EXPERIMENT – 1

Aim:
To determine resistance per cm of a given wire by plotting a graph of potential difference
versus current.

Apparatus Required:

 A metallic conductor (coil or a resistance wire)

 A battery
 One way key
 A voltmeter
 An ammeter
 Connecting wires
 A piece of sandpaper
 A scale
Formula:
The resistance (R) of the given wire (resistance coil) is obtained by Ohm’s Law
V∝I
V = IR
OR
R=V/I
If 𝑙 is the length of resistance wire, then resistance per cm of the wire = R/𝑙

Symbol Explanation SI Unit

V Potential difference between the ends of the given resistance Volt (V)
coil
I Current flowing through it ampere (A)

R Resistance per cm of the wire Ohm ()

𝑙 Length of the wire Metre (m)

Circuit diagram:

Observation:
(i) Range:
Range of given voltmeter = 3 v
Range of given ammeter = 500 mA
(ii) Least count:
Least count of voltmeter = 0.05v
Least count of ammeter = 10 mA
(iii) Zero error:
Zero error in ammeter, e1 = 0
Zero error in voltmeter, e2 = 0

Length of resistance wire: cm

S.NO Ammeter Reading, I (A) Voltmeter Reading, V (v) R=V/I
Observed Value (mA) Observed Value ()
1
2
3
4
5
Mean R = 1.56 
Model Graph:

Calculations:
R= V/I ()
1)
Mean R =

Result:

1. Resistance per cm of the wire is Ω cm-1.

2. The graph between V and I is a straight line.

Precautions:

1. The connections should be neat, clean and tight.

2. Thick copper wires should be used for the connections after removing the
insulations near their ends by rubbing with sandpaper.
3. Voltmeter and ammeter should be of proper range.
4. A low resistance rheostat should be used.
5. The key should be inserted only while taking observations to avoid heating of
resistance (otherwise its resistance will increase).

Sources of Error:

1. The instrument screws may be loose.

2. Thick connecting wires may not be available.
3. Rheostat may have high resistance.
EXPERIMENT – 2
Aim:
To find resistance of a given wire using metre bridge

Apparatus Required:

 A meter bridge,
 a galvanometer,
 a resistance box,
 a Leclanché cell,
 a jockey,
 a one-way key,
 a resistance wire,
 a screw gauge,
 meter scale,
 set square,
 connecting wires and sandpaper.

Formula:
(i) The unknown resistance X is given by,

100−𝑙
X=( )𝑅
𝑙

Symbol Explanation SI Unit

R known resistance placed in left gap. Ω
X Unknown resistance in right gap of meter bridge Ω
𝑙 Length of given wire m
Circuit diagram:

OBSERVATIONS:
 Length of given wire, L = cm

Observation Table for unknown resistance, X

S.NO Resistance from Length AB = 𝑙 cm Length BC = Unknown
resistance box R (Ω) (100 - 𝑙) cm Resistance X
(Ω)
1
2
3
4

Mean= 

CALCULATIONS:

Result:
Value of unknown resistance = 

Precautions:

1. The connections should be neat, clean and tight.

2. All the plugs in the resistance box should be tight.
3. Move the jockey gently over the bridge wire and do not rub it.
4. The plug-in key K should be inserted only when the observations are to be
taken.
5. Null point should be brought between 45 cm and 55 cm.
6. Set square should be used to note null point to avoid error of parallax.
7. At one place, diameter of wire should be measured in two mutually
perpendicular directions.
8. The wire should not make a loop.

Sources of Error:

1. The instrument screws may be loose.

2. The plugs may not be clean.
3. The wire may not have uniform thickness.
4. The screw gauge may have faults like back lash error and wrong pitch.

EXPERIMENT – 3

Aim:

To verify the laws of combination (series) of resistances using meter bridge.

Apparatus Required:

 A metre bridge,
 a Leclanché cell (battery eliminator),
 a galvanometer,
 a resistance box,
 a jockey,
 two resistance wires or two resistance coils known resistances,
 a set square,
 sandpaper and
 connecting wires.

