MINI PROJECT REPORT ON

“A STUDY ON 33/11KV SYSTEM ANATOMY AND MAINTENANCE”

MINI PROJECT SUBMITTED AT

CENTRAL POWER TRAINING INSTITUTE, HYDERABAD.
A REPORT SUBMITTED

IN PARTIAL FULFILLMENT OF THE REQUIREMENT FOR THE AWARD OF

DEGREE OF
BACHELOR OF TECHNOLOGY
IN
ELECTRICAL AND ELECTRONICS ENGINEERING
REPORTED BY
J SAI VARDHAN (20671A0214)
MUDUGANTI SAI SRIKAR (20671A0223)
DHARAVATH KALYAN (20671A0207)
B UDBHAV ROY (20671A0203)

DEPARTMENT OF ELECTRICAL AND ELECTRONICS ENGINEERING

J.B.INSTITUTE OF ENGINEERING AND TECHNOLOGY
2023-2024

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SOUTHERN POWER DISTRIBUTION
COMPANY OF
TELANGANA LTD.
CENTRAL POWER TRAINING INSTITUTE
#8-3-167/E/1,G.T.S COLONY, HYDERABAD-45.PH:040-23431126

CERTIFICATE
This is certify that the mini project work entitled “A STUDY ON 33/11KV SYSTEM
ANATOMY AND MAINTENANCE” has been successfully carried out in the
partial fulfilment for the award of the Degree of Bachelor of Technology in Electrical
& Electronics Engineering, J.B. INSTITUTE OF ENGINEERING AND
TECHNOLOGY, HYDERABAD.

This bonafide work is carried out by

NAME ROLL NUMBER

J SAI VARDHAN 20671A0214
MUDUGANTI SAI SRIKAR 20671A0223
DHARAVATH KALYAN 20671A0207
B UDBHAV ROY 20671A0203

At CPTI (Central Power Training Institute ) of/TSSPDCL/Hyderabad, with reference to:

Lr No: CGM(HRD)/GM(Adm) AS(Estt)/PO-D/682-D3,
Date: .09.2023 under the guidance of
Smt. Dr. A.R.M. VANI/ /AE/CPTI/TSSPDCL/HYD.

Place: Hyderabad
Date:

(Sri A. Srinivas Rao)

Divisional Engineering/CPTI
TSSPDCL,
Hyderabad.

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ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

This project titled “A STUDY ON 33/11KV SYSTEM ANATOMY AND

MAINTENANCE ” was carried out by us.

Firstly, we would like to thank, Mr. U.MURALI KRISHNA CGM/HRD, TSSPDCL for
providing us the opportunity to do a mini project in the Southern Power Distribution
Company of Telangana LTD(TSSPDCL).

We are grateful to Dr. P.C. KRISHNAMACHARY, Principal and Dr. P.DURAIPANDY,

Associative Professor and Head of the Department of Electrical and Electronics Engineering,
J.B.INSTITUTE OF ENGINEERING AND TECHNOLOGY, Hyderabad, for the internal
guidance while pursuing this project.

We are grateful to Dr. P.DURAIPANDY, Associative professor, Department of Electrical

and Electronics Engineering for his timely advice and guidance in completion of our mini
project. We wish to express our sincere thanks to our external guide Smt. Dr. A.R.M. VANI
AE/CPTI/TSSPDCL, G.T.S. Colony, for giving us guidance and reference in the field to
complete this mini project work.

We are deeply indebted and thankful to SRI SRINIVAS RAO, DE /CPTI, for the systematic
guidance, valuable advice and constant encouragement in completion of this project.

With gratitude,
1. J SAI VARDHAN (20671A0214)
2. MUDUGANTI SAI SRIKAR (20671A0223)
3. DHARAVATH KALYAN ( 20671A0207)
4. B UDBHAV ROY (20671A0203)

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DECLARATION
This is to certify that Mini Project work reported in the present thesis titled " A STUDY ON
33/11KV SYSTEM ANATOMY AND MAINTENANCE" done by us in CENTRAL
POWER TRAINING INSTITUTE (CPTI),HYDERABAD.

No part of this thesis is copied from books/journals/internet and where the portion is taken
the same has been Duly referred to in the text. The reported work is based on the project work
done entirely by us and not copied from other sources.

SIGNATURE OF THE CANDIDATES:

1.

2.

3.

4.

The above bonafid students carried out mini project work and fulfilled project requirements
and found satisfactory.

DATE:

Signature of External Guide.

Name: Smt. Dr. A.R.M. VANI

Designation: AE/CPTI

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TABLE OF CONTENTS
TITLE pg.no
ABSTRACT.............................................................................................................7
About TSSPDCL.....................................................................................................8
TSSPDCL NETWORK..............................................................................................8
Chapter 1:Introduction...........................................................................................9
Chapter 2: Introduction to 33KV/11KV Distribution Substation.............................9
2.1 Substation Equipments:.................................................................................10
2.1.1 Lightning arresters (33KV):..........................................................................11
2.1.2 Isolators:.....................................................................................................................................13
2.1.3 Disc Insulators:............................................................................................................................14
2.1.4 Potential Transformer:................................................................................................................15
2.1.5 Current Transformers:.................................................................................................................16
2.1.6 Circuit Breaker:...........................................................................................18
2.1.8 HG Fuse:.....................................................................................................................................20
2.1.9 Power Transformer:....................................................................................................................21
2.1.9 Distribution Transformer:...........................................................................................................22
2.1.10 Capacitor Banks:.......................................................................................................................24
2.1.11 RMU (Ring Main Unit):..............................................................................................................24
2.2 COST OF EQUIPMENT:..................................................................................25
Chapter 3:EARTHING IN THE SUBSTATION.........................................................26
3.1 Purpose of Substation Earthing System:.........................................................26
3.2 Touch Voltage ( Vt ):.......................................................................................27
3.3 Step Voltage ( Vs ):..........................................................................................27
3.4 Types of Grounding or Earthing:.....................................................................28
3.5 Earthing Of Various Equipment In The Sub-Station:......................................31
Chapter 4:MAINTENANCE AT SUBSTATION.........................................................33
4.1 Importance of Maintenance:...........................................................................33
4.2 Maintenance Activities:...................................................................................33
4.3 Maintenance Schedule:...................................................................................34
4.4 Daily Schedule:...............................................................................................35
4.5 Monthly Schedule:..........................................................................................36
4.6 Quarterly Schedule:........................................................................................37
4.7 Half Yearly Schedule:......................................................................................38
4.8 Yearly schedule:.............................................................................................39

