BASIC ELECTRICAL AND ELECTRONICS ENGINEERING

LECTURE NOTES

DEPARTMENT OF ELECTRICAL AND ELECTRONICS ENGINEERING

MALLA REDDY ENGINEERING COLLEGE AUTONOMOUS

MAISAMMAGUDA, DULAPALLY– 500014, Hyderabad

SYLLABUS:
MODULE I : DC Circuits [09 Periods]
Electrical circuit elements (R, L and C), voltage and current sources, Kirchhoff’s current and
voltage laws - Series, parallel, series-parallel, star-to-delta and delta-to-star transformation-
analysis of simple circuits with dc excitation. Superposition, Thevenin's and Maximum Power
Transfer Theorems with DC excitation.

MODULE II: AC Circuits 09 Periods]

Representation of sinusoidal waveforms, peak and rms values, phasor representation,real power,
reactive power, apparent power, power factor. Analysis of single-phase ac circuits consisting of
R, L, C, RL, RC, RLC combinations (series and parallel).

MODULE III: Introduction to Electrical Machines [10 Periods]

A: DC Machines : Construction & Principle of Operation of DC Generators – E.M.F Equation.
Principle of operation DC Motors – Back E.M.F. - Torque equation – Brake Test -Characteristics.
B: AC Machines: Construction and Principle of operation of Transformer- EMF Equation.
Construction and Principle of Operation of 3 Phase Induction Motors - Brake test on 3-Phase
Induction Motor – Applications

MODULE IV: P-N Junction Diode [10 Periods]

A: P-N Junction Diode: Diode equation, Energy Band diagram, Volt-Ampere characteristics,
Temperature dependence, Ideal versus practical, Static and dynami resistances, Equivalent circuit,
Diffusion and Transition Capacitances. Zener diode operation, Zener diode as voltage regulator.
B: Rectifiers : P-N junction as a rectifier - Half Wave Rectifier, Ripple Factor – Full Wave
Rectifier, Bridge Rectifier.
C: Filters : Filters – Inductor Filters, Capacitor Filters, L- section Filters, π- section Filters.

MODULE V : BJT and Junction Field Effect Transistor (JFET) [10 Periods]

A:Bipolar Junction Transistor (BJT): Construction, Principle of Operation,Symbol,

Amplifying Action, Common Emitter, Common Base and CommonCollector configurations and
Input-Output Characteristics, Comparison of CE, CB and CC configurations

B: Junction Field Effect Transistor and MOSFET: Construction, Principle ofOperation,

Symbol, Pinch-Off Voltage, Volt-Ampere Characteristic, Comparisonof BJT and FET.

TEXT BOOKS
1. M.Surya Kalavathi, Ramana Pilla, Ch. Srinivasa Rao, Gulinindala Suresh,“Basic Electrical and
Electronics Engineering”, S.Chand and CompanyLimited, New Delhi, 1st Edition, 2017.
2. R.L.Boylestad and Louis Nashlesky, “Electronic Devices & Circuit Theory”,Pearson
Education, 2007.

REFERENCES
1. V.K. Mehtha and Rohit Mehta, “Principles of Electrical Engineering andElectronics”, S.Chand
& Co., 2009.
2. Jacob Milliman, Christos C .Halkias, Satyabrata Jit (2011), “ElectronicDevices and Circuits”,
3 rd edition, Tata McGraw Hill, New Delhi.
3. Thomas L. Floyd and R. P. Jain, “Digital Fundamentals”, Pearson Education,2009.
4. David A. Bell, “Electronic Devices and Circuits”, Oxford University Press,2008.
UNIT – I
DIRECT CURRENT CIRCUITS

1.1 INTRODUCTION
Given an electrical network, the network analysis involves various methods. The process of finding
the network variables namely the voltage and currents in various parts of the circuit is known as
network analysis. Before we carry out actual analysis it is very much essential to thoroughly
understand the various terms associated with the network. In this chapter we shall begin with the
definition and understanding in detail some of the commonly used terms. The basic laws such as
Ohm’s law, KCL and KVL, those can be used to analyse a given network Analysis becomes easier if
we can simplify the given network. We will be discussing various techniques, which involve
combining series and parallel connections of R, L and C elements.

