Section 1

Number Theory & Computation

Section 1.01
From our knowledge in Set Theory, the Real Number System is as follows symbolically;
1. Ν ⊂W ⊂Z ⊂ Q ⊂ R
2. Q ∪Q ' =R
Where:
 N is the set of Natural Numbers, N= { 1,2,3,4,5, … } - Natural numbers are the set of countable
numbers.
 W is the set of Whole Numbers W ={ 0 } ∪N = {0,1,2,3,4,5 , … } - This is the set of Natural numbers plus
the element 0.
 Z is the set of Integers Z={ … ,−3 ,−2 ,−1 } ∪W = { … ,−2 ,−1,0,1,2 , … } - Integers are the
set of negative natural numbers plus the set of whole numbers.

 Q is the set of Rational Numbers { 3 1 1

}
Q= … ,−2 ,− ,−1 ,− , 0 , , 1 , … - Rational numbers are
2 2 2
numbers that can be expressed in exact fraction form and also posses either exact decimals or recurring
1 3 1 2 2
decimals. Eg. , , , ,0.5 , 0.25 , 0.375 , 0.333' , .
4 4 3 3 1
 Q’ is the set of Irrational Numbers Q '= { … ,− √2 , √2 , π ,… } - Irrational numbers are numbers that cannot
be expressed in an exact fraction nor do they possess a recurring decimal. 3.1415926
'
 R is the set of Real Numbers R=Q∪Q

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Section 1.02
Binary Operations
We know 4 common operations that are well defined under in the Real Number system which are as follows;
1. Addition – To find the SUM.
2. Subtraction (also known as Negative Addition) – To find the DIFFERENCE. 4−6=4+(−6)
3. Multiplication – To find the PRODUCT.
4. Division – To find the QUOTIENT.
Identity Elements
An Identity element is an element such that when an operation is performed, the RESULT is equal to the original
element.
1. The Identity Element of Addition is 0.
Consider the sum
2+0=2 Note that the result is the same as the original number under addition.
a+ 0=0+ a=a
2. The Identity element of Multiplication is 1
Consider the product
2 ×1=2 Note that the result is the same as the original number under multiplication.
a ×1=1× a=a

Inverse Elements
An Inverse element is an element such that when an operation is performed, the RESULT is equal to the identity
element.
1. The Inverse Element of any number in Addition is its negative equivalent. Hence;
2+(−2)=0 Note that the result is the Additive Identity.
a+ (−a )=−a+a=0
2. The Identity element of any number in Multiplication is the reciprocal of the original number. Hence;
1
2 × =1 Note that the result is the Multiplicative Identity.
2
1 1
a × = × a=1
a a

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Laws of Arithmetic
The Law of Closure
Closure is an Axiom property such that the result of a combination of any 2 elements from a set is an element belonging
to the set. For example: Consider the set of natural numbers. Then any 2 elements that are added together results in an
element also belonging to the set of natural numbers as follows;
2+12=14 Note that the result is also a Natural Number.
a+b=b+a Where, a , b ∈ N . The result, a+ b ∈ N .
Similarly for Multiplication, a × b=ab ∈ N . Thus N is Closed under Multiplication and Addition.

2
2 ÷3= , Is the set of Natural numbers closed under division? – Natural numbers is NOT closed under division.
3

State if the following are closed sets under the operations;

1. Is {1,2,3,4,5 } closed under multiplication?
1 ×1=1 , 2× 1=2 , 2× 2=4 ,5 × 4=20 ,
20 is not an element ∈the set , hence this set isnot closed under multiplication.

Home Work Questions 1 to 3:

1. Match correctly the appropriate Title to the examples provided (Hint: there is only 1 match);

List of Prime Numbers 0

Multiplicative Identity 2000, 5, 500

Natural Numbers 2, 5, 13, 31, 53

Additive Identity {2, 5, 13, 31, 53}

Set of Prime Numbers 22

−5 , √ 4 , 10 ,
7

List of rational numbers √ 2 , √3 √ 5 , π

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22 7
Multiplicative Inverse of
7 22