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4.9 Five Yearly Schedule:......................................................................................40
4.8 Maintenance of Transformer:..........................................................................41
4.8.1 Oil...............................................................................................................................................41
4.8.2 Transformer Body.......................................................................................................................41
4.8.3 Core and Windings......................................................................................................................42
4.8.4 External Connection...................................................................................................................43
4.8.5 Conservator and Magnetic Oil Gauge.........................................................................................43
4.8.6 Breather......................................................................................................................................43
4.8.7 Buchholz Relay............................................................................................................................43
4.8.8 Explosion Vent............................................................................................................................44
4.8.9 Gaskets.......................................................................................................................................44
4.8.10 pipe Work.................................................................................................................................44
4.8.11 Temperature Indicators.............................................................................................................44
4.8.12 spares.......................................................................................................................................44
4.9 Maintenance of Circuit Breakers:....................................................................45
4.10 Air Break Switch/ Isolators:..........................................................................46
CHAPTER 5 : Conclusion......................................................................................47
References............................................................................................................48

ABSTRACT

Substations are pivotal elements in the transmission and distribution network

of electrical power systems, serving as vital interfaces between generating
stations and end-users. Their core functions encompass voltage
transformation, switching, and, in some cases, electrical conversion.

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Substations are equipped with essential components such as power
transformers, circuit breakers, relays, isolators, and more to ensure the efficient
and safe distribution of electricity.
These substations are managed by experienced personnel, including
supervisors, engineers, and technical staff, responsible for maintenance and
operational tasks. Annual maintenance schedules are rigorously followed to
uphold the reliability and safety of the power system.
In essence, substations are the linchpin of electrical power systems, enabling
the controlled and reliable delivery of electricity to communities and industries
while safeguarding the integrity of the network.

About TSSPDCL

With a vision to fulfill the expectations of the Government, the Telangana Southern Power
Distribution Company Limited, which came into being an 2nd June 2014, with an objective of
electricity to the people at an affordable price. With its headquarters at Hyderabad, the TSSPDCL
encompasses an area of 14 districts viz., Mahabubnagar, Nalgonda, Yadadri Bhuvanagiri, Suryapet,
Siddipet, Medchal, Wanaparthy, Nagarkarnool, jogulamba Gadwal, Sangareddy, Medak, and
Hyderabad. Vikarabad and Rangareddy Catering to the power requirements of 84 million consumers.

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TSSPDCL has a vast infrastructure facility in its operating area with 1,504 No.s of 33/11 KV
substations 2,942 Nos. of power transformers, 1,102 No.s of 33 KV feeders 6,609 Nos. of 11 KV
feeders and around 3,84,477 No.s of distribution transformers of various capacities.
Having electrified 6,489 villages, 5,600 general hamlets, 2,059 tribal hamlets 12.105 Dalit wadas and
5,806 weaker sections colonies TSSPDCL is looking forward to meet many challenges with promise to
deliver quality customer services through innovative programmes.
The philosophy of TSSPDCL is to enhance its performance and emerge stronger by the day to offer its
customers the best and value for money.

TSSPDCL NETWORK

TSSPOCL encompasses an area of 14 districts districts viz., Mahabubnagar, Nalgonda, Yadadri

Bhuvanagiri, Suryapet, Siddipet, Medchal, Wanaparthy, Nagarkarnool, Jogulamba Gadwal,
SangaReddy, Medak, Hyderabad, Vikarabad and Rangareddy Catering to the power requirements of
8.4 million consumers.

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Chapter 1: Introduction

This report offers a comprehensive overview of the maintenance activities conducted within the
33kV/11kV substation at the Central Power Training Institute (CPTI), which operates under the
purview of the Telangana Southern Power Distribution Company Limited (TSSPDCL), a leading
Distribution Company (DISCOM) in the region. As a pivotal institution dedicated to training and
power infrastructure development, CPTI's substation is instrumental in ensuring the reliable
distribution of electrical energy, both for training purposes and to support the power needs of the
surrounding community.
The effective functioning of the 33kV/11kV substation is imperative in meeting the electricity
requirements of residential, commercial, and industrial sectors within the TSSPDCL's service territory.
Proper maintenance practices are essential to uphold the substation's operational integrity, safety,
and longevity.This report outlines the scope and significance of maintenance activities conducted
within the CPTI's 33kV/11kV substation, emphasizing their pivotal role in minimizing downtime,
enhancing system reliability, and ensuring the safety of personnel and assets. It also delves into the
various maintenance practices, schedules, and strategies employed to achieve these objectives.
By offering insights into the maintenance protocols followed at the Central Power Training Institute
(CPTI) under the umbrella of TSSPDCL, this report aims to provide transparency and valuable
information about the measures taken to ensure the continuous and efficient supply of electricity to
both its training endeavours and the broader community served by the DISCOM.

Chapter 2: Introduction to 33KV/11KV Distribution Substation

A 33kV/11kV substation is a vital component of the electrical power distribution system that
plays a pivotal role in delivering electricity from generation sources to end-users. This type of
substation serves as an intermediary point where high-voltage electricity, typically at 33kV, is stepped
down to a lower voltage of 11kV for local distribution. It houses essential equipment such as
transformers, circuit breakers, switchgear, busbars, and disconnect switches, ensuring efficient power
distribution, protection against faults, and the overall reliability of the electricity supply to homes,

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businesses, and industries. The design and operation of 33kV/11kV substations are critical in
maintaining a stable and safe electrical grid.

What is Power Trading ?

Power trading refers to purchasing and selling power between participants in the energy industry.
Various forms of power trading are possible depending on the market design, ranging from short-
term trading to long-term power purchase agreements.
Power trading involving distribution substations is a key facet of modern energy management. These
substations act as pivotal nodes where electricity from various sources, including power plants and
renewable energy installations, is distributed to local consumers. Power trading within distribution
substations allows for the buying and selling of electrical power, often in real-time or through
predetermined contracts. This dynamic process optimizes the utilization of available resources,
balances supply and demand, and supports grid stability. It also facilitates the integration of
renewable energy sources into the grid by enabling excess energy to be transferred to areas with
higher demand. Effective power trading at distribution substations is a crucial element in ensuring a
reliable, efficient, and sustainable electricity supply to consumers.