1.2 SYSTEMS OF UNITS

As engineers, we deal with measurable quantities. Our measurement must be communicated in
standard language that virtually all professionals can understand irrespective of the country. Such an
international measurement language is the International System of Units (SI). In this system, there are
six principal units from which the units of all other physical quantities can be derived.

Quantity Basic Unit Symbol

Length Meter M
Mass kilogram kg
Time second s
Electric Current ampere A
Temperature Kelvin K
Luminous intensity candela Cd

One great advantage of SI unit is that it uses prefixes based on the power of 10 to relate larger and
smaller units to the basic unit.

Multiplier Prefix Symbol

1012 Tera T
109 giga G
106 mega M
103 kilo K
10-3 milli m
10-6 micro
10-9 nano n
10-12 pico p

1.3 BASIC CONCEPTS AND DEFINITIONS

1.3.1 CHARGE
The most basic quantity in an electric circuit is the electric charge. We all experience the effect of
electric charge when we try to remove our wool sweater and have it stick to our body or walk across a
carpet and receive a shock.

Charge is an electrical property of the atomic particles of which matter consists, measured in
coulombs (C). Charge, positive or negative, is denoted by the letter q or Q.

We know from elementary physics that all matter is made of fundamental building blocks known as
atoms and that each atom consists of electrons, protons, and neutrons. We also know that the charge
‘e’ on an electron is negative and equal in magnitude to 1.602x10-19 C, while a proton carries a
positive charge of the same magnitude as the electron and the neutron has no charge. The presence of
equal numbers of protons and electrons leaves an atom neutrally charged.

1.3.2 CURRENT
Current can be defined as the motion of charge through a conducting material, measured in Ampere
(A). Electric current, is denoted by the letter i or I.

The unit of current is the ampere abbreviated as (A) and corresponds to the quantity of total charge
that passes through an arbitrary cross section of a conducting material per unit second.
Mathematically,

Where is the symbol of charge measured in Coulombs (C), I is the current in amperes (A) and t is
the time in second (s).

The current can also be defined as the rate of charge passing through a point in an electric circuit.
Mathematically,

The charge transferred between time t 1 and t2 is obtained as

A constant current (also known as a direct current or DC) is denoted by symbol I whereas a time-
varying current (also known as alternating current or AC) is represented by the symbol or I or i(t) .
Figure 1.1 shows direct current and alternating current.

Current is always measured through a circuit element as shown in Fig. 1.1

Fig. 1.1 Current through Resistor (R)

Two types of currents:
1) A direct current (DC) is a current that remains constant with time.
2) An alternating current (AC) is a current that varies with time.

Fig. 1.2Two common types of current: (a) direct current (DC), (b) alternative current (AC)
Example 1.1
Determine the current in a circuit if a charge of 80 coulombs passes a given point in 20 seconds (s).

Solution:

Example 1.2
How much charge is represented by 4,600 electrons?

Solution:
Each electron has - 1.602x10-19 C. Hence 4,600 electrons will have:

-1.602x10-19x4600 = -7.369x10-16 C

1.3.3 VOLTAGE (or) POTENTIAL DIFFERENCE

To move the electron in a conductor in a particular direction requires some work or energy transfer.
This work is performed by an external electromotive force (emf), typically represented by the battery
in Fig. 1.3. This emf is also known as voltage or potential difference. The voltage abbetween two
points aand b in an electric circuit is the energy (or work) needed to move a unit charge from a to b.

Fig. 1.3(a) Electric Current in a conductor, (b)Polarity of voltage ab

Voltage (or potential difference) is the energy required to move charge from one point to the other,
measured in volts (V). Voltage is denoted by the letter v or V.
Mathematically,

where w is energy in joules (J) and q is charge in coulombs (C). The voltage ab or simply V is
measured in volts (V).
1 volt = 1 joule/coulomb = 1 newton-meter/coulomb

Fig. 1.3 shows the voltage across an element (represented by a rectangular block) connected to points
a and b. The plus (+) and minus (-) signs are used to define reference direction or voltage polarity.
The ab can be interpreted in two ways: (1) point a is at a potential of ab volts higher than point b, or
(2) the potential at point a with respect to point b is ab . It follows logically that in general

Voltage is always measured across a circuit element as shown in Fig. 1.4

Fig. 1.4 Voltage across Resistor (R)

Example 1.5
An energy source forces a constant current of 2 A for 10 s to flow through a lightbulb. If 2.3 kJ is
given off in the form of light and heat energy, calculate the voltage drop across the bulb.

