INSTITUTE OF AERONAUTICAL

ENGINEERING

LECTURE NOTES

ROCKET AND MISSILES

B. Tech VIII SEMESTER

Prepared by

V.PHANINDER REDDY (IARE 10741)

Contents

Contents i

List of Figures v

Abbreviations vii

Symbols viii

1 ROCKET DYNAMICS 1
1.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
1.2 Rocket . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
1.2.1 Classification of Rockets . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2
1.2.1.1 Chemical Propulsion: . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2
1.2.1.2 Nuclear Thermal Propulsion(NTP): . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4
1.2.1.3 Ion Thruster Propulsion: . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
1.3 Missile . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6
1.3.1 Classification of Missiles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
1.3.1.1 On the Basis of Type: . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
1.3.1.2 On the basis of Launch Mode: . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9
1.3.1.3 On the basis of Range: . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10
1.3.1.4 On the basis of Propulsion: . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10
1.3.1.5 On the basis of Warhead : . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11
1.3.1.6 On the basis of Guidance Systems: . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12
1.4 Airframe components . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13
1.5 Inertia and Non Inertia Reference frames: . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15
1.5.1 Types of Reference frames . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15
1.5.1.1 Inertial Reference frame . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15
1.5.1.2 Non-Inertial Reference frame . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16
1.6 Aerodynamic Forces on a Rocket . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16
1.7 Rocket Performance parameters . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18
1.8 General Thrust Equation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20

2 SOLID PROPULSION AND PYROTECHNICS 25

2.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25
2.2 Motor Components . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26

i
Contents ii

2.2.0.1 Casing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26
2.2.0.2 Nozzle . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27
2.2.0.3 Igniters . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27
2.2.0.4 Insulations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28
2.2.0.5 Grain . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29
2.3 Classification of Solid rocket Motors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29
2.3.0.1 On the basis of Case design: . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29
2.3.0.2 On the basis of Grain Installation: . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29
2.3.0.3 On the basis of Thrust action: . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30
2.3.0.4 On the basis of Grain Configuration: . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30
2.3.0.5 On the basis of Propellant: . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32
2.4 Burning Process . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33
2.5 Internal Ballistics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 36
2.6 Igniter Design . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 38
2.7 Igniter Hardware . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 38
2.7.0.1 Pyrotechnic igniters . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 39
2.7.0.2 Pyrogen igniters . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 39
2.8 Pyrotechnics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 40
2.8.0.1 Classification . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 40
2.8.0.2 Applications . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 41
2.9 Thrust vector Control . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 42
2.10 Main Failure Modes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 43
2.11 Important parameters . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 45
2.12 Desirable Properties of Solid Rocket Motor . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 46
2.13 Solid Rocket Motor Performance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 47
2.14 Classification of Nozzles for solid propellant rocket motors . . . . . . . . . . . . 47

3 LIQUID PROPULSION AND CONTROL SYSTEMS 50

3.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 50
3.2 Classification . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 51
3.2.1 Advantages of Liquid Propellant Engines over Solid Propelleant Engines 53
3.3 Design Considerations of Bi-propellant systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 53
3.4 Engine Cycles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 54
3.4.1 Pressure fed system . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 55
3.4.2 Turbo pump fed system . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 55
3.4.3 Expander fed system . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 56
3.4.4 Stage Combustion cycle . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 57
3.5 Valve . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 58
3.5.0.1 Classification of Valves Used in Liquid Propellant Rocket Engines 59
3.6 Combustion Instabilities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 59
3.6.1 Pogo Oscillation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 59
3.6.2 Sloshing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 60
3.6.3 Low Frquency: Chugging . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 60
3.6.4 Buzzing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 61
Contents iii

3.6.5 High frequency: Screaming mode . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 61

3.7 Thrust vector control . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 61
3.7.1 Various methods of vector control of Liquid Rockets . . . . . . . . . . . 61
3.8 Characteristics of Bi-propellant systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 62
3.9 Advantages . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 63
3.10 Disadvantages . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 64
3.11 Cooling of Combustion Chamber and Nozzles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 65
3.11.1 Radiation cooling . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 65
3.11.2 Ablation cooling . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 65
3.11.3 Film cooling . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 66
3.11.4 Regenerative cooling . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 66

4 Multistage of Rockets and Stage Separation Dynamics 67

4.1 Guidance phases of flight . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 68
4.1.1 Boost Phase . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 68
4.1.2 Midcourse Phase . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 69
4.1.3 Terminal Phase . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 69
4.2 Classification of Guidance Systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 70
4.2.1 Beam Rider Guidance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 70
4.2.2 Command Guidance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 71
4.2.3 Homing Guidance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 72
4.2.3.1 Active Homing Guidance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 73
4.2.3.2 Passive Homing Guidance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 73
4.2.4 Inertial Navigation Guidance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 74
4.2.5 Celestial Navigation Guidance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 76
4.3 Aerodynamic control systems of missiles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 76
4.4 Multistage Rocket . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 79

5 DESIGN, MATERIALS AND TESTING OF ROCKETS 83

5.1 Design considerations in the selection of liquid rocket combustion chamber vol-
ume and shape . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 83
5.1.1 considerations for selection of materials to be used for construction of
thrust chambers of liquid rocket engine . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 84
5.2 Materials used for manufacturing case of rockets . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 85
5.2.1 Filament wound reinforced plastic cases . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 85
5.2.2 Ablative material . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 86
5.3 Criteria for the selection of materials for Aerospace applications . . . . . . . . . 86
5.4 Metal Cases . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 88
5.5 Selection of materials . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 89
5.5.1 Re – entry nose cones . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 89
5.5.2 Wing leading edges and Rocket Nozzle Throat Inserts: . . . . . . . . . . 89
5.6 Rocket testing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 90
5.6.1 Types of testing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 90
5.7 Test facilities and safeguards . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 91
Contents iv

5.8 Safety provisions in a modern testfacility . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 93

5.9 Terminology for the study of atmospheric diffusion of exhaust . . . . . . . . . . 93
5.10 Flight testing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 94

Bibliography 96
List of Figures

1.1 Classification of Rockets . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2

1.2 Classification of Chemical Rockets . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4
1.3 Nuclear Propulsion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
1.4 Ion Propulsion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6
1.5 Classification of Missiles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
1.6 Missiles on the basis of its type . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9
1.7 Airframe components of a Rocket . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14
1.8 Aerodynamic forces of a Rocket . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17
1.9 Rocket Performance parameters . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19

2.1 Solid rocket motor . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26

2.2 Classification of Nozzles in SRM . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28
2.3 Classification of SRM based on Grain Installation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30
2.4 Classification of SRM based on Thrust action . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31
2.5 Various grain configurations1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32
2.6 Classification of Grains . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 34
2.7 Classification of nozzles in SRM . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 49

3.1 Liquid Rocket Engine . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 51

3.2 Monopropellant Rocket Engine . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 52
3.3 Applications of Engine Cycles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 54
3.4 Pressure fed Rocket Engine . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 55
3.5 Expander combustion cycle . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 57
3.6 Staged combustion cycle . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 58
3.7 Thrust vector control mechanisms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 62
3.8 Film cooling mechanisms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 65

4.1 Guidance phases of flight . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 69

4.2 Beam rider guidance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 71
4.3 Command guidance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 72
4.4 Homing guidance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 73
4.5 Active Homing Guidance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 74
4.6 Passive Homing Guidance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 74
4.7 Generic missile configuration . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 77
4.8 Canard tail control and wing configuration . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 78
4.9 Series staging . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 80
v
List of Figures vi

4.10 Parallel staging . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 81

Abbreviations

TVC Thrust Vector Control

LOX Liquid OXygen
LVDT Liquid Propellant Rocket Engine
RC Reinforced Concrete

vii
Symbols

Del Elasticity tensor

σ Stress tensor
ε Strain tensor
Veq Equivalent velocity
ṁ Mass flow rate
Isp Specific Impulse
c Effective exhaust velocity
It Total impulse
υ Exhaust velocity
mp Propellant mass
me Empty mass
Aex Exit Area
pex Exhaust pressure
PSL−a Ambient pressure at sea level
FSL−a Sea level thrust of the rocket
W˙sp Specific propellant consumption rate
Cw Weight flow coefficient
Cf Thrust coefficient

viii
Chapter 1

ROCKET DYNAMICS

1.1 Introduction

In a broad sense, propulsion is the act of changing the motion of a body. Propulsion mechanisms
provide forces which move bodies that are initially at rest, change a constant velocity motion, or
overcome retarding forces when a body is propelled through a medium. There are two essential
elements in any propulsive mechanism: the energy source and an energy conversion device to
transpose the energy into the form most suitable for propulsion. In an automobile, for example, a
chemical combustion process of fuel with air furnishes the energy input, which is then transformed
in an engine into thermal energy of a gas and subsequently by transformation into the mechanical
energy through a rotating shaft and wheels to imparting momentum to the vehicle.

1.2 Rocket

A rocket engine is the device or mechanism that converts the energy into suitable form and ejects
stored matter to derive momentum. The working fluid or the ejected matter in rocket propulsion is
called the propellant .

1
Chapter 1. ROCKET DYNAMICS 2

1.2.1 Classification of Rockets

Among many possible energy sources, four are considered to be useful in rocket propulsion: the
chemical combustion reaction, nuclear reaction, captured radiation energy from an emitter such as
the sun, and Jet, Rocket, Nuclear, Ion and Electric Propulsion electric energy which is stored or
created in the vehicle. Accordingly, the various propulsion devices can be categorized into

1. Chemical propulsion

2. Nuclear energy propulsion

3. Solar energy propulsion and

4. Electric energy propulsion

F IGURE 1.1: Classification of Rockets

1.2.1.1 Chemical Propulsion:

1. Solid propellant rockets

It consist of a case or tube in which the propellants are packed. Modern rockets uses cases
made of a thin and lightweight metal such as aluminum. Making the case from thin metal
reduces the overall weight of the structure and increases flight performance. However, the
heat from the burning propellants could easily melt through the metal. To prevent this, the
Chapter 1. ROCKET DYNAMICS 3

inner walls of the case have to be insulated.

The upper end of the rocket is closed off and capped with a payload section or recovery
parachutes. The lower end of the rocket is constricted with a narrow opening called the
throat, above a larger cone-shaped structure, called the nozzle. By constricting the opening,
the throat causes the combustion products to accelerate greatly as they race to the outside
(second law). The nozzle aims the exhaust straight downward so that the rocket travels
straight upward (third law).
To appreciate how the throat of the rocket accelerates the combustion products, turn on the
water for a garden hose. Open the nozzle to the widest setting. Water slowly flows out.
Next, reduce the opening of the nozzle. Water quickly shoots out in a long stream (second
law) and the hose pushes back on you (third law). The propellant in solid rockets is packed
inside the insulated case. It can be packed as a solid mass or it may have a hollow core.
When packed as a solid mass, the propellant burns from the lower end to the upper end.
Depending upon the size of the rocket, this could take a while.
With a hollow core, the propellants burn much more rapidly because the entire face of the
core is ignited at one time. Rather than burning from one end to the other, the propellant
burns from the core outward, Solid Propellant Rocket End-burning and hollow core rockets
towards the case. The advantage of a hollow core is that the propellant mass burns faster,
increasing thrust (second law). To make solid rockets even more powerful, the core doesn’t
have to be round. It can have other shapes that increase the surface area available for burn-
ing. The upper ends of the space shuttle SRBs had star-shaped cores. When ignited, the
large surface area of the star points boosted liftoff thrust. In about one minute, however, the
points burned off, and the thrust diminished somewhat. This was done on purpose because
the space shuttle begins accelerating through the sound barrier. Passing through causes vi-
brations that are diminished by the temporary thrust reduction of the SRBs (second law).

2. Liquid propellant rockets

They are an invention of the twentieth century. They are far more complex than solid rockets.
Generally, a liquid rocket has two large tanks within its body. One tank contains a fuel, such
as kerosene or liquid hydrogen. The other tank contains liquid oxygen. When the liquid
rocket engine is fired, high-speed pumps force the propellants into a cylindrical or spherical
Chapter 1. ROCKET DYNAMICS 4

combustion chamber. The fuel and oxidizer mix as they are sprayed into the chamber. There
they ignite, creating huge quantities of combustion products that shoot through the throat
and are focused downward by the nozzle.

F IGURE 1.2: Classification of Chemical Rockets

1.2.1.2 Nuclear Thermal Propulsion(NTP):

NTP systems work by pumping a liquid propellant, most likely hydrogen, through a reactor core.
Uranium atoms split apart inside the core and release heat through fission. This physical process
heats up the propellant and converts it to a gas, which is expanded through a nozzle to produce
thrust.
NTP rockets are more energy dense than chemical rockets and twice as efficient. Engineers mea-
sure this performance as specific impulse, which is the amount of thrust you can get from a specific
amount of propellant. The specific impulse of a chemical rocket that combusts liquid hydrogen
and liquid oxygen is 450 seconds, exactly half the propellant efficiency of the initial target for
nuclear-powered rockets (900 seconds). This is because lighter gases are easier to accelerate.
When chemical rockets are burned, they produce water vapor, a much heavier byproduct than the
hydrogen that is used in a NTP system. This leads to greater efficiency and allows the rocket to
travel farther on less fuel.
Chapter 1. ROCKET DYNAMICS 5

NTP systems won’t be used on Earth. Instead, they’ll be launched into space by chemical rockets
before they are turned on. NTP systems are not designed to produce the amount of thrust needed
to leave the Earth’s surface.
NTP systems offer greater flexibility for deep space missions. They can reduce travel times to
Mars by up to 25 percent and, more importantly, limit a flight crew’s exposure to cosmic radiation.
They can also enable broader launch windows that are not dependent on orbital alignments and
allow astronauts to abort missions and return to Earth if necessary.

F IGURE 1.3: Nuclear Propulsion

1.2.1.3 Ion Thruster Propulsion:

An ion thruster or ion drive is a form of electric propulsion used for spacecraft propulsion. It
creates thrust by accelerating ions using electricity. The positively charged ions migrate toward
grids that contain thousands of very precisely aligned holes (apertures) at the aft end of the ion
thruster. The first grid is the positively charged electrode (screen grid). A very high positive
voltage is applied to the screen grid, but it is configured to force the discharge plasma to reside at
a high voltage. As ions pass between the grids, they are accelerated toward a negatively charged
electrode (the accelerator grid) to very high speeds (up to 90,000 mph).
Chapter 1. ROCKET DYNAMICS 6

The positively charged ions are accelerated out of the thruster as an ion beam, which produces
thrust. The neutralizer, another hollow cathode, expels an equal amount of electrons to make the
total charge of the exhaust beam neutral. Without a neutralizer, the spacecraft would build up a
negative charge and eventually ions would be drawn back to the spacecraft, reducing thrust and
causing spacecraft erosion.
Electrons produced by the discharge cathode are attracted to the dis- charge chamber walls, which
are charged to a high positive potential by the voltage applied by the thruster’s discharge power
supply. Neutral propellant is injected into the discharge chamber, where the electrons bombard the
propellant to produce positively charged ions and release more electrons.

F IGURE 1.4: Ion Propulsion

1.3 Missile

Missile, a rocket-propelled weapon designed to deliver an explosive warhead with great accuracy
at high speed. Missiles vary from small tactical weapons that are effective out to only a few
hundred feet to much larger strategic weapons that have ranges of several thousand miles.
Chapter 1. ROCKET DYNAMICS 7

1.3.1 Classification of Missiles

Missiles are generally classified on the basis of their Type, Launch Mode, Range, Propulsion, War-
head and Guidance Systems. All missiles contain some form of guidance and control mechanism
and are therefore often referred to as guided missiles. Launch vehicles are the rocket-powered
systems that provide transportation from the earth’s surface into the environment of space. A
propeller-driven underwater missile is called a torpedo, and a guided missile powered along a low,
level flight path by an air-breathing jet engine is called a cruise missile.

F IGURE 1.5: Classification of Missiles

1.3.1.1 On the Basis of Type:

1. Cruise Missile: A cruise missile is an unmanned self-propelled (till the time of impact)
guided vehicle that sustains flight through aerodynamic lift for most of its flight path and
whose primary mission is to place an ordnance or special payload on a target. They fly
within the earth’s atmosphere and use jet engine technology. These vehicles vary greatly
in their speed and ability to penetrate defenses.Cruise missiles can be categorized by size,
Chapter 1. ROCKET DYNAMICS 8

speed (subsonic or supersonic), range and whether launched from land, air, surface ship or
submarine.

Depending upon the speed such missiles are classified as:

(a) Subsonic cruise missile

(b) Supersonic cruise missile

(c) Hypersonic cruise missile

Subsonic cruise missile flies at a speed lesser than that of sound. It travels at a speed of
around 0.8 Mach. The well- known subsonic missile is the American Tomahawk cruise
missile. Some other examples are Harpoon of USA and Exocet of France.

Supersonic cruise missile travels at a speed of around 2-3 Mach i.e.; it travels a kilometer
approximately in a second. The modular design of the missile and its capability of being
launched at different orientations enable it to be integrated with a wide spectrum of platforms
like warships, submarines, different types of aircraft, mobile autonomous launchers and
silos. The combination of supersonic speed and warhead mass provides high kinetic energy
ensuring tremendous lethal effect. BrahMos is the only known versatile supersonic cruise
missile system which is in service.

Hypersonic cruise missile travels at a speed of more than 5 Mach. Many countries are
working to develop hypersonic cruise missiles. BrahMos Aerospace is also in the process
of developing a hypersonic cruise missile, BrahMos-II, which would fly at a speed greater
than 5 Mach.