2.1 Substation Equipments:

Substation equipment plays a crucial role in the distribution and transmission of electrical power.
These facilities are essential for stepping up or stepping down voltage levels and ensuring the safe
and efficient flow of electricity from power plants to end-users. Here's an introduction to some of
the key equipment you'll find in a typical electrical substation:
Lightning Arresters
Insulators
Isolators or AB Switches
Bus Bars
Power Transformer & Distribution Transformers
Current Transformers & Potential Transformers
Circuit Breakers
Capacitor Banks etc…

Efficient electrical substation design involves meticulous planning, encompassing switching systems,
equipment placement, structural design, electrical layout, relay protection, and apparatus ratings.

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The interconnection of equipment in a substation forms the backbone of an efficient electrical power
distribution system. It involves a meticulous network of transformers, circuit breakers, switches,
busbars, and control systems that collaborate to ensure the reliable transmission and distribution of
electricity. Transformers step voltage levels up or down as needed, while circuit breakers protect
against faults and isolate problematic areas. Switches and busbars control the flow of electricity, and
monitoring systems provide real-time data to maintain optimal performance. We will discuss the
functions and roles of these equipment components in detail, as they are crucial for maintaining grid
stability and delivering a consistent supply of electricity to homes, businesses, and industries

2.1.1Lightning arresters (33KV):

Fig 2.1 33KV lightning arrestor

A lightning arrester, also known as a surge arrester or lightning rod, is a protective device used in
electrical systems to divert and dissipate lightning strikes and transient voltage surges, thereby
safeguarding sensitive equipment and preventing damage.
NAME PLATE DETAILS OF 33KV LIGHTNING ARRESTER

Phase Three Phase

No of Poles Triple Pole
Current Capacity 200-800 Amps
Voltage Rating 33 KV
Maximum Continuous Operating Voltage 28kV
(MCOV)

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Nominal Discharge Current 5 kA
Frequency 50 Hz
Country of Origin Made in India

One lightning arrester is placed in each phase and a total of three lightning arresters in 3 phases, the
cost of each LA is approximately RS/- 14,000.

PRINCIPLE OF OPERATION:
The principle upon which lightning or surge arresters usually operate is that when a voltage surge
travelling along the conductor reaches the point at which an arrester is installed (usually at some
equipment or line to be protected), it finds a lower resistance path to ground than that presented by:
the equipment or line. The voltage surge usually breaks down the insulation of the arrester
momentarily, allowing the voltage surge to travel to ground and dissipate itself. The insulation of the
arrester then recovers its properties and prevents further current from flowing to ground. At CPTI,
we use Metal Oxide Lightning Arrester.
An ideal Lightning Arrester should possess the following characteristics:
It must not take any current at normal system voltage.
Any transient wave with a voltage peak exceeding the spark over voltage must cause it to
break down.
After the breakdown, it must be capable of carrying the resulting discharge current without
any damage to itself and without voltage across it exceeding the breakdown voltage.

Location of Lightning Arrester:

Lightning arresters should be installed at an elevated position to maximize their effectiveness

in attracting lightning strikes. They are typically placed at the highest point of a structure, such as the
top of a building or a utility pole.
The air terminal or pointed rod at the top of the lightning arrester should be positioned in a
way that provides a clear and unobstructed path for lightning to strike. It should not be obstructed by
nearby structures, trees, or equipment.
Lightning arresters should be located close to the equipment or systems they are meant to
protect. For example, in a substation, they should be positioned near transformers and other
sensitive devices.
Ensure that the lightning arrester is properly grounded. The grounding system should have
low resistance to facilitate the safe dissipation of lightning energy into the ground. Separate earth
should be provided for each LA's. LA ground leads should not be connected to the station earth bus.

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2.1.2 Isolators:

FIG. 2.2 33KV Isolator

Isolators are also called disconnect switches which operate under no-load conditions. They are
not manufactured for any making or breaking current capacity. They don't have an arc Quenching
system within it, its main use in the electrical system is to disconnect a particular part after the
current interruption from that particular part. They ensure there is no current in the circuit until
everything is in order. They are placed on each side of the circuit breaker to provide isolation
generally, an automatic type is preferred.
The working of an isolator is very simple and it can be operated in various ways such as fully
automatic, semi-automatic, or manually operated, Isolators are sometimes used as switches that can
be opened or closed based on the requirement. But many times, isolators are used permanently in a
fixed position to keep isolation such as in electrical transmission lines, transformers, and grid
stations.
Depending on the voltage in the substation, isolators of that voltage level is used. They are used to
disconnect the transformers, circuit breakers, and bus bars to repair and maintenance. As mentioned
before, they are operated under no current conditions (no load) only since they don’t have rated
making and breaking current capacity.
33KV AB switch: in each phase one air break switch is connected.
33KV AB switch Capacity: 800Amps

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2.1.3 Disc Insulators:

FIG. 2.3 11KV Porcelain Disc insulator

The primary function of an insulator is to prevent the flow of electric current between conductive
materials or components that are at different electrical potentials. This prevents unintentional
electrical contact or short circuits, ensuring the integrity of the electrical system.
Insulators are fundamental for electrical safety. They prevent electric shock hazards by isolating live
electrical components or conductors from contact with people, equipment, or other conductive
materials.
Insulators are designed to withstand specific voltage levels without breaking down or allowing
electrical current to pass through them. This capability is crucial for maintaining electrical integrity in
high-voltage systems.
In addition to their electrical insulation properties, insulators often serve as mechanical supports for
electrical conductors, cables, and equipment. They hold these components in place and protect
them from damage.Insulators can shield electrical components from environmental factors such as
rain, snow, dust, and pollution, which can degrade the performance and safety of electrical systems.
To create a 33kV string insulator using 11kV disc insulators, you typically need three 11kV disc
insulators connected in series. This configuration allows you to achieve the required voltage rating of
33kV while ensuring proper electrical insulation.

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2.1.4 Potential Transformer:

FIG. 2.4 Potential Transformer

Potential transformer is a voltage step-down transformer which reduces the voltage of a high voltage
circuit to a lower level for the purpose of measurement. These are connected across or parallel to
the line which is to be monitored.
Coupling two potential transformers on both sides of the bus, with the added safeguard of a bus
isolator, serves the critical function of measuring bus voltage with precision. These transformers act
as essential intermediaries, bridging the gap between high voltage and the low voltage devices
utilized for monitoring and protection. By reducing the voltage to a safer level, they enable the
seamless connection of measuring instruments and protective relays, ensuring the safe and accurate
monitoring and safeguarding of power transmission and distribution systems.
The basic principle of operation and construction of this transformer is similar to the standard power
transformer. In common, the potential transformers are abbreviated as PT.

