The water cycle is a circle that describes the existence and continuous movement of water from

the Earth surface to the atmosphere and back to the Earth surface.

CELLULAR EXCHANGES

Definition:

Cellular exchange is the movement of substances in and out of the cell. This occurs through the
following processes: Diffusion, osmosis, active transport and facilitated diffusion.

Definition of some terms:

1) A solute: This is a substance that dissolves in a solvent. E.g sugar, salt etc.

2) A solvent: This is any liquid in which the solute dissolves. E.g water, kerosine, alcohol etc

3) A solution: It is a uniform mixture formed from a solute and a solvent. E.g the uniform
mixture of water and sugar, and the uniform mixture of water and salt.

4) Concentration gradient: This is the difference between the concentrations of two solutions.

Types of solutions

There are 3 types of solutions: hypertonic, hypotonic and isotonic solutions.

1) Hypertonic solution: This is a solution with a higher concentration when compared with
another solution or contains a higher number of solute molecules. E.g in a solution of water
and salt containing more concentration of salt and less volume of water.

2) Hypotonic solution: This is a solution with a lower concentration when compared with
another solution or contains a lower number of solute molecules. E.g in a solution of water
and salt containing less concentration of salt and much volume of water.

3) Isotonic solution: This is a solution of equal concentration when compared with another
solution or contains equal number of solute and solvent molecules. E.g in a solution of water
and salt containing equal concentration of both salt and volume of water.
Diffusion

Definition: This is the movement of molecules from a region of higher concentration to a region
of lower concentration down a concentration gradient. It occurs both in gases and liquids

Examples of diffusion can be demonstrated in the experiments below

1 Experiment to demonstrate diffusion

Aim: To demonstrate diffusion in air (gas).

Requirements: Perfume and a room.

Procedure: Spray perfume in a certain corner in a room and wait for few seconds.

Observation: The smell would be gotten at the other end in the room within the few seconds as
seen in the diagrams below.

Explanation: The diagrams below show the spread of the perfume molecules from a higher region
of concentration to a lower region of concentration spreading in the corner of the room.

2 Experiment to demonstrate diffusion

Aim: To demonstrate the process of diffusion in water (liquid)

Requirements: Water, beaker, drops of blue ink.

Procedure:
⚫ A beaker is filled with water.

⚫ 3 drops of ink are added to it.

⚫ The setup is observed for 5 minutes.

Observation

The colour of water in the beaker changed from colourless to blue as seen on the diagram below

Explanation

Molecules of ink move from a region of higher concentration to a region of lower concentration
spreading throughout the water. The uniform colour of the water shows the uniform distribution
of molecules of ink throughout the water.

Precautions:

⚫ Do not distort or shake the beaker after adding the ink drops.

Factors affecting the rate of diffusion

1) Size of the particles: The smaller the size of the particles the faster the diffusion.

2) Temperature: When the temperature increases, the rate of diffusion also increases because
molecules move faster with increase in temperature.
3) Concentration: Diffusion rate is faster when the molecules of a substance are less in a
medium, because molecules will always want not to be crowded.

4) Surface area: The greater the surface area of the membrane in which diffusion is taking
place, the faster the rate of diffusion.

5) Viscosity: Viscosity means the degree of thickness of a substance. Substances with low
viscosity (lighter substances) diffuse faster than higher viscosity (thicker substance).

6) Pressure: Increase in external pressure increases diffusion rate.

7) Nature of the substance: Gaseous substances diffuse faster than liquid substances.

8) The distance of diffusion: The shorter the distance across which the molecules have to
diffuse, the faster the rate of diffusion.

Importance of diffusion

1) It helps cells to send out waste gases like carbon dioxide.

2) It helps in the regulation of fluid content in and out of cells.

3) It is used by industries in the manufacture of perfumes.

4) It is the essential process in the exchange of gases (oxygen and carbon dioxide) during
photosynthesis.

5) It helps in the uptake of water and mineral salts by plants from the soil through their roots.

6) It helps in the removal of excess water by transpiration in plants.

7) It causes air pollution as poisonous gases diffuse from their sources to the atmosphere
polluting the environment.

8) Food nutrients are absorbed by the foetus ( baby) in a pregnant woman through the placenta
by diffusion.
Osmosis

Definition: This is the movement of water molecules only from a region of higher concentration
to a region of lower concentration across a selectively permeable membrane.

Exosmosis and Endosmosis

Endosmosis is the movement of water molecules from the surrounding environment into the cells.

Exosmosis is the movement of water molecules from within cells into the surrounding
environment

Osmosis in a sugar solution is demonstrated in the diagram below.