2. Ballistic Missile: A ballistic missile is a missile that has a ballistic trajectory over most of
its flight path, regardless of whether or not it is a weapon-delivery vehicle. Ballistic missiles
are categorized according to their range,maximum distance measured along the surface of
earth’s ellipsoid from the point of launch to the point of impact of the last element of their
payload. The missile carry a huge payload. The carriage of a deadly warhead is justified by
the distance the missile travels. Ballistic missiles can be launched from ships and land based
facilities. For example, Prithvi I, Prithvi II, Agni I, Agni II and Dhanush ballistic missiles
are currently operational in the Indian defense forces.
Chapter 1. ROCKET DYNAMICS 9

F IGURE 1.6: Missiles on the basis of its type

1.3.1.2 On the basis of Launch Mode:

1. Surface-to-Surface Missile: A surface-to-surface missile is a guided projectile launched

from a hand-held, vehicle mounted, trailer mounted or fixed installation. It is often powered
by a rocket motor or sometimes fired by an explosive charge since the launch platform is
stationary.

2. Surface-to-Air Missile: A surface-to-air missile is designed for launch from the ground to
destroy aerial targets like aircrafts, helicopters and even ballistic missiles. These missiles
are generally called air defense systems as they defend any aerial attacks by the enemy.

3. Surface (Coast)-to-Sea Missile: A surface (coast)-to-sea missile is designed to be launched

from land to ship in the sea as targets.

4. Air-to-Air Missile: An air-to-air missile is launched from an aircraft to destroy the enemy
aircraft. The missile flies at a speed of 4Mach.

5. Air-to-Surface Missile: An air-to-surface missile is designed for launch from military air-
craft and strikes ground targets on land, at sea or both. The missiles are basically guided
via laser guidance, infrared guidance and optical guidance or via GPS signals. The type of
guidance depends on the type of target.
Chapter 1. ROCKET DYNAMICS 10

6. Sea-to-Sea Missile: A sea-to-sea missile is designed for launch from one ship to another
ship.

7. Sea-to-Surface (Coast) Missile: A sea-to-surface missile is designed for launch from ship to
land based targets.

8. Anti-Tank Missile: An anti-tank missile is a guided missile primarily designed to hit and
destroy heavily-armored tanks and other armored fighting vehicles. Anti-tank missiles could
be launched from aircraft, helicopters, tanks and also from shoulder mounted launcher.

1.3.1.3 On the basis of Range:

This type of classification is based on maximum range achieved by the missiles. The basic classi-
fication is as follows:

1. Short Range Missile

2. Medium Range Missile

3. Intermediate Range Ballistic Missile

4. Intercontinental Ballistic Missile

1.3.1.4 On the basis of Propulsion:

1. Solid Propulsion: Solid fuel is used in solid propulsion. Generally, the fuel is aluminum
powder. Solid propulsion has the advantage of being easily stored and can be handled in
fuelled condition. It can reach very high speeds quickly. Its simplicity also makes it a good
choice whenever large amount of thrust is needed.

2. Liquid Propulsion: The liquid propulsion technology uses liquid as fuel. The fuels are hy-
drocarbons. The storage of missile with liquid fuel is difficult and complex. In addition,
preparation of missile takes considerable time. In liquid propulsion, propulsion can be con-
trolled easily by restricting the fuel flow by using valves and it can also be controlled even
under emergency conditions. Basically, liquid fuel gives high specific impulse as compared
to solid fuel.
Chapter 1. ROCKET DYNAMICS 11

3. Hybrid Propulsion: There are two stages in hybrid propulsion - solid propulsion and liq-
uid propulsion. This kind of propulsion compensates the disadvantages of both propulsion
systems and has the combined advantages of the two propulsion systems.

4. Ramjet: A ramjet engine does not have any turbines unlike turbojet engines. It achieves
compression of intake air just by the forward speed of the air vehicle. The fuel is injected
and ignited. The expansion of hot gases after fuel injection and combustion accelerates the
exhaust air to a velocity higher than that at the inlet and creates positive push. However,
the air entering the engine should be at supersonic speeds. So, the aerial vehicle must be
moving in supersonic speeds. Ramjet engines cannot propel an aerial vehicle from zero to
supersonic speeds.

5. Scramjet: Scramjet is an acronym for Supersonic Combustion Ramjet. The difference be-
tween scramjet and ramjet is that the combustion takes place at supersonic air velocities
through the engine. It is mechanically simple, but vastly more complex aerodynamically
than a jet engine. Hydrogen is normally the fuel used.

6. Cryogenic: Cryogenic propellants are liquefied gases stored at very low temperatures, most
frequently liquid hydrogen as the fuel and liquid oxygen as the oxidizer. Cryogenic pro-
pellants require special insulated containers and vents which allow gas to escape from the
evaporating liquids. The liquid fuel and oxidizer are pumped from the storage tanks to an
expansion chamber and injected into the combustion chamber where they are mixed and ig-
nited by a flame or spark. The fuel expands as it burns and the hot exhaust gases are directed
out of the nozzle to provide thrust.

1.3.1.5 On the basis of Warhead :

1. Conventional Warhead: A conventional warhead contains high energy explosives. It is filled

with a chemical explosive and relies on the detonation of the explosive and the resulting
metal casing fragmentation as kill mechanisms.

2. Strategic Warhead: In a strategic warhead, radio active materials are present and when trig-
gered they exhibit huge radio activity that can wipe out even cities. They are generally
designed for mass annihilation.
Chapter 1. ROCKET DYNAMICS 12

1.3.1.6 On the basis of Guidance Systems:

1. Wire Guidance: This system is broadly similar to radio command, but is less suscepti-
ble to electronic counter measures. The command signals are passed along a wire (or
wires)dispensed from the missile after launch.

2. Command Guidance: Command guidance involves tracking the projectile from the launch
site or platform and transmitting commands by radio, radar, or laser impulses or along thin
wires or optical fibers. Tracking might be accomplished by radar or optical instruments from
the launch site or by radar or television imagery relayed from the missile.

3. Terrain Comparison Guidance: Terrain Comparison (TERCOM) is used invariably by cruise

missiles. The system uses sensitive altimeters to measure the profile of the ground directly
below and checks the result against stored information.

4. Terrestrial Guidance: This system constantly measures star angles and compares them with
the pre-programmed angles expected on the missile’s intended trajectory. The guidance
system directs the control system whenever an alteration to trajectory is required.

5. Inertial Guidance: This system is totally contained within the missile and is programmed
prior to launch. Three accelerometers, mounted on a platform space-stabilized by gyros,
measure accelerations along three mutually perpendicular axes; these accelerations are then
integrated twice, the first integration giving velocity and the second giving position. The
system then directs the control system to preserve the pre-programmed trajectory. This
systems are used in the surface-to-surface missiles and in cruise missiles.

6. Beam Rider Guidance: The beam rider concept relies on an external ground or ship-based
radar station that transmits a beam of radar energy towards the target. The surface radar
tracks the target and also transmits a guidance beam that adjusts its angle as the target moves
across the sky.

7. Laser Guidance: In laser guidance, a laser beam is focused on the target and the laser beam
reflects off the target and gets scattered. The missile has a laser seeker that can detect even
miniscule amount of radiation. The seeker provides the direction of the laser scatters to the
guidance system.The missile is launched towards the target,the seeker looks out for the laser
Chapter 1. ROCKET DYNAMICS 13

reflections and the guidance system steers the missile towards the source of laser reflections
that is ultimately the target.

8. RF and GPS Reference: RF (Radio Frequency) and GPS (Global Positioning System) are
examples of technologies that are used in missile guidance systems. A missile uses GPS
signal to determine the location of the target. Over the course of its flight, the weapon uses
this information to send commands to control surfaces and adjusts its trajectory. In a RF
reference, the missile uses RF waves to locate the target.

Differentiate between tactical and strategic missiles

Ans. A tactical missile is used for attacking or defending ground troops, nearby military or strate-
gic installations, military aircraft, or war missiles. Strategic missiles with a range of 3000 km or
more have been two- or three stage surface-to-surface rocket-propelled missiles. Early designs
used liquid propellant rocket engines and some are still in service.

Guided missiles

When missiles are launched from an aircraft at a relatively high initial velocity, or when projectiles
are given stability by spinning them on their axis, their accuracy of reaching a target is increased
two- to ten-fold, compared to a simple fin-stabilized rocket launched from rest. These are called
guided missiles. In guided air-to-air and surface-to-air rocket-propelled missiles the time of flight
to a given target, usually called the time to target tt, is an important flight performance parameter.

1.4 Airframe components

There are many parts that make up a rocket. For design and analysis, engineers group parts which
have the same function into systems. There are four major systems in a full scale rocket; the
structural system, the payload system, the guidance system, and the propulsion system.

The structural system, or frame, is similar to the fuselage of an airplane. The frame is made
from very strong but light weight materials, like titanium or aluminum, and usually employs long
Chapter 1. ROCKET DYNAMICS 14

F IGURE 1.7: Airframe components of a Rocket

”stringers” which run from the top to the bottom which are connected to ”hoops” which run around
around the circumference. The ”skin” is then attached to the stringers and hoops to form the basic
shape of the rocket. The skin may be coated with a thermal protection system to keep out the
heat of air friction during flight and to keep in the cold temperatures needed for certain fuels and
oxidizers. Fins are attached to some rockets at the bottom of the frame to provide stability during
the flight.

The payload system of a rocket depends on the rocket’s mission. Many countries developed guided
ballistic missiles armed with nuclear warheads for payloads. The same rockets were modified to
launch satellites with a wide range of missions; communications, weather monitoring, spying,
planetary exploration, and observatories, like the Hubble Space Telescope. Special rockets were
developed to launch people into earth orbit and onto the surface of the Moon.

The guidance system of a rocket may include very sophisticated sensors, on-board computers,
radars, and communication equipment to maneuver the rocket in flight. Many different methods
have been developed to control rockets in flight. The V2 guidance system included small vanes in
the exhaust of the nozzle to deflect the thrust from the engine. Modern rockets typically rotate the
nozzle to maneuver the rocket. The guidance system must also provide some level of stability so
Chapter 1. ROCKET DYNAMICS 15

that the rocket does not tumble in flight.

Most of a full scale rocket is propulsion system. There are two main classes of propulsion systems,
liquid rocket engines and solid rocket engines. The V2 used a liquid rocket engine consisting of
fuel and oxidizer (propellant) tanks, pumps, a combustion chamber with nozzle, and the associated
plumbing. The Space Shuttle, Delta II, and Titan III all use solid rocket strap-ons.

The various rocket parts described above have been grouped by function into structure, payload,
guidance, and propulsion systems. There are other possible groupings. For the purpose of weight
determination and flight performance, engineers often group the payload, structure, propulsion
structure (nozzle, pumps, tanks, etc.), and guidance into a single empty weight parameter. The re-
maining propellant weight then becomes the only factor that changes with time when determining
rocket performance.

1.5 Inertia and Non Inertia Reference frames:

A reference frame is specified by an ordered set of three mutually orthogonal, possibly time de-
pendent, unit-length direction vectors. A reference frame has an associated center. A coordinate
system specifies a mechanism for locating points within a reference frame. Velocity is a frame de-
pendent quantity but acceleration is frame independent. If force is frame dependent, then Newton’s
→
−
law will be valid in all frames F = m ∗ →−
a

1.5.1 Types of Reference frames

1.5.1.1 Inertial Reference frame

A frame of reference in which isolated object(object that experience no real forces) is found to
move with constant velocity is called as Inertial frame of reference. There can be infinite number
of Inertial frames but relative velocity between them must be constant.
In most of the cases this reference frame is fixed to the ground because we want to find out what
Chapter 1. ROCKET DYNAMICS 16

is the force respect to a ground fixed coordinate system. For example in this case of the rocket, we
have to send the rocket out from the ground and we want to find out what is the force required to
actually or what is the thrust required to actually accelerate the rocket away from the ground.
The force acting depends on the coordinate system, the choice of the coordinate system. For
example, if you take this rocket, then suppose for an observer who is sitting inside the rocket, he
throws a ball upwards, so when he does that, if force is required to throw the ball upwards and
that force is different than if a observer who is sitting on the ground has to throw a ball at the
same speed but considering the acceleration of the rocket. So, if you at the ball which is thrown
by the observer sitting inside the rocket from a ground fixed coordinate system the ball has an
acceleration imparted by the observer inside the rocket as well as the acceleration of the rocket
itself.

1.5.1.2 Non-Inertial Reference frame

In practical applications we often encounter situations where we have to use a accelerating control
volume. In the derivation of Reynolds transport theorem we have assumed that the that our coor-
dinate system for defining the fluid velocity is fixed to the control volume. If the control volume
is accelerating, it means that the reference frame is also accelerating and such a reference frame
is known as a non-inertial frame of reference. There are many non-inertial (that is, accelerating)
frames that one needs to consider, such as elevators, merry-go-rounds, and so on.
One such application is when we try to find using integral analysis the thrust acting on the rocket.
While we try to do that, we actually put a control volume around the rocket and try to find the
force but a rocket moves, it accelerates and the control volume attached to the rocket also have to
accelerate. So, now we will see how to change our equations to accommodate this acceleration of
the reference frame which is attached to the control volume. So, this is the case of an accelerating
control volume.

1.6 Aerodynamic Forces on a Rocket

Aerodynamic forces are generated and act on a rocket as it flies through the air. Forces are vector
quantities having both a magnitude and a direction. The single aerodynamic force is broken into
Chapter 1. ROCKET DYNAMICS 17

two components: the drag force which is opposed to the direction of motion, and the lift force
which acts perpendicular to the direction of motion. Aerodynamic forces are mechanical forces.
They are generated by the interaction and contact of a solid body with a fluid, a liquid or a gas.
Aerodynamic forces are not generated by a force field, in the sense of the gravitational field,or an
electromagnetic field.
Aerodynamic forces are used differently on a rocket than on an airplane.

F IGURE 1.8: Aerodynamic forces of a Rocket

1. On an airplane, Lift is used to overcome the weight of the aircraft, but on a rocket, thrust is
used in opposition to weight. Because the center of pressure is not normally located at the
center of gravity of the rocket, aerodynamic forces can cause the rocket to rotate in flight.

2. The lift of a rocket is a side force used to stabilize and control the direction of flight. Lift
occurs when a flow of gas is turned by a solid object. The flow is turned in one direction,
and the lift is generated in the opposite direction, according to Newton’s third law of action
and reaction.

3. While most aircraft have a high lift to drag ratio, the drag of a rocket is usually much greater
than the lift.

Two very important points are found on a rocket: center of gravity (CG) and center of pressure
(CP). Center of gravity is the point on the z axis (center axis through the length of the rocket)
Chapter 1. ROCKET DYNAMICS 18

where the amount of mass on both sides of that point is equal. If you are balancing a body with
uniform mass distribution, the center of gravity will be in the middle of the object.
Center of pressure is the point along the rocket z axis with the same amount of surface area on
both sides. For an object with a simple mathematical shape, it can be found with a simple integral.
Generally, it is difficult to calculate and can either be found experimentally—in a wind tunnel—or
numerically.
Stability: It is important to know where the CG and CP are in absolute measures and relative to
each other. The rocket will always rotate around the center of gravity during flight, and gravity act
on that singular point. However, the drag and lift forces do act on the center of pressure, and this
decide how stable the rocket is. Stability is usually judged by the stability margin (SM), where the
distance between the center of gravity and center of pressure is divided by the diameter d of the
rocket body. SM =
There are two ways to stabilize rockets: active and passive. Active stabilization is using rocket
engines (like gimballing the main thrusters or using smaller engines called Vernier thrusters) to
control the attitude of the rocket. Active controlling is expensive and complex, but on large rockets
it is necessary to use it.

On smaller rockets, as the ones launched at Andøya Space Center for science, one usually does
not need to control the rocket attitude after lift-off and the rocket is then stabilized passively using
a controlled spin. The spin is usually induced by the fins by aerodynamic forces.

1.7 Rocket Performance parameters

1. Equivalent velocity Veq = Ve + (pe − p0 ) ∗ Aṁe

2. Total Impulse: It is the thrust force F integrated over the burning time t.
R
I = F ∗ 4t = I = F ∗ 4t
R
I = ṁ ∗Veq ∗ dt
Remember that ṁ is the mass flow rate; it is the amount of exhaust mass per time that comes
out of the rocket. Assuming the equivalent velocity remains constant with time, we can
integrate the equation to get: I = m ∗Veq
Chapter 1. ROCKET DYNAMICS 19

F IGURE 1.9: Rocket Performance parameters

where m is the total mass of the propellant. We can divide this equation by the weight of the
propellants to define the specific impulse.

3. Specific Impulse:The specific impulse is the total impulse per unit weight of propellant. It
Veq
is an important figure of merit of performance of the rocket system. Isp = g0
F
Isp = ṁg0

The performance of rocket is determined largely by the rocket-propellant combination and

the total amount of usable propellant. The performance of propellants is characterized by the
specific impulse, a measure of thrust produced per unit of propellant consumed per second.
The unit of specific impulse is sec. The velocity that can be achieved by a rocket is directly
proportional to the specific impulse of its propellants.

4. Effective Exhaust Velocity c: In a rocket nozzle, the actual exhaust velocity is not uniform
over the exit cross section. For convenience, a uniform exit velocity is assumed which allows
a one-dimensional description of the flow. The effective exhaust velocity c is the average
equivalent velocity at which propellant is ejected from the vehicle. It is defined as
Chapter 1. ROCKET DYNAMICS 20

c = Isp ∗ g0

The effective exhaust velocity c is given in m/sec.