FORMULA:

(i) The resistance of a resistance wire or a coil is given by

100−𝑙
X =( )𝑅
𝑙

(ii) When two resistors r1 and r2 are connected in series, their combined resistance is given as
follows:

Rs = r1 + r2
Symbol Explanation SI Unit

R the resistance from the resistance box in the left gap Ω

𝑙 length of the meter bridge wire from zero ends up to the m

balance point

r1 and r2 two resistors are connected in series Ω

Circuit diagram:

Observations: Table for length (l) & unknown resistance (r):

Resistant Obs. No. Resistance Length Length BC Resistance Mean

Coil from AB = 𝑙 = 100 – 𝑙 r= Resistance
resistance (cm) (cm) 100−𝑙 (ohm)
( 𝑙 )𝑅
box, R
(ohm)
Ω
r1 only

r2 only

r1 & r2 in
series
Calculations:

Result:

Experimental value of Rs = 

Theoretical value of Rs = 

Precautions:

1. The connections should be neat, clean and tight.

2. Thick copper wires should be used for the connections after removing the insulations
near their ends by rubbing with sandpaper.
3. Voltmeter and ammeter should be of proper range.
4. A low resistance rheostat should be used.
5. The key should be inserted only while taking observations to avoid heating of
resistance (otherwise its resistance will increase).

Sources of Error:

(i) The plugs may not be clean.

(ii) The instrument screws maybe loose.

EXPERIMENT – 4

Aim:

To determine the resistance of a galvanometer by half-deflection method & to find its figure
of merit.

Apparatus Required:

 A Weston type galvanometer,

 a voltmeter,
 a battery,
 a rheostat,
 two resistance boxes (10,000  and 500  ),
 two one-way keys,
 a screw gauge,
 a meter scale,
 connecting wires and
 a piece of sandpaper.

Formula:

(i) The resistant of the given galvanometer as found by half-deflection method:

𝑅.𝑆
G = 𝑅−𝑆

(ii) Figure of merit:

𝐸
k = (R + G)

Symbol Explanation SI Unit

R resistance connected in series with the galvanometer Ω
S shunt resistance Ω
E emf of the cell v
 deflection produced with resistance R div
G The resistant of the given galvanometer as found by half- Ω
deflection method
k Figure of merit A/div

Observation table for Half-deflection method:

S.NO Resistance R Deflection in Shunt Half Galvanometer

galvanometer resistance S Deflection n resistance
Ω ϴ Ω ϴ/2 𝑅.𝑆
G = 𝑅−𝑆 (Ω)
1
2
3
4

Mean G = Ω

For figure of merit:

S.NO Emf of the cells Resistance from Deflection Figure of merit

E (v) resistance box R
(Ω) ϴ (div) 𝐸
k = (R + G)

(A/div)
1
2
3
4

Mean k = A/div

Result:

(i) Resistance of Galvanometer by half – deflection method G = Ω

(ii) Figure of merit of given galvanometer k = A/div

Precautions:

1. All connections should be neat, clean and tight.

2. All the plugs in the resistance boxes should be tight.
3. The emf of cell or battery should be constant.
4. Initially a high resistance from the resistance box (R) should be introduced in the
circuit.

Sources of error:

1. The screws of the instruments may be loose.

2. The plugs of resistance boxes may not be clean.
3. The emf of battery may not be constant.
4. The galvanometer division may not be of equal size.
EXPERIMENT – 5

Aim:

To determine angle of minimum deviation for a given prism by plotting a graph between
angle of incidence & angle of deviation.

Apparatus Required:

 Drawing board,
 a white sheet of paper,
 prism,
 drawing pins,
 pencil,
 half metre scale,
 office pins,
 graph paper
 protector

Formula:

The refractive index of the material of the prism is given by,

𝐴+𝐷𝑚
𝑠𝑖𝑛( )
= 2
𝐴
𝑠𝑖𝑛( )
2

Symbol Explanation SI Unit

A Angle of prism div
Dm angle of minimum deviation div
 refractive index of the material of the prism No unit

Diagram:
Model graph:

Observation table:

S.NO Angle of incidence <i Angle of deviation <Ꟙ

1 35 o 43 o
2 40 o 38.8 o
3 45 o 37.8 o
4 50 o 38 o
5 55 o 40 o
6 60 o 42 o

Result:

(i) From i D graph we see that as i increases, D first decreases, attains a
minimum value (Dm) & then again starts increasing for further increase in i .

