Lecture- 1

Rainfed farming-introduction and definition and importance

Agriculture is the single largest livelihood sources in India with nearly two thirds of people
depend on it. Rainfed agriculture is as old as agriculture itself. Growing of crops entirely under
rainfed conditions is known as dryland agriculture.
Total geographical area of India is 328.12mha. In this 175 mha of land is degrading every
year due to erosions (soil, water & wind). Among the total geographical area dryland area is 85
mha. Total net cultivated area in India is 143mha.
1.1 DEFINITIONS:
Depending on the amount of rainfall received, dryland agriculture can be grouped into three
categories:
Dry farming: It is cultivation of crops in regions with annual rainfall less than 750 mm. Crop
failure is most common due to prolonged dry spells during the crop period. These are arid
regions with a growing season (period of adequate soil moisture) less than 75 days. Moisture
conservation practices are necessary for crop production.
Dryland farming: Cultivation of crops in regions with annual rainfall more than 750 mm. In
spite of prolonged dry spells crop failure is relatively less frequent. These are semiarid tracts
with a growing period between 75 and 120 days. Moisture conservation practices are
necessary for crop production. However, adequate drainage is required especially for vertisols
or black soils.
Rainfed farming: is crop production in regions with annual rainfall more than 1150 mm.
Crops are not subjected to soil moisture stress during the crop period. Emphasis is often on
disposal of excess water. These are humid regions with growing period more than 120 days.
United Nations Economic and Social Commission for Asia and the Pacific distinguished
dryland agriculture mainly into two categories: dryland and rainfed farming. The
distinguishing features of these two types of farming are given below.
1.2 Dryland vs. rainfed farming:

1.3 Importance of Dry farming in Indian Agriculture:

❖ About 70% of rural population lives in dry farming areas and their livelihood depend on
success or failure of the crops
❖ Dryland Agriculture plays a distinct role in Indian Agriculture occupying 60% of cultivated
area and supports 40% of human population and 60 % livestock population.
❖ The contribution (production) of rainfed agriculture in India is about 42 per cent of the total
food grain, 75 per cent of oilseeds, 90 per cent of pulses and about 70 per cent of cotton.
❖ By the end of the 20th century the contribution of drylands will have to be 60 per cent if
India is to provide adequate food to 1000 million people. Hence tremendous efforts both
in the development and research fronts are essential to achieve this target.
❖ More than 90 per cent of the area under sorghum, groundnut, and pulses is rainfed. In case
of maize and chickpea, 82 to 85 per cent area is rainfed. Even 78 percent of cotton area is
rainfed. In case of rapeseed/mustard, about 65.8 per cent of the area is rainfed.
Interestingly, but not surprisingly, 61.7, 44.0, and 35.0 per cent area under rice, barley and
wheat, respectively, is rainfed.
❖ At present, 3 ha of dryland crop produce cereal grain equivalent to that produced in one ha
irrigated crop. With limited scope for increasing the area under plough, only option left is
to increase the productivity with the modern technology and inputs, since the per capita
land availability which was 0.28 ha in 1990 is expected to decline 0.19 ha in 2010.
❖ The productivity of grains already showed a plateau in irrigated agriculture due to problems
related to nutrient exhaustion, salinity build up and raising water table. Therefore, the
challenges of the present millennium would be to produce more from drylands while
ensuring conservation of existing resources. Hence, new strategies would have to be
evolved which would make the fragile dryland ecosystems more productive as well as
sustainable. In order to achieve evergreen revolution, we shall have to make grey areas
(drylands) as green through latest technological innovations.
❖ Drylands offer good scope for development of agroforestry, social forestry, horti-sylvi-
pasture and such other similar systems which will not only supply food, fuel to the village
people and fodder to the cattle but forms a suitable vegetative cover for ecological
maintenance.
Problems and prospects of Rainfed Agriculture in India

