

(With apologies to Brahms)

lydian play with a key signature of one sharp (Ft)

mixolydian play with a key signature of one flat (B’)
dorian play with a key signature of two flats (B’, E°).
aeolian play with a key signature of three flats (BP, E’, A’)
phrygian play with a key signature of four flats (B?, E?, A, D>)
locrian play with a key signature of five flats (Bb, E>, Ab, D>, GP)
Pee reer errr rere rere rere eer ee rere rere rere reer rere eee reer reer err errr errr eee ere reer ee eee rere reer rer rrr Terr rey

AVEENDIX(2 PRILLS AND EXERGISES

1. Write the modal scales indicated on the pitches given. Insert chromatic signs to create the correct
whole- and half-step sequence.

a. Dorian b. Phrygian

c. Lydian d. Mixolydian

e. Aeolian f. Locrian

g. Dorian h. Phrygian

—————
EE SS SS SS

i. Lydian j. Mixolydian

— = ae

2. Identify each modal scale given.

“MODAL
SCALE STRUCTURES

B: Indicate the mode(s) that would have the tetrachord given as the lower or upper tetrachord.

and
a
upper and

lower
upper

lower
upper

lower and
upper and

4. Determine the name of each mode. The major reference key signature and beginning pitch (tonic)
of each mode are given.
MODAL SCALE STRUCTURES yal

5. Determine the key signature for each mode. The name and tonic of each mode are given.

Dorian Phrygian Mixolydian Aeolian Lydian

Locrian lonian Phrygian Mixolydian Aeolian

Lydian Dorian Locrian lonian Aeolian

6. Determine the tonic for each mode. The major reference key signatures and modal names are
given.

Aeolian Lydian lonian Mixolydian Dorian

Lydian Phrygian Aeolian Locrian Mixolydian

MODAL SCALES REVIEW (SELF-TEST: APPENDIX E)

1. Complete the following:

a. Half steps in the phrygian mode are found between and and between and
(scale degree numbers).
b. Half steps in the mixolydian mode are found between and and between and
ee eeeeeeecccccseccceceecceccseseseecsseseseseeseeeseessasseeseessSES DOES OPESEE SEO EEOE SER ESES SOE EOEESSESOSESSESOSESSESOESSEMSSEESEE ESE OEOSSESODESDOSOOOSSSSESOES ESE EEEDEE SOUS OESEOSSESSSSISSSSSDOS OSU OOSESESESOE TOT TOTTOOTSOTSS TOs Seeeee

MODAL SCALE STRUCTURES

c. Half steps in the aeolian mode are found between and and between and

d. Half steps in the dorian mode are found between and and between and

e. Half steps in the lydian mode are found between and and between and

The only two modes in which tetrachords are connected by a half step are the
and modes.
Each modal scale contains two half steps and five whole steps. True__ False ____
The major scale is the same as the mode.
The minor scale (natural form) is the same as the mode.

NR Given the key signature of two sharps, name the modes beginning on the tonics given.
Pats
Ft E ct
A G B
Complete the following:
a. The lydian scale beginning on A has a key signature of ___—s (number) ___ (sharps or
flats). by
b. The dorian scale beginning on F hasa key signatureof_
c. The locrian scale beginning on Gt has a key signature of__
d. The phrygian scale beginning on D hasakeysignatureof_ i.
e. The mixolydian scale beginning on C hasakeysignatureof__— i.
f. The aeolian scale beginning on B hasakeysignatureof_ i;
As compared to major and minor (natural form) scales, complete the following:
a. The distinctly characteristic scale degree of the mixolydian mode is the
(raised or lowered) (scale degree number).
b. The distinctly characteristic scale degree of the lydian mode is the
scale degree.
c. The distinctly characteristic scale degree of the dorian mode is the
scale degree.
d. The distinctly characteristic scale degree of the phrygian mode is the
scale degree.
A PO gd es Dee Ge, Gee