List of Irrational Numbers 1

2. Give an example of a closed set under multiplication .

3. Given the following information , an operation' ¿' is performed onthe elements on the set { 1,2,3 } .
The following results were obtained ,1∗1=2 , 1∗2=3 ,1∗3=1 , 2∗2=1, 2∗3=2 , 3∗3=3∧¿
1∗1=2 ,2∗1=3 , 3∗1=1 ,2∗2=1 , 3∗2=2 ,3∗3=3 . Alsothe identity is 1 for '∗'
a. Is the set {1,2,3 } commutative under the operation ‘∗’ ?
b. Is the set {1,2,3 } closed under the operation ‘∗’ ?
c. State the inverse of each element in the set {1,2,3}

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The Commutative Law
An operation is said to be commutative if and only if (iff) the results when restructuring the elements are equal.
For example: Consider any 2 elements as follows;
2+12=12+2=14 Note: Both results are equal.
a+b=b+a Where a , b ∈ R . Both have equal results.
2 ×12=12 ×2=24 Note: Both results are equal.
ab=ba Where a , b ∈ R . Both have equal results.
As seen above, Both Multiplication and Addition are Commutative.
The Associative Law
An operation is said to be associative if and only if (iff) the Final Result remains unchanged when any group of elements
are performed under the operation. For example: Consider any 3 elements that are added together as follows;
( 2+12 ) +6=2+(12+6)=20 Note: Both results are equal.
(a+ b)+ c=a+(b+ c) Where, a , b , c ∈ R . Both have equal results.
( 2 ×12 ) × 5=2 ×(12× 5)=120 Note: Both results are equal.
( a × b ) ×c=a×(b× c) Where, a , b , c ∈ R . Both have equal results.
As seen above, Both Multiplication and Addition are Associative.
The Distributive Law
An operation is said to be distributive over another, if and only if (iff) the derived result is equal when distributing an
element over all the other elements.
For example: Consider any 3 elements such that multiplication is distributed over addition;
3 × ( 2+5 ) =( 3 ×2 ) + ( 3 ×5 ) =6+15=21
a × ( b+c )=( a× b ) + ( a× c )=ab +ac Where, a , b , c ∈ R
As seen above, Multiplication is Distributive over Addition.

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Defining an Unknown Operation and Proving IF the Laws Apply
Given that a∗b=a−3+b
Find (i)3∗2
(ii)5∗(−10)
( iii )( 3∗2 )∗(5∗(−10))
( iv ) Proveif ∗is Commutative
( v ) Proveif ∗is Associative
Distributive
( vi ) Proveif ∗is .
Addition
( i ) 3∗2=3−3+2=2
( ii ) 5∗(−10 )=5−3+ (−10 )=−8
( iii )( 3∗2 )∗( 5∗(−10 ) ) =2∗(−8 )=2−3+ (−8 ) =−9
( iv ) If ∗isCommutative ,then ( a∗b )=( b∗a )
( a∗b )=a−3+b
¿ b−3+a
¿ b∗a
Hence ¿ is Commutative.
( v ) If ∗is Associative , then ( a∗b )∗c=a∗( b∗c )
( a∗b )∗c=( a−3+ b )∗c
¿ ( a−3+b )−3+c
¿ a−3+( b−3+ c)
¿ a∗( b−3+ c)
¿ a∗( b∗c )
Hence ¿ is Associative. Note: It is easier to perform the calculation from both sides of the equation.
Distributive
( vi) If ∗is thena∗( b+ c )=( a∗b ) + ( a∗c )
+,
a∗( b+ c )=a−3+b+ c
And; (a∗b)+(a∗c)=(a−3+b)+(a−3+c )

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¿ 2 a−6+b+ c
Hence ¿ is Not Distributive over Addition.

Section 1.03
Fractions, Decimals and Percentages
Fractions, Decimals and Percentages are forms which represent portions. We know N, W and Z represents countable
values, however, we have to be able to represent the values between these, hence the purpose of fractions, decimals
and percentages (i.e. The Set of Rational Numbers)
1
For example; is a fraction which can be represented as a decimal or a percentage.
2
1
=0.5
2
To get 0.5, we perform the long division;
0.5
2 √1 0
2 cannot divide into 1, hence the point is placed, then add a 0, then, 2 divided into 10 is 5, thus 0.5
Now, 0.5 = 50%
Similarly, consider the fraction 5/10 we note that it is equal to 1/2
To calculate percentage, we multiple by 100/100 = 100%, hence the common ‘slang’ i.e. interpretation that % means
divide by 100.
Calculating Fractions, Decimals and Percentages of Numbers;
5 5 5
( i ) of 12= ×12= ×2=10
6 6 1
( ii ) 0.25 of 8=0.25× 8=2
12
( iii ) 12 % of 48= × 48=5.76
100