Solution:
Total charge dq= i*dt = 2*10 = 20

The voltage drop is

1.3. 4 POWER

Power is the time rate of expending or absorbing energy, measured in watts (W). Power, is denoted by
the letter p or P.
Mathematically,

Where p is power in watts (W), w is energy in joules (J), and t is time in seconds (s).

From voltage and current equations, it follows that;

Thus, if the magnitude of current I and voltage are given, then power can be evaluated as the product
of the two quantities and is measured in watts (W).

Sign of power:

Plus sign: Power is absorbed by the element. (Resistor, Inductor)

Minus sign: Power is supplied by the element. (Battery, Generator)

Passive sign convention:

If the current enters through the positive polarity of the voltage, p = +vi
If the current enters through the negative polarity of the voltage, p = – vi

Fig 1.5 Polarities for Power using passive sign convention

(a) Absorbing Power (b) Supplying Power

1.3.5 ENERGY
Energy is the capacity to do work, and is measured in joules (J).
The energy absorbed or supplied by an element from time 0 to t is given by,

The electric power utility companies measure energy in watt-hours (WH) or Kilo watt-hours (KWH)

1 WH = 3600 J
Example 1.6
A source e.m.f. of 5 V supplies a current of 3A for 10 minutes. How much energy is provided in this
time?
Solution:

Example 1.7
An electric heater consumes 1.8Mj when connected to a 250 V supply for 30 minutes. Find the power
rating of the heater and the current taken from the supply.
Solution:
P=V /I = (1.8×106)/ (30×60) = 1000
Power rating of heater = 1kW
P =VI
Thus
I = P/V =1000/250=4
Hence the current taken from the supply is 4A.
1.4 OHM’S LAW

Georg Simon Ohm (1787–1854), a German physicist, is credited with finding the relationship
between current and voltage for a resistor. This relationship is known as Ohm’s law.

Ohm’s law states that at constant temperature, the voltage (V) across a conducting material is directly
proportional to the current (I) flowing through the material.
Mathematically,

V=RI
Wherethe constant of proportionality R is called the resistance of the material. The V-I relation for
resistor according to Ohm’s law is depicted in Fig.1.6

Fig. 1.6 V-I Characteristics for resistor

Limitations of Ohm’s Law:

1. Ohm’s law is not applicable to non-linear elements like diode, transistor etc.
2. Ohm’s law is not applicable for non-metallic conductors like silicon carbide.

1.5 CIRCUIT ELEMENTS

An element is the basic building block of a circuit. An electric circuit is simply an interconnection of
the elements. Circuit analysis is the process of determining voltages across (or the currents through)
the elements of the circuit.

There are 2 types of elements found in electrical circuits.

a) Active elements (Energy sources): The elements which are capable of generating or delivering
the energy are called active elements.
E.g., Generators, Batteries
b) Passive element (Loads): The elements which are capable of receiving the energy are called
passive elements.
E.g., Resistors, Capacitors and Inductors

1.5.1 ACTIVE ELEMENTS (ENERGY SOURCES)

The energy sources which are having the capacity of generating the energy are called active elements.
The most important active elements are voltage or current sources that generally deliver power/energy
to the circuit connected to them.

There are two kinds of sources

a) Independent sources
b) Dependent sources
1.5.1.1 INDEPENDENT SOURCES:
An ideal independent source is an active element that provides a specified voltage or current that is
completely independent of other circuit elements.

Ideal Independent Voltage Source:

An ideal independent voltage source is an active element that gives a constant voltage across its
terminals irrespective of the current drawn through its terminals. In other words, an ideal independent
voltage source delivers to the circuit whatever current is necessary to maintain its terminal voltage.
The symbol of idea independent voltage source and its V-I characteristics are shown in Fig. 1.7
Fig. 1.7 Ideal Independent Voltage Source

Practical Independent Voltage Source:

Practically, every voltage source has some series resistance across its terminals known as internal
resistance, and is represented by Rse. For ideal voltage source Rse = 0. But in practical voltage source
Rse is not zero but may have small value. Because of this Rse voltage across the terminals decreases
with increase in current as shown in Fig. 1.8