Problems and prospects of Rainfed Agriculture in India

2
2.1 Problems or constraints for crop production in dry farming regions
Most of the cropping in the arid and semi-arid regions continues to be under rainfed
conditions. A majority of the farmers are small farmers with meager resources. The poor
resource base permits only low input subsistence farming with low and unstable crop yields.
The low productivity of agriculture in dry farming regions is due to the cumulative effect of
many constraints for crop production.
The problems can be broadly grouped in to
a) Climatic constraints
b) Soil constraints
c) Lack of suitable varieties
d) Traditional cultivation practices
e) Heavy weed infestation
f) Resource constraints
g) Technological constraints
f) Socio economic constraints
2.1.1 Climatic constraints
A) Rainfall characteristics: Among the different climatic parameters, rainfall is an
important factor influencing the crop production in dry regions
(i) Variable rainfall: Rainfall varies both in time and space dimension. Annual rainfall
varies greatly from year to year and naturally, its coefficient of variation is very high.
Generally, higher the rainfall less is the coefficient of variation. In other words, crop failures
due to uncertain rains are more frequent in regions with lesser rainfall. The average annual
rainfall of India is 1192 mm where as in Gujarat it is 816 mm. Based on the average annual
rainfall, the India can be divided into four zones. More than one third of total geographical
area in India receives rainfall less than 750 mm (Table. 2.1).
(ii) Intensity and distribution: In general, more than 50 per cent of total rainfall is usually
received in 3 to 5 rainy days. Such intensive rainfall results in substantial loss of water due to
surface runoff. This process also accelerates soil erosion. Distribution of rainfall during the
crop growing season is more important than total rainfall in dryland agriculture.
iii) Aberrations or variations in monsoon behavior
(a) Late onset of monsoon: If the onset of monsoon is delayed, crops/varieties recommended
to the region cannot be sown in time. Delayed sowing lead to uneconomical crop yields.
(b) Early withdrawal of monsoon: This situation is equally or more dangerous than late
onset of monsoon. Rainy season crops will be subjected to terminal stress leading to poor
yields. Similarly, post-rainy season crops fail due to inadequate available soil moisture,
especially during reproductive and maturity phases.
(c) Prolonged dry spells: Breaks of monsoon for 7-10 days may not be a serious concern.
Break between two consecutive rainfalls for more than 15 days duration especially at critical
stages for soil moisture stress, leads to reduction in yield. Drought due to break in monsoon
may adversely affect the crops in shallow soils than in deep soils. It also has ill-effect on crop
yield in tropical and sun-tropical regions.

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Problems and prospects of Rainfed Agriculture in India

Table 2.1 Classification of India into different zones based on rainfall

Zone Average annual rainfall Per cent of geographical
(mm) area
Zone I < 350 13
(very low rainfall area)
Zone II 350 to 750 22
(low rainfall area)
Zone III 750 to 1125 36
(Medium rainfall area)
Zone IV > 1125 29
(High rainfall area)

High atmospheric temperature: Because of high atmospheric temperature, the atmospheric

demand for moisture increases causing high evapotranspiration losses resulting in moisture
stress.
B) Low relative humidity: Low relative humidity results in high ET losses causing moisture
stress whenever moisture is limiting.
D) Hot dry winds: Hot dry winds causes desiccation of leaves resulting in moisture
stress. High turbulent winds especially during summer months cause soil erosion
resulting in dust, storms and loss of fertile soil.
E) High atmospheric water demand: Due to high atmospheric water demand the
potential evapotranspiration (PET) exceed the precipitation during most part of the
year.

2.1.2 Soil Constraints

The different soil groups encountered in dryland areas are black soils, red soils and
alluvial soils. The constraints for crop production are different in different soil groups. The
predominant soil group is alluvial where the problems for crop production are not so acute as
in red and black soils. The different soil constraints for crop production are
a) Inadequate soil moisture availability: The moisture holding capacity of soils in dry
regions is low due to shallow depth especially in alfisols (red soils), low rainfall and low
organic matter content.
b) Poor organic matter content: The organic matter content in most of the soils under
dryland conditions is very low (< 1 %) due to high temperature and low addition of organic
manures. Poor organic matter content adversely affects soil physical properties related to
moisture storage.
c) Poor soil fertility: Due to low accumulation of organic matter and loss of fertile top soil-
by-soil erosion, the dry land soils are poor in fertility status. Most of the dry land soils are
deficient in nitrogen and zinc.
d) Soil deterioration due to erosion (wind, water): In India nearly 175 [Link] of land is
subjected to different land degradations, among them, the soil erosion is very predominant.
The erosion causes loss of top fertile soil leaving poor sub soil for crop cultivation.
e) Soil crust problem: In case of red soils, the formation of hard surface. Soil layer hinders
the emergence of seedlings, which ultimately affect the plant population. Crusting of soil

