Table of contents

Preface
CHAPTER 1 - INTRODUCTION
1-1. Preparation for War
1-2. The Soldier
1-3. The Leader
1-4. The Unit
1-5. Unit Training Program
1-6. Capabilities of Airborne Forces
1-7. Missions of Airborne Forces
1-8. Fundamentals of Airborne Operations
1-9. Characteristics of Airborne Operations
1-10. Limitations of Airborne Forces
1-11. Phases of Airborne Operations
1-12. Battlefield Operating Systems and Airborne Operations
CHAPTER 2 - AIRBORNE PLANNING
Section I - FUNDAMENTALS
2-1. Planning Responsibilities
2-2. Key Personnel Responsibilities
Section II - PREPARATION OF PLANS AND ORDERS
2-3. Commander's Estimate of the Situation
2-4. Reverse Planning Process
2-5. Planning Considerations
CHAPTER 3 - GROUND TACTICAL PLAN
Section I - PLANNING
3-1. Estimate of the Situation
3-2. Development of the Ground Tactical Plan
3-3. Selection of Assault Objectives and Airhead Line
3-4. Reconnaissance and Security Forces
3-5. Boundaries and Task Organization
3-6. Designation of Reserve
Section II - EXECUTION
3-7. Conduct of the Assault
3-8. Development of the Airhead
3-9. Buildup of Combat Power
CHAPTER 4 - LANDING PLAN
Section I - PLANNING
4-1. Requirements
4-2. Considerations
4-3. Sequence of Delivery
4-4. Method of Delivery
4-5. Place of Delivery
4-6. Time of Delivery
Section II - ASSEMBLY AND REORGANIZATION
4-7. Cross Loading
4-8. Assembly Techniques
4-9. Assembly Aids
4-10. Assembly Plan
4-11. Unit Assembly
4-12. Multiple-Lateral Impact Points
4-13. Keys to Rapid Assembly
4-14. Activities in Assembly Areas
4-15. Departure from the Assembly Area
4-16. Reports
4-17. Security Measures
4-18. Reorganization
4-19. Briefbacks
CHAPTER 5 - AIR MOVEMENT PLAN
5-1. Joint Planning
5-2. Elements
5-3. Types of Movement
5-4. Aircraft Requirements
5-5. Load Planning Considerations
5-6. Load Planning Sequence
5-7. Load Planning of Vehicles
5-8. Air Movement Planning Worksheet
5-9. Basic Planning Guide Form
5-10. Unit Aircraft Utilization Plan
5-11. Aircraft Loading Tables
5-12. Development of Aircraft Loads
5-13. Air Movement Table
5-14. Manifests
5-15. Automated Airload Planning System
CHAPTER 6 - MARSHALING
Section I - THE MARSHALING PLAN
6-1. Preparation Before Marshaling
6-2. Movement to the Marshaling Area
6-3. Passive Defense Measures
6-4. Dispersal Procedures
6-5. Selection of Departure Airfields
6-6. Selection and Operation of Marshaling Camps
6-7. Facility Requirements
6-8. Staff and Support Agency Responsibilities
Section II - OUTLOAD
6-9. Outload Plan
6-10. Outload Procedures
CHAPTER 7 - TACTICAL OPERATIONS
Section I - GROUND TACTICAL OPERATION
7-1. Raids
7-2. Recovery Operations
7-3. Withdrawal/Evacuation of Units
7-4. Linkup
7-5. Exfiltration
7-6. Survival Operation
7-7. Breakout from Encirclement
7-8. Relief
Section II - AIRFIELD SEIZURE
7-9. Requirements
7-10. Sequence of Operations
7-11. Security Force Operations
7-12. Noncombatant Evacuation Operations
Section III - SUPPORTING OPERATIONS
7-13. Remote Marshaling Base
7-14. Intermediate Staging Base
7-15. Forward Operating Base
CHAPTER 8 - COMBAT SUPPORT
Section I - COMMAND AND SUPPORT RELATIONSHIPS
8-1. Elements
8-2. Decentralization
Section II - FIRE SUPPORT
8-3. Unique Aspects
8-4. Missions
8-5. Principles
8-6. Planning