Terminal voltage of practical voltage source is given by

VL= VS - IL Rse

Fig. 1.8 Practical Independent Voltage Source

Ideal Independent Current Source:

An ideal independent Current source is an active element that gives a constant current through its
terminals irrespective of the voltage appearing across its terminals. That is, the current source delivers
to the circuit whatever voltage is necessary to maintain the designated current. The symbol of idea
independent current source and its V-I characteristics are shown in Fig. 1.9
Fig. 1.9 Ideal Independent Current Source

Practical Independent Current Source:

Practically, every current source has some parallel/shunt resistance across its terminals known as
internal resistance, and is represented by Rsh. For ideal current source Rsh = ∞ (infinity). But in
practical voltage source Rsh is not infinity but may have a large value. Because of this Rsh current
through the terminals slightly decreases with increase in voltage across its terminals as shown in Fig.
1.10.

Terminal current of practical current source is given by

IL = Is -Ish

Fig. 1.10 Practical Independent Current Source

1.5.1.2 DEPENDENT (CONTROLLED) SOURCES

An ideal dependent (or controlled) source is an active element in which the source quantity is
controlled by another voltage or current.

Dependent sources are usually designated by diamond-shaped symbols, as shown in Fig. 1.11. Since
the control of the dependent source is achieved by a voltage or current of some other element in the
circuit, and the source can be voltage or current, it follows that there are four possible types of
dependent sources, namely:

1. A voltage-controlled voltage source (VCVS)

2. A current-controlled voltage source (CCVS)
3. A voltage-controlled current source (VCCS)
4. A current-controlled current source (CCCS)
Fig. 1.11 Symbols for Dependent voltage source and Dependent current source

Dependent sources are useful in modeling elements such as transistors, operational amplifiers, and
integrated circuits. An example of a current-controlled voltage source is shown on the right-hand side
of Fig. 1.12, where the voltage 10i of the voltage source depends on the current i through element C.
Students might be surprised that the value of the dependent voltage source is 10i V (and not 10i A)
because it is a voltage source. The key idea to keep in mind is that a voltage source comes with
polarities (+ -) in its symbol, while a current source comes with an arrow, irrespective of what it
depends on.

Fig. 1.12 The source in right hand side is current-controlled voltage source

1.5.2 PASSIVE ELEMENTS (LOADS)

Passive elements are those elements which are capable of receiving the energy. Some passive
elements like inductors and capacitors are capable of storing a finite amount of energy, and return it
later to an external element. More specifically, a passive element is defined as one that cannot supply
average power that is greater than zero over an infinite time interval. Resistors, capacitors, Inductors
fall in this category.

1.5.2.1RESISTOR
Materials in general have a characteristic behavior of resisting the flow of electric charge. This
physical property, or ability to resist the flow of current, is known as resistance and is represented by
the symbol R.The Resistance is measured in ohms (Ω ). The circuit element used to model the current-
resisting behavior of a material is called the resistor.

Fig. 1.13 (a) Typical Resistor, (b) Circuit Symbol for Resistor

The resistance of a resistor depends on the material of which the conductor is made and geometrical
shape of the conductor. The resistance of a conductor is proportional to the its length ( and inversely
proportional to its cross sectional area (A). Therefore the resistance of a conductor can be written as,

The proportionality constant is called the specific resistance o resistivity of the conductor and its
value depends on the material of which the conductor is made.

The inverse of the resistance is called the conductance and inverse of resistivity is called specific
conductance or conductivity. The symbol used to represent the conductance is G and conductivity is .
Thus conductivity and its units are Siemens per meter

By using Ohm’s Law, The power dissipated in a resistor can be expressed in terms of R as below

The power dissipated by a resistor may also be expressed in terms of G as

The energy lost in the resistor from time 0 to t is expressed as

Where V is in volts, I is in amperes, R is in ohms, and energy W is in joules

Example 1.9
In the circuit shown in Fig. below, calculate the current i, the conductance G, the power p and energy
lost in the resistor W in 2hours.
Solution:
The voltage across the resistor is the same as the source voltage (30 V) because the resistor and the
voltage source are connected to the same pair of terminals. Hence, the current is