FIG. 2.5PT name plate details

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2.1.5 Current Transformers:

FIG. 2.5 Current transformer

Transformers serve a fundamental role in measuring the incoming currents at a substation. They
perform the crucial task of reducing the current magnitude from 200A to 1A. This reduction is
necessary due to the unavailability of instruments capable of directly measuring such high current
values. In essence, these transformers act as intermediaries, making it possible to accurately gauge
the current flow within the substation by scaling it down to a more manageable level for
conventional measurement instruments.The main use of this transformer is
Distance protection
Backup protection
Measurement

A current transformer is characterized as an instrument transformer in which the secondary current

closely mirrors the primary current (under normal operational conditions) and exhibits a minimal
phase difference, typically approaching zero, with proper connection orientation. This emphasis on
precision underscores the critical accuracy expected from current transformers. Additionally, they
serve an essential isolating function. Regardless of the system voltage, the secondary circuit must
only be insulated for lower voltages, ensuring the safety and reliability of the transformer's
operation. This naturally introduces an error in the transformation. The error is classified into current
ratio error and phase error.

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FIG. 2.6 Name plate details of CT

NSV-Nominal System Voltage

HSV -Highest System Voltage

IL -Rated Insulation Level

S.T.C -short-time current

LCT -Leakage Current Transformer

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2.1.6 Circuit Breaker:

FIG. 2.7 33KV circuit Breaker

A circuit breaker is a vital piece of equipment that serves the crucial function of automatically
disconnecting the power supply to a system whenever a fault or short circuit occurs within that
system. It is designed to rapidly detect and isolate faults within a fraction of a second, thereby
minimizing potential damage at the precise location of the fault. Circuit breakers are engineered with
a special focus on their ability to interrupt extremely high fault currents, often exceeding ten times
the normal operating currents. This capability ensures the safety and reliability of the electrical
system by swiftly disconnecting power in the event of a fault, preventing further damage and
potentially hazardous situations.
Various types of circuit breakers find application in substations, each with its unique characteristics
and advantages. These types include oil circuit breakers, minimum oil circuit breakers, air blast circuit
breakers, vacuum circuit breakers, and SF6 circuit breakers, among others. These circuit breakers are
typically arranged in a sequence that reflects their historical development and increasing fault-
interrupting capacity, reliability, and ease of maintenance.
In distribution substations, vacuum and SF6 (sulphur hexafluoride) circuit breakers are commonly
used. These types of circuit breakers are well-suited for distribution-level voltage and current
requirements, offering efficient and reliable performance in these settings. Vacuum circuit breakers
and SF6 circuit breakers have proven to be effective in interrupting fault currents and ensuring the
stability of distribution systems. Their usage is often based on factors such as voltage levels,
environmental considerations, and specific application requirements within the distribution
substation.

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WORKING PRINCIPLE:

A circuit breaker operates by continuously conducting electrical current during normal operation.
However, when it detects an over current or a fault in the circuit, it swiftly opens its contacts to
interrupt the current flow. This is achieved through a trip signal triggered by protective relays or
sensors. As the contacts separate, any resulting electric arc is rapidly extinguished, and the breaker
isolates the faulty part of the circuit to prevent further damage. Some circuit breakers lock in the
open position to prevent automatic reclosure, enhancing safety. In essence, circuit breakers play a
critical role in safeguarding electrical systems by interrupting current when necessary to prevent
damage or hazards.

FIG. 2.8 33KV Control and Relay Panels

Relays are essential components in power system protection, serving as vigilant guardians of
electrical networks. Their primary function is to detect abnormal conditions, such as over current,
overvoltage, under frequency, or faults, within the power system. When a predefined threshold is
breached, the relay responds by issuing a trip signal to circuit breakers or other protective devices.
This action swiftly isolates the faulty section of the system, preventing further damage or
catastrophic failures. Relays play a critical role in ensuring the stability, reliability, and safety of power
systems, acting as the first line of defence against potential disturbances and faults. Their accuracy
and responsiveness are paramount to maintaining the integrity of the electrical grid.

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2.1.8 HG Fuse:

FIG. 2.9 HG Fuse

A horn gap fuse, also known as a expulsion fuse, is a type of high-voltage protective device employed
in electrical power systems to safeguard equipment and lines from overcurrents and faults. It
consists of a set of horn-shaped, open-ended porcelain or fiberglass containers filled with insulating
medium, typically air or gas. In normal operating conditions, current flows through these containers
without interruption. However, when an overcurrent or fault occurs, the resulting arc generates a
high-pressure shockwave, pushing the arc into the horn-shaped containers. This rapid movement of
the arc creates a magnetic field that forces it to stretch and extinguish within the insulating medium,
thus interrupting the current. Horn gap fuses are commonly used in high-voltage applications,
offering effective and reliable protection against electrical faults while minimizing the risk of damage
to the surrounding equipment.

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2.1.9 Power Transformer:

FIG. 2.10 33KV/11KV 5MVA Power Transformer

A 33kV/11kV power transformer is a type of electrical transformer designed to convert

electrical voltage from a higher level of 33,000 volts (33kV) on the primary side to a lower level of
11,000 volts (11kV) on the secondary side. These transformers play a crucial role in electrical power
distribution systems. Here's a brief explanation of their typical applications and features:

Voltage Step-Down: The primary purpose of a 33kV/11kV power transformer is to reduce the
voltage level from the higher transmission voltage (33kV) to a lower distribution voltage (11kV). This
voltage reduction is necessary to facilitate safe and efficient distribution of electrical power to
industrial, commercial, and residential areas.
Distribution Networks:These transformers are commonly used in distribution substations, where
electricity from higher-voltage transmission lines is stepped down to a level suitable for local
distribution. The 11kV output is further reduced, if needed, by additional distribution transformers
for specific applications.
Load Centre Applications: The 11kV distribution voltage is suitable for feeding power to various
loads, including factories, hospitals, residential neighbour hoods, and commercial buildings. It's a
common voltage level for medium-voltage distribution networks.
Efficiency and Safety: Power transformers are designed to be highly efficient to minimize energy
losses during voltage conversion. Additionally, safety features such as overcurrent and overvoltage
protection are often incorporated to protect the transformer and the electrical system.

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Cooling Systems: Depending on the size and rating, these transformers may have various cooling
systems, such as oil-immersed cooling or dry-type (air) cooling, to dissipate heat generated during
operation.
Regulation: Some transformers are equipped with tap changers to adjust the secondary voltage
within a limited range, ensuring voltage regulation in the distribution network.