8-7. Artillery Employment
Section III - NAVAL GUNFIRE
8-8. Air and Naval Gunfire Liaison Company
8-9. ANGLICO Organization
8-10. Tactical Missions
8-11. Coordination and Control Measures
Section IV - AIR FORCE SUPPORT
8-12. Types of Missions
8-13. Organization of Tactical Air Support
8-14. Planning Tactical Air Support
8-15. Command and Control
8-16. Air Traffic Control
Section V - ARMY AVIATION OPERATIONS
8-17. Helicopter Tactical Missions
8-18. Deployment
Section VI - AIR DEFENSE
8-19. Air Defense Artillery Elements
8-20. Early Warning
Section VII - ENGINEER SUPPORT
8-21. Engineer Employment
8-22. Tactical Missions
Section VIII - FORWARD AVIATION COMBAT ENGINEERING
8-23. Capabilities
8-24. Responsibilities
8-25. Planning
8-26. Site Selection
8-27. Expedient Surfacing
8-28. Repair of Captured Facilities
8-29. Engineer Packages
Section IX - INTELLIGENCE AND ELECTRONIC WARFARE SUPPORT
8-30. Interrogation Support
8-31. Counterintelligence Support
8-32. Electronic Warfare/Signal Intelligence Assets
8-33. Remote Sensors
8-34. Ground Surveillance Radars
8-35. Employment
Section X - SIGNAL SUPPORT
8-36. Joint Airborne Communications Center/Command Post
8-37. Aircraft Communications
8-38. Radar Beacons
Section XI - MILITARY POLICE SUPPORT
8-39. Military Police (Airborne) Structure
8-40. Military Police Operations
Section XII - NUCLEAR, BIOLOGICAL, AND CHEMICAL PLANNING
8-41. Command and Staff Responsibilities
8-42. Chemical Staff
8-43. Unit Protective Measures
8-44. Defense Against Chemical Attack
8-45. Mission-Oriented Protection Posture
8-46. Decontamination
CHAPTER 9 - COMBAT SERVICE SUPPORT
Section I - LOGISTICAL PLANS AND PREPARATIONS
9-1. Logistical Structure
9-2. Logistical Planning Responsibilities
9-3. Logistical Planning Considerations
9-4. Phases of Supply
9-5. Classes of Supply
9-6. Distribution of Supply
9-7. Resupply by Air
9-8. Maintenance
9-9. Transportation
9-10. Field Services
Section II - PERSONNEL PLANS AND PREPARATION
9-11. Personnel Strength Accounting
9-12. Personnel Replacement Operations
9-13. Casualty Reporting
9-14. Health Service Support
9-15. Prisoners of War and Captured Materiel
9-16. Other Personnel Service Support
9-17. Civil Affairs
CHAPTER 10 - COMMUNICATIONS
10-1. Fundamentals for Using Signal Facilities
10-2. Considerations
10-3. Communication Plans
10-4. Army Nets
10-5. Techniques
10-6. Airspace Control
10-7. Electronic Warfare Planning
APPENDIX A - JOINT AIRBORNE ADVANCE PARTY
APPENDIX B - DROP ZONE SUPPORT TEAMS
APPENDIX C - AIRLIFT PLANNING FACTORS
APPENDIX D - AIRBORNE ELEMENTS OF THE TACTICAL AIR CONTROL SYSTEM
APPENDIX E - BRIEFINGS, INSPECTIONS, AND REHEARSALS
APPENDIX F - INTELLIGENCE PREPARATION OF THE BATTLEFIELD
APPENDIX G - N-HOUR DEPLOYMENT SEQUENCE
Glossary
References
Authorization Letter
CHAPTER 1
INTRODUCTION
Airborne forces of the US Army have often de monstrated their ability to conduct
decisive, short notice, forced entry operations deep into enemy territory. They
seize and maintain the initiative until follow-on forces are committed to the fight
and then move to hit the enemy where he is the most vulnerable. The ability to
rapidly deploy, land, and sustain a powerful ground combat force is vital to US
interests and worldwide commitments.