1.5.2.2 INDUCTOR

Fig. 1.14 (a) Typical Inductor, (b) Circuit symbol of Inductor

A wire of certain length, when twisted into a coil becomes a basic inductor. The symbol for inductor
is shown in Fig.1.14 (b). If current is made to pass through an inductor, an electromagnetic field is
formed. A change in the magnitude of the current changes the electromagnetic field. Increase in
current expands the fields, and decrease in current reduces it. Therefore, a change in current produces
change in the electromagnetic field, which induces a voltage across the coil according to Faraday's
law of electromagnetic induction. i.e., the voltage across the inductor is directly proportional to the
time rate of change of current.
Mathematically,
Where L is the constant of proportionality called the inductance of an inductor. The unit of inductance
is Henry (H).we can rewrite the above equation as

From the above discussion, we can conclude the following.

1. The induced voltage across an inductor is zero if the current through it is constant. That means an
inductor acts as short circuit to DC.
2. A small change in current within zero time through an inductor gives an infinite voltage across the
inductor, which is physically impossible. In a fixed inductor the current cannot change abruptly
i.e., the inductor opposes the sudden changes in currents.
3. The inductor can store finite amount of energy. Even if the voltage across the inductor is zero
4. A pure inductor never dissipates energy, only stores it. That is why it is also called a non-
dissipative passive element. However, physical inductors dissipate power due to internal
resistance.
1.5.2.2 CAPACITOR

Fig. 1.15 (a) Typical Capacitor, (b) Capacitor connected to a voltage source, (c) Circuit Symbol of
capacitor

Any two conducting surfaces separated by an insulating medium exhibit the property of a capacitor.
The conducting surfaces are called electrodes, and the insulating medium is called dielectric. A
capacitor stores energy in the form of an electric field that is established by the opposite charges on
the two electrodes. The electric field is represented by lines of force between the positive and negative
charges, and is concentrated within the dielectric.

When a voltage source v is connected to the capacitor, as in Fig 1.15 (c), the source deposits a
positive charge q on one plate and a negative charge — q on the other. The capacitor is said to store
the electric charge. The amount of charge stored, represented by q, is directly pro-proportional to the
applied voltage v so that

Where C, the constant of proportionality, is known as the capacitance of the capacitor. The unit of
capacitance is the farad (F).
Although the capacitance C of a capacitor is the ratio of the charge q per plate to the applied voltage
v, it does not depend on q or v. It depends on the physical dimensions of the capacitor. For example,
for the parallel-plate capacitor shown in Fig.1.15 (a), the capacitance is given by

Where A is the surface area of each plate, d is the distance between the plates, and is the
permittivity of the dielectric material between the plates.
The current flowing through the capacitor is given by

We can rewrite the above equation as

From the above equation we note that the voltage across the terminals of a capacitor is dependent upon the
integral of the current through it and the initial voltage .
The power absorbed by the capacitor is

The energy stored by the capacitor is

From the above discussion we can conclude the following,

1. The current in a capacitor is zero if the voltage across it is constant; that means, the capacitor acts
as an open circuit to DC.
2. A small change in voltage across a capacitance within zero time gives an infinite current through
the capacitor, which is physically impossible. In a fixed capacitance the voltage cannot change
abruptly. i.e., A capacitor will oppose the sudden changes in voltages.
3. The capacitor can store a finite amount of energy, even if the current through it is zero.
4. A pure capacitor never dissipates energy, but only stores it; that is why it is called non-dissipative
passive element. However, physical capacitors dissipate power due to internal resistance.

Example 1.10
Determine the current through a 200 capacitor whose voltage is shown in Fig. below
1.6 NETWORK/CIRCUIT TERMINOLOGY
In the following section various definitions and terminologies frequently used in electrical circuit
analysis are outlined.

 Network Elements: The individual components such as a resistor, inductor, capacitor, diode,
voltage source, current source etc. that are used in circuit are known as network elements.
 Network: The interconnection of network elements is called a network.
 Circuit: A network with at least one closed path is called a circuit. So, all the circuits are
networks but all networks are not circuits.
 Branch: A branch is an element of a network having only two terminals.
 Node: A node is the point of connection between two or more branches. It is usually indicated by
a dot in a circuit.
 Loop: A loop is any closed path in a circuit. A loop is a closed path formed by starting at a node,
passing through a set of nodes, and returning to the starting node without passing through any
node more than once.
 Mesh or Independent Loop: Mesh is a loop which does not contain any other loops in it.