Insulation and Protection: Adequate insulation and protection systems are critical to ensuring the
safe and reliable operation of these transformers. This includes measures to prevent electrical arcing
and maintain the dielectric integrity of the insulation materials.
The key parts and components of a power transformer:

Core
HV Winding
LV Winding
Insulation
Bushings
On load Tap Changer
Radiators
Buchholz Relay
Pressure Relief Device
Conservator
Breather

2.1.9 Distribution Transformer:

FIG. 2.11 11KV /433V 500KVA Distribution Transformer

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The distribution transformer is a main and largest equipment of Electrical General Service Sub-
station. It is basically a static electrical device which steps down the primary voltage of 33KV or 11 KV
to secondary distribution voltage of 415-440 volts between phases and 215 volts between phase and
neutral through delta-star windings by electromagnetic induction without change in frequency.
Transformer consists of the following parts and components.

FIG. 2.12 Parts of Distribution Transformer

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2.1.10 Capacitor Banks:

FIG. 2.13 Capacitor Bank

A capacitor bank is an electrical device used in power systems to improve power factor and
enhance the efficiency of electrical distribution. It consists of a series of capacitors connected in
parallel, designed to store and release electrical energy quickly. When connected to the electrical
grid, a capacitor bank can supply reactive power on demand, which helps offset the reactive power
drawn by inductive loads, such as motors and transformers. This, in turn, raises the power factor of
the system, reducing energy losses and optimizing the utilization of electrical infrastructure.
Capacitor banks are commonly employed in industrial and commercial settings to improve the
quality of power supply, reduce electricity costs, and enhance the overall efficiency of electrical
systems.

2.1.11 RMU (Ring Main Unit):

A Ring Main Unit (RMU) is a vital component within a substation, primarily used for the
distribution and management of electrical power. It acts as a compact, self-contained unit that
combines functions like circuit breaking, load isolation, and protection in a single enclosure. RMUs

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are commonly employed in medium-voltage distribution networks to ensure efficient power supply
to various feeders or distribution circuits. Their modular design and versatility make them ideal for
urban and densely populated areas where space is limited. RMUs enhance the reliability of electrical
distribution by allowing for quick fault detection and isolation, thus minimizing power outages and
ensuring a more robust and resilient substation infrastructure.

2.2 COST OF EQUIPMENT:

S.No Name of equipment Unit Cost in Rupees

1 Triple Pole 33KV Lightning arrester ₹ 14,000

2 33KV Rotating Isolator ₹ 24,000

3 33KV 400A Polymer HG Fuse ₹ 4,800

4 33KV Current Transformer ₹ 18,000

5 Oil cooled Potential Transformer 33KV ₹ 15,000

6 Power Transformer Up to ₹ 25 Lakhs

7 Distribution Transformer Up to ₹ 2 Lakhs

8 Capacitor Bank 11KV ₹ 4 Lakhs

9 11KV Porcelain Disk Insulator ₹ 300

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Chapter 3:EARTHING IN THESUBSTATION

Ensuring adequate earthing in substations and switching stations is of paramount importance for
both the safety of operating personnel and the preservation of electrical devices, preventing them
from exceeding tolerable thresholds. Furthermore, a robust earth connection is essential for
efficiently dissipating faults to the earth. The significance of establishing an effective, long-lasting,
and reliable earth system to safeguard against electrical hazards cannot be overstated. Through
proper earthing, electrical equipment is securely connected to the earth's general mass, offering a
path with very low resistance for fault dissipation.

3.1 Purpose of Substation Earthing System:

The purpose of an earthing system in a substation is to establish a surface both beneath and
around the substation that maintains a consistent and as close to zero or absolute earth potential as
feasible. Creating this uniform potential surface in the vicinity of the substation is crucial to ensure
the safety of individuals within it, guarding against the risk of electric shock or injury in the event of a
short circuit or the occurrence of other abnormal conditions in the yard's equipment. The
fundamental criteria for an effective earthing system in a substation are as follows:
Protecting personnel, equipment, and the public from electric shock and electrical hazards
by providing a safe path for fault currents to dissipate into the ground.
Provide low impedance path to fault currents to ensure prompt and consistentoperation of
protective devices during ground faults.
Maintaining a stable ground potential across the substation to prevent dangerous voltage
differences that can occur during faults or lightning strikes.
Grounding metallic structures within the substation, such as fences, to prevent dangerous
touch voltages during fault conditions.
Reducing electromagnetic interference to communication and control systems within and
outside the substation.

The maximum permissible resistance of earthing system

Larger power station – 0.5 ohms

Major substation – 1.0 ohms

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Small substation – 2.0 ohms
In all other cases – 8.0 ohms

3.2 Touch Voltage ( Vt):

Touch voltage refers to the voltage that can be experienced when a person comes into contact
with an electrical object or surface that has become energized due to an electrical fault or
malfunction. It is a critical consideration in electrical safety and is typically associated with electrical
grounding systems and the potential for electric shock.

FIG. 3.1 Touch voltage at grounded structure

3.3 Step Voltage ( Vs):

Step voltage, also known as touch potential or step potential, is a measure of the voltage
difference that can exist between a person's feet when they are standing at two different points on
the ground in the vicinity of an electrical fault or energized equipment. It is a critical consideration in
electrical safety, particularly during ground faults or electrical system faults.

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FIG. 3.2 Step voltage at grounded structure

Critical Role of Gravel in Substations for Minimizing Step and Touch Voltage Hazards:

The use of gravel in substations is a common practice aimed at reducing step and touch voltage
hazards. Gravel, when spread on the ground in the substation area, serves as an effective conductor
and can help improve the grounding system's performance. It enhances the conductivity of the earth
and reduces soil resistivity, which, in turn, lowers the step and touch voltage levels. By providing a
low-resistance path for fault currents to dissipate, gravel significantly contributes to enhancing
electrical safety within substations, minimizing the risk of electric shock and injury to personnel in
the event of ground faults or equipment malfunctions. This simple yet effective measure plays a
crucial role in ensuring the secure and reliable operation of substations.