5. Mass Ratio MR: The mass ratio of a vehicle is defined to be the final mass (after the rocket
has consumed all usable propellant) divided by mass (before rocket operation). Minitial =
m f = me + m p
M f inal = me
MR = m f /me
Mass ratio MR = The final mass is the mass of the vehicle after the rocket has ceased to
operate when all the useful propellant mass is consumed and ejected. The final mass includes
mass of guidance devices, navigational gear, payload, flight control system, vehicle structure
tanks, control surfaces, communication equipment and unusable propellant etc

6. The Impulse-to-weight Ratio: The impulse to weight ratio of the propulsion system is de-
fined as the total impulse divided by the initial vehicle weight . A high value indicates an
efficient design. Impulse-to-weight ratio =
It It It Isp
W = mvehicle ∗g0 = (m f +m p )∗g0 = m
( m pf )+1

7. The Thrust-to-weight Ratio: It is a measure of the acceleration (in multiples of g0) that the
F F
engine is capable of providing to its own mass. W = mvehicle ∗g0
F
Launch Vehicle: Winitial > 1.0
F
Orbit-Transfer vehicle: W > 0.2
F
Orbit-Maintenance Vehicle: W > 0.1

1.8 General Thrust Equation

The forces on a rocket change dramatically during a typical flight. During powered flight the
propellants of the propulsion system are constantly being exhausted from the nozzle. As a result,
the weight and mass of the rocket is constantly changing. Because of the changing mass, we
cannot use the standard form of Newton’s second law of motion to determine the acceleration and
Chapter 1. ROCKET DYNAMICS 21

velocity of the rocket. This figure shows a derivation of the change in velocity during powered
flight while accounting for the changing mass of the rocket. In this derivation, we are going to
neglect the effects of aerodynamic lift and drag. We can add these effects to the final answer.

Let us begin by considering the rocket drawing on the left of the figure. M is the instantaneous
mass of the rocket, u is the velocity of the rocket, v is the velocity of the exhaust from the rocket,
A is the area of the exhaust nozzle, p is the exhaust pressure and p0 is the atmospheric pressure.
During a small amount of time dt a small amount of mass dm is exhausted from the rocket. This
changes the mass of the rocket and the velocity of the rocket and we can evaluate the change in
momentum of the rocket as

Change in rocket momentum = M ∗ (u + du) − M ∗ u = M ∗ du

We can also determine the change in momentum of the small mass dm that is exhausted at velocity
υ as change in exhaust momentum = dm ∗ (u − υ) − dm ∗ u = −dm ∗ υ.
So the total change in momentum of the system (rocket + exhaust) is change in system momentum=
M ∗ du − dm ∗ v.
as shown on the figure. Now consider the forces acting on the system, neglecting the drag on
rocket. The weight of the rocket is M ∗ g (gravitational constant) acting at an angle a to the flight
path.
The pressure force is given by (p − p0 ) ∗ A acting in the positive u direction.
Then the total force on the system is
force on the system = (p − p0 ) ∗ A − M ∗ g ∗ cos(a)
The change in momentum of the system is equal to the impulse on the system which is equal to the
force on the system times the change in time dt. So we can combine the previous two equations:
M ∗ du − dm ∗ υ = [(p − p0 ) ∗ A − M ∗ g ∗ cos(a)] ∗ dt
If we ignore the weight force, and perform a little algebra, this becomes M ∗ du = [(p − p0 ) ∗ A] ∗
dt + dm ∗ υ
Now the exhaust mass dm is equal to the mass flow rate ṁ times the increment of time dt. So we
can write the last equation as
M ∗ du = [(p − p0 ) ∗ A + ṁ ∗ υ] ∗ dt
We introduce the equivalent exit velocity Veq which is defined as
Veq = υ + (p − p0 ) ∗ A/ṁ
Chapter 1. ROCKET DYNAMICS 22

If we substitute the value of Veq into the momentum equation we have

Mdu = Veq ∗ ṁ ∗ dt
ṁ ∗ dt is the amount of change of the instantaneous mass of the rocket.
The sign of this term is negative because the rocket is losing mass as the propellants are exhausted.
ṁ ∗ dt = −dM
Substituting into the momentum equation:
Mdu = −Veq dM
du = −Veq dM/M
We can now integrate this equation:
4u = −Veq ln(M)
where 4u represents the change in velocity, and ln is the symbol for the natural logarithmic func-
tion.
The limits of integration are from the initial mass of the rocket to the final mass of the rocket.
The instantaneous mass of the rocket M, the mass is composed of two main parts, the empty mass
me and the propellant mass m p .
The empty mass does not change with time, but the mass of propellants on board the rocket does
change with time: M(t) = me + m p (t)
Initially, the full mass of the rocket mf contains the empty mass and all of the propellant at lift off.
At the end of the burn, the mass of the rocket contains only the empty mass:
Minitial = m f = me + m p
M f inal = me
Substituting for these values we obtain:
4u = Veqln(m f /me)
This equation is called the ideal rocket equation.
There are several additional forms of this equation which we list here: Using the definition of the
propellant mass ratio MR
MR = m f /me
4u = Veq ∗ ln(MR)
Veq is related to the specific impulse Isp : Veq = Isp ∗ g0
where g0 is the gravitational constant. So the change in velocity can be written in terms of the
specific impulse of the engine:
Chapter 1. ROCKET DYNAMICS 23

4u = Isp ∗ g0 ∗ ln(MR)
If we have a desired 4u for a maneuver, we can invert this equation to determine the amount of
4u
propellant required: MR = exp (Isp ∗g0 )

Rocket thrust in the atmosphere:

If the exit area is Aex , the exit pressure pex , and the altitude ambient pressure pa (pSL−a at sea level),
then the altitude thrust is less than the thrust in a vacuum by the amount pa .
Sea level thrust of the rocket, FSL−a = ṁVex + Aex ∗ (pex − pSL−a )
Fj = ṁVex + Aex ∗ (pex − pa )
Thus thrust at any altitude is
Fj = FSL−a + Aex ∗ (pSL−a − pa )
Fj = FSL−a + Aex ∗ pSL−a ∗ (1 − δ )
pa
where δ = pSL−a pressure drop with altitude.

Rocket thrust in Vacuum:

Fj = ṁ ∗Vex + Aex ∗ pex

Fj = Ẇg ∗Veq + Aex ∗ pex
From these equations the specific impulse(at sea level) is given as
FSL−a +Aex ∗pSL−a ∗(1−δ )
Isp = ṁ∗g

In vacuum
Vex
Isp = g The characteristics of a rocket is also signified by a parameter called characteristics ve-
locity,
V ∗ = VCexf

Fj
Cf = pc At

C f is the Thrust coefficient

pc is combustion chamber pressure and At nozzle throat area
If weight flow rate of propellant is given as one can define a specific propellant consumption rate
as
Chapter 1. ROCKET DYNAMICS 24

g
W˙sp = ẆF = Isp

and weight flow coefficient as

Ẇ
Cw = pc At
Chapter 2

SOLID PROPULSION AND

PYROTECHNICS

2.1 Introduction

Solid propellant motors are the simplest of all rocket designs. In solid propellant rocket motors-
and the word ”motor” is as common to solid rockets as the word ”engine” is to liquid rockets.
Solid propellant rocket motors have been credited with having no moving parts. This is still true
of many, but some motor designs include movable nozzles and actuators for vectoring the line of
thrust relative to the motor axis.They consist of a casing, usually steel, filled with a mixture of
solid compounds (fuel and oxidizer) that burn at a rapid rate, expelling hot gases from a nozzle to
produce thrust. When ignited, a solid propellant burns from the center out towards the sides of the
casing.
In comparison to liquid rockets, solid rockets are usually relatively simple, are easy to apply (they
often constitute most of the vehicle structure), and require little servicing; they cannot be fully
checked out prior to use, and thrust cannot usually be randomly varied in flight There are two
families of solids propellants: homogeneous and composite. Both types are dense, stable at or-
dinary temperatures, and easily storable.They also make affordable and compact high thrust lev-
els, which are very difficult to reach with liquid rocket engines. Further, the solid nature of the
fuel renders.The rockets exceptionally durable. They can be constructed, fuelled and then put to

25
Chapter 2. SOLID PROPULSION AND PYROTECHNICS 26

storage for numerous years without the performance characteristics changing noticeably when fi-
nally ignited. These properties result in SRMs having excellent scalability and are thus used in a
wide variety of applications and environments. This includes thrusters controlling attitude of nano
satellites to full fledged booster rockets such as the Reusable Solid Rockets Motor (RSRM) on the
Space Shuttle.

F IGURE 2.1: Solid rocket motor

2.2 Motor Components

2.2.0.1 Casing

The casing makes up the external shell of an SRM. It acts as a supporting structure and com-
bustion chamber with the grain occupying a majority of space inside. The latter implies that the
casing also serves as a high pressure vessel. Casings are thus typically built of high-strength steel
alloys or filament-reinforced composite materials capable of withstanding very high loads. Com-
mon configurations include oblate spheroids and cylinders with either elliptical or hemispherical
heads. Ratio between the length and diameter of cylindrical casings typically ranges between 2
Chapter 2. SOLID PROPULSION AND PYROTECHNICS 27

and 5 in most launcher related applications. An overly low ratio has negative influence on the
axial compressive drag loads exerted during ascent whereas a disproportionately high value ad-
versely affects handling, stability and rigidity. This renders the rocket difficult to control whilst
also induces buckling and bending problems.

2.2.0.2 Nozzle

SRM nozzles allow the expansion and acceleration of combustion gases through a converging
diverging nozzle. The geometry and mounting technique employed has a significant effect on the
thrust produced and thus, a number of nozzle categories currently exist.

1. For space launch applications submerged nozzles are used extensively. These nozzles have
a large portion of the structure sunken into the combustion chamber that reduces the motor
length and inert mass. This is especially beneficial for upper stage rockets due to the implied
limitation of the length and mass of the inter-stage structure.

2. Fixed nozzles: Fixed nozzles are generally not submerged and do not provide thrust vector
control.

3. Movable nozzles: Movable nozzles can provide pitch and yaw control and two are needed
for roll control. Movable nozzles are typically submerged and use a flexible sealed joint or
bearing with two actuators.

4. Extendible nozzle: Extended nozzle improves specific impulse by doubling or tripling the
initial expansion ratio, thereby significantly increasing the nozzle thrust coefficient.

2.2.0.3 Igniters

Two categories of igniters are found in SRMs, pyrotechnic igniters and pyrogen igniters. The
first type utilizes explosives like black powder or small pellets of propellants that once ignited,
results in a large surface burning area. The heat produced by this process then ignites the main
grain. This type is commonly used for small to medium sized SRMs. The second type consists
principally of miniature rocket motors with fast burning grains. Once ignited, the resulting flame
Chapter 2. SOLID PROPULSION AND PYROTECHNICS 28

F IGURE 2.2: Classification of Nozzles in SRM

spreads throughout the gas cavity area. The hot gases of the flame then interact and effectively
ignite the main grain. This type of igniters is more common amongst larger SRMs. For both types,
igniters are often located at the forward end, opposite side of the nozzle. The shape of igniters
varies to a greater extent depending on the ignition method and implementation utilized. However,
as igniters tend to be small in relation to the main grain, a first approximation of modeling them as
simple cylinders is acceptable

2.2.0.4 Insulations

With flame temperature of between 1500K-3000K in typical combustion chambers during com-
bustion, insulation in-between the grain, internal surface of the casing and other vital components
is vital. Similar to nozzles, insulation inside the casing commonly employs ablation as the main
method of cooling.
Chapter 2. SOLID PROPULSION AND PYROTECHNICS 29

2.2.0.5 Grain

The grain is the mass of processed solid propellant inside the rocket motor. In a typical SRM, up to
96 percent of the total mass consists of propellant grain For any propellant, additives may control
the burnrate, either to accelerate or to slow the rate. All propellants are processed into a similar
basic geometric form, referred to as a propellant grain. As a rule, propellant grains are cylindrical
in shape to fit neatly into a rocket motor in order to maximize volumetric efficiency. The grain
may consist of a single cylindrical segment or may contain many segments.
It is important to recognize that the burning area of a propellant grain is a key parameter in
determining the performance of a rocket motor. The primary function of a propellant grain
is to produce combustion products at a prescribed flowrate defined by: Performance of a grain
is usually measured in a thrust vs time diagram.

2.3 Classification of Solid rocket Motors

2.3.0.1 On the basis of Case design:

In rocketry the designing of casing and hardware plays a vital role which is the replication of
pressure vessel design. The temperatures induced inside the casing are of the order of 1000 C to
3000 C. The final temperature experienced by the casing at it’s external surface (after insulation)
is 100 C .To withstand these high temperatures some ablative liners are provided inside the casing.

2.3.0.2 On the basis of Grain Installation:

There are two methods of holding the grain in case: Cartridge-loaded and case-bonded grains.
Cartridge-loaded or freestanding grains are manufactured separately from the case (by extrusion
or by casting into a cylindrical mold or cartridge) and then loaded into or assembled into the case.
In case-bonded grains the case is used as a mold and the propellant is cast directly into the case
and is bonded to the case or case insulation. Free-standing grains can more easily be replaced if
the propellant grain has aged excessively. Cartridge-loaded grains are used in some small tactical
missiles and a few medium-sized motors. They often have a lower cost and are easier to inspect.
Chapter 2. SOLID PROPULSION AND PYROTECHNICS 30

The case-bonded grains give a somewhat better performance, a little less inert mass (no holding
device, support pads, and less insulation), a better volumetric loading fraction, are more highly
stressed, and often somewhat more difficult and expensive to manufacture. Today almost all larger
motors and many tactical missile motors use case bonding.

F IGURE 2.3: Classification of SRM based on Grain Installation

2.3.0.3 On the basis of Thrust action:

There are three methods in which Solid rocket motors are classified based on thrust action: Pro-
gressive, Regressive and Neutral burning.

1. Progressive Burning: Burn time during which thrust, pressure, and burning surface area
increase.

2. Regressive Burning: Burn time during which thrust, pressure, and burning surface area
decrease.

3. Neutral Burning: Motor burn time during which thrust, pressure, and burning surface area
remain approximately constant, typically within about ±15 percentage. Many grains are
neutral burning.

2.3.0.4 On the basis of Grain Configuration:

Solid grains are also classed by the shapes of their exposed burning surfaces and the manner in
which the propellants are burned out of the case Cylindrical Grain: A grain in which the internal
Chapter 2. SOLID PROPULSION AND PYROTECHNICS 31

F IGURE 2.4: Classification of SRM based on Thrust action

cross section is constant along the axis regardless of perforation shape. The thrust (and chamber
pressure) that a rocket motor generates is proportional to the burning area at any particular instant
in time. This is referred to as the instantaneous burning area. The burning surface at any point
recedes in the direction normal (perpendicular) to the surface at that point, the result being a
relationship between burning surface and web distance burned that depends almost entirely on the
grain initial shape and restricted (inhibited) boundaries. This important concept is illustrated in
Figure, where the contour lines represent the core shape at successive moments in time during the
burn. Notice that the shape of the thrust-time curve changes, with the vertical lines corresponding
the the same successive moments during the burn.
Fuel blocks with a cylindrical channel (1) develop their thrust progressively. Those with a channel
and also a central cylinder of fuel (2) produce a relatively constant thrust, which reduces to zero
very quickly when the fuel is used up. The five pointed star profile (3) develops a relatively
constant thrust which decreases slowly to zero as the last of the fuel is consumed. The ‘cruciform’
profile (4) produces progressively less thrust. Fuel in a block with a ‘double anchor’ profile (5)
produces a decreasing thrust which drops off quickly near the end of the burn. The ‘cog’ profile
(6) produces a strong initial thrust, followed by an almost constant lower thrust. As can be seen ,
the star grain provides an approximately neutral burn, as the surface area remains fairly constant
throughout the burn duration. A neutral burn is usually desirable because it provides for greater
efficiency in delivery of total impulse, as a nozzle operates most efficiently at a constant chamber
pressure.
These are some of the cross sectional designs and the sidewise views of the grains of the solid
Chapter 2. SOLID PROPULSION AND PYROTECHNICS 32

propellant rockets. Now, you can see here some of them are mentioned as restricted burning types.
The restricted burning times have these solid and linings around them, so a and b in this figure
are restricted burnings. Around this, are the linings, which restrict the burning. They do not allow
those surfaces to be participating in the combustion process and hence, this is called end burning.
It means only one end is open for combustion or burning and all the other surfaces are closed to
the burning process. In the second one b, we have an internal burning, which means the internal
surface actually has a star shape. This star shape is open to combustion or open to burning all
the other surfaces including the two ends, specially this end is restricted and is not allowed for
combustion or burning. Only the internal star shaped cross section is opened for burning. Now,
the question here is why this star shape or any such shape is created. Essentially, if you look in
closely compared to a circle, if you have a circle over here, the surface area of this star shape is
substantially more than any shape that you put here; whether circle or ellipse or square. A star
shaped would have more surface area of burning and this more surface area actually gives you
faster burning. So, the star shaped has been created for enhanced burning capability of the rocket.

F IGURE 2.5: Various grain configurations1

2.3.0.5 On the basis of Propellant:

Most modern solid-propellant grains belong to one of two classes, double-base or composite grain.
The double-base propellant is a mixture of two very energetic compounds, either one of which
alone would make a rocket propellant. Usually the two constituents are nitroglycerin [C3 H5 (ONO2 )3 ]
and nitrocellulose [C6 H7 O2 (ONO2 )3 ]. As the chemical formulas indicate, both the fuel (carbon
and hydrogen) and the oxidizer (oxygen) atoms are contained in each of these molecules; both
Chapter 2. SOLID PROPULSION AND PYROTECHNICS 33

substances are monopropellants which burn without any added oxidizer. The nitrocellulose pro-
vides physical strength to the grain, while nitroglycerin is a high-performance and fast-burning
propellant.
A composite grain is so named because it is formed of a mixture of two or more unlike compounds
into a composite material with the burning properties and strength characteristics desired. None of
these constituent compounds would make a good propellant by itself; instead, one is usually the
fuel component, another the oxidizer. The most modern of the composite propellants use a rubbery
polymer which acts as the fuel and as a binder for the crumbly oxidizer powder. The oxidizer is
generally a finely ground nitrate or perchlorate crystal, as, for example, potassium nitrate (KN03 J
or ammonium perchlorate (NH4CI04 ). The composite mixture can be mixed and poured like cake
batter, cast ninto molds or into the motor case itself, and made to set (cure) like hard rubber or
concrete.