1.7 KIRCHHOFF’S LAWS

The most common and useful set of laws for solving electric circuits are the Kirchhoff’s voltage and
current laws. Several other useful relationships can be derived based on these laws. These laws are
formally known as Kirchhoff’s current law (KCL) and Kirchhoff’s voltage law (KVL).

1.7.1 KIRCHHOFF’S CURRENT LAW (KCL)

This is also called as Kirchhoff's first law or Kirchhoff’s nodal law. Kirchhoff’s first law is based on
the law of conservation of charge, which requires that the algebraic sum of charges within a system
cannot change.
Statement: Algebraic sum of the currents meeting at any junction or node is zero. The term
'algebraic' means the value of the quantity along with its sign, positive or negative.

Mathematically, KCL implies that

Where N is the number of branches connected to the node and is the nth current entering (or
leaving) the node. By this law, currents entering a node may be regarded as positive, while currents
leaving the node may be taken as negative or vice versa.

Alternate Statement: Sum of the currents flowing towards a junction is equal to the sum of the
currents flowing away from the junction.

Fig 1.16 Currents meeting in a junction

Consider Fig. 1.16 where five branches of a circuit are connected together at the junction or node A.
Currents I1, I2 and I4 are flowing towards the junction whereas currents I3 and I5 are flowing away
from junction A. If a positive sign is assigned to the currents I 2 and I4 that are flowing into the
junction then the currents I3 and I4 flowing away from the junction should be assigned with the
opposite sign i.e. the negative sign.
Applying Kirchhoff’s current law to the junction A
I1 + I2 - I3 + I4 - I5= 0 (algebraic sum is zero)
The above equation can be modified as I1 + I2 + I4 = I3 + I5 (sum of currents towards the junction =
sum of currents flowing away from the junction).

1.7.2 KIRCHHOFF’S VOLTAGE LAW (KVL)

This is also called as Kirchhoff's second law or Kirchhoff's loop or mesh law. Kirchhoff’s second law
is based on the principle of conservation of energy.

Statement: Algebraic sum of all the voltages around a closed path or closed loop at any instant is
zero. Algebraic sum of the voltages means the magnitude and direction of the voltages; care should be
taken in assigning proper signs or polarities for voltages in different sections of the circuit.

Mathematically, KVL implies that

th
Where N is the number of voltages in the loop (or the number of branches in the loop) and is the n
voltage in a loop.

The polarity of the voltages across active elements is fixed on its terminals. The polarity of the
voltage drop across the passive elements (Resistance in DC circuits) should be assigned with
reference to the direction of the current through the elements with the concept that the current flows
from a higher potential to lower potential. Hence, the entry point of the current through the passive
elements should be marked as the positive polarity of voltage drop across the element and the exit
point of the current as the negative polarity. The direction of currents in different branches of the
circuits is initially marked either with the known direction or assumed direction.

After assigning the polarities for the voltage drops across the different passive elements, algebraic
sum is accounted around a closed loop, either clockwise or anticlockwise, by assigning a particular
sign, say the positive sign for all rising potentials along the path of tracing and the negative sign for
all decreasing potentials. For example consider the circuit shown in Fig. 1.17

Fig. 1.17 Circuit for KVL

The circuit has three active elements with voltages E1, E2 and E3. The polarity of each of them is
fixed. R1, R2, R3 are three passive elements present in the circuit. Currents I1 and I3 are marked
flowing into the junction A and current I2 marked away from the junction A with known information
or assumed directions. With reference to the direction of these currents, the polarity of voltage drops
V1, V2 and V3 are marked.
For loop1 it is considered around clockwise
+ E1 - V1 + V3 - E3 = 0
+ E1 - I1 R1 + I3 R3 - E3 = 0
E1 - E3 = I1 R1 - I3 R3
For loop2 it is considered anticlockwise
+ E2+ V2+ V3 – E3 = 0
+ E2 + I2 R2 + I3 R3 – E3 = 0
E2 – E3 = - I2 R2 - I3 R3
Two equations are obtained following Kirchhoff’s voltage law. The third equation can be written
based on Kirchhoff’s current law as
I1 – I2 + I3 = 0
With the three equations, one can solve for the three currents I1, I2, and I3.
If the results obtained for I1, I2, and I3 are all positive, then the assumed direction of the currents are
said to be along the actual directions. A negative result for one or more currents will indicate that the
assumed direction of the respective current is opposite to the actual direction.