3.4 Types of Grounding or Earthing:

Grounding in substations is crucial for electrical safety and proper operation. There are several types
of grounding used in substations, each serving specific purposes. The choice of grounding method
depends on factors such as system voltage, fault current levels, and site conditions. Here are some
common types of grounding in substations:

Solid Grounding (Earth Grounding): In this method, the substation equipment is directly
connected to the earth through grounding electrodes like ground rods or grounding grids. Solid
grounding provides a low-impedance path for fault currents to flow into the earth, ensuring the
safety of the equipment and personnel. It is commonly used in low and medium voltage substations.
Resistance Grounding:In resistance grounding, a resistor is connected in series with the
grounding connection. This limits the fault current to a certain level, reducing the risk of equipment

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damage, and improving system continuity during ground faults. Resistance grounding is often used in
medium voltage systems.
Reactance Grounding: Instead of a resistor, a reactor (inductor) is connected in series with
the grounding connection. Reactance grounding limits fault current while allowing temporary
operation during a ground fault. This method is common in high-voltage substations.
High-Resistance Grounding (HRG): HRG systems use a high-value resistor (typically in the
mega ohm range) to limit fault currents. HRG systems minimize equipment damage during ground
faults and are often used in industrial substations where continuous operation is critical.
Low-Resistance Grounding (LRG): LRG systems use a lower-value resistor compared to HRG.
They are designed to detect ground faults quickly and provide a moderate level of fault current to
help locate and clear the fault. LRG is commonly used in medium-voltage distribution systems.

Unearthed (Ungrounded) Systems: In some situations, substations may operate with no

intentional grounding connection. This is often done in high-voltage systems to minimize fault
current and reduce the risk of cascading faults. However, unearthed systems require more advanced
protection and monitoring.

Earthing, also known as grounding, is the process of connecting electrical systems, equipment, or
structures to the Earth's conductive surface to ensure safety, dissipate electrical faults, and reduce
the risk of electric shock and fires. There are several types of earthing commonly used:

Plate Earthing: Plate earthing involves burying a metal plate (typically copper or galvanized
iron) in the ground to provide a low-resistance path for fault currents. This method is suitable for
small installations and is often used in residential and commercial buildings.

Pipe Earthing: Pipe earthing uses a metal pipe (usually copper or galvanized iron )driven
vertically into the ground. It is a variation of plate earthing and is suitable for areas with high soil
resistance.

Rod Earthing: Rod earthing utilizes a metal rod (copper or galvanized iron) that is driven
vertically into the ground. It is commonly used in areas with rocky or hard soil where plate earthing
may not be feasible.

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Strip Earthing: Strip earthing involves the use of a metal strip (typically copper) buried
horizontally in a trench. This method is suitable for areas with limited space or where vertical
earthing methods are not practical.

Grid Earthing: Grid earthing, also known as mesh earthing, involves creating an
interconnected network of buried metal conductors or rods. It provides low-resistance grounding for
large facilities, substations, and industrial complexes.

Electrode Earthing: Electrode earthing uses specialized electrodes, such as chemical or gel-
filled electrodes, to improve the performance of earthing systems in areas with challenging soil
conditions or high resistivity.

Plate Electrode Earthing: Plate electrode earthing combines the principles of plate and
electrode earthing by using chemical or gel-filled plates to enhance the earthing system's efficiency.

Earth Pits: Earth pits are concrete enclosures filled with a mixture of salt and charcoal or
other conductive materials. They are used to create a low-resistance connection to the Earth for
grounding systems.

Grounding Mat: Grounding mats consist of conductive materials like copper or aluminium
installed on the surface of the Earth to provide an extensive and low-resistance grounding system.
They are commonly used in sensitive electronic installations and substations.

Grounding Electrode Systems: Various specialized grounding electrode systems, such as

ground rods, ground rings, and ground grids, may be employed to meet specific grounding
requirements in electrical substations and industrial settings.

Lightning Rod Grounding: Lightning rods are grounded using specialized grounding systems
to safely dissipate lightning strikes into the Earth, protecting structures and equipment from damage.

Chemical Earthing (Chemical Electrode Earthing): Chemical earthing involves the use of
specially designed electrodes filled with a conductive chemical compound, typically a mixture of salt
and charcoal or other additives. This compound improves the conductivity of the soil around the
electrode, creating a low-resistance path to the Earth.

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3.5 Earthing Of Various Equipment In The Sub-Station:

In a substation, proper earthing (grounding) of various equipment is essential for electrical safety,
equipment protection, and system reliability. Here's a general overview of how different types of
equipment in a substation are typically grounded:
Transformers:
Transformers are typically grounded through a combination of methods. The transformer
tank is connected to a grounding grid or electrode system to dissipate fault currents into the ground.
The transformer neutral (star point) is grounded, either solidly or through a grounding
resistor, depending on the system's requirements and protection schemes.

Circuit Breakers and Switchgear:

Circuit breakers and switchgear are connected to the grounding system to ensure that fault
currents are safely directed to the ground.
Many circuit breakers and switchgear components have built-in grounding connections.

Bus bars and Conductors:

Bus bars and conductors within the substation are typically grounded to ensure that fault
currents are safely dissipated.
Grounding connections can be made at various points along the busbars and conductors as
needed.

Substation Structures:
Metallic substation structures, such as support columns and frames, are grounded to ensure
they are at the same electrical potential as the equipment.
This grounding helps prevent electric shock hazards and ensures proper equipment
operation.

Lightning Arresters:
Lightning arresters, which protect substation equipment from lightning strikes, are grounded
to safely dissipate lightning currents into the ground.
Proper grounding is critical for the effective operation of lightning arresters.

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Control and Protection Panels:
Control and protection panels in the substation may have their enclosures grounded to
prevent electromagnetic interference (EMI) and ensure the safety of personnel working on or near
the panels.

Fences and Perimeter:

Substation fences are typically grounded to maintain a consistent ground potential and
enhance security by preventing unauthorized access.

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Chapter 4:MAINTENANCE AT SUBSTATION

4.1 Importance of Maintenance:

Maintenance in a substation is of paramount importance for ensuring the reliable and efficient
operation of the electrical infrastructure. Substations play a critical role in the distribution and
transmission of electrical power, serving as hubs where voltage levels are transformed, controlled,
and distributed to end-users. Regular maintenance activities, including equipment inspection,
testing, and repairs, are essential to identify and address potential issues before they lead to costly
and disruptive failures. Maintenance helps extend the lifespan of substation equipment, reduce the
risk of electrical outages, enhance safety for both workers and the public, and ensure the continuous
delivery of electricity to homes, businesses, and industries. Neglecting maintenance in substations
can result in power interruptions, equipment damage, and even safety hazards, underscoring the
vital role that proactive maintenance plays in ensuring a reliable and resilient electrical grid.

