FRAMES

TIMBER FRAME
A timber frame is a load-bearing wooden structure, held together with
mortise and tenor joinery. A post and beam building is similar to timber
framing, but in lieu of wooden joints, post and beam buildings are held
together with bolts and other steel connections. Timber frames are cut so
that their ends fit together like a puzzle, and the joinery is held fast with
wooden pegs.
The term ‘timber frame’ typically describes a system of panelised
structured walls and floors constructed from small timber studs clad with
board products, in which the timber frames transmits vertical and
horizontal loads to the foundations
Timber frames can be the most suitable choice if the structural shell is
required quickly, if the ground conditions are generally or particularly
poor, or if the design does include very large structural spaces.
Fire resistance in timber frames can be enhanced by internal linings such
as plasterboards, and cavity barriers which prevents fire from entering
the cavity. Timber elements can also be oversized to aid fire resistance.

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REINFORCED CONCRETE FRAMES
A reinforced concrete frame is a common form of structure, comprising
of network of columns and connecting beams that forms the structural
skeleton of the building. This grid of beams and columns is typically
constructed on a concrete foundation and used to support the building’s
floors, roof, walls, cladding and so on.

In reinforced concrete frames, the design are projected solidly, that is,
beams columns are projected in a solitary activity to act as one.

Reinforced concrete frames give protection from both gravity and

horizontal burdens through bowing in beams and columns. Columns are
the most important part of this type of construction as they carry the
entire load of the structure. The reinforced concrete framed structure is
reinforced so that the entire structure is combined with steel
reinforcements because the steel alone cannot carry the total tensile load
of the structure and the compressive load is carried by both concrete and
reinforcement.

Reinforced concrete frames are of two types:

- Cast in situ
- Precast (for one storey buildings and low rise structures)

Beams are the horizontal load-bearing members of the frames. They are
classified as either:

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- Main beams, which transmits floor and secondary beam load to the
columns, or
- Secondary beams, which transmits floor loads to the main beams.

Columns are the vertical members of the frames and are the building’s
primary load-bearing element. They transmit the loads down to the
foundation.

The materials that can be used as walls for concrete framed structures
are numerous, including heavyweight masonry options (e.g. bricks,
block work, stone) and lightweight options (e.g. drywall, timber).
Similarly, any kind of cladding material can be used to clad reinforced
concrete framed structures.

If a beam or slab of reinforced concrete framed structure gets damaged,

then just one floor is affected, but the whole building will be damaged if
the columns are damaged.

To improve the quality of bond with the concrete, the surfaces of re-bars
used to strengthen and hold the concrete in tension are often patterned.
Reinforced concrete framed structures are one of the most popular
structural elements. It is very much competitive with steel if
economically designed and executed practically where labour for
centering and formwork is cheap.

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Advantages of Reinforced Concrete Frames

- It is good in compression as compared to most other materials used

for construction besides being good in tension
- Its resistance to fire is better than steel, so it is capable of resisting
fire for a longer time
- It has a long service life with low maintenance cost
- It is the most economical structural material in some structures like
piers, dams and footings
- It can be cast to any shape required, making it the most economic
structural material
- It yields rigid members with minimum deflection
- The yield strength of steel is about 15 times the compressive strength
of structural concrete and well over 100 times its tensile strength
- By using steel in concrete, the cross-sectional dimension would get
reduced
Disadvantages of Reinforced Concrete Frames
- The cost of formwork used for the casting of the concrete is
relatively high
- It needs meticulous mixing, casting and curing, all of which affect
the final strength of the members
- It has low compressive strength as compared to steel which leads to
large sections of in-columns/beams in multi-storey buildings, cracks

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development in concrete due to shrinkage and the application of live
loads is high
- If concreting is not done properly the steel starts corroding thereby
loosing strength and ultimately the life gets reduced. Also, the repairs
are then very expensive and difficult

STEEL FRAME

Steel is produced by removing oxygen and other impurities from iron

ore. It is an alloy of iron and carbon containing less than 2%carbon and
1% of manganese and small amounts of silicon, phosphorus, sulphur and
oxygen.