From their origins early in World War II, the US Army's airborne forces have
dramatically demonstrated their responsive ness and flexibility many times on DZs
and battlefields all over the world. As the threat of regional conflict has grown, the
XVIII Airborne Corps, t he 82d Airborne Division, a nd the 75t h Range r Regiment
have de monstrated that well-trained, determined airborne soldiers arme d with
modern light weapons and led by skilled officers and NCOs can dominate the close
fight and impose their will upon the enemy--wherever he is.

During O peration Just Cause in 1989, t he actions of the 75th Ranger Regiment
and the 82d Airborne Division clearly demonstrated the adva ntage s of US airborne
forces. The operation was well supported by other US Army units, the US Air
Force, and US Navy.

On 17 December 1989, the National Command Authority decided to commit specially

trained airborne units to military action in Panama. The President established H-hour
for 0100 on 20 December, just three days after the decision to intervene. The complex
operation was centrally planned due to the need for thoroughly synchronized
operations. The mission assigned to the airborne force was to quickly isolate,
neutralize, and, if needed, destroy units of the Panamanian Defense Force by
overwhelming combat power. These forces were then to link up with elements of the 7th
Infantry Division (Light), the 5th Infantry Division (Mechanized), and the 193d Infantry
Brigade.

Deploying by strategic airlift from multiple bases in the continental United States,
paratroopers jumped into action on two principal DZs. Ranger task forces seized
airfields at Rio Hato and Torrijos-Tocumen Airport. Another task force built around the
1st Brigade of the 82d Airborne Division followed the rangers. Their mission was to
jump, assemble, and conduct immediate air assaults to eliminate PDF garrisons at Fort
Cimarron, Tinajitas, and Panama Viejo These initial offensive operations were later
followed by ground combat and stability operations. They were sustained by air lines of
communication front the US and by CSS units already in Panama.

Largely through airborne operations, capable and aggressive combined arms task
forces were brought to bear on short notice against a dispersed enemy. Thirty-two
separate objectives were attacked at the same time, paralyzing the enemy. The
resounding success of Operation Just Cause was due mostly to the parachute assault
and rapid follow-on missions made possible by the airborne operation. Operation Just
Cause demonstrated once again the capability, flexibility and value of airborne forces.
1-1. PREPARATION FOR WAR

Airborne and ranger units are organized and equipped to conduct parachute assaults to
close with the enemy to kill him, to destroy his equipment, and to shatter his will to
resist. This close personal fight requires combat-ready units composed of skilled
soldiers and resourceful leaders. These units are the result of a tough, thorough, and
demandi ng training program conducted by leaders who understand the effective
employment of airborne forces, the combined arms team, and joint operations.

1-2. THE SOLDIER

Paratroopers must be experts in marksmanship, close combat, individual parachute

techniques, and fieldcraft. They should be proficient with their assigned weapons and
other weapons in the unit. They should also be familiar with foreign-made weapons that
the enemy will use. In the close fight, paratroopers must be skilled in employing all
weapons to include the rifle, the bayonet the AT4, grenades, mines, and bare hands.
They must be confide nt in their ability to fight with these weapons They must be highly
skilled in land navi gation, camouflage, a nd tracking and stalking techniques.
Paratroopers must be able to move undetected close to enemy soldiers. Stealth is
required for reconnaissance, infiltration, and achieving surprise. Paratroopers must have
the skill and the will to dominate the close fight.

1-3. THE LEADER

Infantry leaders must be the most capable soldiers in their unit and be tactically and
technically proficient. The quality of the leadership determines the unit's success or
failure in battle. Leaders must be proficient in land navigation and have an appreciation
for terrain and parachute assault techniques. For a foot soldier, the terrain is both
protector and ally. When properly exploited, it can increase the combat potential of the
unit and support the achievement of surprise. All leaders must also be resourceful,
tenacious, and decisive warriors. They are the combined arms integrators closest to the
fight. They must be highly skilled in the employment of all the weapons and assets in
the combined arms team. Leaders must be innovative and flexible when employing their
units. They must have the mental agility to quickly grasp the situation and the initiative
to take independent action, based on the situation and the commander's intent. Above
all, they must personally lead their unit to success in close combat.