(ii) Angle of minimum deviation = Ꟙm = 37.8o

Precautions:

1. The angle of incidence should be between 30o – 60o.

2. The pins should be fixed vertical.
3. The distance between the two pins should not be less than 8 cm.

Sources of Error:

1. Pin pricks may be thick.

2. Measurement of angles maybe wrong.

EXPERIMENT – 6

Aim:

To find the value of v for different values of ‘u’ in case of a concave mirror & to find its focal
length.

Apparatus Required:

 An optical bench with three uprights

 Concave mirror,
 a mirror holder,
 two optical needles,
 a knitting needle
 a half – meter scale

Formula:

The mirror formula is:

1 1 1
= +
𝑓 𝑢 𝑣

We have,
𝑢𝑣
f = 𝑢+𝑣

Symbol Explanation SI Unit

f focal length of concave mirror m
u distance of object needle from pole of mirror m
v distance of image needle from pole of mirror m
yDiagram:

Observation:

Rough focal length of given concave mirror = 10.9 cm

S.NO Distance in cm 1/u 1/v

Object distance Image distance cm-1 cm-1

u v
1
2
3
4
5
6

Model graph:
Result:

The focal length of given concave mirror as determined

(i) from u-v graph = cm

(ii) from 1/u-1/v = cm

Precautions:

1. Principal axis of the mirror should be horizontal and parallel to the central line of the
optical bench.
2. The uprights should be vertical.
3. Tip to tip parallax should be removed between the needle I and image of the needle O.
4. To locate the position of the image the eye should be at least 30 cm away from the
needle.
5. Tips of the object and image needles should lie at the same height as that of pole of
the concave mirror.
6. Index correction for u and v should be applied.

Sources of error:

1. The uprights may not be the vertical.

2. Parallax removal may not be perfect.
EXPERIMENT – 7

Aim:

To find, the focal length of a convex lens by plotting graphs between u and v or between 1/u
and 1/v.

Apparatus:

 An optical bench with three uprights,

 a convex lens,
 lens holder,
 two optical needles,
 a knitting needle
 a half-metre scales.

Formula:

The relation between u, v and f for convex lens is:

1 1 1
= −
𝑓 𝑣 𝑢

Symbol Explanation SI Unit

f Focal length of the convex lens m
u Distance of object needle from lens optical centre m
v Distance of image needle from lens optical centre m

Diagram:
Model graph:

Observation:

S.NO u v 1/v 1/u

(cm) (cm) (cm-1) (cm-1)

1
2
3
4
5
6
Result:

(i) From u-v graph is, f = cm

(ii) From 1/u-1/v graph is, f = cm

Precautions:

1. Tips of the object and image needles should lie at the same height as the centre of the
lens.
2. Parallax should be removed from tip to tip by keeping eye at a distance at least 30 cm
away from the needle.
3. The object needle should be placed at such a distance that only real, inverted image of
it is formed.
4. Index correction for u and v should be applied.

Sources of error

1. The uprights may not be the vertical.

2. Parallax removal may not be perfect.

EXPERIMENT – 8

Aim:

To determine the refractive index of a glass using travelling microscope.

Apparatus:

 A marker,
 glass slab,
 travelling microscope,
 lycopodium powder.

Formula:

Refractive index

𝒓𝒆𝒂𝒍 𝒅𝒆𝒑𝒕𝒉
µ = 𝒂𝒑𝒑𝒂𝒓𝒆𝒏𝒕 𝒅𝒆𝒑𝒕𝒉

𝒓 −𝒓
µ = 𝒓𝟑 −𝒓𝟏
𝟐 𝟏

Symbol Explanation SI Unit

r1 Cross Mark without slab m
r2 Cross Mark with slab on it m
r3 Lycopodium Powder on top of slab m
Diagram:

Observation:

Least count of travelling microscope = 0.001 cm or 0.01 mm

S. Reading on a vertical scale when a microscope is focused on Real App Refra

N Cross Mark without Cross Mark Lycopodium Powder thick arent ctive
O slab r1 (cm) with slab on it on top of slab r3 ness thick index
r2(cm) (cm) (r3- ness
r1 ) (r2- µ
M V TR=MSR M V TR= M V TR=MSR in r1 )
S S +VSC×LC S S (MSR S S +VSC×LC cm in
R C R C +VSC R C cm
× LC)
1
2
3