2.4 Burning Process

A correct chemical mixture of fuel and oxidizer will support combustion when exposed to high
temperature and gas flow; it will continue to burn as long as the gaseous products of combustion
are allowed to escape from the burning surface. The rate at which hot gases are produced by the
burning propellant depends on the total area over which burning is occurring Ab ; the rate at which
burning is progressing into the propellant ṙ ; and the density of propellant being transformed into
gas ρ.
The flow of combustion gases off the burning surface is described by the rate equation:

ẇ = Ab ṙρ (2.1)

It is a characteristic of any solid propellant that its burning rate at any point on the

1. The composition of the propellant at that point.

2. The pressure of the gases surrounding the point

3. The temperature of the grain at that point just as the ”burning zone” approaches
Chapter 2. SOLID PROPULSION AND PYROTECHNICS 34

F IGURE 2.6: Classification of Grains

These characteristics at each point on the grain are averaged for the entire grain in grain surface is
determined by: the general, solid-propellant, burning-rate equation

ṙ = aB Pcn (2.2)

where ṙ is the instantaneous burn rate (in. /sec), aB is the burn-rate constant (which varies slightly
with the overall temperature of the grain), Pcn , is the instantaneous motor chamber pressure (psi),
and n is the burn-rate exponent for the particular propellant (typical values range from 0.4 to almost
1. 0).
Chapter 2. SOLID PROPULSION AND PYROTECHNICS 35

Combining the burning-rate 2.2 with the weight-flow-of-gas-produced equation 2.1 yields

ẇ = Ab aB Pcn ρ (2.3)

Now, for any rocket device, the thrust produced by expansion of exhaust gases through a nozzle
can be expressed as

F = CF At Pc (2.4)

where F is the thrust (Ib), CF is the nozzle thrust coefficient (a constant which is a measure of
the expansion efficiency of the nozzle and the properties of the propelling gases), At is the nozzle
throat area, and Pc is the rocket chamber pressure.
But, thrust is also given by the equation

W = IspẆ (2.5)

(2.6)

where Ẇ is the gas weight flaw through the nozzle (lb/sec) and Isp is the engine specific impulse
(a measure of propellant energy release and efficiency of gas expansion through the nozzle). Com-
bining 2.5 and 2.4 gives

F CF At Pc
Ẇ = = (2.7)
Isp Isp

In the rocket, a steady-state condition is reached when the rate of gas produced equals the rate of
gas flow out of the chamber.

Ẇproduced = Ẇout (2.8)

or, from 2.3 and 2.7

CF At Pc
Ab aB Pcn ρ = (2.9)
Isp
Chapter 2. SOLID PROPULSION AND PYROTECHNICS 36

At any instant during the firing, everything in 2.9 is invariable except the chamber pressure. Thus,
the pressure in the rocket chamber stabilizes at the instantaneous value found by solving 2.9:

CF At n−1
Pc = ( ) (2.10)
Ab aB Isp ρ

And so, the motor designer can control the pressure at which the rocket will operate by:
(a) Selecting the propellant, thereby fixing Isp , ρ, aB and n.
(b) Designing a nozzle size and configuration, thereby fixing At and CF .
(c) Designing the grain burning surface to make Ab vary as desired during the firing.
Solid-motor grain design concentrates on the problem of tailoring the thrust curve by configuring
the burning surface area to give the desired thrust with time Thrust curves are typically progressive,
regressive, neutral, or a combination of these, as shown in . Also noted are some of the grain port
shapes which will produce these thrust variations by the manner in which their burning surfaces
vary in area as burning proceeds.
Another major design problem comes in the elimination of long thrust tail off, or decay period,
at the end of rocket firing. Long tail off time wastes propellant by burning it inefficiently at low
pressure for a relatively long time. Long tail off also endangers the motor case by exposing it
to hot gases while it is no longer protected by propellant. Short, abrupt tail off is desirable but
difficult to achieve, particularly in complex star grain designs. In such grains, the nature of the
burning-surface shape gives decreased burning area near the end of the firing because of residual
propellant slivers.

2.5 Internal Ballistics

The rocket motor’s operation and design depend on the combustion characteristics of the propel-
lant, its burning rate, burning surface, and grain geometry. The branch of applied science describ-
ing these is known as internal ballistics. The burning surface of a propellant grain recedes in a
direction essentially perpendicular to the surface. The rate of regression, usually expressed in cm/
sec, mm/sec, or in./sec, is the burning rate r.
Burning rate is a function of the propellant composition. For composite propellants it can be
increased by changing the propellant characteristics:
Chapter 2. SOLID PROPULSION AND PYROTECHNICS 37

1. Add a burning rate catalyst, often called burning rate modifier or increase percentage of
existing catalyst.

2. Decrease the oxidizer particle size.

3. Increase oxidizer percentage.

4. Increase the heat of combustion of the binder and/or the plasticizer.

5. Imbed wires or metal staples in the propellant.

Aside from the propellant formulation and propellant manufacturing process, burning rate in a
full-scale motor can be increased by the following:

1. Combustion chamber pressure.

2. Initial temperature of the solid propellant prior to start.

3. Combustion gas temperature.

4. Velocity of the gas flow parallel to the burning surface.

5. Motor motion (acceleration and spin-induced grain stress).

Burning rate data are usually obtained in three ways-namely, from testing by:

1. Standard strand burners, often called Crawford burners. A strand burner is a small pressure
vessel (usually with windows) in which a thin strand or bar of propellant is ignited at one
end and burned to the other end. The burning rate can be measured by electric signals from
embedded wires, by ultrasonic waves, or by optical means

2. Small-scale ballistic evaluation motors.

3. Full-scale motors with good instrumentation.

Erosive burning refers to the increase in the propellant burning rate caused by the high-velocity
flow of combustion gases over the burning propellant surface. It can seriously affect the perfor-
mance of solid propellant rocket motors. It occurs primarily in the port passages or perforations of
the grain as the combustion gases flow toward the nozzle.
Chapter 2. SOLID PROPULSION AND PYROTECHNICS 38

2.6 Igniter Design

The igniter in a solid rocket motor generates the heat and gas required for motor ignition. Motor
ignition must usually be complete in a fraction of a second for all but the very large motors.
Conventionally, the ignition process is divided into three phases for analytical purposes:

1. Ignition time lag: the period from the moment igniter receives a signal until the first bit of
grain surface burns.

2. Flame-spreading interval: the time from first ignition of the grain surface until the complete
grain burning area has been ignited.

3. Chamber-filling interval: the time for completing the chamber filling process and for reach-
ing equilibrium chamber pressure and flow.

The ignition will be successful once enough grain surface is ignited and burning, so that the motor
will continue to raise its own pressure to the operating chamber pressure. The critical process
seems to be a gas-phase reaction above the burning surface, when propellant vapors or decom-
position products interact with each other and with the igniter gas products. If the igniter is not
powerful enough, some grain surfaces may burn for a short time, but the flame will be extinguished.

2.7 Igniter Hardware

Since the igniter propellant mass is small (often less than 1 propellant) and burns mostly at low
chamber pressure (low / 5), it contributes very little to the motor overall total impulse. It is the
designer’s aim to reduce the igniter propellant mass and the igniter inert hardware mass to a mini-
mum, just big enough to assure ignition under all operating conditions. There are two basic types:
pyrotechnic igniters and pyrogen igniters.
Chapter 2. SOLID PROPULSION AND PYROTECHNICS 39

2.7.0.1 Pyrotechnic igniters

In industrial practice, pyrotechnic igniters are defined as igniters using solid explosives or ener-
getic propellant-like chemical formulations (usually small pellets of propellant which give a large
burning surface and a short burning time) as the heat-producing material.

1. Firstly, on receipt of an electrical signal the initiator releases energy of a small amount of
sensitive powdered pyrotechnic housed within the initiator, commonly called the squib or
the primer charge.

2. Secondly, the booster charge is ignited by heat released from the squib.

3. Finally, the main ignition charge propellants are ignited.

A special form of pyrotechnic igniter is the surface-bonded or grain-mounted igniter. Such an

igniter has its initiator included within a sandwich of flat sheets; the layer touching the grain is the
main charge of pyrotechnic. This form of igniter is used with multipulse motors with two or more
end-burning grains.

2.7.0.2 Pyrogen igniters

A pyrogen igniter is basically a small rocket motor that is used to ignite a larger rocket motor. The
pyrogen is not designed to produce thrust. All use one or more nozzle orifices, both sonic and su-
personic types, and most use conventional rocket motor grain formulations and design technology.
Heat transfer from the pyrogen to the motor grain is largely convective, with the hot gases con-
tacting the grain surface as contrasted to a highly radiative energy emitted by pyrotechnic igniters.
For pyrogen igniters the initiator and the booster charge are very similar to the designs used in
pyrotechnic igniters. Reaction products from the main charge impinge on the surface of the rocket
motor grain, producing motor ignition.-
Two approaches are commonly used to safeguard against motor misfires, or inadvertent motor ig-
nition; one is the use of the classical safe and arm device and the second is the design of safeguards
into the initiator. Functionally, the safe and arm device serves as an electrical switch to keep the
igniter circuit grounded when not operating; in some designs it also mechanically misaligns or
Chapter 2. SOLID PROPULSION AND PYROTECHNICS 40

blocks the ignition train of events so that unwanted ignition is precluded even though the initiator
fires.

2.8 Pyrotechnics

Pyrotechnics refers to making fire by chemical reaction, with the goal to produce light, heat,
noise, or gases. It is always done by combustion of a fuel and an oxidizer (a red-ox reaction), but
distinguishes from normal combustion in the speed: combustion refers to slow processes whereas
pyrotechnics is associated to almost instantaneous combustion (solid-rocket propellants being in
between).
In aerospace technology pyrotechnics refer to a broad family of sophisticated devices utilizing
explosive, propellant and pyrotechnics to accomplish:

Initiation, Jettison, Release, Valving, time delay and Actuation.

For pyrotechnics to be effective, fuel and oxidizer must be premixed (double-base pyrotechnics)
or, even better, they should be part of the same molecule (single-base pyrotechnics) with zero or
slightly positive oxygen balance, they should be highly exothermic, and they should be in condense
form and generate a lot of gas. Nitrogen atoms are found in most explosives, because they yield
nitrogen molecules that release great energy and expanding gases. In double-base pyrotechnics,
the oxidizing agents may be nitrates, chlorate, peroxides, oxides, chromate’s and perchlorate (the
best), all providing oxygen. The reducing agents may be charcoal (carbon), sulfur, or metal pow-
ders. Notice that all practical double-base pyrotechnics are powder solids mixed-up, with some
gluing agent to keep them bounded, because liquid mixtures are too unstable.

2.8.0.1 Classification

By physical state pyrotechnics may be grouped as:

1. Solids. The majority of cases, because they are more stable and easier to handle.
Chapter 2. SOLID PROPULSION AND PYROTECHNICS 41

2. Liquids. Very unstable even if single-base, as nitrocellulose and nitroglycerine. Separate

liquids, like LH2 and LOX used in cryogenic rockets, are treated as combustion processes.

3. Gases. There are no single-base pyrotechnic gases (they would decompose), and premixed
explosive gases are considered under normal combustion.

By use, pyrotechnics are grouped as:

1. Explosives. Substances that, by chemical decomposition, generate a supersonic reaction

wave, propagating at several km/s within the material, generating a lot of hot expanding
gases. They are also called high-explosives, and the process is known as detonation; e.g.
dynamite. Sensitive materials that can be exploded by a relatively small amount of heat
or pressure are called primary explosives (e.g. nitroglycerine, lead azide), and more stable
materials secondary explosives (e.g. TNT, ANFO).

2. Propellants. Substances that, by chemical decomposition, generate a subsonic reaction

wave, propagating at a few cm/s or m/s within the material, generating a lot of hot expanding
gases. They are also called low-explosives, and the process is known as deflagration, as in
combustion; e.g. black powder.

2.8.0.2 Applications

According to their purpose, pyrotechnics may be classified as:

1. Blasters, for mining, tunneling, demolition, quick-release devices, and weaponry (warhead).
They are high-explosives that undergo supersonic combustion when detonated by a low-
explosive or shock-wave (they slowly burn if just approached by a flame). If the blast is just
to cause an abrupt noise, with insignificant blasting, the device is called a firecracker (see
below).

2. Propellants, for rockets and weaponry. They generate a large gas stream (like all other
pyrotechnics) that is channeled with one free end to give propulsive thrust to a projectile or
to the combustor body. The main difference between rocket propellants and gun propellants
is the working pressure reached, which in rockets is around 10 MPa, and in guns more than
100 MPa, with the consequent change in burning rate ).
Chapter 2. SOLID PROPULSION AND PYROTECHNICS 42

3. Launch Escape Tower (LET) separation

4. Separation rocket ignition

5. Booster stage/Lunar Module separation

6. Forward heat shield jettison

7. Spacecraft/Lunar Module Adapter panel separation

8. Lunar Module landing gear deployment

9. Lunar Module propulsion systems pressurization and activation

10. Parachute deployment and release

11. Electrical circuit opening and closing

12. Line/cable cutting – timed and delayed-time

13. Spacecraft vehicle destruction, if loss of control or other catastrophe.

2.9 Thrust vector Control

In addition to providing a propulsive force to a flying vehicle, a rocket propulsion system can
provide moments to rotate the flying vehicle and thus provide control of the vehicle’s attitude and
flight path. It directs thrust in a direction other than parallel to the vehicles longitudinal axis. The
reasons for TVC are:

1. to willfully change a flight path or trajectory ( e.g., changing the direction of the flight path
of a target-seeking missile);

2. to rotate the vehicle or change its attitude during powered flight;

3. to correct for deviation from the intended trajectory or the attitude during powered flight; or

4. to correct for thrust misalignment of a fixed nozzle in the main propulsion system during its
operation, when the main thrust vector misses the vehicle’s center of gravity.
Chapter 2. SOLID PROPULSION AND PYROTECHNICS 43

Several TVC mechanisms that have been used in production vehicles are:

1. Rotating Nozzle: The rotating nozzle has no throat movement. These nozzles work in pairs
and are slant-cut to create an area of under expansion of exhaust gases on one side of the
nozzle. This creates an unbalanced side load and the inner wall of the longer side of the
nozzle. Rotation of the nozzles moves this side load to any point desired and provides roll,
yaw and pitch control. This system is simple but produces slow changes in the velocity
vector. Rotating nozzles are usually supplemented with some other form of TVC.

2. Swiveled Nozzle The swiveled nozzle changes the direction of the throat and nozzle. It is
similar to gimbaling in liquid propellant engines. The main drawback in using this method is
the difficulty in fabricating the seal joint of the swivel since this joint is exposed to extremely
high pressures and temperatures.

3. Movable Control Surfaces- Movable Control Surfaces physically deflect the exhaust or
create voids in the exhaust plume to divert the thrust vector. This method includes jet vanes,
jet tabs, and mechanical probes. These TVC approaches are all based on proven technology
with low actuator power required. They suffer from erosion and cause thrust loss with any
deflection. A similar system is the jet avator, a slipring or collar at the nozzle exit which
creates an under expansion region. The jet avator is a movable surface which allows the
under expanded region to be moved 360 degrees around the rocket nozzle to produce pitch
and yaw control. This system was developed for the Polaris SLBM.

2.10 Main Failure Modes

1. Case breach: Local burning-through of the rocket case (see Figure 1 in Home section) which
can result in catastrophic impact on the TVC system (see Figure 1, and Figure 2 (in Home
section) for the test firing of TD31).

2. Case burst: Nozzle blocking or bore choking which results in overpressure in a combustion
chamber.

3. Nozzle Failure: Deformations of the nozzle which, in particular, can reduce the thrust being
generated. This effect can be induced by ablation process and abrupt breaking off of large
Chapter 2. SOLID PROPULSION AND PYROTECHNICS 44

pieces of the propellant. These pieces or a cloud of solid particles in the exhaust gases
accumulating at the nozzle inlet can block temporarily the nozzle throat (transient nozzle
blocking fault). A nonuniform failure of the nozzle (such as loosing a chunk of the aft exit
cone, or partially failing a joint) will result in a non-axial component of thrust. A failure
would also result in the plume moving closer to the aft skirt, causing increased heating and
adversely affecting the TVC system.

4. Bore choking: Bore choking occurs when the propellant deforms (bulges) radially inward
and disrupts the exhaust gas flow, causing a choked flow condition inside the motor. Bore
choking can be most likely realized near radial slots and segment joints between two sections
with a smaller radius of the aft section. This critical effect is typically caused by localized
areas of low pressure arising near such inhomogeneous. Development testing has shown
that this fault was observed, for example, in the primary construction of the Titan IV (see
Figure 3). Bore choking has the potential of causing booster over-pressure and catastrophic
failure.

5. Debonding: Potentially large parts of the propellant debond from the liner and become loose.
They can bend and stick inside the bore. In the large rocket with the large aspect ratio of
the bore volume the depleted propellant can significantly obscure the bore volume leading
to chocking.

6. Propellant structural failure: Critical defects are cracks and voids in solid propellant and
slots of booster joint segments. These defects can stimulate the increase of local burning
rate that can result in abruption of lager enough piece of the propellant. This piece can
stick to a narrow place of the burning propellant or choke minimum cross section of the
nozzle. This can cause a sharp catastrophic jump of the booster trust and overpressure in the
chamber head.

7. Combustion instabilities: Instabilities of combustion in the system.

8. Structural Failure: Large-scale buckling in the case or first to second stage coupling could
result in a non-linear vehicle causing excessive aerodynamic drag. Small-scale buckling
may alter stress/strain levels in the case.

9. Ignition failure: Failure of ignition in system.

Chapter 2. SOLID PROPULSION AND PYROTECHNICS 45

2.11 Important parameters

Silver The solid propellant residue left unburnt after web extinguishes.
Liner The purpose of linear is to extinguish the flame in a solid rocket motor and insulate the case.
Web The maximum radial thickness of solid propellant grain.

The Volumetric Loading Fraction

is defined as the fraction of grain volume to case volume, and relates the volumetric efficiency of
the motor, as well as a measure of performance efficiency:

Vp It
V1 = = (2.11)
Va ρ pVa

where Vp is the grain volume, Va is the available chamber volume, It is the total impulse (deliver-
able), and Isp is the propellant specific impulse.