1-4. THE UNIT

The strength of airborne forces comes from the skill, courage, and discipline of the
individual paratrooper. The paratrooper's abilities are enhanced by the teamwork and
cohesion that develop in squads and platoons. This teamwork teamwork and cohesion
that develop in squads and platoons. This teamwork cohesion is essential to the survival
and success of airborne forces in close combat. Cohesion enhances the paratrooper's
will and determination to persevere, to accept the hardships, and to refuse to accept
defeat. In the close fight, when the decision hangs in the balance, these are the factors
that decide the victor. It is at the small-unit level (squad and pl atoon) that cohesion and
teamwork provide the greatest benefits to the combat effectiveness of the unit.
Paratroopers must have complete trust and confidence in their leaders. Leaders earn this
trust and confidence by sharing the hards hips and b y displaying the leadership attributes
described in FM 22-100. They must entrust the same confidence in their soldiers for this
bonding to develop.

1-5. UNIT TRAINING PROGRAM

The unit training program must instill individual and collective skills and confidence,
and must develop combat-ready units. It must consist of difficult, c hallenging training
events that prepare soldiers, leaders, and units for the close fight. It must be conducted
IAW FM 25-100, FM 25-101, and the MTP. The program must emphasize physical
fitness, marksmanship skills, and parachute techniques. Paratroopers must be
challenged to achieve expert proficiency in all of the combat critical skills. Night
training, especially night live-fire exercises and parachute assaults, should be routine.
The environment of the close fight should be simulated when possible. Training events
that require subordinate leaders to use their initiative and take independent action are
essential to prepare for decentralized ope rations that the unit nor mally conducts.
Training to standard also develops cohesive, tenacious squads and platoons that can
overcome all obstacles to ensure the safety of their unit and the accomplishment of the
mission. The training program must continue after the unit be gins conducting comba t
operations. The skills, teamwork, and cohesion must be sustained as replacements arrive
in the unit. This is essential to maintain the combat effectiveness of the unit.

1-6. CAPABILITIES OF AIRBORNE FORCES

Airborne forces may be strategically, operationally, or tactically deployed on short

notice to DZs anywhere in the world. They can be employed as a deterrent or combat
force.

a. The USAF provides support to airborne operations that include:

• Airlift.
• Counterair.
• Close air support.
• Tactical air reconnaissance.
• Air interdiction.
• Special air warfare operations.
• Electronic warfare.
• Suppression of enemy air defense.

b. The strategic mobility of airborne forces permits rapid employment to meet

contingence across the operational continuum anywhere in the world. Airborne forces
provide a means by which a commander can decisively influence operations. The
primary advantages of airborne operations are as follows:

• Quick response on short notice.

• Ability to bypass all land or sea obstacles.
• Surprise.
• Ability to mass rapidly on critical targets.

Airborne forces, when augmented with appropriate combat, CS, and CSS, can conduct
sustained combat ope rations against any enemy.
1-7. MISSIONS OF AIRBORNE FORCES

Airborne forces execute parachute assaults to destroy the enemy and to seize and hold
important objectives until linkup is accomplished. The parachute assault enhances the
basic infantry combat mission: to close with the enemy by fire and maneuver, to destroy
or capture him, and to repel his assaults by fire, close combat, and counterattack.

a. Missions for airborne forces can be strategic, operational, or tactical.

(1) Strategic missions. Simply alerting airborne forces for employment is a show of
force that is politically significant in a strategic context. Airborne forces have strategic
mobility. They can move from distant bases to strike at important targets deep in
enemy-held territory with little warning. Strategic missions may require airborne forces
to seize an airhead from which follow-on ground or air operations can be launched.
Operation Just Cause was a strategic mission.