Result:

The refractive index of the glass slab by using travelling microscope is determined as  =
(No unit)

Precautions:

(i) Microscope once focused on the cross mark, the focusing should
not be disturbed throughout the experiment. Only rack and pinion
screw should be turned to move the microscope upward.
(ii) Only a thin layer of powder should be spread on top of slab.
(iii) Eye piece should be so adjusted that crosswires are distinctly seen.
Sources Of Error

1. The scale used in the microscope might not be calibrated properly.

2. The lycopodium powder layer on the glass slab might be thick.

Experiment -9

Aim:

To draw the I – V characteristics curve of p-n junction in forward bias & reverse bias.

Apparatus Required:

 A P-N junction diode

 A 3-volt battery
 A 50-volt battery
 A high resistance rheostat
 One 0-3 volt voltmeter
 One 0-50 volt voltmeter
 One 0-100 mA ammeter
 One 0-100 μA ammeter
 One way key
 Connecting wires
 Piece of sandpaper

Theory

Forward bias characteristics

The junction is said to be forward-biased when the p-section of the diode is connected to the
positive terminal of the battery and the n-section of the diode is connected to the negative
terminal of the battery. With an increase in the voltage, the current also increases. For Si
diode, at 0.7 V the current increases suddenly.

Reverse bias characteristics

The junction is said to be reverse-biased when the p-section of the diode is connected to the
negative terminal of the battery and the n-section of the diode is connected to the positive
terminal of the battery. With an increase in the voltage, there is a small change in the current
but the reverse current increases to a higher value with an increase in the voltage.

Circuit diagram:

Observation:

Least count of voltmeter =

Least count of milli-ammeter = mA

Least count of micro-ammeter = µA

S.NO Forward bias Forward Reverse bias Reverse current(µA)
voltage(v) current(mA) voltage(v)
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8

Result:

The obtained curves are the characteristics curves of the semi-conductor diode.

Precautions

1. The connections should be neat, clean and tight.

2. Key should be used when the circuit is being used.
3. Beyond breakdown, forward bias voltage should not be applied.
4. Beyond breakdown, reverse bias voltage should not be applied.

Sources Of Error

Faulty junction diode might be supplied.

Activity - 1

Aim
To identify a diode, an LED, a transistor, an IC, a resistor and a capacitor from a mixed
collection of such items.

Apparatus and material

Apparatus: Multimeter.
Material: Above mixed collection of items.

Theory
For identification, appearance and working of each item will have to be considered.

1. A diode is a two-terminal device. It conducts when forward biased and does not
conduct when reverse biased. It does not emit light while conducting. Hence, it does
not glow.
2. A LED (light emitting diode) is also a two-terminal device. It also conducts when
forward biased and does not conduct when reverse biased. It emits light while
conducting. Hence, it glows.
3. A transistor is a three-terminal device. The terminals represent emitter (E), base (B)
and collector (C).
4. An IC (integrated circuit) is a multi-terminal device in form of a chip. [See figure
(UM 3482 IC Tone Generator)]
5. A resistor is a two-terminal device. It conducts when either forward biased or reverse
biased. (In fact there is no forward or reverse bias for a resistor). It conducts even
when operated with A.C. voltage.
6. A capacitor is also a two-terminal device. It does not conduct when either forward
biased or reverse biased. When a capacitor is connected to a D.C. source, then
multimeter shows full scale current initially but it decays to zero quickly. It is because
that initially a capacitor draws a charge.
The components to be identified are shown in figure

Diagram:

Result

A diode, an LED, IC, resistor or capacitor can be identified.

Activity – 2

To observe refraction and lateral deviation of a beam of light incident obliquely on a

glass slab

Aim
To observe refraction and lateral deviation of a beam of light incident obliquely on a glass
slab.

Apparatus
Glass slab, drawing board, white paper sheet, drawing pins, office pins, protractor.
Theory
When a ray of light (PQ) incident on the face AB of glass slab, then it bends towards the
normal since refraction takes place from rarer to denser medium. The refracted ray (QR)
travel along straight line and incident on face DC of slab and bends away from the normal
since refraction takes place from denser to rarer medium. The ray (RS) out through face DC
is called emergent ray.
From the following diagram

1. The incident ray is parallel to the emergent ray i.e. i = e.

2. The emergent ray is laterally deviated from its original path (incident ray) by a
distance d = t sec r sin (i – r).

Diagram:

Conclusions

1. Angle of incidence (i) = Angle of emergence (e).

2. The lateral displacement increases with the increase in the thickness of the slab.
3. The lateral displacement increases with the angle of incidence (i).