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Problems and prospects of Rainfed Agriculture in India

surface after rainfall reduces infiltration and storage of rainfall, resulting in high run off.
f) Presence of hard layers and deep cracks: Presence of hard layers (pans) in soil and deep
cracks affect the crop production especially in case of black soils.
2.1.3 Lack of suitable varieties: Most of the crop varieties available for cultivation in dry
lands are meant for irrigated agriculture. There are no any special varieties exclusively meant
for dryland areas. Hence still more efforts are required to develop varieties in different crops
exclusively meant for dryland agriculture.
2.1.4 Traditional Cultivation practices
The existing management practices adopted by the farmers are evolved based on long
term experience by the farmers.
The traditional management practices are still followed by farmers leading to low yields.
• Ploughing along the slope
• Broadcasting seeds/ sowing behind the country plough leading to poor as well as
uneven plant stand
• Monsoon sowing
• Choice of crops based on rainfall
• Application FYM in limited quantity
• Untimely weeding
• Low productive cropping systems
• Inadequate nutrient supply
• Traditional storage system
3.1.5 Heavy weed infestation: This is the most serious problem in dryland areas.
Unfortunately, the environment congenial for crop growth is also congenial for weed
growth. Weed seeds germinate earlier than crop seeds and try to suppress the crop
growth. The weed problem is high in rainfed areas because of continuous rains and
acute shortage of labour. The weed suppression in the early stage of crop growth is required
to reduce the decrease in crop yields.
a) Less access to inputs, poor organizational structure for input supply
b) Non availability of credit in time
c) The risk bearing capacity of dryland farmer is very low
3.1.6 Resource constraints
1. Most of the resource for dry land are run under subsistence level of farming
2. There is less intention to adopt new technologies in dry lands among the farmers.
3. Occurrence of frequent drought for flood in dry farming areas
4. Uncertainty and is distributed rainfall and mid-season break in monsoon leading to crop
failure
5. Difficulties in adoption of new cropping pattern for cropping systems to suit the
monsoon and its behaviour
6. Absence of suitable varieties, non-availability of quality seeds, inadequate nutrient
supply and problems of soil salinity and alkalinity aggravate the situation in dry farming
areas
7. Resource poor dry land farmers are not able to practice soil conservation practices and
other new technology

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Problems and prospects of Rainfed Agriculture in India

8. There is a limited recognition of indigenous methods of soil and water conservation

9. Poor land preparation and untimely ploughing, sowing, lake of labour and animal power
during peak season
10. Lack of adequate linkages between crop and animal components in dry farming
3.1.7 Technological constraints
1. Lack of suitable Technologies for lesser rainfall areas
2. Lack of varieties capable of yielding higher in adverse condition. Improved varieties for
high yielding varieties are found more vulnerable to moisture stress as compared to
traditional variety
3. Non-availability of seeds of improved varieties and the demand supply is found to be
80% with groundnut, 50% with Sorghum, 25% with pearl millet and 90% with forest
species
4. Problems with prediction of sowing rain
5. Laser utilization of improved machineries/ implement under dry lands leading to poor
timeliness in feel operation and crop failure/ reduced yield
6. Poor pest and disease management practices, lack of resources for the purchase,
ultimately untimely or delay control measures and lack of water for good quality water
for spray in dryland
7. Lesser adoption of alternate land use system agroforestry, alley cropping and dry land
horticulture in dry farming region
8. Inadequate extension activities reading to poor Technologies dissemination
3.1.8 Social economic constraints
1. Lack of capital, support prices for the produce, marketing facilities and credited proper
time make the farmers hesitant to adopt the technology
2. Most of the dry land farmers are resource poor which tends them to avoid risk
3. Many dry land farmers engage only limited labor , mostly family labor for most of the
farm activities
4. Prevailing social system in dry regions prevent the farmers in adopting the improved
technology
5. Non-promotion of stakeholders concept in development of dry farming