Ullage

The volume of the gas space above the propellant in a propellant tank. It is expressed as percentage
of propellant volume.

Web Thickness

The minimum dimension from the port surface to liner interface measured radially.

Web Fraction

is the ratio of propellant web thickness to grain outer radius, and is given by:

D − d 2rtb
V1 = = (2.12)
D D
Chapter 2. SOLID PROPULSION AND PYROTECHNICS 46

where tb is the motor burn time. Clearly, to maximize burn duration, it is necessary to maximize
the web fraction (i.e. thickness). The ”price” for maximizing web thickness is reduction of the
grain core diameter.

Port-to-Throat area ratio

is given by the flow channel cross-sectional area to the nozzle throat cross-sectional area:

A p πD2 (1 −V1 )
= (2.13)
At 4At

Length-to-Diameter ratio

is the grain overall length in relation to the grain outer diameter. This parameter is very significant
in motor design, as larger L/D values tend to result in greater erosive burning effects (including
negative erosive burning). High L/D values tend to generate high mass flow rate differentials along
the grain length, and may be best served with a tapered core or stepped core diameters (largest
nearer the nozzle).

2.12 Desirable Properties of Solid Rocket Motor

Solid rocket motor should have high release of chemical energy, they should have lower molecular
weight, no deterioration of mechanical and chemical properties during storage. Most of the solid
propellant rockets are created in specialized factories. They have to be stored for long period,
during which there should not be any drop in the mechanical or chemical properties because they
need to retain them during their actual operation inside the rocket chamber. They also need to be
ensured that during this storage period, which could be many months and they must be unaffected
by the atmosphere or atmospheric conditions. They should not be amenable to high temperature
and pressure. For combustion, initiation combustion needs to take place at certain temperature and
pressure. It should not get into combustion, before that temperature or pressure is arrived. So,
these are some of the basic properties for solid propellant rockets that are used for choosing the
solid propellants.
Chapter 2. SOLID PROPULSION AND PYROTECHNICS 47

2.13 Solid Rocket Motor Performance

There are two major indicators of rocket system performance, specific impulse I and mass fraction
M.F :

T hrust
Isp = Rateo f propellantusage

(Initialmass)−(Burnoutmass)
M.F. = Initialmass

Weighto f propellant
M.F. = Weighto f total propulsionsystem

Solid propellants are typically less energetic than the better liquid-propellant combinations. Mod-
ern solids have sea-level Is p values in the range of 220 to 250 seconds, compared with over 350
seconds for the liquid-oxygen/liquid-hydrogen combination. On the other hand, solid-rocket mass
fractions can be quite high because there are no valves, piping, or pumps to add to the inert weight.
High-performance upper-stage solid motors typically attain mass fractions nearing 0.95 through
the use of filament wound glass cases and refractory-lined nozzles.
Even the large solid boosters have mass fractions exceeding 0.90, a value which liquid-fueled mis-
siles with very thin tank walls (e. g., Atlas) can barely achieve. The solid rocket’s real advantages
are its strength, since the propellant grain has considerable strength of its own and also acts as a
stiffener and shock dampener, and its instant readiness, since there are no fuel tanks to be filled
just prior to firing and launch.

2.14 Classification of Nozzles for solid propellant rocket motors

Nozzles for solid propellant rocket motors can be classified into five categories.

1. Fixed Nozzle. Simple and used frequently in tactical weapon propulsion systems for short-
range air, ground, and sea-launched missiles, also as strap-on propulsion for space launch
vehicles such as Atlas and Delta, and in spacecraft motors for orbital transfer. Typical throat
Chapter 2. SOLID PROPULSION AND PYROTECHNICS 48

diameters are between 0.25 and 5 in. for tactical missile nozzles and approximately l O in.
for strap-on motors. Fixed nozzles are generally not submerged and do not provide thrust
vector control (although there are exceptions).

2. Movable Nozzle. Provides thrust vector control for the flight vehicle. One movable nozzle
can provide pitch and yaw control and two are needed for roll control. Movable nozzles
are typically submerged and use a flexible sealed joint or bearing with two actuators 90
degrees apart to achieve omniaxial motion. Movable nozzles are primarily used in long-
range strategic propulsion ground- and sea launched systems (typical throat diameters are
7 to 15 in. for the first stage and 4 to 5 in. for the third stage) and in large space launch
boosters such as the Space Shuttle reusable solid rocket motor, Titan boost rocket motor,
and Ariane V solid rocket booster, with throat diameters in the 30 to 50 in. range.

3. Submerged Nozzles. A significant portion of the nozzle structure is submerged within the
combustion chamber or case. Submerging the nozzle reduces the overall motor length some-
what, which in turn reduces the vehicle length and its inert mass. It is important for length-
limited applications such as silo- and submarine-launched strategic missiles as well as their
upper stages, and space motor propulsion systems.

4. Extendible Nozzle. Commonly referred to as an extendible exit cone, or EEC, although it is

not always exactly conical. It is used on strategic missile propulsion upper-stage systems and
upper stages for space launch vehicles to maximize motor-delivered specific impulse. It has
a fixed low-area ratio nozzle section which is enlarged to a higher area ratio by mechanically
adding a nozzle cone extension piece. The extended nozzle improves specific impulse by
doubling or tripling the initial expansion ratio, thereby significantly increasing the nozzle
thrust coefficient. This system thus allows a very high expansion ratio nozzle to be packaged
in a relatively short length, thereby reducing vehicle inert mass. The nozzle cone extension
is in its retracted position during the boost phase of the flight and is moved into place before
the motor is started but after separation from the lower stage. Typically, electromechanical
or turbine-driven ball screw actuators deploy the exit cone extension.

5. Blast-Tube-Mounted Nozzle. Used with tactical air- and ground-launched missiles with
diameter constraints to allow space for aerodynamic fin actuation or TVC power supply
systems. The blast tube also allows the rocket motor’s center of gravity (CG) to be close to
Chapter 2. SOLID PROPULSION AND PYROTECHNICS 49

or ahead of the vehicle CG. This limits the CG travel during motor burn and makes flight
stabilization much easier. Each motor usually has a single nozzle. A few larger motors have
had four movable nozzles, which are used for thrust vector control.

F IGURE 2.7: Classification of nozzles in SRM

Chapter 3

LIQUID PROPULSION AND

CONTROL SYSTEMS

3.1 Introduction

Liquid propellant engines pioneered by Pedro Paulet in 19th century. The first static test firing
took place in 1923. Robert Goddard flies first liquid propellant engine (LOX/gasoline) March 16,
1926 in Auburn. V-2 (LOX/ethanol) developed in the 1930s. Early proponents of liquid propulsion
include Tsiolkovsky, Goddard, and Oberth.
Liquid propellant rocket engines are widely used and play a very important role in aerospace.
The function of a LPRE is to generate thrust through chemical reactions, which usually release
thermal energy from the chemical energy of the propellants. The pressure generated from the
thermal energy imparts a momentum to the reaction products. Then a momentum in the opposite
direction is imparted to the rocket and propels a vehicle in space. A LPRE system usually consists
of thrust chamber assembly, propellant feed system, turbine-drive system (for turbo-pump LPRE),
and propellant control system, etc. A liquid propellant rocket engine is very complex and difficult
to design and analyze because of many coupled subsystems and their extreme working conditions.
Physical experiments under various conditions are also expensive. Hence it’s critical to utilize
models to facilitate the design and analysis process of LPRE.

50
Chapter 3. LIQUID PROPULSION AND CONTROL SYSTEMS 51

F IGURE 3.1: Liquid Rocket Engine

3.2 Classification

There are two categories, namely Booster propulsion and Auxiliary propulsion Booster propul-
sion are used for boosting a payload and imparting a significant velocity increase to a payload. It
is used in Booster stage and upper stages of launch vehicles, large missiles. The total impulse of
Booster propulsion is very high. The thrust level is High, ranging from 4500 N up to 7,900,000
N. Time elapsed to reach full thrust is Up to several seconds. The propellants used are Storable
liquids and cryogenic liquids. Auxiliary propulsion is used for Attitude control, minor space ma-
neuvers, trajectory corrections, orbit maintenance. Its applications include Spacecraft, satellites,
top stage of anti-ballistic missile, space rendezvous. The total impulse of Auxiliary propulsion is
low. Number of thrust chambers per engine are between 4 and 24. The thrust level is small usually
from 0.001 up to 4500 N,
Liquid propellant rocket engine systems can be classified also on the basis of propellants used.
A Bipropellant rocket unit has two separate liquid propellants, an oxidizer and a fuel. They are
stored separately and are not mixed outside the combustion chamber. The majority of liquid pro-
pellant rockets have been manufactured for bipropellant applications.
A Monopropellant contains an oxidizing agent and combustible matter in a single substance. It
may be a mixture of several compounds or it may be a homogeneous material, such as hydrogen
peroxide or hydrazine. Hydrazine is being used extensively as a monopropellant in small attitude
Chapter 3. LIQUID PROPULSION AND CONTROL SYSTEMS 52

and trajectory control rockets for the control of satellites and other spacecraft and also as a hot gas
generator.
Monopropellants are stable at ordinary atmospheric conditions but decompose and yield hot com-

F IGURE 3.2: Monopropellant Rocket Engine

bustion gases when heated or catalyzed.

A Cold gas propellant (e.g., nitrogen) is stored at very high pressure, gives a low performance,
allows a simple system and is usually very reliable. It has been used for roll control and attitude
control.
A Cryogenic propellant is liquified gas at low temperature, such as liquid oxygen (- l 83°C) or
liquid hydrogen (-253°C). Provisions for venting the storage tank and minimizing vaporization
losses are necessary with this type. Methane (CH4 ) is a cryogenic hydrocarbon fuel. It is denser
than liquid hydrogen and relatively low in cost.
Storable propellants (e.g., nitric acid or gasoline) are liquid at ambient temperature and can be
stored for long periods in sealed tanks. Space storable propellants are liquid in the environment of
space; this storability depends on the specific tank design, thermal conditions, and tank pressure.
An example is ammonia. Nitrogen tetroxide is a storable propellant oxidizer and is used in the
Titan missile together with a fuel mixture consisting of hydrazine and unsymmetrical dimethyl-
hydrazine. It is also used with monomethylhydrazine fuel in the Space Shuttle orbital maneuver
system and reaction control system and in many spacecraft propulsion systems.
A Gelled propellant is a thixotropic liquid with a gelling additive. It behaves like a jelly or thick
paint. It will not spill or leak readily, can flow under pressure, will burn, and is safer in some
respects.
Liquid propellant rocket engine systems can be classified in several other ways. They can be
Chapter 3. LIQUID PROPULSION AND CONTROL SYSTEMS 53

reusable (like the Space Shuttle main engine or a booster rocket engine for quick ascent or ma-
neuvers of fighter aircraft) or suitable for a single flight only (as the engines in the Atlas or Titan
launch vehicles) and they can be restartable, like a reaction control engine, or single firing, as in a
space launch vehicle. They can also be categorized by their propellants, application, or stage, such
as an upper stage or booster stage, their thrust level, and by the feed system type (pressurized or
turbo pump).

3.2.1 Advantages of Liquid Propellant Engines over Solid Propelleant Engines

Liquid propellant engines have a number of advantages over solid propellant engines.

1. A wider array of propellant combinations are available for different applications. Some
of these require an ignition system and others simply ignite on contact. Monomylmethyl-
hydrozene (fuel) and nitrogen tetroxide (oxidizer) ignite spontaneously. These are called
hypergolic propellants. With hypergolic propellants, a rocket engine does not need an igni-
tion system. Hypergolic propellants are great for attitude control rockets like those that will
be arrayed around the Orion service module.

2. Another advantage of liquid propellants is that they can be controlled. Adjusting their flow
into the Liquid propellant rocket combustion chamber adjusts the amount of thrust produced.

3. Furthermore, liquid engines can be stopped and restarted later. It is very difficult to stop a
solid propellant rocket once it is started, and thrust control is limited.

3.3 Design Considerations of Bi-propellant systems

1. Plumbing in the pressurization system has to: Provide isolation of the high pressure pressur-
ant tank(s) from the relatively low pressure propellant tanks. Prevent migration and mixing
of propellant vapors, if a pressurization system common to both propellants is used.

2. Prevent mixing of propellants (except in thrusters, of course).

3. Maintain control of the flow of both propellants such that the thruster inlet conditions stay
within acceptable limits.
Chapter 3. LIQUID PROPULSION AND CONTROL SYSTEMS 54

4. Control pressure drops in the system such that effects associated with pressurant coming out
of solution are within acceptable limits

5. Bi-propellant systems often provide for the isolation of the pressurization system during
long periods of system inactivity, or after enough of the propellant has been expelled that
blow-down operations are possible.

6. Dual mode systems often provide for the isolation of the oxidizer system after the bi-
propellant main engine has been used, either leaving the hydrazine tank in blow-down, or
keeping the hydrazine tank at regulated pressure.

3.4 Engine Cycles

There are four methods which are used for transporting liquid propellants from their storage tanks
to the rocket motor. They are:

F IGURE 3.3: Applications of Engine Cycles

1. Gas pressurization system

2. Pump pressurization system.

3. Gas generator System.

4. Expander System.
Chapter 3. LIQUID PROPULSION AND CONTROL SYSTEMS 55

3.4.1 Pressure fed system

Gas pressurization system is simplest cycle for rocket propulsion and it relies on a pressurant to
force propellant from the tanks to the combustor. Thrust is limited due to the size of the pressurant
tank. In this system, an inert gas (nitrogen) is used. This gas is stored at high pressure and is
supplied through pressure regulator valves to force the liquid propellants through the lines, control
valves, injector plate and into the combustion chamber.

F IGURE 3.4: Pressure fed Rocket Engine

3.4.2 Turbo pump fed system

In turbopump system liquid oxidizer and fuel are stored at low pressure so that tanks are light
in weight and forced into rocket motor at high pressure by fuel and oxidizer pumps. The power
driving the pumps is supplied by gas turbine which is supplied with steam and oxygen obtained by
decomposing hydrogen peroxide by a catalyst.

Because of the use of third liquid (H2 O2 ), gas turbine, pumps and additional lines that are nec-
essary, pump pressurization system is more complex than gas pressurization system. The design
of pumps is the biggest problem because any leakage of liquids will lead to explosion. Liquid
Chapter 3. LIQUID PROPULSION AND CONTROL SYSTEMS 56

oxidizers are generally acids, liquid oxygen, concentrated hydrogen peroxide (H2 O2 ), nitrogen
tetra-oxide (N2 O4 ) etc. and hence special pump materials are required for the oxidizer pump and
impeller.
In general, a pressure feed system gives a vehicle performance superior to a turbopump system
when the total impulse or the mass of propellant is relatively low, the chamber pressure is low,
the engine thrust-to-weight ratio is low (usually less than 0.6), and when there are repeated short-
duration thrust pulses; the heavy-walled tanks for the propellant and the pressurizing gas usually
constitute the major inert mass of the engine system. In a turbo pump feed systems the propellant
tank pressures are much lower (by a factor of 10 to 40) and thus the tank masses are much lower
(again by a factor of 10 to 40).
Turbo pump systems usually give a superior vehicle performance when the total impulse is large
(higher Au) and the chamber pressure is higher. The pressurized feed system can be relatively
simple, such as for a single operation, factory-preloaded, simple unit (with burst diaphragms in-
stead of some of the valves), or quite complex, as with multiple restart able thrusters or reusable
systems. If the propulsion system is to be reusable or is part of a manned vehicle (where the
reliability requirements are very high and the vehicle’s crew can monitor and override automatic
commands), the feed system becomes more complex (with more safety features and redundancies)
and more expensive.

3.4.3 Expander fed system

Next let us look at the another cycle, which is called expander cycle as the name suggest there is
some kind of expansion taking place in expander cycle. So, here what happens, there is a schematic
fuel comes through a valve, and then it is channelized all around the combustion chamber, and the
nozzle. So, the fuel flows through this channels and absorb some of the waste heat, because of this
absorption of this heat - the fuel gets expanded, and gets converted into gas. And there after that
this gas is supplied across a turbine, and because of that the turbine starts to rotate, this turbine
is connected by a shaft to this fuel pump. So, the pump starts to volt and therefore fresh fuel is
sucked in. Now, the gas after it crosses the turbine is fed back into the combustion chamber. So,
therefore, there is no wastage of fuel and everything is essentially burnt.
Chapter 3. LIQUID PROPULSION AND CONTROL SYSTEMS 57

F IGURE 3.5: Expander combustion cycle

3.4.4 Stage Combustion cycle

The forth type of cycle is the stage combustion cycle. In stage combustion cycle the liquid fuel
comes in goes around the combustion chamber gets heated up, but its fed into the pre burner,
oxidizer directly comes in here part of the oxidizer is taken from the supply and put into the pre
burner. Pre burner burns this fuel and complete all the fuel earlier in the gas generator it was all
the fuel which was going to the pre burner. Here all the fuel goes to the pre burner. So, as you
see you can see there is a fairly fuel reach combustion going on, and then it goes to the turbine,
and then the entire product is fed into the combustor again. So, nothing is lost and it is already a
vapor phase now. So, your fuel is now coming as a vapor of product and fuel, because some of the
product is created here. So, this is the stage combustion cycle, some of the propellant is burn in the
pre burner and resulted hot gases used to power the engines turbine, and the pumps. The exhausted
gas is then injected into the main combustor along with the rest of the propellant and combustion
is completed. So, all the cycle gases are going through the combustion chamber, therefore overall
efficiency does not suffer any loss. So, we have fairly high combustion efficiency. This combustion
Chapter 3. LIQUID PROPULSION AND CONTROL SYSTEMS 58

F IGURE 3.6: Staged combustion cycle

cycle is often called close cycle, because everything is going round. And the cycle is closed as
propellant produce product goes to the chamber as oppose to the open cycle, where some of these
were discarded right in the open circle some of gas generator cycle, some of it were discarded.
Stage combustion gives an abundance of power, which permits very high chamber pressure, we
can go to very high chamber pressure by this schematic, very high chamber pressure on the other
hand means high expansion ratio nozzles are possible. and because of this high expansion ratio
nozzle, we can get fairly good pressure at take of as well even at ambient pressure, we can get
fairly high pressure in the combustion chamber to allow even take off, because it is possible to
operate at very high pressures.