(2) Operational missions. Airborne forces can be employed anywhere in the theater of
war. They attack deep to achieve operational-level objectives. For example, the seizure
of objectives, such as airfields, bridges, or other key terrain deep in the enemy's rear
area, is an operational mission. This is linked to the operational-level commander's
concept and simplifies his accomplishment of assigned tasks. These airborne operations
are usually short and require a linkup with other friendly forces or extraction of the
airborne force. Operation Market Garden in the fall of 1944 is a good example of an
operational mission.

(3) Tactical missions. Airborne forces assault in the rear or to the flank of the enemy,
preferably where few fixed defenses exist and where well-organized e nemy combat
units are not initially present.

(a) Airborne units either assault their objectives and move to link up with friendl y
forces, or seize an objective and hold for the arrival of other friendly ground forces.
They can also be used for rapid reinforcement of friendly ground units.

(b) Airborne forces can vary in size from an airborne company team to a division. Their
size depends on the mission to be accomplished and the time, soldiers, and aircraft
available. In January 1945, Company C and elements of Company F of the 6th Ranger
Battalion executed a tactical operation to liberate American PWs from the Japanese at
Cabantuen, Philippines. Usually only the assault echelon and its immediate follow-up
are delivered into the objective area by parachute. Tactical airhead operations often
invol ve the airlanding of heavy equipment, s uppl ies, and suppor ting/reinforcing units to
consolidate and exploit the initial lodgment.

b. Airborne forces can--

(1) Provide a show of force.

(2) Seize and hold important objectives until linkup or withdrawal.

(3) Seize an advance base to further deploy forces or to deny use of the base by the
enemy.
(4) Conduct raids.

(5) Reinforce units beyond the immediate reach of land forces.

(6) Reinforce threatened areas or open flanks.

(7) Deny the enemy key terrain or routes.

(8) Delay, disrupt, and reduce enemy forces.

(9) Conduct economy-of-force operations to free heavier more tactically mobile units.

(10) Exploit the effects of chemical or nuclear weapons.

(11) Conduct operations in all four categories of low intensity conflict:

• Suppor t for insurgency and counterinsurgency.

• Peacekeeping operations.
• Peacetime contingency operations.
• Combatting terrorism.

1-8. FUNDAMENTALS OF AIRBORNE OPERATIONS

The airborne commander and his staff must understand the fundamentals of airborne
operations to plan and execute a successful airborne assault. These fundamentals are
valid at every level:

a. Airborne forces require specially selected, trained, and highly disciplined soldiers and
leaders.

b. Airborne operations must capitalize on surprise.

c. The ground tactical plan must drive all other plans through the reverse planning
process.

d. Airborne operations require centralized, detailed planning and aggressive

decentralized execution.

1-9. CHARACTERISTICS OF AIRBORNE OPERATIONS

Airborne operations are characterized by the following:

a. Joint operations.

b. A planned linkup with follow-on forces.

c. Complexity.

d. Robust, flexible command and control that emphasizes mission-type orders.

e. Detailed, universally understood SOP.

f. Aggressive, rapid seizure of the assault objective.

1-10. LIMITATIONS OF AIRBORNE FORCES

The commander and planners must recognize the limitations of airborne forces and plan
accordingly. They must consider the following:

a. An airborne force depends on USAF aircraft for long-range movement, fire support,
and CSS. The availability and type of aircraft dictates the scope and duration of airborne
operations.

b. Airborne forces are vulnerable to enemy attack while en route to the DZ. Although
the USAF can conduct limited airdrops without air superiority, large operations require
neutralization or suppression of enemy air defenses. This may require SEAD, radar
jamming, and fighter aircraft in addition to transport and CAS sorties.

c. After the initial airdrop, the sustained combat power of airborne forces depends on
resupply by air. Any interruption in the flow of resupply aircraft can cause a potential
weakening of the airbor ne force. Enemy air defense fires against resupply aircraft and
long-range artillery and mortar fires on the DZ can hamper the delivery, collection, or
distribution of critical supplies.

d. Once on the ground, the airborne force has limited tactical mobility. That mobi lity
depends on the number and type of vehicles and helicopters that can be brought into the
objective area.

e. The airborne force has limited FA and ADA support until additional assets can be
introduced into the objective area. Additional target acquisition assets are needed to
provide accurate and timely targeting information.

f. Evacuation of casualties from the airhead is difficult. Until evacuation means are
available, the brigade must be prepared to provide medical care through the attachment
of divisional medical elements.