FUTURE PROSPRECTS FOR RAINFED FARMING

A. Research:
1. Proper agro-meteorological analysis of climate- soil- crop relationship for efficient crop
planning and management
2. As water harvesting systems for crop production is uneconomic including cost of runoff
and cost of storage; however, this technique is helpful to stabilize crop production in
dry land areas. Therefore, there is a great deal of scope for stabilizing production in dry
land areas by adopting water harvesting techniques on community basis.
3. Review of contingent crop planning for Major three current weather conditions and
improvement in the contingent crop planning for different zone mainly to mitigate
drought effects.
4. Importance the development and release of dual conditions high yielding varieties of
food and vegetable crops for normal monsoon season and for dryland conditions.

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Problems and prospects of Rainfed Agriculture in India

Availability of seeds of these varieties along with the suitable agronomic practices will
certainly improve and stabilize the production and productivity of rainfed areas.
5. Identification of improved soil and moisture conservation practices and turn off
management suited to the conditions of individual farm holding as well as the
watershed as a whole.
6. Emphasis to increase intensity of cropping by developing appropriate inter-cropping
and double cropping systems with importance on pulses and oilseeds.
7. Agro-techniques on socially acceptable cropping systems (viz; laser leveling,
application of organic manures, modified method of sowing i.e. Aqua-fertilizer drill and
FIRB system of seed bed preparation) bases are to be developed with a view to increase
the FUE/WUE, efficient weed management, tillage system and crop residue
management including INM.
8. Emphasis on site-specific research mainly to optimise the use of resources available for
conservation and utilisation of moisture under rainfed conditions.
9. Proper adoption of alternate land use system including Agro-forestry, Agro-horticulture
and fodder based cropping system in terms of diversification in cropping system is
required for saving water and for efficient water management.
10. Completion of incomplete major and minor projects and covering about 69 m ha.
cultivated under micro irrigations by 2030 is to be exercised.
B. Policy:
1. Undertake significant shift in investment from irrigated to rainfed areas, with a major
emphasis on afforestation and soil conservation project organised on a watershed basis.
2. Investment in soil conservation practices including creation of infrastructure as well as
water harvesting system such as farm ponds has to be undertaken on a village-by-
village basis.
3. Weather aberrations continue to plague dry land farmers. Since seed is the primary
input in the adoption of improved farm technologies, seed bank must be established
with Government support in order to help farmers adopt contingent strategies.
4. Draft power is a serious constraint in dry land farming. Individual farmer cannot afford
to purchase mechanical implements. In this case, a system of custom hiring in the
villages would help farmer to complete their operation timely at an affordable cost.
5. High risk is involved in rainfed farming which does not allow farmers to adopt
improved crop production technologies. Therefore, availability of crop insurance for
drought protection involving selected dry land crops should be implemented.
6. Since farm holdings are small and excessively fragmented, further division of land
should be prevented. This can be done by encouraging the development of small scale,
agro-based industries and services in the rainfed region
7. In addition to low productivity in rainfed areas there is also an acute scarcity of fodder.
Silvi -pastoral systems on marginal land should be encouraged through liberal
financing, and should be established to cope with scarcity during drought years.