3.5 Valve

The propellant valves in high thrust units handle relatively large flows at high service pressures.
Therefore, the forces necessary to actuate the valves are large. Hydraulic or pneumatic pressure,
Chapter 3. LIQUID PROPULSION AND CONTROL SYSTEMS 59

controlled by pilot valves, operates the larger valves; these pilot valves are in turn actuated by a
solenoid or a mechanical linkage. Essentially this is a means of power boost.

3.5.0.1 Classification of Valves Used in Liquid Propellant Rocket Engines

Two valves commonly used in pressurized feed systems are isolation valves and latch valves. They
require power for brief periods during movements, such as to open or shut, but need no power
when latched or fastened into position. A very simple and very light valve is a burst diaphragm.
It is essentially a circular disk of material which blocks a pipeline and is designed so that it will
fail and burst at a predetermined pressure differential. Burst diaphragms are positive seals and
prevent leakage, but they can be used only once. Pressure regulators are special valves which
are used frequently to regulate gas pressures. Usually the discharge pressure is regulated to a
predetermined standard pressure value by continuously throttling the flow, using a piston, flexible
diaphragm, or electromagnet as the actuating mechanism.

3.6 Combustion Instabilities

Development of resonant fluctuations in chamber pressure can produce vibration, and in extreme
cases, destruction of the engine. Even if the damages does not ensue, the fluctuating pressure, and
the associated fluctuations in combustion temperature reduce the efficiency with which propellant
energy is converted into thrust. Thus, particular effort has to be made in the design to remove or
limit the magnitude of these fluctuations in the chamber pressure.

3.6.1 Pogo Oscillation

Pogo oscillation is a self-excited vibration in liquid-propellant rocket engines caused by combus-

tion instability.[1] The unstable combustion results in variations of engine thrust, causing varia-
tions of acceleration on the vehicle’s flexible structure, which in turn cause variations in propellant
pressure and flow rate, closing the self-excitation cycle. The name is a metaphor comparing the
longitudinal vibration to the bouncing of a pogo stick. Pogo oscillation places stress on the frame
Chapter 3. LIQUID PROPULSION AND CONTROL SYSTEMS 60

of the vehicle, which in severe cases can be dangerous.

3.6.2 Sloshing

Sloshing means any motion of free liquid surface in its container. It is caused by any distrubance
to partially filled containers. Depending on the type of distrubance, shape of container, the free liq-
uid surface can experience different types of motion including simple planar, rotational, irregular
beating, symmetric asymmetric, quasi-periodic and chaotic. Important examples include propel-
lant slosh in spacecraft tanks and rockets (especially upper stages), and the free surface effect
(cargo slosh) in ships and trucks transporting liquids (for example oil and gasoline). During a
rocket’s ascent phase, sloshing of propellants in its fuel tanks can lead to serious trajectory control
problems because the sloshing natural frequencies are close to the controller frequencies and this
likely instability is compounded by the large propellant masses involved. Shortly after it reached
orbit in August 1969, NASA’s spin-stabilized Applications Technology Satellite 5 (ATS5) began
to wobble, sending the spacecraft into an unplanned flat spin and crippling the mission. It was later
found that this event was caused by excessive fuel slosh, creating a long-standing concern about
this phenomenon.

3.6.3 Low Frquency: Chugging

This is a low frequency oscillation at a few Hertz in chamber pressure usually caused by pressure
variations in feed lines due to variations in acceleration of the vehicle. Characteristic frequency
range is between 10 and 200 Hz. Chugging, the first type of combustion instability stems mostly
from the elastic nature of the feed systems and structures of vehicles or the imposition of propul-
sion forces upon the vehicle. Chugging of an engine or thrust chamber assembly can occur in a
test facility, especially with low chamber pressure engines (100 to 500 psia), because of propellant
pump cavitation, gas entrapment in propellant flow, tank pressurization control fluctuations, and
vibration of engine supports and propellant lines. It can be caused by resonances in the engine
feed system (such as an oscillating bellows inducing a periodic flow fluctuation) or a coupling of
structural and feed system frequencies.
Chapter 3. LIQUID PROPULSION AND CONTROL SYSTEMS 61

3.6.4 Buzzing

Characteristic frequency range is between 20 and 1000 Hz. Instability is a result from either flow
instabilities or resonance with chamber structure. This can be caused due to insufficient pressure
drop across the injectors. It generally is mostly annoying, rather than being damaging. However,
in extreme cases combustion can end up being forced backwards through the injectors – this can
cause explosions with mono propellants.[citation needed]

3.6.5 High frequency: Screaming mode

Characteristic frequency range is above 1000 Hz. Instability occurs due to interaction of combus-
tion process with chamber acoustics. It is due to acoustics within the combustion chamber that
often couples to the chemical combustion processes that are the primary drivers of the energy re-
lease, and can lead to unstable resonant ”screeching” that commonly leads to catastrophic failure
due to thinning of the insulating thermal boundary layer. Acoustic oscillations can be excited by
thermal processes, such as the flow of hot air through a pipe or combustion in a chamber. Screech-
ing is often dealt with by detailed changes to injectors, or changes in the propellant chemistry,
or vaporising the propellant before injection, or use of Helmholtz dampers within the combustion
chambers to change the resonant modes of the chamber.

3.7 Thrust vector control

In a rocket, the rocket engine or motor not only provides the propulsive force but also the means
of controlling its flight path by redirecting the thrust vector to provide directional control for the
vehicle’s flight path. This is known as thrust vector control (TVC).

3.7.1 Various methods of vector control of Liquid Rockets

Gimbaled Engines – Some liquid propellant rockets use an engine swivel or gimbal arrangement
to point the entire engine assembly. This arrangement requires flexible propellant lines, but pro-
duces negligible thrust losses for small deflection angles. This method is relatively common.
Chapter 3. LIQUID PROPULSION AND CONTROL SYSTEMS 62

F IGURE 3.7: Thrust vector control mechanisms

Vernier Rockets: Vernier rockets are small auxiliary rocket engines. These engines can provide
all attitude control, or just roll control for single engine stages during the main engine burn, and a
means of controlling the rocket after the main engine has shut off.
Jet Vanes: Jet vanes are small airfoils located in the exhaust flow behind the nozzle exit plane.
They act like ailerons or elevators on an aircraft and cause the vehicle to change direction by redi-
recting the rocket. Jet vanes are made of heat-resistant materials like carbon-carbon and other
refractory substances. Unfortunately, this control system causes a two to three percent loss of
thrust, and erosion of the vanes is also a major problem.

3.8 Characteristics of Bi-propellant systems

1. Small negative or preferably positive standard heats of formation of the reactant .

2. The reaction products should have low molecular weights and large negative heats of for-
mation.

3. The propellants should have large densities in order to minimize the dead weight of storage
tanks.

4. The oxidizers and reducing agents are best handled as liquids. For substances such as liquid
oxygen and hydrogen special cooling units must be provided.
Chapter 3. LIQUID PROPULSION AND CONTROL SYSTEMS 63

5. It is necessary to provide special cooling equipment for the chamber walls. At least one
of the components of a bi-propellant system with a high specific heat and/or large heat of
vaporization.

6. Since it may be necessary to store the propellants for long periods of time before use, good
propellants should have high storage stability, i.e., they must not decompose or change
chemically in any way during storage so that their use as a propellant is impaired.

7. Since propellants are chemicals which have to be handled by service personnel it may be
desirable for some applications to use propellants of relatively low toxicity.

8. Propellants which are readily available and preferably also of low cost are employed.

9. The bi-propellant mixture in a liquid-fuel rocket should be spontaneously combustible with

minimum time lag. Spontaneously combustible propellants are said to be hypergolic whereas
non spontaneous6 propellants are said to be non hypergolic. The time lag or ignition delay
is the period of time preceding steady-state combustion.

10. The reaction products should not be excessively corrosive or form solid deposits thereby
leading either to increased or decreased nozzle throat diameters.

11. For application to guided missiles the exhaust gases should not interfere with the guidance
method which is being used.

3.9 Advantages

1. Provides higher impulse for given propellant density; increases attainable vehicle velocity
increment and mission velocity.

2. Can be randomly throttles and stopped and restarted.

3. Provides for pulsed (repetitive) operation. Some small thrust rockets allow over 250,000
times usage.

4. Better control over mission terminal velocity, with precise thrust termination devices.

5. Can be largely checked prior to operationie can be tested for full thrust operation on ground.
Chapter 3. LIQUID PROPULSION AND CONTROL SYSTEMS 64

6. Thrust chamber smaller, can be cooled.

7. Thrust chamber can be designed for re-use after check ups.

8. Thrust chamber has thinner walls and light weight.

9. With pumped propellant feed system, inert system weight (including tanks) is lower allow-
ing high propellant mass fraction.

10. Liquid propellants are storable in the vehicle for more than 20 years and engine can be ready
for use quickly.

11. Propellant feed system can be designed to feed multiple thrust chambers.

12. Plume radiation and smoke are usually low.

13. Propellant tanks can be located such that vehicle stability is high.

3.10 Disadvantages

1. Relatively complex design with more components. Probability of failure more.

2. Spills or leaks can be hazardous, corrosive, toxic and can cause fires.

3. Fuel and oxidizer tanks need to be pressurized.

4. Needs separate feed system.

5. Cryogenic propellants cannot be stored for long periods. Storage tanks need special insula-
tion.

6. Need separate ignition system (except for hypergolic propellants).

7. More overall weight for short duration, low total impulse application.

8. More difficult to control combustion instability.

9. A few propellants like RFNA (red fuming nitric acid) give toxic vapors and fumes

10. Need more volume due to low average density of propellant.

Chapter 3. LIQUID PROPULSION AND CONTROL SYSTEMS 65

11. Sloshing of liquid in tanks can cause stability problem in flight.

12. Needs special design provisions for start at zero gravity.

3.11 Cooling of Combustion Chamber and Nozzles

3.11.1 Radiation cooling

This is probably the simplest method of cooling a rocket engine or motor. The method is usually
used for monopropellant thrusters, gas generators, and lower nozzle sections. The interior of
the combustion chamber is covered with a refractory material (graphite, pyrographite, tungsten,
tantalum or molybdenum) or is simply made thick enough to absorb a lot of heat. Cooling occurs
by heat loss through radiation into the exhaust plume. Radiation cooling can set an upper limit on
the temperature attained by the walls of the thrust chamber. The rate of heat loss varies with the
fourth power of the absolute temperature and becomes more significant as the temperature rises.

F IGURE 3.8: Film cooling mechanisms

3.11.2 Ablation cooling

In the ablation cooling method, the interior of the thrust chamber is lined with an ablative material,
usually some form of fabric reinforced plastic. This material chars, melts and vaporizes in the
intense heat of the nozzle. In this type of “heat sink cooling,” the heat absorbed in the melting
and burning (the energy alters the chemical form instead of raising its temperature) of the ablative
Chapter 3. LIQUID PROPULSION AND CONTROL SYSTEMS 66

material prevents the temperature from becoming excessively high. The charred material also
serves as an insulator and protects the rocket case from overheating. The gas produced by burning
the ablative material provides an area of “cooler” gas next to the nozzle walls. The synthetic
organic plastic binder material is reinforced with glass fiber or a synthetic substance. Solid rocket
motors use ablative cooling almost exclusively, as there are no other fluids to use to cool the nozzle
throat.

3.11.3 Film cooling

With this method of cooling, liquid propellant is forced through small holes at the periphery of the
injector forming a film of liquid on the interior surface of the combustion chamber. The film has
a low thermal (or heat) conductivity since it readily vaporizes and protects the wall material from
the hot combustion gases. Cooling results from the vaporization of the liquid which absorbs con-
siderable heat. Film cooling is especially useful in regions where the walls become exceptionally
hot, e.g., the nozzle throat area.

3.11.4 Regenerative cooling

Ans. This is the most common method of cooling for cryogenic propellant rockets. It involves
circulating one of the super cooled propellants through a cooling jacket around the combustion
chamber and nozzle before it enters the injector. The propellant removes heat from the walls,
keeping temperatures at acceptable levels. At the same time, the temperature of the propellant
rises, causing it to vaporize faster upon injection. This cooling method is often used with gas
generator systems as a way to drive turbo pumps.
Chapter 4

Multistage of Rockets and Stage

Separation Dynamics

The guidance system of a rocket includes very sophisticated sensors, on-board computers, radars,
and communication equipment. The guidance system has two main roles during the launch of a
rocket; to provide stability for the rocket, and to control the rocket during maneuvers.
Missile guidance concerns the method by which the missile receives its commands to move along
a certain path to reach a target. On some missiles, these commands are generated internally by
the missile computer autopilot. On others, the commands are transmitted to the missile by some
external source. The missile sensor or seeker, on the other hand, is a component within a missile
that generates data fed into the missile computer. This data is processed by the computer and used
to generate guidance commands. Sensor types commonly used today include infrared, radar, and
the global positioning system. Based on the relative position between the missile and the target at
any given point in flight, the computer autopilot sends commands to the control surfaces to adjust
the missile’s course. The most common types of seekers or sensors used today include infrared,
radar, lasers, inertial, and GPS. It is the use of these guidance systems that turns a ”dumb” weapon
into a ”smart” weapon.

67
Chapter 4. Multistage of Rockets and Stage Separation Dynamics 68

The guidance process

The guidance process consists of measurement of vehicle position and velocity, computation of
control actions necessary to properly adjust position and velocity, and delivery of suitable adjust-
ment commands to the vehicle’s control system.

4.1 Guidance phases of flight

Guidance operations may occur in the initial, midcourse, or terminal phases of flight.

Ballistic missiles are commonly guided only during the initial flight phase, while rocket engines
are burning.

A cruise type of missile, such as the Snark or Matador, uses midcourse guidance, operating con-
tinuously during cruising flight. Air-to-air missiles such as Sidewinder employ terminal guidance
systems that lead the missile directly to the target on the basis of measurements on the target itself.

Any or all of these three kinds of guidance will be necessary for space flight, depending on the
type of vehicle and mission involved. Generally, missile in-flight guidance is divided into three
phases-boost, midcourse, and terminal. These names refer to the different parts or time periods of
a trajectory.

4.1.1 Boost Phase

The boost phase of missile flight is also known as the launching phase or initial phase. It is during
this period that the missile is boosted to flight speed. It lasts until the fuel supply of the booster
bums up. For the medium-range (MR) missiles that use a dual-thrust rocket motor (DTRM), the
booster propellant grain is consumed and bums out. For extended range (ER) missiles, the separate
booster drops off at burnout.

The boost phase is very important to the flight path of the missile. The launcher and missile are
aimed in a specific direction by orders from the FCS computer. This aiming establishes the line
of sight (trajectory or flight path) the missile must fly along during the initial phase. At the end of
Chapter 4. Multistage of Rockets and Stage Separation Dynamics 69

F IGURE 4.1: Guidance phases of flight

boost, the missile must be at a calculated point. Some missiles are guided during boost; others are
not.

4.1.2 Midcourse Phase

The second or midcourse phase of guidance is often the longest in both distance and time. During
midcourse (or cruise) guidance, the missile makes any corrections necessary to stay on the desired
course. Guidance information can be supplied to the missile by various means. The object of
midcourse guidance is to place the missile near the target.

4.1.3 Terminal Phase

The terminal phase of guidance brings the missile into contact or close proximity with the target.
The last phase of guidance must have quick response to ensure a high degree of accuracy. Quite
often the guidance system causes the missile to perform what is best described as an ”up-and-
over” maneuver during the terminal phase. Essentially, the missile flies higher than the target and
descends on it at intercept.
Chapter 4. Multistage of Rockets and Stage Separation Dynamics 70

4.2 Classification of Guidance Systems

Guidance systems are divided into different categories according to whether they are designed to
attack fixed or moving targets. The weapons can be divided into two broad categories: Go-Onto-
Target (GOT) and Go-Onto-Location-in-Space (GOLIS) guidance systems.[4] A GOT missile can
target either a moving or fixed target, whereas a GOLIS weapon is limited to a stationary or near-
stationary target. The trajectory that a missile takes while attacking a moving target is dependent
upon the movement of the target. Also, a moving target can be an immediate threat to the sender of
the missile. The target needs to be eliminated in a timely fashion in order to preserve the integrity
of the sender. In GOLIS systems, the problem is simpler because the target is not moving.
In every Go-Onto-Target system there are three subsystems: Target tracker, Missile tracker and
guidance computer. The way these three subsystems are distributed between the missile and the
launcher result in two different categories.

4.2.1 Beam Rider Guidance

The beam rider concept relies on an external ground- or ship-based radar station that transmits a
beam of radar energy towards the target. The surface radar tracks the target and also transmits a
guidance beam that adjusts its angle as the target moves across the sky. The missile is launched
into this guidance beam and uses it for direction. Scanning systems onboard the missile detect the
presence of the beam and determine how close the missile is to the edges of it. This information
is used to send command signals to control surfaces to keep the missile within the beam. In this
way, the missile ”rides” the external radar beam to the target.

Beam riding was often used on early surface-to-air missiles but was found to become inaccurate
at long ranges. Limited improvement was possible using two different surface-based radar beams,
but the beam rider method has been largely abandoned. The technique was used on the US Navy’s
Terrier ship-launched surface-to-air missile of the 1950s.
Chapter 4. Multistage of Rockets and Stage Separation Dynamics 71

F IGURE 4.2: Beam rider guidance

4.2.2 Command Guidance

Command guidance is similar to beam riding in that the target is tracked by an external radar.
However, a second radar also tracks the missile itself. The tracking data from both radars are fed
into a ground based computer that calculates the paths of the two vehicles.
This computer also determines what commands need to be sent to the missile control surfaces
to steer the missile on an intercept course with the target. These commands are transmitted to a
receiver on the missile allowing the missile to adjust its course. An example of command guidance
is the Russian SA-2 surface-to-air missile used against US aircraft in North Vietnam.