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Section 1.04
Significant Figures, Decimal Places & Scientific Notation
Decimal Places
10,000 1,000 100 10 1 0.1 0.01 0.001 0.0001
Tens of Thousands Hundreds Tens Unit Tenths Hundredth Thousandths Tens of
Thousands s Thousandths

1 ×104 1 ×103 1 ×102 1 ×101 1 ×100 −1 1 −2 1 −3 1 −4 1

1 ×10 = 1 ×10 = 1 ×10 = 1 ×10 =
10 100 1000 10000
The above table shows that each movement to the left or right of the unit column is by a multiple of 10. This is a direct
reflection of the movement of the point. Hence the position also notes the decimal value being identified.
When approximating, we observe the place before and note if it is above or below 5. When above 5, we round the value
up and if below 5 we round down.
Eg. Round the following to the indicated number decimal places
( i ) 5.2516 (2 d . p .) ≈ 5.25 to 2 d.p. i.e. to the nearest Hundredths
( ii ) 5.2516(3 d . p .)≈ 5.252 to 3 d.p. i.e. to the nearest Thousandths.
( iii ) 17.45 ×14.84 correct ¿ 2 decimal places .=258.95∨8 ≈ 258.96 ¿2 d . p .
Recurring Decimals
1
=0.66666666=0.66 6̇ The dot/accent above the 6, shows that this number is repeated in that pattern.
6
9
=0.81818181=0. 8̇ 1̇ The dots show that 8 and 1 are repeated in that pattern.
11
Significant Figures
The first Non-Zero value from the left is the first significant figure.
Egs 1. 1.11 has 3 significant figures.

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2. 45800 have 3 significant figures.
Notice in each example there are 3 s.f., however, in the second example notice the zeros which come after the non-zero
digits. These 0’s hold only place value. When in this position, they hold a different purpose which excludes them from
being a significant figure.
3. 10504 have 5 significant figures.
4. 1.0020 has 5 significant figures
When the 0 falls between non-zero figures, then they are considered significant.
Also, notice in example 4, the 0 is given a significant value and thus is a significant figure.
Examples
Express 0.005603018 to the indicated s.f.’s below;
( i ) 6 s . f . ( ii ) 5 s . f . ( iii ) 4 s . f . ( iv ) 3 s . f . ( v ) 2 s . f . ( vi ) 1 s . f .
( i ) 0.005603018≈ 0.00560302 ¿ 6 s . f .
( ii ) 0.005603018 ≈ 0.0056030¿ 5 s . f .
( iii ) 0.005603018 ≈ 0.005603 ¿ 4 s . f .
( iv ) 0.005603018 ≈ 0.00560 ¿3 s . f .
( v ) 0.005603018 ≈ 0.0056 ¿ 2 s . f .
( vi ) 0.005603018 ≈ 0.006 ¿ 1 s . f .
Scientific Notation or Standard Form
Any number can be expressed in standard form. The standard form or Scientific notation is made up of the product of 2
numbers, 1 number, a, is such that 1 ≤ a<10∨1 ≤ a<10 ;a ∈ Z and the other is 10 to the power of n, i.e. 10n ; n ∈ Z .
Thus the number is expressed in the form a ×10 n ; Where a∈ Z , n ∈ Z
Examples
( i ) 0.00000427=4.27× 10−6 ( ii ) 53,100,000=5.31 ×107

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Section 1.05
Factors & Multiples
A Factor is a number which can exactly divide the original number.
For example, 24 have the factors 1, 2, 3, 4, 6, 8, 12 and 24. Each of these numbers exactly divides 24.
1 divides 24, 24 times. 2 divides 24 exactly 12 times, etc.

A Multiple is a number which is exactly divisible by the original number.

For example, 24 has multiples 48, 72, 96 etc.
We say, 48 is divisible by 24 2 times, OR 24 divides 48 exactly 2 times.