4.2 Maintenance Activities:

The maintenance activities carried out on the 33kV/11kV substation can be categorized into several
key areas:
Visual Inspection: Regular visual inspections are conducted to identify any signs of wear,
corrosion, or damage on equipment such as transformers, circuit breakers, switches, and busbars.
Any abnormalities like corona glows are noted and addressed promptly.
Cleaning: Dust, dirt, and debris can accumulate on equipment surfaces over time, affecting
their performance and potentially leading to overheating. Routine cleaning is performed to maintain
optimal operating conditions.
Electrical Testing: Various electrical tests are conducted to ensure the substation's
equipment operates within specified parameters. These tests include insulation resistance tests,
power factor tests, and transformer turns ratio tests.
Oil Analysis: Transformers and other oil-filled equipment undergo regular oil analysis to
assess the condition of the insulating oil. This helps identify any potential issues like degradation or
contamination.

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Circuit Breaker Maintenance: Circuit breakers are inspected and tested to ensure proper
functioning and quick response in case of faults. Contacts are checked for wear and proper
alignment.
Protection System Testing: The substation's protection relays and systems are tested to
verify their accuracy in detecting and responding to faults. This is crucial for ensuring the safety of
the substation and connected equipment.
Grounding Inspection: The grounding system is inspected to ensure proper grounding and
bonding, which is essential for personnel safety and equipment protection.
HVAC System Maintenance: Heating, ventilation, and air conditioning (HVAC) systems are
maintained to ensure a suitable environment for the substation equipment, preventing overheating
and humidity-related issues.

4.3 Maintenance Schedule:

The maintenance activities on the 33kV/11kV substation are performed according to a
predetermined schedule. Routine maintenance is conducted annually, while some critical
components may require more frequent checks.

4.4 Daily Schedule:

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4.5 Monthly Schedule:

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4.6 Quarterly Schedule:

4.7 Half Yearly Schedule:

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4.8 Yearly schedule:

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4.9 Five Yearly Schedule:

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4.8 Maintenance of Transformer:

Transformer The principal object of transformer maintenance is to maintain the insulation in good
condition. Moisture, dust and excessive heat are the main reasons of insulation deterioration and
avoidance of these will keep insulation in good condition.
4.8.1 Oil

Leakage of excessive oil to be investigated and repaired as early as possible.

Maintain the record of oil used and always prefer the same make of oil for topping up or
replacement. The oil of different makes may be separated into layers. The mixture of oil have greater
tendency to form acidity or sludge.
Never use the released oil even if the same make. Never mix the transformer oil to the oil of
switchgear equipment.
Only the dielectric strength does not indicate the healthy condition of oil. Therefore in
addition to chemical tests other tests such as acidity test, test for polar contaminants, sludge also to
be carried out.
If the acidity exceeds limits, open the cover to ascertain the condition of interior of tank,
core and windings. Take suitable action if sludge or corrosion is evident.
DGA: Dissolve Gas Analysis to assess the internal condition of the transformer.

4.8.2 Transformer Body

Ensure correct pressure for tightening the nut and bolt at joints. Replace the gaskets as and
when opened the gasket joints.
Measure the insulation resistance without disturbing thing.
Properly clean the tank cover before opening it. o Remove all nuts and bolts etc. and keep
them properly, before removing the cover.
Dismount bushings, if mounted on top. Remove the cover carefully if core and windings are
separate. If core and windings are suspended from tank cover, provide eye bolts on the cover for
lifting along with core and winding. Care should be taken to ensure vertical removal of the core. After
lifting the core, recount and tally the spanners and tools used.
The spanner should be cleaned and to be held by cotton strap or string tied round the wais
or wrist of the staff opening tank cover.

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4.8.3 Core and Windings

Lifting the core and coils

Remove the fixing devices if core and coils are suspended, from each end near the top.
Unload the connections of bushings and remove the bushings from tank walls.
Remove mechanical connection to the tap changing switch handle, if any.
Remove any earthing strips between the core clamps and tank.
Lift the core and coils vertically by slinging it from lifting lugs provided on core. Make sure
that the sling does not foul against connections, tapping switch etc
Allow the core and coils to drain oil into tank for some time. Now lower them on beams
placed in a metal tray filled with saw dust or sand.

Inspection
Ensure that everything is intact correctly.
Leads are not pulled out off their places.
Ensure tightness of nuts and bolts.
Clean the sludge by transformer oil and ensure that ducts are not blocked.
Clamp the windings firmly without any movement. Adjust the vertical tie bars to tighten
loose windings or spacers. Properly tight the special coil adjustment bolt, if provided.
Check the proper operation of tap changing switch.
Tight all connections.
Conduct insulation resistance test and take the corrective action.

Bushing
Clean the bushing porcelain and examine for cracks and chips. Replace if required.
If the bushing is below oil level, lower the oil until it is below the bushing hole.
If only the porcelain is to be changed it may not be necessary to undo the internal bushing
connection, for, in some cases the bushing stems are joined by an insulated bar to prevent them
from turning when the nuts are undone. All the nuts at the top of the bushing should be removed
and the old porcelain lifted straight up over the central stem, which remain in place. Slide the new
porcelain down over the stem and tighten the nuts. Too much strain on the porcelain should not be
applied when tightening the connections. Change only one porcelain at a time. If the insulated bar
between the bushing stems is not provided, the internal connections should be undone and the
whole bushing removed before the porcelain is changed and then replace the porcelain.

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When a complete bushing is to be changed the internal connection to the bushing should be
undone. If the replacement bushing has a socket at the bottom end, the old bushing should be
unclamped and withdrawn from the tank. Now unplug the flexible lead from the old bushing and
plugged into the new one, which is then lowered into the hole in the tank and re-clamped firmly but
not too tightly.

4.8.4 External Connection

The bluish tinge characteristic of metal indicates overheating. Either it become loose or dirty
or the size of conductor is not suitable for carrying current.
A small copper loop to bridge the top cover of the transformer and the tank may also be
provided to avoid earth fault current passing through the fastening bolts when there is a lighting
surge, high voltage surge or failure of bushings.

4.8.5 Conservator and Magnetic Oil Gauge

The oil level indicator should always be kept clean.

Replace the broken transparent material of level indicator immediately.
Examine the mechanism of oil gauge functioning properly during cleaning of conservator.