Command guidance is not limited just to radar. Another method that falls under command guid-
ance is the use of wire guided systems. In this technique, commands are sent to the missile through
a conventional wire or fiber optic cable that reels out from the missile back to its launcher. Wire
guidance is often used on anti-tank missiles like TOW, which can be launched from both ground
vehicles and helicopters. Many naval torpedoes fired from submarines also use wire guidance.
Chapter 4. Multistage of Rockets and Stage Separation Dynamics 72

F IGURE 4.3: Command guidance

4.2.3 Homing Guidance

Homing guidance is the most common form of guidance used in anti-air missiles today. Three
primary forms of guidance fall under the homing guidance umbrella–semi active, active, and pas-
sive. We will discuss each of these in turn, as well as a more unusual form called retransmission
or track-via-missile homing. Semi-Active Homing Guidance

A semi-active system is similar to command guidance since the missile relies on an external source
to illuminate the target. The energy reflected by this target is intercepted by a receiver on the
missile. The difference between command guidance and semi-active homing is that the missile
has an onboard computer in this case. The computer uses the energy collected by its radar receiver
to determine the target’s relative trajectory and send correcting commands to control surfaces so
that the missile will intercept the target. he example shown above illustrates the guidance method
used on an air-to-air missile like Sparrow. This missile relies on radar energy transmitted by the
launch aircraft to track and home in on the target. This system is also sometimes referred to as
Chapter 4. Multistage of Rockets and Stage Separation Dynamics 73

bistatic meaning that the radar waves that intercept the target and those reflected back to the missile
are at different angles to one another.

F IGURE 4.4: Homing guidance

4.2.3.1 Active Homing Guidance

Active homing works just like semi-active except that the tracking energy is now both transmitted
by and received by the missile itself. No external source is needed. It is for this reason that active
homing missiles are often called ”fire-and-forget” because the launch aircraft does not need to
continue illuminating the target after the missile is launched. Active homing missiles typically use
radar seekers to track their target. These seekers are also sometimes called monostatic because,
unlike semi-active guidance, the transmitted and reflected waves are at the same angle with respect
to the line of sight between the missile and target. Examples of active homing missiles include the
AMRAAM air-to-air and Exocet anti-ship missiles.

4.2.3.2 Passive Homing Guidance

A passive homing system is like active in that the missile is independent of any external guidance
system and like semi-active in that it only receives signals and cannot transmit. Passive missiles
instead rely on some form of energy that is transmitted by the target and can be tracked by the
missile seeker.
Chapter 4. Multistage of Rockets and Stage Separation Dynamics 74

F IGURE 4.5: Active Homing Guidance

Like homing guidance, navigation guidance includes several subcategories. In this section, we
will describe inertial, ranging, celestial, and geophysical navigation techniques.

F IGURE 4.6: Passive Homing Guidance

4.2.4 Inertial Navigation Guidance

Inertial navigation relies on devices onboard the missile that sense its motion and acceleration in
different directions. These devices are called gyroscopes and accelerometers. The purpose of a
gyroscope is to measure angular rotation, and a number of different methods to do so have been
devised. A classic mechanical gyroscope senses the stability of a mass rotating on gimbals. More
Chapter 4. Multistage of Rockets and Stage Separation Dynamics 75

recent ring laser gyros and fiber optic gyros are based on the interference between laser beams.
Current advances in Micro-Electro-Mechanical Systems (MEMS) offer the potential to develop
gyroscopes that are very small and inexpensive.

While gyroscopes measure angular motion, accelerometers measure linear motion. The accelera-
tions from these devices are translated into electrical signals for processing by the missile computer
autopilot. When a gyroscope and an accelerometer are combined into a single device along with
a control mechanism, it is called an inertial measurement unit (IMU) or inertial navigation system
(INS).
The INS uses these two devices to sense motion relative to a point of origin. Inertial navigation
works by telling the missile where it is at the time of launch and how it should move in terms of
both distance and rotation over the course of its flight. The missile computer uses signals from
the INS to measure these motions and ensure that the missile travels along its proper programmed
path.
Ranging Navigation Guidance

Unlike inertial navigation, which is contained entirely onboard the vehicle, ranging navigation
depends on external signals for guidance. The earliest form of such navigation was the use of radio
beacons developed primarily for commercial air service. These beacons transmit radio signals
received by an aircraft in flight. Based on the direction and strength of the signals, the plane can
calculate its location relative to the beacons and navigate its way through the signals.
he advent of the global positions system (GPS) has largely replaced radio beacons in both military
and civilian use. GPS consists of a constellation of 24 satellites in geosynchronous orbit around
the Earth. If a GPS receiver on the surface of the Earth can receive signals from at least four of
these satellites, it can calculate an exact three-dimensional position with great accuracy. Missiles
like JSOW and the JDAM series of guided bombs make use of GPS signals to determine where
they are with respect to the locations of their targets. Over the course of its flight, the weapon uses
this information to send commands to control surfaces and adjust its trajectory.
Chapter 4. Multistage of Rockets and Stage Separation Dynamics 76

4.2.5 Celestial Navigation Guidance

Celestial navigation is one of the earliest forms of navigation devised by humans. and it saw its
greatest application in the voyages of the great maritime explorers like Christopher Columbus.
Celestial navigation uses the positions of the stars to determine location, especially latitude, on
the surface of the Earth. This form of navigation requires good visibility of the stars, so it is
only useful at night or at very high altitude. As a result, celestial navigation is seldom applied to
missiles, though it has been used on many ballistic missiles like Poseidon. The missile compares
the positions of the stars to an image stored in memory to determine its flight path.

4.3 Aerodynamic control systems of missiles

The primary function of a control system during powered flight is to orient and stabilize the rocket
vehicle. To orient the vehicle in some desired angular direction, it is necessary to develop torque
to turn the body. Control ceases and the body is stabilized when sensing instruments, usually
gyroscopic devices, indicate that the proper attitude has been achieved. During the propulsion
phase, control torque is usually developed either by aerodynamic forces acting on control surfaces
or by rocket forces. Techniques for aerodynamic control are essentially the same as those used in
conventional aircraft. At very high altitudes, however, aerodynamic surfaces become ineffective
because of low air density Therefore, other means of producing torques are required in the vacuum
environment of upper altitudes and space.
Most missiles do not have conventional rudders, ailerons, or elevators like those used on typi-
cal airplanes. Nonetheless, missiles do employ similar aerodynamic control surfaces in order to
maneuver the vehicle during flight.

The heart of a missile is the body, equivalent to the fuselage of an aircraft. The missile body
contains the guidance and control system, warhead, and propulsion system. Some missiles may
consist of only the body alone, but most have additional surfaces to generate lift and provide
maneuverability. Depending on what source you look at, these surfaces can go by many names.
In particular, many use the generic term ”fin” to refer to any aerodynamic surface on a missile.
Missile designers, however, are more precise in their naming methodology and generally consider
these surfaces to fall into three major categories: canards, wings, and tail fins.
Chapter 4. Multistage of Rockets and Stage Separation Dynamics 77

The example shown above illustrates a generic missile configuration equipped with all three sur-

F IGURE 4.7: Generic missile configuration

faces. Often times, the terms canard, wing, and fin are used interchangeably.
Most missiles are equipped with at least one set of aerodynamic surfaces, especially tail fins since
these surfaces provide stability in flight. The majority of missiles are also equipped with a second
set of surfaces to provide additional lift or improved control. Very few designs are equipped with
all three sets of surfaces. Whereas most aircraft have fixed horizontal and vertical tails with smaller
movable rudder and elevator surfaces, missiles typically use all-moving surfaces, like those illus-
trated below, to accomplish the same purpose. In order to turn the missile during flight, at least
one set of aerodynamic surfaces is designed to rotate about a center pivot point. In so doing, the
angle of attack of the fin is changed so that the lift force acting on it changes. The changes in the
direction and magnitude of the forces acting on the missile cause it to move in a different direction
and allow the vehicle to maneuver along its path and guide itself towards its intended target.
Tail control is probably the most commonly used form of missile control, particularly for longer
range air-to-air missiles like AMRAAM and surface-to-air missiles like Patriot and Roland. The
primary reason for this application is because tail control provides excellent maneuverability at the
high angles of attack often needed to intercept a highly maneuverable aircraft. Missiles using tail
control are also often fitted with a non-movable wing to provide additional lift and improve range.
Chapter 4. Multistage of Rockets and Stage Separation Dynamics 78

F IGURE 4.8: Canard tail control and wing configuration

Canard control is also quite commonly used, especially on short-range air-to-air missiles like AIM-
9M Sidewinder. The primary advantage of canard control is better maneuverability at low angles of
attack, but canards tend to become ineffective at high angles of attack because of flow separation
that causes the surfaces to stall. Since canards are ahead of the center of gravity, they cause a
destabilizing effect and require large fixed tails to keep the missile stable.
A further subset of canard control missiles is the split canard. Split canards are a relatively new
development that has found application on the latest generation of short-range air-to-air missiles
like Python 4 and the Russian AA-11. The term split canard refers to the fact that the missile
has two sets of canards in close proximity, usually one immediately behind the other. The first
canard is fixed while the second set is movable. The advantage of this arrangement is that the first
set of canards generates strong, energetic vortices that increase the speed of the airflow over the
second set of canards making them more effective. In addition, the vortices delay flow separation
and allow the canards to reach higher angles of attack before stalling. This high angle of attack
performance gives the missile much greater maneuverability compared to a missile with single
canard control.
Unconventional Control:
Chapter 4. Multistage of Rockets and Stage Separation Dynamics 79

Unconventional control systems is a broad category that includes a number of advanced technolo-
gies. Most techniques involve some kind of thrust vectoring. Thrust vectoring is defined as a
method of deflecting the missile exhaust to generate a component of thrust in a vertical and/or
horizontal direction. This additional force points the nose in a new direction causing the missile
to turn. Another technique that is just starting to be introduced is called reaction jets. Reaction
jets are usually small ports in the surface of a missile that create a jet exhaust perpendicular to the
vehicle surface and produce an effect similar to thrust vectoring. These techniques are most often
applied to high off-boresight air-to-air missiles like AIM-9X Sidewinder and IRIS-T to provide
exceptional maneuverability. The greatest advantage of such controls is that they can function at
very low speeds or in a vacuum where there is little or no airflow to act on conventional fins. The
primary drawback, however, is that they will not function once the fuel supply is exhausted.

4.4 Multistage Rocket

Rockets use the thrust generated by a propulsion system to overcome the weight of the rocket. For
full scale satellite launchers, the weight of the payload is only a small portion of the lift-off weight.
Most of the weight of the rocket is the weight of the propellants. As the propellants are burned off
during powered ascent, a larger proportion of the weight of the vehicle becomes the near-empty
tankage and structure that was required when the vehicle was fully loaded. In order to lighten the
weight of the vehicle to achieve orbital velocity, most launchers discard a portion of the vehicle
in a process called staging. The idea behind staging is to improve performance by reducing the
vehicle’s mass on the way to orbit. Once the propellant of a stage is consumed, the empty stage
which is no longer useful and only adds weight to the vehicle is discarded and the next stage is
ignited. This stage then accelerates the rest of the vehicle much faster. As a result, less propellant
is required to reach the desired orbit.
”A rocket having two or more engines, stacked one on top of another and firing in succession is
called a multi-stage. Normally each unit, or stage, is jettisoned after completing its firing. The
reason rocketeers stage models is to enable the uppermost stage to attain a very high altitude. This
is accomplished by dropping mass throughout the burn so the top stage can be very light and coast
a long way upward.”
Advantage of multi staging is the possibility of thrust programming, as well as the possibility of
Chapter 4. Multistage of Rockets and Stage Separation Dynamics 80

adapting the engines of the subsequent stages to the altitude where they are fired, thus reducing
losses due to non ideal expansion.
Another advantage of staging is that launch vehicle configuration can be optimized for the require-
ments of a particular mission by adjusting the amount of propellant and engine thrust, and using
different types of engines, propellants and structural materials for various stages.
There are two types of rocket staging, serial and parallel. In serial staging, shown above, there is

F IGURE 4.9: Series staging

a small, second stage rocket that is placed on top of a larger first stage rocket. The first stage is
ignited at launch and burns through the powered ascent until its propellants are exhausted. The
first stage engine is then extinguished, the second stage separates from the first stage, and the sec-
ond stage engine is ignited. The payload is carried atop the second stage into orbit. Serial staging
was used on the Saturn V moon rockets. The Saturn V was a three stage rocket, which performed
two staging maneuvers on its way to earth orbit. The discarded stages of the Saturn V were never
retrieved.
In parallel staging, as shown in this figure, several small first stages are strapped onto to a central
sustainer rocket. At launch, all of the engines are ignited. When the propellants in the strap-on’s
are extinguished, the strap-on rockets are discarded. The sustainer engine continues burning and
the payload is carried atop the sustainer rocket into orbit. Parallel staging is used on the Space
Chapter 4. Multistage of Rockets and Stage Separation Dynamics 81

F IGURE 4.10: Parallel staging

Shuttle. The discarded solid rocket boosters are retrieved from the ocean, re-filled with propellant,
and used again on the Shuttle.

Some launchers, like the Titan III’s and Delta II’s, use both serial and parallel staging. The Titan
III has a liquid-powered, two stage Titan II for a sustainer and two solid rocket strap-ons at launch.
After the solids are discarded, the sustainer engine of the Titan II burns until its fuel is exhausted.
Then the second stage of the Titan II is burned, carrying the payload to orbit. The Titan III is
another example of a three stage rocke

The payload mass for any stage consists of the mass of all subsequent stages plus the ultimate
payload itself. A multistage vehicle with identical specific impulse, payload fraction and structure
fraction for each stage is said to have similar stages. For such a vehicle, the payload fraction is
maximized by having each stage provide the same velocity increment. For a multistage vehicle
with dissimilar stages, the overall vehicle payload fraction depends on how the v requirement is
partitioned among stages. Payload fractions will be reduced if the v is partitioned sub-optimally.
In designing separation mechanisms, the following factors must be considered: (1) adequate clear-
ance between the separating bodies; (2) shock transmission to the payload or structure of the
Chapter 4. Multistage of Rockets and Stage Separation Dynamics 82

continuing body; (3) damage to or contamination of the continuing body by debris resulting from
the operation of the separation mechanism; and (4) the ability of the mechanism to withstand the
natural and induced environments encountered during service.
For a mission to be successful, the separations must occur at the correct times of flight and with
minimum changes in the attitude and rotational rates (i.e., tip-off errors) of the continuing body.
There must be no recontact between the separating bodies, no detrimental shock loads induced
in the structure, and no excessive or harmful debris. A separation mechanism that does not meet
these requirements can produce attitude errors and tumble rates of the continuing body that are too
large for its attitude-control system to accommodate, can damage its structure and critical equip-
ment, and can cause failure or degradation of the mission. Failure of separation mechanisms has
adversely affected mission performance in several instances; for example:

1. A Vanguard satellite failed to achieve orbit because the second stage of the launch vehicle
was damaged at separation.

2. On several early satellite launches, booster stages failed to separate.

3. On a military mission, the final booster stage overtook and bumped the spacecraft after
separation, damaging critical equipment in the spacecraft.

4. On a recent military mission, an extendible boom was damaged at separation and failed to
extend.

5. During an Apollo launch, the pyrotechnic shock of a separation was of sufficient magnitude
to close propellant-isolation valves in the reaction-control system of the spacecraft. The
crew was unable to maneuver the spacecraft until the valves could be opened.
Chapter 5

DESIGN, MATERIALS AND

TESTING OF ROCKETS

5.1 Design considerations in the selection of liquid rocket combustion

chamber volume and shape

The volume and shape are selected after evaluating these parameters:

1. The volume has to be large enough for adequate mixing, evaporation, and complete com-
bustion of propellants. Chamber volumes vary for different propellants with the time delay
necessary to vaporize and activate the propellants and with the speed of reaction of the pro-
pellant combination. When the chamber volume is too small, combustion is incomplete and
the performance is poor. With higher chamber pressures or with highly reactive propel-
lants, and with injectors that give improved mixing, a smaller chamber volume is usually
permissible.

2. The chamber diameter and volume can influence the cooling requirements. If the cham-
ber volume and the chamber diameter are large, the heat transfer rates to the walls will be
reduced, the area exposed to heat will be large, and the walls are somewhat thicker. Con-
versely,if the volume and cross section are small, the inner wall surface area and the inert

83
Chapter 5. DESIGN, MATERIALS AND TESTING OF ROCKETS 84

mass will be smaller, but the chamber gas velocities and the heat transfer rates will be in-
creased. There is an optimum chamber volume and diameter where the total heat absorbed
by the walls will be a minimum.

3. All inert components should have minimum mass. The thrust chamber mass is a function
of the chamber dimensions, chamber pressure, and nozzle area ratio, and the method of
cooling.

4. Manufacturing considerations favor a simple chamber geometry, such as a cylinder with a

double cone bow-tie-shaped nozzle, low cost materials, and simple fabrication processes.

5. In some applications the length of the chamber and the nozzle relate directly to the overall
length of the vehicle. A large-diameter but short chamber can allow a somewhat shorter
vehicle with a lower structural inert vehicle mass.

6. The gas pressure drop for accelerating the combustion products within the chamber should
be a minimum; any pressure reduction at the nozzle inlet reduces the exhaust velocity and
the performance of the vehicle. These losses become appreciable when the chamber area is
less than three times the throat area.

7. For the same thrust the combustion volume and the nozzle throat area become smaller as
the operating chamber pressure is increased. This means that the chamber length and the
nozzle length (for the same area ratio) also decrease with increasing chamber pressure. The
performance also goes up with chamber pressure.