Prime Numbers are numbers that has ONLY 2 FACTORS, 1 and itself. Note, Smallest Prime Number is 2.
Composite Numbers are numbers which are not prime numbers, i.e. they possess at least 3 factors.
Triangular Numbers are numbers that can arrange into a triangular pattern.

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Rectangular Numbers are numbers that can arrange into a rectangular pattern.

Square Numbers are numbers that can arrange into a square pattern. These are also considered rectangular numbers
since squares are special rectangles with all sides being equal.

H.C.F.
The Highest Common Factor is the common highest number which divides exactly the set of numbers.
For Example, the H.C.F. of 24, 32 and 40 is 8.

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Expressing 24, 32 and 40 as a product of their Prime Factors, we get as follows;
 24=2 ×2 ×2 ×3
 32=2 ×2 ×2 ×2 ×2
 40=2 ×2 ×2 ×5
We can clearly see that the highest possible factor is from the product of 2 ×2 ×2=8.
L.C.M.
The Lowest Common Multiple is the lowest possible number which is exactly divisible by the set of numbers.
For Example, the L.C.M. of 24, 32 and 40 is 480.
Using the ALL the prime factors of 24, 32 and 40, given in the example above, we see that by multiplying the factors, we
get 480. i.e.
(2 ×2 ×2)× 3× 2× 2× 5=480
480 is exactly divisible by 24, 20 times, by 32, 15 times and by 48, 10 times.

Section 1.06
Indices
Indices is a topic referring to the exponent or power of a number.
a
x
 x is the base.
 a is the exponent.
This means that x is multiplied by itself a times.
i.e. x a=x × x × x × x × x × x × x × x ×… … …
This product is performed a times.
Eg. 2 ×2 ×2 ×2 ×2=25 =32

Laws of Indices
1. (xy )m=x m y m

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2. (x ¿¿ m)n=(x ¿¿ n)m=x mn ¿ ¿

3. x m x n =xm +n

xm
4. n
=x m−n
x
5. a 0=1
−a 1
6. x = a
x
1
7. x n =√
n
x
8. Extension of rule 7. a 1/2 =√
2
a= √ a
The square root is understood, hence, the 2 is not necessary in the extensions case.

Section 1.07
Number Bases
We commonly use the Denary or Decimal system a.k.a. base 10.
For example 352,146=(3 ×10 5)+(5 × 10¿¿ 4)+(2× 103)+(1× 10¿¿ 2)+(4 ×101 )+(6 ×10 0) ¿ ¿
The Base 10 is understood in our conventional counting system and hence is not indicating when writing our numbers
unlike other Based numbers.
For example 11011012is a number in base 2
110013is a number in base 3
12314 is a number in base 4
414 5is a number in base 5
3016is a number in base 6
214 7is a number in base 7

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1558 is a number in base 8
1319is a number in base 9
In each base, the highest number in each unit place is the value below the base. In the denary system, 9 is the highest
digit in a unit space. In the Octal Base system (base 8) the highest number is 7 in each unit space, similarly for any base
system used.
Converting from any Base, a, to Base 10
Consider a general number base, a, then
5 3 1 0
352,146a =(3 × a )+(5 ×a ¿¿ 4)+(2× a )+(1 ×a¿ ¿2)+( 4 × a )+(6 × a ) ¿ ¿
After calculation, the resulting value will be in base 10.
Converting from 10 Base to any other Base
Consider a general number base, a. Then to convert a number from base 10 to base a, we repeat the division pattern
and note the remainders until a can no longer divide the number.
For example, Convert 109 to base 6

The resulting number is 3016

All the numbers used above is 109 represented in all the indicated number bases.

Performing Operations on numbers of other Bases

When performing any operation, the numbers are calculated the same way, however, the resulting numbers cannot
exceed the base value.
Consider the following examples;

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1. 110112 +1112+10112=1011012

2. 304 5−2005=104 5
3. 2035−1245=24 5

4. 2427 ×46 7=154557

Section 1.08
Order Of Operations
We have seen the use of a few operations, reminder: Addition, Subtraction, percentage, multiplication, exponents,
division, etc.

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There are many situations where the operations are combined in problems and to solve, there exist a type of order to
calculating these problems, thus we follow a set conventional order.
There are 3 known Acronyms for these orders of operations;
(i) B rackets (ii) B rackets
O rder of Powers O rder of Powers
D ivision M ultiplication
M ultiplication D ivision
A ddition A ddition
S ubtraction S ubtraction

(iii) P arenthesis – refers to brackets and other opertions of this form.