Melodic Literature
from around
the World

FOR HARMONIC, MOTIVIC, AND FORM ANALYSIS

AND KEYBOARD PRACTICE

THE WATER IS WIDE Traditional American

33
SG MELODIC LITERATURE FROM AROUND THE WORLD

BILLY BOY ss SS

as are == = eee ee

Se a ee ee ee
Se
ES rae he oS verene
ee
i |
T 7

So ae Se ee es

Sonata in D Minor, D. Scralatti

Allegro moderato
3G
Finnish
Andantino

British
Allegretto

Minuet Bach
NS es
MELODIC LITERATURE FROM AROUND THE WORLD

RED RIVER VALLEY Cowboy

[er Eee SS Soe

a ee ee ee eee

ROCK OF AGES
MELODIC LITERATURE FROM AROUND THE WORLD

AMERICA, THE BEAUTIFUL

ee
(2 Se ee
ee
ae ee ee ee
Symphony No. 40 in G minor, K. 550
Allegro

(SS = SS eS

(SRS
American Folk
ON TOP OF OLD SMOKY

2 ee ee
° | oe eee
MELODIC LITERATURE
FROM AROUND THE WORLD

Haydn

Allegretto Dutch

Allegro Polish
MELODIC LITERATURE FROM AROUND THE WORLD

‘7 British

= meee

WE GATHER TOGETHER Traditional Dutch

= = SS SS SS
=e ee ==

, $2522 Sal
MELODIC LITERATURE
FROM AROUND THE WORLD

Piano Sonata in D major, K. 576 Mozart

Andante Israeli

a
SS

Allegretto British

Sonatina in G Major Beethoven

Moderato
assy) 7 eS a a ee ee eg
(eee
TE
French Suite No. 5, Gavotte Bach
Allegro

Mazurka, Op.7, No.1 Chopin

cresc.
MELODIC LITERATURE
FROM AROUND
THE WORLD

Largo Russian

French

Andante and Variations, Op.46, for Two Pianos Schumann

Andante
British
Moderato

Italian
Andantino
MELODIC LITERATURE
FROM AROUND THE WORLD

JOY TO THE WORLD Traditional Carol

Andante German

See

Songs Without Words, Op.53, No.2 Mendelssohn

Allegro non troppo

cresc.
385

Tyrolese

Allegro Poland

———

THE ASH GROVE Welsh

=
MELODIC LITERATURE
FROM AROUND THE WORLD

Corrente, for Two Violins and Continuo Vivaldi

LINCOLNSHIRE POACHER English

Allegro Swedish
ALOHA OE
Hawaiian

SS SSSS See

Saree

BATTLE HYMN OF THE REPUBLIC American

8;
MELODIC LITERATURE
FROM AROUND THE WORLD

Spanish

LA CALLE ANCHA Puerto Rican a

389

DUERMETE, NINO LINDO Spanish

EL ZAPATERO Spanish
MELODIC LITERATURE
FROM AROUND THE WORLD

MI CHACRA Argentina

SAKURA Japanese

FOLK SONG Ghana

INDIAN MELODY Navajo

FOLK SONG Chinese

®
392 MELODIC LITERATURE FROM AROUND THE WORLD

ARE YOU SLEEPING Traditional Round

OH, HOW LOVELY IS THE EVENING German Round

SULIRAM Indonesian Folk Song

FOLKSONG
Vietnamese

Ss See oe Taare
a Sees
(S55
(Se
ae ee
HULA CHANT Hawaiian

SS SS
= SS
laSS Sea aS
SS SSeS
é
Index
SHHHHSSHHSHSHSHHHOHOHHHHESHHHHHHHHHHHOHHHSHHHOSHOHSHOHEHOHHHHHHHHHHHHOHHHHHHHHHHHHEHHHHOHHHHOHHHHHHEHHOHHEHOHHHOHHHHOHOSOOEHHEED

A D

Accidentals. See Chromatic signs Deceptive cadence, 231, 234

Adagio, 41 Deletion, 267
Adagissimo, 41 Descending intervals, 124
Aeolian mode, 361 Descending melodic scale, 147
Alla breve, 59 Diapason, 3
Allegretto, 41 Diatonic: 13, 80; intervals, 144; scales, 80; triads
Allegro, 41 in major, 204; triads in minor, 205
Amplitude, 3 Diminished: intervals, 122; triads, 184
Andante, 41 Diminution, 266
Andantino, 41 Dissonance, 3
Anhemitonic pentatonic, 103 Dominant function chord (v), 210
Ascending melodic scale, 147. See Scale Dorian, 361
Asymmetrical meters, 60 Double bar line, 18
Augmentation: of motive, 266 Double octave sign, 15
Augmented: intervals, 122; triads, 184 Doubly augmented, 117
Authentic cadence, 230, 232, 233 Doubly compound, 125
Doubly diminished, 117
Duple, 58
Duplets, 37
Duration dots, 20
sy Bar line, 18 Durational memory, 1
Basic intervals, 116; triads, 182, 185 Dynamics, 3
Beams, 19; beaming notes, 61, 62; beaming of
rests, 64
Beat, 36; regular divisions, 36; irregular divisions,
38; borrowed division, 37; duplets and triplets,
37. stressed and weak beats, 58; beat unit, 62
iE
Binary form, 271
Borrowed divisions, 37 Eighth note, 19, 36-38; beaming, 19; rests, 19
Brace, 11]
Embellishment, 267
Enharmonic, 13, 125