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Problems and prospects of Rainfed Agriculture in India

 India receives 400 M ha m of rainwater annually (392 M ha m from rainfall and 8 M

ha m from other sources).
 Out of 400 M ha m only 105 M ha m (26.25 %) is available for utilization. Out of
which 77 M ha m (19.25 %) is available for irrigation and 19 M ha m (4.75 %) for
industries and 9 M ha m (2.25 %) for domestic utilization.
 About 160 M ha m falls on agricultural land
 Nearly 24 M ha m is available for harvesting in small scale water harvesting
structures
 About 186 M ha m goes to rivers as runoff
 Around one-fourth of the total annual rainfall is received before or after cropping
season.

x-x-x-x-x

Rainfed Agriculture and Watershed Management: Mevada K. D., Poonia T. C, Saras Piyush and Deshmukh S.P. Page 14
Main Constraints of Rainfed Agriculture
Deforestation and shifting cultivation
Soil erosion and degradation of hills
Flooding in plains
Low water quality for irrigation
- Lack of water resources
Lack of sufficient transport and communication
Tochnology gaps in agriculture and animal husbandry
Rainfed agriculture affected by undependable and highly variable pattern
/Poor socio-economic system of the farmers
Strategies For Development
- Soil and water conservation measures
- Control in shifting cultivation
Mushroom cultivation, sericulture and growing horticulture crops like pine apple,
mandarin orange pomegranate, Guava and citrus
Drainage, land grading and storage of excesswater in flood prone areas
Augmenting irrigation sources and multiple cropping
Fktensive live stock development
INTEGRATED NUTRIENT MANAGEMENT
Integrated Nutrient Management refers to the maintenance of soil fertility
and of plant nutrient supply at an optimum level for sustaining the desired
productivity through optimization of the benefits from all possible
sources of organic, inorganic and biological components in an integrated
manner.

PK
N

Inorganic Fertilizers Organic Manures

AZOPHOs

Green manures Biofertilizers

Concepts
1. Regulated nutrient supply for optimum crop growth and higher
productivity.
2. Improvement and maintenance of soil fertility.
3. Zero adverse impact on agro ecosystem quality by balanced
fertilization of organic manures, inorganic fertilizers and bio- inoculant
Determinants
1. Nutrient requirement of cropping system as a whole.
2. Soil fertility status and special management needs to overcome soil
problems, if any
3. Local availability of nutrients resources (organic, inorganic and
biological sources)
4. Economic conditions of farmers and profitability of proposed INM
option.
5. Social acceptability.
6. Ecological considerations.
7. Impact on the environment
Advantages
1. Enhances the availability of applied as well as native soil nutrients
2. Synchronizes the nutrient demand of the crop with nutrient supply
from native and applied sources.
3. Provides balanced nutrition to crops and minimizes the antagonistic
effects resulting from hidden deficiencies and nutrient imbalance.
4. Improves and sustains the physical, chemical and biological
functioning of soil.
5. Minimizes the deterioration of soil, water and ecosystem by promoting
carbon sequestration, reducing nutrient losses to ground and surface
water bodies and to atmosphere
Components:
INTEGRATED WEED MANAGEMENT (IWM)
Any single method for weed management mayn't be efective in controlling
weeds. Integration of different methods like sanitation, mechanical, cultural,
biological and chemical means kept the weeds under check at an economic cost. IWM
uses a variety of technologies in a single weed management with the objective to
produce optimum crop yield at a minimum cost taking in to consideration ecological
and socio-economic constraints under a given agro-ecosystem.
IWM is a system in which two or more methods are combined to control a
weed.

Need for IWM

a) No single weed management practice is effective in controlling wide range of
weed flora

b) Continuous use of same herbicide creates resistance or causes shift in the flora.
c) Indiscriminate herbicide use and its effects on the environment and human health.

Good IWM should be

a. Flexible enough to incorporate innovations and practical experiences of local
farmers.

b. Economically viable and practically feasible.

Advantages of IWM
"It shifts the crop-weed competition in favour of crop
"Prevents weed shift towards perennial nature
"Prevents resistance in weeds to herbicides
" No environmental pollution and No danger of herbicide residue in soil or plant
Aconceptual model of IWM developed by Noda is given below

Preventive means

Manual weeding Method

systematization
of Safety on Increasing
environment unit are
Labour saved yield

Mechanical control
Integrated Increase of
Less input weed
control productivity
Chemical control

No or less toxic Limit of Increasing per

weed man yield
present
Cultural means

Co-existed wity Knowledge of

other techniqy weed science

Biological control
Useful Agents

IWM for Different Crops

RICE: initial 30-35 days in transplanted &60 days in direct seeded crop is critical.