Experiment to demonstrate osmosis in a living tissue

Aim: To demonstrate osmosis in a living tissue.

Requirements: Two beakers, water, sugar or salt, two potato tubers, knife, bunsen burner, bold
marker and four paper pins.

Procedure:

⚫ The two potato tubers are peeled with the knife.

⚫ One side of the potato tubers is cut to obtain a cavity of equal sizes.

⚫ One of the potato tubers is boiled on the bunsen burner, and the other one is not boiled. This
is to destroy the permeability of its cell membrane.

⚫ The two beakers are labelled A and B with the bold markar.
⚫ The two beakers labelled A and B are filled with equal volumes of water and ensures the water
is not too much to cover the cavities of the potatoes.

⚫ The initial levels of water are marked with the paper pins.

⚫ The boiled potato tuber is placed in beaker labelled A, while the unboiled potato tuber is placed
in the beaker labelled B.

⚫ Equal volume of sugar or salt solution is poured into each of the potato cavity and the initial
level marked with a pin.

⚫ The boiled potato is placed in a beaker of water (A) and the unboiled potato placed in another
beaker of water (B) with the born part of the tubers facing up.

⚫ The setup is allowed for an hour and observed.

Setup (diagram):

Observation:

- The final level of water in the beaker A, and the level of solution in the boiled potato cavity
remains unchanged.
- The final level of water in the beaker B decreases, while the level of solution in the cavity
of the potato increases.

.
Explanation:

- There is no change in ‘A’ because boiling destroyed the cell of the potato and therefore no
osmosis.

- Water level inside the living potato increased in ‘B’ because water moved by osmosis from the
region of higher water potential (beaker) to the region of lower water potential (the cavity of the
potato tuber containing live cells) across a selectively permeable membrane (living potato tissue).

Conclusion: Osmosis occurs in living tissues.

Some processes related to osmosis

1) Hypertonic solution: This is a strong solution when compared to another solution.

2) Hypotonic solution: This is a weak solution when compared to another solution.
3) Isotonic solution: This is a solution of equal concentration when compared with another
solution.

4) Plasmolysis: This is a situation which comes about when a plant cell is placed in a
hypertonic solution. Water leaves the cell into the solution. The cytoplasm shrinks from
the cell wall and the cell becomes flaccid.

5) Turgidity: This is a situation which comes about when a plant cell is put in a hypotonic
solution, the cell absorbs water and maintains its full shape and size. And so, we say the
cell or plant is turgid.

6) Crenation: This is when an animal cell loses too much water than normal when placed
in a hypertonic solution. And so, the cell shrivels.

7) Hemolysis: This is when an animal cell absorbs much water than normal causing the cell
to cell and burst when placed in a hypotonic solution. And so we say the cell is lysed.

8) Wilting: This is the collapse of plants on a very hot day or during the dry season.

9) Turgor pressure: This is the force exerted by the protoplasm of plant cell on to the cell
wall when placed in a hypotonic solution after absorbing much water.
Importance of Osmosis

1) Enable plants to take in water and minerals from the soil through their roots.

2) Osmosis plays a role in the formation of tissue fluid.

3) It controls the opening and closing of the stomata in leaves.

4) In animals, it helps to maintain blood osmotic pressure in cells.

5) It enables movement of water from one living cell to another within the plant.

6) Osmosis helps plant cells retain water, hence maintaining their shape.

7) Osmosis helps maintain the amount of water present in cells.

Active transport

Definition: This is the movement of substances from a region of lower concentration to a region
of higher concentration across a selectively permeable membrane with the use of energy in the
form of ATP (Adenosine Triphosphate). Examples of active transport include:
⚫ Uptake of glucose from the small intestine of humans into blood.

⚫ Uptake of Iodine by seaweeds.

⚫ Uptake of mineral ions into root hairs of plants.

Importance of active transport to living things

1. Active transport helps in the absorption of nitrate ions (NO3-) from the soil.

2. Active transport helps in the absorption of some food molecules such as glucose from the
intestines.

3. Active transport helps in the selective re-absorption of molecules such as glucose by the
kidney tubules.

Differences between diffusion and active transport

Diffusion Active transport

Not selective Selective
Substances move down the concentration Substances move up the concentration
gradient gradient
Living cells membrane not necessary Living cells membrane necessary
Energy is not used up Energy from respiration is used

Facilitated Diffusion

Definition: This is the process whereby; substances are carried across a cell membrane by carrier
proteins which are specific for the substance they carry. It is a faster mode of diffusion.

Importance of Facilitated Diffusion

1. Allows the transport of substances across the cell membrane that cannot be transported by any
other way.

2. It is a faster way by which substances