Cadence: final, 230; nonfinal, 231; cadence points,

248; structures, 230, 231; authentic and plagal,
230-33; half, 231, 233; deceptive, 231, 234 Fermata, 22
Cadere, 230 Fifth: perfect, 118; basic, 116; augmented, 122;
Chord, 182; abbreviations, 251 diminished, 122; as dominant harmony (V),
Chromatic: sign, 12; chromatic scale, 86 210
Circle of fifths, 163, 164 Final cadence, 230
Clef, 7. See Staff First inversion, 187
Common time, 59 Five-line register, 16
Compound: intervals, 125; meter signatures, 60; Flags, 19, 21
time, 36 EP@nte eet
Conjunct motion, 250 Fortissimo, 4
Consonance, 3 Fragmentation, 268
i) Contrasting period, 270 Frequency, 2
G2, 2 Function as a harmony, 210
Cut time, 59 Fundamental, 4, 338
PPPTTTSTTTTTTTITITITITITITTTITriiiriiiiiie

Grand staff, 11 Major scale, 81, 82, 83

Grave, 41 Major and minor intervals, 120
Gregorian chant, 6 Major key signatures, 160, 161, 162, 351; flats,
161; sharps, 160
Major: scale(s), 82, 144; second, 120; major third,
H 120; major sixth, 121; major seventh, 121;
major triads, 184, 185
Half cadence, 231, 233 Measure, 18, 62
Half step, 11 Melodic minor scale, 146
Harmonics, 338, 339 Melodic phrases, 262
Harmonic foundation, 182 Mensural notation, 5
Harmonic minor scale, 146 Meter, 58; asymmetrical, 60; classifications, 61;
Harmonic rhythm, 248, 249 notation, 62; signatures, 58-60
Harmonization, 246 Metric accents, 64
Harmony, 204 Metronome marking, 41
Hemitonic pentatonic, 103 Mezzoforte, 4
Hertz, 2 Mezzopiano, 4
Middle c, 16
Minor scales, 84, 85
Minor: key signatures, 162-64, 352; minor scale,
84, 144-47; minor second, 120; minor third,
Imperfect cadence, 231 120; minor sixth, 121; minor seventh, 121;
Intensity, 3 minor triads, 184, 186
Interior phrases, 231 Mixolydian, 361
Interval(s), 116; basic, 116; augmented and Modal scale structures, 361
diminished, 122; perfect, 117; majors and Modal tetrachords, 364
minors, 120-21; simple and compound, 125; Moderato, 41
inversions of, 126; contraction and expansion, Motive: or motif 262; concepts and manipulations,
267 262
Inversion, 265 Music defined, 2
lonian, 361 Music theory, 2
Irregular divisions, 38 Musical form, 269
Irregular phrase, 269
Isolated triads, 211

Natural minor scale, 145

Naturally occurring half steps, 14, 81, 83
Key relationships, 262
NOHS, 14, 81, 83
Key signatures, 157
Nonchord tones, 246, 249
Keyboard drills. See Appendix B, 321
Nonfinal cadence types, 231
Keyboard, fold-out, front cover
Nonstressed beat, 58
Notation, 5
Notes, 19
Numerical classification, 116

Larghetto, 41
Largo, 41
Leading tone triad, 205 O
Leger lines, 9
Leger spaces, 9 Octave, 14. See also Diapason, 3
Lento, 41 Octave registers, 16, 17
Line of fifths, 161, 162, 163 Octave sign, 15
Locrian, 361 Organum, 341
Lydian, 361 Overtone series, 338
PPP errr rrr errr rrirerrr rrr r iri r rrr trite ri rir SHORE eee eee eee eee en eee eee eee ee eee ee Esse ESTE EEE ET EE SE EE EEE SEOH OEE OEESEEEEESEESSEEEEOEEEEEEEFEEEEEEEEEEEEESEEEEEESEEEE ESSE EEEEEE EEE OE EES