5.1.1 considerations for selection of materials to be used for construction of thrust

chambers of liquid rocket engine

The choice of the material for the inner chamber wall in the chamber and the throat region, which
are the critical locations, is influenced by the hot gases resulting from the propellant combination,
the maximum wall temperature, the heat transfer, and the duty cycle. For high-performance, high
heat transfer, regeneratively cooled thrust chambers a material with high thermal conductivity and
a thin wall design will reduce the thermal stresses. Copper is an excellent conductor and it will
Chapter 5. DESIGN, MATERIALS AND TESTING OF ROCKETS 85

not really oxidize in fuel-rich non-corrosive gas mixtures, such as are produced by oxygen and
hydrogen below a mixture ratio of 6.0. The inner walls are therefore usually made of a copper
alloy (with small additions of zirconium,silver, or silicon), which has a conductivity not quite as
good as pure (oxygen-free) copper but has improved high temperature strength.

5.2 Materials used for manufacturing case of rockets

Three classes of materials have been used: high-strength metals (such as steel, aluminum, or ti-
tanium alloys), wound-filament reinforced plastics, and a combination of these in which a metal
case has externally wound filaments for extra strength. High-strength alloy steels have been the
most common case metals, but others, like aluminum, titanium, and nickel alloys, are also used
for manufacturing case of rockets.

5.2.1 Filament wound reinforced plastic cases

Filament-reinforced cases use continuous filaments of strong fibers wound in precise patterns and
bonded together with a plastic, usually an epoxy resin. Their principal advantage is their lower
weight. Most plastics soften when they are heated above about 180°C or 355°F; they need inserts
or reinforcements to allow fastening or assembly of other components and to accept concentrated
loads. The thermal expansion of reinforced plastics is often higher than that of metal and the ther-
mal conductivity is much lower, causing a higher temperature gradient.
Typical fiber materials are, in the order of increasing strength, glass, aramids (Kevlar), and car-
bon. Individual fibers are very strong in tension (2400 to 6800 MPa or 350,000 to 1,000,000 psi).
The fibers are held in place by a plastic binder of relatively low density; it prevents fibers slip-
ping and thus weakening in shear or bending. In a filament-wound composite (with tension, hoop,
and bending stresses) the filaments are not always oriented along the direction of maximum stress
and the material includes a low-strength plastic; therefore, the composite strength is reduced by
a factor of 3 to 5 compared to the strength of the filament itself. The plastic binder is usually a
thermosetting epoxy material, which limits the maximum temperature to between 100 to 180°C or
Chapter 5. DESIGN, MATERIALS AND TESTING OF ROCKETS 86

about 212 to 355°F.

5.2.2 Ablative material

Ans. An ablative material is a composite material of high-temperature organic or inorganic high

strength fibers, namely high silica glass, aramids (Kevlar), or carbon fibers, impregnated with or-
ganic plastic materials such as phenolic or epoxy resin. The heat transfer properties of the many
available ablative and other fiberbased materials will depend on their design, composition, and con-
struction.The orientation of fibrous reinforcements, whether in the form of tape, cloth, filaments,
or random short fibers, has a marked impact on the erosion resistance of composite nozzles. When
perpendicular to the gas flow, the heat transfer to the wall interior is high because of the short
conducting path. Good results have been obtained when the fibers are at 40 to 60° relative to the
gas flow over the surface. Nozzle fabrication variables present wide variations in nozzle life for
a given design; the variables include the method of wrapping, molding, and curing, resin batch
processes, and resin sources.
Tapewrapping is a common method of forming very large nozzles. The wrapping procedure nor-
mally includes heating the shaped mandrel( 54°C or 130°F), heating the tape and resin (66 to
121°C or 150 to 250°F), pressure rolling the tape of fiber material and the injected resin in place
while rolling ( 35, 000 N/m or 200 !bf/in. width), and maintaining the proper rolling speed, tape
tension, wrap orientation, and resin flow rate.
In liquid propellant rockets, ablatives have been effective in very small thrust chambers (where
there is insufficient regenerative cooling capacity), in pulsing, restartable spacecraft control rocket
engines, and in variable-thrust (throttled) rocket engines.

5.3 Criteria for the selection of materials for Aerospace applications

Based on the knowledge of following problems encountered during the life cycle of a product,
material which passes the recommended tests are used for aerospace applications. Materials like
aluminum alloys, titanium, magnesium alloys, stainless steel etc. and even composites are used at
Chapter 5. DESIGN, MATERIALS AND TESTING OF ROCKETS 87

various places in order to meet specific requirement. The general criteria for selection of materials
are as follows:

1. Critical Defect Growth

2. Corrosion Fatigue

3. Corrosion

4. Creep

5. High Cycle Fatigue

6. Hydrogen Embrittlement

7. Hydrogen Environment Embrittlement

8. Low Cycle Fatigue

9. Liquid Metal Embrittlement

10. Overload

11. Oxidation

12. Stress Assisted Grain Boundary Oxidation Crack

13. Stress Corrosion Cracking

14. Stress Rupture

15. High Temperature

Types of loads and stresses a motor case is subjected to during its operation.
(1) Temperature cycling during storage, or thermal stresses and strains)
(2) Corrosion (moisture/chemical, galvanic, stress corrosion, or hydrogen embrittlement).
(3) Space conditions: vacuum or radiation.
Case segments
For very large and long motors both the propellant grain and the motor case are made in sections
which are called case segments and are mechanically attached and sealed to each other at the
Chapter 5. DESIGN, MATERIALS AND TESTING OF ROCKETS 88

launch site.
characteristics of maraging steels The maraging steels have strengths up to approximately 300,000
psi in combination with high fracture toughness. The term maraging is derived from the fact that
these alloys exist as relative soft low-carbon marten sites in the annealed condition and gain high
strength from aging at relatively low temperatures.
constructional aspects of motor case with respect to material selection.

5.4 Metal Cases

Metal cases have several advantages compared to filament-reinforced plastic cases: they are rugged
and will take considerable rough handling (required in many tactical missile applications), are usu-
ally reasonably ductile and can yield before failure, can be heated to a relatively high temperature
(700 to l000°C or 1292 to 1832°F and higher with some special materials), and thus require less
insulation. They will not deteriorate significantly with time or weather exposure and are easily
adapted to take concentrated loads, if made thicker at a flange or boss. Since the metal case has
much higher density and less insulation, it occupies less volume than does a fiber-reinforced plas-
tic case; therefore, for the same external envelope it can contain somewhat more propellant.
High-strength alloy steels have been the most common case metals, but others, like aluminum,
titanium, and nickel alloys, have also been used. Extensive knowledge exists for designing and
fabricating motor cases with low-alloy steels with strength levels to 240,000 psi. The maraging
steels have strengths up to approximately 300,000 psi in combination with high fracture tough-
ness. The term maraging is derived from the fact that these alloys exist as relative soft low-carbon
martensites in the annealed condition and gain high strength from aging at relatively low temper-
atures.

The HY steels (newer than the maraging steels) are attractive because of their toughness and re-
sistance to tearing, a property important to motor cases and other pressure vessels because failures
are less catastrophic. This toughness characteristic enables a ”leak before failure” to occur, at least
during hydrostatic proof testing. The HY steels have strengths between 180,000 and 300,000 psi
(depending on heat treatment and additives).
Need of using ceramic materials in missiles
Chapter 5. DESIGN, MATERIALS AND TESTING OF ROCKETS 89

In relatively small (low temperature) rockets, the interior walls of the combustion chamber and
nozzle may be lined with a heat-resistant (refractory) ceramic material. The ceramic gets hot, but
because it is a poor conductor of heat, it prevents the metal walls of the motor/engine from becom-
ing overheated during the short operating period.
Structural properties of aerospace materials are affected at low and high temperatures
The very high temperatures generated in the combustion chamber transfer a great deal of heat
energy to the combustion chamber and nozzle walls. This heat, if not dissipated, will cause most
materials to lose strength. Without cooling the chamber and nozzle walls, the combustion chamber
pressures will cause structural failure. There are many methods of cooling, all with the objective
of removing heat from the highly stressed combustion chamber and nozzle.

5.5 Selection of materials

5.5.1 Re – entry nose cones

The term nose cone is used to refer to the forward most section of a rocket, guided missile or
aircraft. The cone is shaped to offer minimum aerodynamic resistance. Due to the extreme tem-
peratures involved, nose cones for high-speed applications (eg. hypersonic speeds or atmospheric
reentry of orbital vehicles) have to be made of refractory materials. Pyrolytic carbon is one choice,
reinforced carbon-carbon composite or HRSI ceramics are other popular choices. Other design
strategy is using ablative heat shields, which get consumed during operation, disposing of excess
heat that way. Materials used for ablative shields include, for example carbon phenolic, poly-
dimethylsiloxane composite with silica filler and carbon fibers, or as in of some Chinese FSW
reentry vehicles, oak wood.

5.5.2 Wing leading edges and Rocket Nozzle Throat Inserts:

Carbon/Carbon (C/C) is a lightweight, high-strength composite material capable of withstanding

temperatures over 3000°C in many environments. Carbon/Carbon Composites use the strength and
modulus of carbon fibers to reinforce a carbon matrix to resist the rigors of extreme environments.
Chapter 5. DESIGN, MATERIALS AND TESTING OF ROCKETS 90

Using FMI special weaving techniques, composite structures can be tailored to meet varied phys-
ical and thermal requirements through weaving architecture design. FMI woven reinforcements
are impregnated with resin or pitch and carbonized to yield finished, fully dense composites using
well controlled temperature and pressure processes (up to 15000 psi).
At one-tenth the density, C/C offers a high performance, cost effective alternative to refractory met-
als. Aerospace components commonly fabricated from C/C include rocket motor nozzle throats
and exit cones, nose tips / leading edges and thermal protection systems. Reliable performance
is the most critical requirement of these components. FMI C/C Composites have demonstrated
reliability and reduced systems costs, especially when multiple components in an assembly can
be replaced with a one-piece C/C design. Commercial applications of Carbon/Carbon materials
include furnace fixturing, heatshields, load plates, heating elements and X-ray targets.

5.6 Rocket testing

5.6.1 Types of testing

Before rocket propulsion systems are put into operational use, they are subjected to several differ-
ent types of tests, some of which are outlined below in the sequence in which they are normally
performed.

1. Manufacturing inspection and fabrication tests on individual parts (dimensional inspection,

pressure tests, x-rays, leak checks, electric continuity, electromechanical checks, etc.).

2. Component tests (functional and operational tests on igniters, valves, thrusters, controls,
injectors, structures, etc.).

3. Static rocket system tests (with complete propulsion system on test stand): (a) partial or
simulated rocket operation (for proper function, calibration, ignition, operation-often with-
out establishing full thrust or operating for the full duration); (b) complete propulsion system
tests (under rated conditions, off-design conditions, with intentional variations in environ-
ment or calibration). For a reusable or restartable rocket propulsion system this can include
Chapter 5. DESIGN, MATERIALS AND TESTING OF ROCKETS 91

many starts, long-duration endurance tests, and post operational inspections and recondi-
tioning.

4. Static vehicle tests (when rocket propulsion system is installed in a restrained, nonflying
vehicle or stage).

5. Flight tests: (a) with a specially instrumented propulsion system in a developmental flight
test vehicle; (b) with a production vehicle.

Each of these five types of tests can be performed on at least three basic types of programs:

1. Research on and development or improvement of a new (or modified) rocket engine or motor
or their propellants or components.

2. Evaluation of the suitability of a new (or modified) rocket engine or motor for a specified
application or for flight readiness.

3. Production and quality assurance of a rocket propulsion system.

The first two types of programs are concerned with a novel or modified device and often involve
the testing and measurement of new concepts or phenomena using experimental rockets. The test-
ing of a new solid propellant grain, the development of a novel control valve assembly, and the
measurement of the thermal expansion of a nozzle exhaust cone during firing operation are exam-
ples.
Production tests concern themselves with the measurement of a few basic parameters on pro-
duction propulsion systems to assure that the performance, reliability, and operation are within
specified tolerance limits. If the number of units is large, the test equipment and instrumenta-
tion used for these tests are usually partly or fully automated and designed to permit the testing,
measurement, recording, and evaluation in a minimum amount of time.

5.7 Test facilities and safeguards

For chemical rocket propulsion systems, each test facility usually has the following major systems
or components:
Chapter 5. DESIGN, MATERIALS AND TESTING OF ROCKETS 92

1. A test cell or test bay where the article to be tested is mounted, usually in a special test
fixture. If the test is hazardous, the test facility must have provisions to protect operating
personnel and to limit damage in case of an accident.

2. An instrumentation system with associated computers for sensing, maintaining, measuring,

analyzing, correcting, and recording various physical and chemical parameters. It usually
includes calibration systems and timers to accurately synchronize the measurements.

3. A control system for starting, stopping, and changing the operating conditions.

4. Systems for handling heavy or awkward assemblies, supplying liquid propellant, and pro-
viding maintenance, security, and safety.

5. For highly toxic propellants and toxic plume gases it has been required to capture the haz-
ardous gas or vapor (firing inside a closed duct system), remove almost all of the hazardous
ingredients (e.g., by wet scrubbing and/or chemical treatment), allow the release of the non-
toxic portion of the cleaned gases, and safely dispose of any toxic solid or liquid residues
from the chemical treatment. With an exhaust gas containing fluorine, for example, the
removal of much of this toxic gas can be achieved by scrubbing it with water that con-
tains dissolved calcium; it will then form calcium fluoride, which can be precipitated and
removed.

6. In some tests specialized test equipment and unique facilities are needed to conduct static
testing under different environmental conditions or under simulated emergency conditions.
For example, high and low ambient temperature tests of large motors may require a temperature-
controlled enclosure around the motor; a rugged explosion-resistant facility is needed for
bullet impact tests of propellant-loaded missile systems and also for cook-off tests, where
gasoline or rocket fuel is burned with air below a stored missile. Similarly, special equip-
ment is needed for vibration testing, measuring thrust vector forces and moments in three
dimensions, or determining total impulse for very short pulse durations at low thrust.
Chapter 5. DESIGN, MATERIALS AND TESTING OF ROCKETS 93

5.8 Safety provisions in a modern testfacility

It is common practice to train the test crew and go through repeated dry runs, to familiarize each
person with his or her responsibilities and procedures, including the emergency procedures. Typi-
cal personnel and plant security or safety provisions in a modern test facility include the following:

1. Concrete-walled blockhouse or control stations for the protection of personnel and instru-
ments remote from the actual rocket propulsion location.

2. Remote control, indication, and recording of all hazardous operations and measurements;
isolation of propellants from the instrumentation and control room.

3. Automatic or manual water deluge and fire-extinguishing systems.

4. Closed circuit television systems for remotely viewing the test.

5. Warning signals (siren, bells, horns, lights, speakers) to notify personnel to clear the test
area prior to a test, and an all-clear signal when the conditions are no longer hazardous.

6. Quantity and distance restrictions on liquid propellant tankage and solid propellant storage
to minimize damage in the event of explosions; separation of liquid fuels and oxidizers.

7. Barricades around hazardous test articles to reduce shrapnel damage in the event of a blast.

8. Explosion-proof electrical systems, spark-proof shoes, and non spark hand tools to prvent
ignition of flammable materials.

9. For certain propellants also safety clothing, including propellant- and fire-resistant suits,
face mask and shields, gloves, special shoes, and hard hats.

5.9 Terminology for the study of atmospheric diffusion of exhaust

1. Micrometeorology Study and forecasting of atmospheric phenomena restricted to a region

approximately 300 m above the earth’s surface and a horizontal distance of approximately 5
miles.
Chapter 5. DESIGN, MATERIALS AND TESTING OF ROCKETS 94

2. Lapse Rate. The rate of decrease in temperature with increasing height above the earth’s
surface. The United States Standard Atmosphere has a lapse rate of about 6.4°C per 1000
m. Lapse rate is also affected by altitude, wind, and humidity.

3. Inversion, or Inversion Layer. Condition of negative lapse rate (temperature increases

with increasing height). Usually formed near the ground at night.

5.10 Flight testing

Flight testing of rocket propulsion systems is always conducted in conjunction with tests of vehi-
cles and other systems such as guidance, vehicle controls, or ground support. These flights usually
occur along missile and space launch ranges, sometimes over the ocean. If a flight test vehicle
deviates from its intended path and appears to be headed for a populated area, a range safety of-
ficial (or a computer) will have to either cause a destruction of the vehicle, abort the flight, or
cause it to correct its course. Many propulsion systems therefore include devices that will either
terminate the operation (shut off the rocket engine or open thrust termination openings into rocket
motor cases as ) or trigger explosive devices that will cause the vehicle (and therefore also the
propulsion system) to disintegrate in flight. Flight testing requires special launch support equip-
ment, means for observing, monitoring, and recording data (cameras, radar, telemetering, etc.),
equipment for assuring range safety and for reducing data and evaluating flight test performance,
and specially trained personnel. Different launch equipment is needed for different kinds of ve-
hicles. This includes launch tubes for shoulder-held infantry support missile launchers, movable
turret-type mounted multiple launchers installed on an army truck or a navy ship, a transporter for
larger missiles, and a track-propelled launch platform or fixed complex launch pads for spacecraft
launch vehicles. The launch equipment has to have provisions for loading or placing the vehi-
cle into a launch position, for allowing access of various equipment and connections to launch
support equipment (checkout, monitoring, fueling, etc.), for aligning or aiming the vehicle, or for
withstanding the exposure to the hot rocket plume at launch. During experimental flights exten-
sive measurements are often made on the behavior of the various vehicle subsystems; for example,
rocket propulsion parameters, such as chamber pressure, feed pressures, temperatures, and so on,
Chapter 5. DESIGN, MATERIALS AND TESTING OF ROCKETS 95

are measured and the data are telemetered and transmitted to a ground receiving station for record-
ing and monitoring. Some flight tests rely on salvaging and examining the test vehicle.