Structural steel frame refers to a building frame where the vertical and
horizontal structural elements are formed by a system of structural steel
beams and columns. It is made of a “skeleton frame” of vertical steel
columns and horizontal I-section beams, constructed in a rectangular
grid to support the floors, roof and walls of a building which are all
attached to the frame. The development of this technique made the
construction of the skyscraper possible.

The cross-section of steel of steel columns takes the shape of the letter
“I”. The two wide flanges of a column are thicker and wider than the
flanges of a beam to better withstand the compressive stresses in the
structure. The central “web” of the steel I-beam is often wider than a
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column web to resist the higher bending moments that occurs in the
beams.

The frames need to be protected from fire because steel soften at high
temperature and this can cause the building to partially collapse. In the
case of columns, this is usually done by encasing it in some form of
resistant structure such as masonry, concrete or plasterboard. The beams
may be cased in concrete, plasterboard or sprayed with a coating to
insulate it from the heat of fire or it can be protected by a fire resistant
ceiling.

Structural steel framing systems are used for medium and high-rise,
industrial, warehouses and commercial/residential buildings. Steel
frames are also extremely flexible, being able to bend without any
cracks. This could be particularly useful in circumstances like
earthquakes or heavy winds. Steel frame failure is generally a prolonged
event.

The different types of structural steel framing for buildings include

skeleton, wall bearing and long span framing systems.

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Skeleton Steel Framing:

This is a framed structure often used for the construction of multi-storey

buildings. It incorporates a network, or system of columns and
connecting beams which supports the building’s interior floors and
exterior walls and carries all loads to the foundations. It is made from a
series of columns and steel beams which are all connected. Spandrel
beams are installed around the structure’s perimeter to support masonry
walls. To find the correct lengths, the distance between each column
needs to be set by the structure’s requirements.

Metal brackets, gusset plates and haunches which help to distribute the
induced stresses are some of the steel components that are involved in
the connection of steel beams to columns in skeleton frame structures.
Shims help in making lines and elevations adjustments. Shelf angles
brackets help in attaching the spandrel beam and column. Flexible end
plate, fin plate and double angle cleat are used for bolt and welded
connections,

Wall Bearing Steel Framing:

This involves the erection of masonry walls on the perimeter of the

building and the structural steel members are then anchored on the
masonry walls using bearing and end steel plates ad anchor bolts. The
design and construction of the wall bearing framing depends on the load
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intensity and the span distance between successive support. While lower
depth beams help to increase the clear headroom height of the building,
it also poses a requirement for the closer spacing of the columns and
hence limit the clear floor area.

In this type of steel framing system the building’s walls, exterior and
interior is designed to support the roof/floor load. These rigid frames
need to be strong enough to resist any additional horizontal load. The
framing is suitable for the construction of lower structures. This is
because the size of the bearing wall must be increased significantly to
withstand considerable load exerted in the case of multi-storey
buildings.

Long Span Steel Framing:

Long span steel framing is used for wide spans with a large clearance
requirement, where conventional beams and columns are not
appropriate. A long span is a span that exceeds 12m. It helps to provide
flexible floor spaces, column-free internal spaces, reduction in the on-
site construction period, allows for of multiple services and mixed-use of
spaces. It is typically used for large industrial buildings, auditoriums,
theatres, exhibition spaces, etc.

This framing system is largely used on bigger projects that require taller
arches and heavier loads’

Long span steel framing options can be categorised into different types:
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a) Trusses: This comes with the advantage of spanning long
distances due to the greater depth they possess making them stiff
against deflections. The types of trusses used for long span
construction include Batt Trusses, Warren Trusses, Fink Trusses,
Scissors, Bow string and Vierendeel Trusses.
b) Girders: This is a deep steel beam which helps to span long
distances. The spanning length depends on the girder steel grade
and the span depth ratio. Girders are installed in different ways.
There are stub girders that span longitudinally across the structure
being connected to the main girders and the hybrid girders.
c) Arches: These can be made as solid arches or open web arches,
three-hinged, two-hinged or fixed arches. These depends on the
structural materials to be used, strength capacities, anchorage,
building use, foundation type and the load conditions.
d) Rigid Frames: These are designed to bear both bending moments
and shear forces. They are designed as full continuous frames
through the whole length and height in the absence of the hinges or
pins in the crowns and mid-spans.