Activity: 3

Aim:

To assemble a household circuit, comprising three bulbs, three (on / off) switches, a fuse and
source.

Apparatus:

Three bulbs (20W, 50W, and 100W), three (on/off) switches, flexible connecting wire with
red and black plastic covering, a fuse wire, a two-pin plug, main electric board with two pin
socket and main switch.

Diagram:
Theory:

Household circuit functions or main supply 220V, 50Hz and current ratings of 5A for
domestic supply for normal appliances, bulbs fluorescent tubes, fans etc.,

Power supply:

15 a for heavy load appliances, refrigerator, air conditioner, geuser hot plates etc.,

Total power consumption ‘P’ at any time,

P = P1+P2+P3+……….

Where, P1, P2, P3……. are power drawn by appliances

At a potential ‘V’, the current I drawn from the mains is

P=VI i.e. I=P/V

For P in watt and V in volt, I will be in ampere.

Normally, to protect the appliances from damage when unduly high currents are drawn, fuse
of a little higher rating, 10% to 20% higher than the current normally drawn are connected in
series with set of appliances.

Remember that in household circuits, all appliances are connected in PARALLEL with a
switch connected in series with each appliance in supply LIVE line.

Also, for further safety, a suitable value MAINS FUSE is connected series with supply
source. Note that fuse is a safety device, never use a fuse of much higher rating than the one
recommended.

Testing:
Make the switches on one by one. Then put them off one by one.

Conclusion:

The bulbs glow when the switch is made on. It stops glowing when the switch is put off.

Activity-4:

Aim:

To assemble the components of a given electrical circuit (say Ohm’s law circuit).

Apparatus: A voltmeter and an ammeter of appropriate range, a battery, a rheostat, one way
key.
Material: An unknown resistance or resistance coil, connecting wires, a piece of sand paper.

Circuit diagram:

Utility
It is used for measuring an unknown resistance.

Activity-5

Aim:

To draw a diagram of a given open circuit comprising of least a battery, resistor, rheostat,
key, ammeter and voltmeter. Mark the components that are not connected in proper order and
correct the circuit also the circuit diagram.

Apparatus and material

A battery eliminator or a battery (0 to 6 V), rheostat, resistance box (0 to 100 £2), two or one
way key. D.C. ammeter (0-3) A and a D.C. voltmeter (0-3) V.
Theory:

An open circuit is the combination of primary components of electric circuit in a such a

manner that on closing the circuit no current is drawn from the battery.

Diagram:

Arrangement diagram

Result:

The connected circuit assembled using components in proper order is found functional
on checking.

Precautions:

1) Range of voltmeter and ammeter should be chosen.

2) Before making connections, the ends of the connecting wires should be cleaned
by rubbing with (sand paper).

Activity-6

Aim:

To observe diffraction of light due to a thin slit between sharp edges of razor blades.

Apparatus:
Two razor blades, adhesive tapes, a screen a source of monochromatic light (laser
pencil) black paper and a glass plate.

Theory
Diffraction is a phenomenon of bending of light around the comers or edges of a fine
opening or aperture. Diffraction takes place when order of wavelength is comparable or
small to the size of slit or aperture. The diffraction effect is more pronounced if the size
of the aperture or the obstacle is of the order of wavelength of the waves. The
diffraction pattern arises due to interference of light waves from different symmetrical
point of the same wavefront. The diffraction pattern due to a single slit consists of a
central bright band having alternate dark and weak bright bands of decreasing
intensity on both sides.

Diagram:

Conclusion
When light waves are incident on a slit or aperture then it bends away (spread) at the comers
of slit showing the phenomena of diffraction of light.

Precaution

1. Air gaps should not be left between glass plates and black paper.
2. The razor blades should be placed extremely closed as possible.
3. Diffraction pattern should be seen on a wall of a dark room.
4. A point source of monochromatic light like laser torch should be used.