Example 1.11
Calculate the current supplied by two batteries in the circuit given below

Solution:
The four junctions are marked as A, B, C and D. The current through R 1 is assumed to flow from A to
B and through R2, from C to B and finally through R 3 from B to D. With reference to current
directions, polarities of the voltage drop in R 1, R2 and R3 are then marked as shown in the figure.
Applying KCL to junction B
I3 =I1 + I2 …..(1)
Applying KVL to loop 1
E1 – I1R1 – I3R3 = 0
I1R1 + I3R3 = E1
10I1 + 25I3 = 90 …… (2)
Substituting Eq. (1) in Eq. (2)
10I1 + 25(I1 + I2) = 90
35I1 + 25I2 = 90 ……. (3)
Applying KVL to loop 2
E2 – I2R2 – I3R3 = 0
I2R2 + I3R3 = E2
5I2 + 25I3 = 125 …… (4)

Substituting Eq. (1) in Eq. (4)

5I2 + 25(I1 + I2) = 125
25I1 + 30I2 = 125 ……. (5)
Multiplying Eq. (3) by 6/5 we get
42I1 + 30I2 = 108 …… (6)
Subtracting Eq. (6) from Eq. (5)
– 17I1 = 17
I1 = – 1 A
Substituting the value of I1 in Eq. (5) we get
I2 = 5 A
As the sign of the current I1 is found to be negative from the solution, the actual direction of I1 is from
B to A to D i.e. 90 V battery gets a charging current of 1 A.

1.8 RESISTIVE NETWORKS

1.8.1 SERIES RESISTORS AND VOLTAGE DIVISION

Two or more resistors are said to be in series if the same current flows through all of them. The
process of combining the resistors is facilitated by combining two of them at a time. With this in
mind, consider the single-loop circuit of Fig. 1.18.

Fig.1.18 A single loop circuit with two resistors

in series Fig. 1.19 Equivalent Circuit of series resistors

The two resistors are in series, since the same current i flow in both of them. Applying Ohm’s law to
each of the resistors, we obtain
………. (1)
If we apply KVL to the loop (moving in the clockwise direction), we have

……….. (2)
Combining equations (1) and (2), we get

……….. (3)

Or

……….. (4)

Equation (3) can be written ………. (5)

as
implying that the two resistors can be replaced by an equivalent resistor ;that is

…………… (6)
Thus, Fig. 1.18 can be replaced by the equivalent circuit in Fig. 1.19. The two circuits in Fig 1.18 and
1.19 are the equivalent because they because they exhibit the same voltage-current relationships at the
terminals a-b. An equivalent circuit such as the one in Fig. 1.19 is useful in simplifying the analysis of a
circuit.
In general, the equivalent resistance of any number of resistors connected in series is the sum of the
individual resistances.
For N resistors in series then,

……… (7)
STAR – DELTA AND DELTA – STAR TRANSFORMATION

If there are three resistances are connected to a common point in the form as shown in
fig (1). They are said to be star connected and if they are connected as shown in fig (2) they are said
to be delta connected.

 In order to reduce the networks, it may be necessary to replace a star connected set of
resistances by an equivalent delta connected set of resistances vice versa.

 The star delta transformation technique is useful in solving complex

networks. Basically, any three circuit elements, i.e. Resistive, Inductive or
capacitive, may be connected in two different ways. One way of connecting these
elements is called the star connection, or the Y connection. The other way of
connecting these elements is called delta connection or ∆ connection.

The equivalence between the above two networks is obtained by equating the
effective resistance between the corresponding terminals for the two networks.

Equating the resistances between corresponding pairs of terminals,Between a & b

Ra + Rb = Rab (Rbc +Rca) / (Rab +Rbc +Rca) ------------------------- (1)

Between b & c

Rb + Rc = Rbc (Rca +Rab) / (Rab +Rbc +Rca) ------------------------- (2)

Between c & a

Rc + Ra= Rca (Rab +Rbc) / (Rab +Rbc +Rca) --------------------------(3)

Subtracting (2) from (1) we get

Ra – Rc = Rca (Rab – Rbc) / (Rab +Rbc +Rca) -------------------------- (4)

Adding (3) and (4) we get

Ra = Rca .Rab / (Rab +Rbc +Rca) ----------------------- (5)

Similarly,

Rb = Rbc .Rab / (Rab +Rbc +Rca) -----------------------(6)

Rc = Rca .Rbc / (Rab +Rbc +Rca) ----------------------- (7)

Equations (5), (6) & (7) to transform delta – star i.e. we can obtain an equivalent
star connected resistances for the given delta connected resistances.