Secondary substitution chords, 251

Secondary triad, 209
Parallel structures (major and minor), 101 Secondary triads, 251
Parallel period, 270 Septuple, 58
Partials, 338, 339 Sequence, 264
Perfect: cadence, 231; intervals, 117; fifths, 118: Short fermata, 22
fourths, 119; octave and unison, 117; intervals, Simple: intervals, 125; simple meter, 58; meter sig-
117 natures, 58; simple time, 36
Period form, 270 Slurs, 19
Phirase, 269 Song form, 272
Phrase marks, 19 Staccato, 20
Phrase structure, 262, 269 Staff, 7
Phrygian, 361 Staves, 7
Pianissimo, 4 Stems: 19; stem direction, 21; length, 22
Piano, 4 Stress, 36
Piano keyboard, 16 Stress patterns, 64
Pitch, 2 Stressed beat, 58
Placement and spacing of flats, 158 Subcontra, 16
Placement and spacing of sharps, 159 Subdominant function chord (iv or iv), 210
Plagal cadence, 230, 231, 232 Submotives, 268
Plainsong, 6 Subtonic triad, 207
Polyphonic, 6 Succession of chords, 204
Prestissimo, 41 Syncopation, 64
Presto, 41
Primary: triads, 209, 249; primary and secondary
triad(s), 209, 249; relationships, 209

R
Tablature, 6
lempowos tin 59
Ratio(s) of intervals, 341
Tenor, 11
Relationships, 210
Ternary form, 271
Prime, 116
Tertian triads, 182
Pulse, 36
Tetrachord, 82
Quadruple, 58
Thematic material, 262
Quality classification, 117
Three-part form, 270
Quality of triads, 183
Ties, 19
Quindicesima, 15
Timbre, 4
Quintuple, 58
Tonal center, 88
Real transposition, 263
Tonal transposition, 263
Register, 15
Tonality, 88
Regular divisions, 36
Tone color, 4
Relative major and minor, 100
Tonic function chord (I or i), 210
Relative minor of the major key, 163
Transposition, 263
Repetition, 262
Transposition of modes, 363, 365
Rests, 19
Triad qualities, 183
Retrograde, 264
Triads: basic 182, 185; root position, 182, 184;
Retrograde inversion, 265
first inversion, 187; second inversion, 188;
Rhythm, 5, 36
qualities, 183; major, 184, 185; minor, 184,
Roman numeral identification, 204
186; diatonic, 204, 225; primary and
Roman numerals, 204
secondary, 209, 210; subdominant, 207;
Root position, 182, 184
dominant, 210; secondary substitution, 251
Triple, 58
Triplets, 37
Tritone, 123
Scale, 80 Two phrase period, 270
Second inversion, 188 Two-part form, 270
Pereereerreereterereerererrrrrr rere rireerrr terrier reer ere errere reer eeee errr ere eee eet eee ere

Unison, 117 Whole step, 11

Unity and contrast, 262 Whole-tone scales, 87, 88

VPS, 2
Se
SEG
O NDE DE nOun

Used by thousands of students since it was first published in 1987, this complete, self-con-
tained text presents all the concepts beginning students need to achieve a solid understanding
of the fundamentals of music theory. Basics of Music systematically teaches the essential con-
cepts of music theory, from basic notation to harmonization, cadence structures, and motivic
development. The text is written in a succinct, direct style and richly illustrated with musical
examples. Taking a conceptual approach representative of the most current theoretical ideas,
the authors emphasize the broad underlying concepts of music theory while minimizing the
need to learn by rote. Exercises and drills in each chapter allow the student to apply the con-
cepts presented in the text.

Key features of Basics of Music include the following:

¢ A complete, self-contained teaching package, including examples, exercises, drills, optional
ear training and keyboard applications, and blank staff paper; no other text or materials are
needed.
¢ Economy of presentation—a terse, no-nonsense style featuring clear, concise definitions and
supported by many diagrams, charts, and musical examples.
* Broad scope, with emphasis on the application of theoretical concepts.
* Learning objectives clearly stated at the outset of each chapter.
* Numerous exercises and drills—perforated for easy removal—providing ample opportunity
to practice concepts presented in the text.
° Ear-training and keyboard appendixes, to provide the link between theory and application.
* Reference charts—quick access to all major and minor scales, key signatures, triads, and
guitar chord fingerings.
* A collection of melodies providing extensive opportunities for drill in harmonization and
analysis.
* A fold-out, full-scale piano keyboard inserted in a pocket at the front of the book.

For the Second Edition, the authors have extensively revised and streamlined the text and have
added many new exercises—77 percent of all drills and exercises are new or revised for this
edition. New musical examples, all from the literature and each one identified by composer
and title, have been selected to illustrate theoretical concepts. And 33 new melodies from a
wide range of cultures have been added to the already extensive collection of melodies for
analysis and harmonization.
About the Authors
Michael Zinn and Robert Hogenson are on the music faculty at the University of Delaware.

Cover illustration: Liz Kathman Grubow <

Photography: Alan Brown BN:O-RE-8ia0ew
Illustration originally commissioned by 9.0.0.0 0>
American Music Teacher magazine. ||

9 "780028"730127