4.8.6 Breather

Silica gel dehydrating breathers are fitted with a sight glass so that the colour of the crystals
may be seen. The colour changes from blue to pink as the crystals absorb moisture. When the
crystals get saturated with moisture they become predominantly pink and should therefore be
reactivated. The body of the breather should be removed by undoing the nuts. If the crystals have
been kept in an inner container, the container should be removed, but if they are not, the crystals
should be removed into a shallow tray. The crystals should be backed at a temperature of about
200°C until the whole mass is restored blue colour. Clean the breather and place the dry and blue
crystals. Renew the oil in the sealing cup at the bottom.

4.8.7 Buchholz Relay

During operation if gas is found to be collecting and giving alarm, the gas should be tested
and analyse to find out the nature of fault. Sometimes, it is noticed that the gas collecting is only air.
The reasons for this may be that the oil is releasing any absorbed air due to change in temperature or
due to leakage on the suction side of pump. The absorbed air is released in initial stages only when
no vacuum is applied during filling of oil. The internal faults can be identified to a great extent by a

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chemical analysis of gas. o Routine operation and mechanical inspection/tests should be carried out
at one and two yearly intervals respectively.
The operation is tested by injecting air into the relay through the lower petcock of a double
float relay for the 45° petcock of a single float relay. After inspection, any air which has accumulated
in the upper gas chamber must be released by the upper petcock, by filling the chamber with oil.
To carry out mechanical inspection, the oil level must be brought below the level of relay.
Both floats should be able to rise and fall freely. Relay should give alarm/trip due to the oil level
falling below the Buchholz level. The mercury switches should be tightly clamped. If the glass of a
mercury switch is cracked, it must be replaced.

4.8.8 Explosion Vent

Frequently inspect diaphragm of the vent and replace if required.

An investigation should be carried out to determine the nature and cause of the fault before
replacing the broken diaphragm.

4.8.9 Gaskets

Check the tightness of all bolts fastening gasketed joints. To avoid uneven pressure, the bolts
should be tightened evenly round the joints. Leaking gaskets should be replaced as soon as the
circumstances permit.

4.8.10 pipe Work

Inspect the pipe work for leakage due to slack unions, misalignment.
Align the pipe and remade the joint.

4.8.11 Temperature Indicators

At each yearly maintenance inspection, the level of oil in the pockets holding thermometer
bulbs should be checked and the oil replenished, if required. The capillary tubing should be fastened
down again if it has become loose. Dial glasses should be kept clear and if broken, replaced as soon
as possible to prevent damage to the instrument. Temperature indicators should be calibrated with
standard thermometer immersed in hot oil bath if found to be reading incorrectly.

4.8.12 spares
It is a healthy practice to have essential spares like one member of each type of bushings, one spare
limb winding, one thermometer, one cooling fan, etc, for each group of similar transformer.

4.9 Maintenance of Circuit Breakers:

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Circuit breakers usually need more frequent and more prolonged maintenance. In general, for
maintenance of CB the instructions of manufacturer should be followed. A few salient points on
maintenance of CB are given below: Under normal operating conditions during regular inspections
following checks should be done:
The contacts should be checked for proper alignment.
The oil level should be checked and maintained.
The oil condition should be tested, if dielectric strength is lower than specified, oil should be
filtered. While taking oil samples normal precautions should be followed. If water is found an
investigation of the cause should done and a remedial action should be taken.
All insulating parts should be thoroughly cleaned to remove all traces of carbon which may
remain after the oil has been drained from the tank.
Check the functioning of the breaker through devices which will have to function on fault or
overload.
Check indicating devices such as mechanical ON and OFF indication, as an incorrect
indication may at some times lead to a fatal accident.
Check auxiliary switches for cleanliness and correct contact making.
If a CB operate under fault conditions to interrupt a fault, then maintenance after such
occurrences should be carried out giving special attention to the following items:
Current carrying parts: All contacts including isolator contacts should be examined, dressed
or replaced if necessary.
Insulation should be cleaned to remove carbon deposits. Examination to be made of cracks,
tracking or other damages.
Arc control devices should be checked and dismantled, if any carbon or metallic deposits are
found, these should be removed.
All joints and seal should be examined for tightness
Oil should be checked in case of oil circuit breaker.
The general inspection for any mechanical damage or distortion of the structure and
mechanism should be made. The switch gear should be closed and tripped by each of the methods
provided.

4.10 Air Break Switch/ Isolators:

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The ease of maintenance is mainly a question of access. This is influenced by the method of
mounting. Isolators mounted upside down, or with their insulators horizontal often present access
problem.
During maintenance insulators are cleaned with lint less cloth slightly soaked in gasoline.
The conditions of all contacts are checked and on detecting any trace of burning, defective
contacts are cleaned or replaced with new ones.
Old grease is washed from the insulation rubbing the part with kerosene and a thin layer of
fresh grease is applied. Loose bolts and nuts are tightened at all points.
The operating mechanism of isolator is checked by closing and opening each isolator several
times with the line de-energized. When adjusting the mechanical part of 3 phase isolators, the switch
blades are checked for simultaneous closing isolator blades are checked for ease of engagement with
fixed contact jaws. Isolator contacts must make a close fit in order to avoid excessive heating when
closed. This is checked by feeler gauge of 0.05mm (10mm wide).
Contact springs are checked both in compressed and free state.
Contact surface are coated with acid free petroleum jelly containing minute quantity of
graphite

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CHAPTER 5 :Conclusion
Transmission and distribution stations play a crucial role within a power system, serving as key
interfaces between different levels or sections of the system. They have the capability to switch or
reconfigure connections among various transmission and distribution lines.
At the heart of these stations is the control room, where operations are meticulously coordinated to
ensure the efficient and reliable flow of electricity. The central component of a substation, within
these stations, is the transformer. Transformers are essential because they facilitate the
transformation of voltage levels, bridging the gap between the high-voltage and low-voltage parts of
the system.
Breakers are another critical element within these stations. They function as protective devices,
automatically opening in the event of a fault to prevent damage to the system and ensure safety.
Breakers act swiftly to isolate faulty sections of the network, helping to maintain overall system
integrity.
Additionally, switches are deployed strategically within these stations. These controlled devices can
be deliberately opened or closed to establish or break connections as needed. Switches offer
flexibility in managing the network, allowing for rerouting of electricity flow or isolating specific areas
when required.
In summary, transmission and distribution stations are essential components of a power system,
providing the infrastructure and control mechanisms necessary to ensure the efficient and reliable
transmission of electrical energy across different voltage levels while maintaining safety
and flexibility.

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References

1. Handbook on maintenance of electrical substation.

2. Maintenance of substation equipment-https://www.electrical4u.com
3. Power systems by C.L. Wadhwa
4. www.tsspdcl

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