From the above equations, we get

RaRb +RbRc +RcRa = Rab .Rbc .Rca / (Rab +Rbc +Rca) ---------------------------- (8)

Dividing (8) by Ra i.e. equation (5)

RaRb +RbRc +RcRa = Rbc

.Ra Cancel Ra on both sides & we get

Rb + Rc + (Rb.Rc/Ra) = Rbc ------------------------ (9)

Simillarly dividing equation (8) by equation Rb & Rc, we got

Ra + Rb + (Ra.Rb/Rc) = Rab ------------------------ (10)

Rc + Ra + (Ra.Rc/Rb) = Rca ------------------------ (11)

From the above equations (9),(10) ,(11) we can replace a star connected
resistances by an equivalent delta connected resistances.
Superposition Theorem :
It is based on the concept of linearity between the response and excitation of an electrical circuit.
STATEMENT : It states that the response in a particular branch of a linear circuit when multiple
independent sources are acting at the same time is equivalent to the sum of the responses due to each
independent source acting at a time.
In this method, we will consider only one independent source at a time. So, we have to eliminate the
remaining independent sources from the circuit. We can eliminate the voltage sources by shorting their
two terminals and similarly, the current sources by opening their two terminals.
Therefore, we need to find the response in a particular branch ‘n’ times if there are ‘n’ independent
sources. The response in a particular branch could be either current flowing through that branch or
voltage across that branch.
Procedure of Superposition Theorem
Follow these steps in order to find the response in a particular branch using superposition theorem.
Step 1 − Find the response in a particular branch by considering one independent source and eliminating
the remaining independent sources present in the network.
Step 2 − Repeat Step 1 for all independent sources present in the network.
Step 3 − Add all the responses in order to get the overall response in a particular branch when all
independent sources are present in the network.

Thevenin’s Theorem :
STATEMENT : It states that any two terminal linear network or circuit can be represented with an
equivalent network or circuit, which consists of a voltage source in series with a resistor. It is known as
Thevenin’s equivalent circuit. A linear circuit may contain independent sources, dependent sources, and
resistors.
If the circuit contains multiple independent sources, dependent sources, and resistors, then the response
in an element can be easily found by replacing the entire network to the left of that element with
a Thevenin’s equivalent circuit.
The response in an element can be the voltage across that element, current flowing through that
element, or power dissipated across that element.
This concept is illustrated in following figures.
Thevenin’s equivalent circuit resembles a practical voltage source. Hence, it has a voltage source in
series with a resistor.
 The voltage source present in the Thevenin’s equivalent circuit is called as Thevenin’s equivalent
voltage or simply Thevenin’s voltage, VTh.
 The resistor present in the Thevenin’s equivalent circuit is called as Thevenin’s equivalent
resistor or simply Thevenin’s resistor, RTh.
Methods of Finding Thevenin’s Equivalent Circuit
There are three methods for finding a Thevenin’s equivalent circuit. Based on the type of sources that
are present in the network, we can choose one of these three methods. Now, let us discuss two methods
one by one. We will discuss the third method in the next chapter.
Method 1
Follow these steps in order to find the Thevenin’s equivalent circuit, when only the sources of
independent type are present.
 Step 1 − Consider the circuit diagram by opening the terminals with respect to which the
Thevenin’s equivalent circuit is to be found.
 Step 2 − Find Thevenin’s voltage VTh across the open terminals of the above circuit.
 Step 3 − Find Thevenin’s resistance RTh across the open terminals of the above circuit by
eliminating the independent sources present in it.
 Step 4 − Draw the Thevenin’s equivalent circuit by connecting a Thevenin’s voltage VTh in
series with a Thevenin’s resistance RTh.

Maximum power transfer theorem :

It states that the DC voltage source will deliver maximum power to the variable load resistor only when
the load resistance is equal to the source resistance.