Nursery
a) Soaking seeds in salt water to remove weed seeds
b) Keepa thin film of water and avoid drainage.
INTEGRATED WEED MANAGEMENT
An integrated weed management may be defined as the combination of two or more
weed-control methods at low input levels to reduce weed competition in a given cropping
system below the economical threshold level. It has proved to be a valuable concept in a few
cases, though much is still to be done to extend it to the small farmers’ level.
Integrated Weed Management (IWM) approach aims at minimizing the residue problem
in plant, soil, air and water. An IWM involves the utilization of a combination of mechanical,
chemical and cultural practices of weed management in a planned sequence, so designed as
not to affect the ecosystem. The nature and intensity of the species to be controlled, the
sequence of crops that are raised in the rotation, the standard of crop husbandry, and the ready
and timely availability of any method and the economics of different weed-management
techniques are some of the potent considerations that determine the success for the exploitation
of the IWM approach.
Why IWM
1. One method of weed control may be effective and economical in a situation and it may not
be so in other situation.
2. No single herbicide is effective in controlling wide range of weed flora
3. Continuous use of same herbicide creates resistance in escaped weed flora or causes shift
in the flora.
4. Continuous use of only one practice may result in some undesirable effects. Eg. Rice –
wheat cropping system – Philaris minor
5. Only one method of weed control may lead to increase in population of particular weed.
6. Indiscriminate herbicide use and its effects on the environment and human health.
Concept
• Uses a variety of technologies in a single weed management with the objective to produce
optimum crop yield at a minimum cost taking in to consideration ecological and socio-
economic constraints under a given agro-ecosystem.
• A system in which two or more methods are used to control a weed. These methods may
include cultural practices, natural enemies and selective herbicides.
FAO Definition
It is a method whereby all economically, ecologically and toxicologically justifiable
methods are employed to keep the harmful organisms below the threshold level of economic
damage, keeping in the foreground the conscious employment of natural limiting factors.
IWM is the rational use of direct and indirect control methods to provide cost-effective
weed control. Such an approach is the most attractive alternative from agronomic, economic
and ecological point of view.
Among the commonly suggested indirect methods are land preparation, water
management, plant spacing, seed rate, cultivar use, and fertilizer application. Direct methods
include manual, cultural, mechanical and chemical methods of weed control.
The essential factor in any IWM programme is the number of indirect and direct methods
that can be combined economically in a given situation. For example, increased frequency of
ploughing and harrowing does not eliminate the need for direct weed control. It is, therefore,
more cost-effective to use fewer pre-planting harrowing and combine them with direct weed
control methods.
There is experimental evidence that illustrates that better weed control is achieved if
different weed control practices are used in combination rather than if they are applied
separately.
Good IWM should be
a. Flexible enough to incorporate innovations and practical experiences of local farmers.
b. Developed for the whole farm and not for just one or two fields and hence it should be
extended to irrigation channels, road sides and other non-crop surroundings on the farm
from where most weeds find their way in to the crop fields.
c. Economically viable and practically feasible.
Advantages of IWM
• It shifts the crop-weed competition in favour of crop
• Prevents weed shift towards perennial nature
• Prevents resistance in weeds to herbicides
• No danger of herbicide residue in soil or plant
• No environmental pollution
• Gives higher net return
• Suitable for high cropping intensity
IWM of Cuscuta in Lucerne
1. In fields with history of Cuscuta (dodder), adopt crop raotations with non-susceptible
crops. Grow lucerne only once in three years in such fields.
2. Do not move animals and machinery from the dodder infested fields to the new ones.
3. Treat densely infested patches of lucerne with a non-residue herbicide like paraquat.
4. Do not feed the cuscuta infested crop to the animals.
5. Do not collect the lucerne seeds from the crop infested with dodder.