E xponents – same as order of powers
M ultiplication
D ivision
A ddition
S ubtraction
Some to follow when performing or applying the above ordering.
Rule 1 – Calculate anything in brackets first, then apply the rules.
Rule 2 – If a calculation involves only Addition or Subtraction, perform calculations from Left to Right
Rule 3 – Similarly, If calculation involves only Multiplication and Division, perform calculations from Left to Right
Rule 4 – Perform Multiplication and Division before Addition and Subtraction.

Note: In all cases, the order of operations are the same, however, with respect to Multiplication and Division as we see,
they can interchange in order. If there is a situation where, both multiplication and division are in question, the order is
chosen from left to right (as per the 3rd rule above) as follows;
1
( i ) 3 ÷ ×2=3 ×3 ×2=18
3
6
( ii ) 6 ÷ 2× ( 4−2 )= ×2=6
2
We do not perform the Multiplication first, we perform the operations from Left to Right.

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Section 1.09
Converting Units
Kilo (k) Hecto (h) Deka (da) Unit Deci (d) Centi (c) Milli (m)
1,000 100 10 1 1 1 1
0.1 or 0.01 or 0.001 or
10 100 1000
The above table is the common conversion prefixes used in the Metric System.
In Length, we use the Meter,
In Volume (i.e. capacity) we use the Liter
And in Weight we use the Gram.
Eg.1. How many meters are there in 0.4 km?
As the conversion in the table shows, there are 1000 km in 1 m, hence 0.4 km=0.4 ×1000 m=400 m
Eg.2. How many Liters are there in 50,000 cl?
As the conversion in the table shows, there are 0.01 cl in 1L, hence 50,000 cl=50000 × 0.01l=500 l

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Section 1.10
Ratio, Proportion and Rates
Ratio
A ratio is a quantitative relation between 2 or more similar quantities. Ratios, for example, n ¿ d∨n: d , can be
n
represented in the form of a quotient, , where n , d ∈ Z
d
(Note: A negative ratio implies a loss of some kind with respect to the quantities in question.)
Ratios are said to be equal when the fractions are equivalent. For example, 4 : 6∧8:12 are equal because
2
∧8
4 3 2
= =
6 12 3
When considering the ratio of 2 or more quantities, the quantities are parts of a whole.
For example;
10 slices of a pie are split in 3 as represented in the following diagram
2
5 3

We can represent the ratio above as 2 :5: 3 as the parts to the whole.
2 1 3 ,∧5 1
Hence, if we represent each part as a fraction of the whole, then we arrive at = , =
10 5 10 10 2
And we note that there are 10 parts in the whole.
Each part has a percentage of:
1 3 1
×100 %=20 % ×100 %=30 % and ×100 %=50 %
5 10 2

Direct Proportion
Two Quantities are said to be in direct proportion when the relation of the quantities have equal ratios.
25 5
For example, 10 litres of fruit punch cost $25.00, then 1 litre cost = =$ 2.50 , hence, n litres will cost $(n × 2.5).
10 2

Inverse Proportion
Two Quantities are said to be in inversely proportional when the relation of the quantities are as one decreases, the
other increases.

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15
For example, 5 men take 3 days to build a shed. 1 man will take, 5 ×3=15 days , hence, n men will take days .
n

Rates
Rates in this context, refers to the method a variance of the quantities, specifically linear in proportional terms.

Section 1.11
Sequences
A sequence is a set of numbers that obeys or follows a particular pattern or rule, e.g.

1 , 4 , 9 , 16 , 25 … → ( 1)

1 1 1
1, , , ,… → ( 2)
2 4 8

1 ,1 , 2 ,3 , 5 , … → ( 3)

Each of the above sequences follows a different pattern.

1. Each successive term is the square of the counting numbers.

2. Each term is divided by 2 to get the next term.
3. The sum of the last 2 terms gives the next term.

Each number in the sequence is called a term.

All of the above sequences are Infinite sequences as they continue for ∞ .

A finite sequence has a limited number of terms.

Find the next term in the following example;

1 ×1 2 ×2 4 ×4 8×8

The next term when drawn as the pattern follows is a 16 ×16 Units Squared.

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