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GLAZING

Generally, glazing describes installing glass in fixed openings in

buildings such as windows and doors. Glazing also refers to any glass
within a building or structure. In construction, the glazing of a project
refers to the glass needed to complete the project. It could also be
used to refer all the glass required to support the building under
construction. Glazing has both aesthetics and functional value in
construction.

Glazing is usually carried out with glass. Glass is one of the oldest
and multifaceted material utilised in the building industry. Glass has
been used to enhance the aesthetic view of structures and it has been a
fascinating material ever since its discovery. Glass is an open hard
substance. It forms an inorganic, transparent or translucent material
which can be moulded into any shape. Glass building material is a
mixture of raw materials like silica, sodium, potassium, carbonate,
lime or lead oxide, and manganese oxide which are grounded, sieved
and mixed in specific proportion to make glass.

The glazing for a project may include standard glass, sun windows,
storefront glass, and skylights. It is common for glazing to be clear
glass, but other forms such as frosted, textured and etched glass for
aesthetics.

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Types of Glazing

Five types of glazing methods are:

i) Dry Glazed: In this method, metal panels or glass units are

compressed into the glazing pockets on the frames using
structural tapes or rubber gaskets to generate sufficient
compression force. These compression stresses are placed on
either sides of the glazing element. Depending on the structure,
glazing can be done from the internal or external side.
ii) Wet Glazed: The wet glazing method involves applying an
adhering agent to the aluminium frame before fitting the
window panel. The adhering agent such as structural silicon,
secures the panel to the frame. The wet glazed method is
suitable for indoor projects to avoid dust that would otherwise
make the adhering agent less effective. The wet glazing is ideal
for factories and shops.
iii) Pointed Support Glass System: While this method has
evolved with the emergence of modern technology, it still
employs the concept of tempered glass with holes through the
glazing can be bolted to the structure.
iv) Cable Net: The Cable Net method delivers substantial view like
the Pointed Support Glass System method. The Cable Net
method is elegant because it eliminates the need for framing.

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v) Double Skin Wall: As the name suggests, this method involves
the construction of a façade made out of two layers of glass with
space between them. It is the most expensive of the five
methods.
Types of Glazing
The types of glazing glass in construction are:
- Float Glass: Float glass is a smooth sheet of glass with a consistent
thickness achieved by floating molten glass on a pool of molten tin.
Float glass is large and thin.
- Annealed Glass: This is float glass that is cooled slowly in a
controlled environment to reduce internal stresses within the sheets
and make the glass stronger. Annealed glass is less likely to break
because of its manufacture. However, annealed glass can be risky as
it breaks into large jagged shards.
- Laminated Glass: Laminated glass is made by fusing two or more
layers of glass with polyvinyl butyral (PVB) under heat and pressure.
Laminated glass can be manufactured using heat-strengthened glass
or tempered glass.
- Fully Tempered Glass: Fully tempered glass is produced by heating
the annealed glass and cooling it much faster than heat-strengthened
glass. The rapid cooling leaves the internal parts of the glass fluid for
longer than the surface. This forms equal amounts of tensile and
compressive stresses across the glass making it approximately three

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times more potent than annealed glass. When broken, fully tempered
glass shatters into many fine pieces, making it safer.
- Heat Strengthened Glass: Heat-strengthened glass is formed when
annealed glass is reheated to a temperature of about 1200oF and then
cooled down slowly. This type of glazing is twice as durable as
annealed glass but typically needs to be laminated owing to its
hazardous nature when broken.
- Self-Cleaning Glass: This type of glazing is made by applying a
transparent covering to glass. This coating reacts with UV rays to
break down dirt so that it is easily washed off when it rains.
- Low Emissivity Glass: Low emissivity glass is made by coating
glass with silver or tin to reflect long-wave infra-red radiation. Low
emissivity glass regulates temperature within a building because it
does not absorb much radiation.
- Wired Glass: Wired glass is fire-resistant glazing made by placing
wire mesh between layers of glass, similar to how PVB is used to
make laminated glass. This type of glazing is less likely to shatter
under high temperature due to the mesh.