1-11. PHASES OF AIRBORNE OPERATIONS

An airborne operation is conducted in four closely related phases: marshaling, air

movement, landing, and ground tactical.

a. Marshaling Phase. This phase be gins with receipt of the warning order; it ends when
the transport aircraft departs. During this phase, leaders--

• Plan joint tactics and support.

• Rehearse and conduct briefbacks.
• Assemble and prepare paratroopers, equipment, and supplies.
• Conduct briefings and prejump training.
• Move paratroopers, equipment, and supplies to the departure airfields and load
them into aircraft.
b. Air Movement Phase. This phase be gins with aircraft takeoff and e nds with unit
delivery to the DZ(s) or LZ(s).

c. Landing Phase. This phase begins when paratroopers and equipment exit the aircraft
by parachute or are airlanded. The phase ends when all elements of the relevant echelon
are delivered to the objective area.

d. Ground Tactical Phase. This phase be gins with the landi ng of units and e xtends
through the seizure and consolidation of the initial obj ective(s). It ends when the
mission is completed or the airborne force is extracted or relieved. Subsequent
operations can include an offensive operation, defense of key terrain, a linkup, a
withdrawal, or any combination.

1-12. BATTLEFIELD OPERATING SYSTEMS AND AIRBORNE

OPERATIONS

Airborne operations, like any combat operation, can be considered in terms of the
battlefield operating systems. These systems must be considered for each of the four
plans required for an airborne assault. (Table 1-1.)

a. Intelligence. The commander must consider the type, number, and location of enemy
air defense weapons, observation systems (visual, radar, and satellite), and warning
systems. He must also consider the locations and capabilities of enemy reaction forces
near the objective. Tactical air reconnaissance requires close joint cooperation, and
aerial and satellite photographs and stereoscopic pictures can help offset the lack of
terrain reconnaissance before an airborne assault. Commanders insert LRS teams at
critical locations for gathering needed information.
(1) Airborne operations, more than any others, are affected by weather. The more
territory an airborne operation covers, the greater the need for a long-range weather
forecast system. Weather satellites may provide much of the needed information. Some
intelligence requirements can only be obtained through HUMINT resources.

(2) The selection of DZs, assault objectives, and subsequent AOs depends on a thorough
analysis to capitalize on strengths of the airborne force.

(3) Target acquisition is a vital aspect of the intelligence battlefield operating system.
The search, detection, and location of targets are needed for maneuver and CS forces to
prepare plans for engaging and destroying the enemy. These intelligence assets also
assess target damage.

b. Maneuve r. Forces must fit the task. The airborne brigade task force can be part of an
airborne assault by a larger unit, or it can constitute the initial assault force, preparing
the way for deployment of a follow-on force.

(1) Airborne battalions rarely conduct an airborne assault as an indepe nde nt ope ration
just to establish an airhead. T he ba ttalion is not large enough to adequately defend a n
airhead that includes the approach and departure routes for airdrop sorties needed to
sustain the airborne force. However, airborne raids with withdrawal by air or other
means are well within the capabilities of a well-trained battalion TF.

(2) The airborne force must capitalize on surprise. The commander must carefully select
the time, place, and manner of delivery for the attack. Everyone concerned must
maintain strict security.

(a) The force can maintain deception by masking operations as rehearsal deployments.

(b) The force must neutralize the effectiveness of enemy detection devices through
destruction, jamming, or operator distraction. The following actions can help nullify
detection devices:

• Airborne forces can fly at low altitudes, using terrain masking and cloud cover
to neutralize the effect of these devices.
• Deception flights can divert the attention of radar operators.
• Airborne forces can change course during the approach to confuse the operators.
• Night operations increase the possibility of surprise, although they make
assembly of airborne force elements and seizure of assault objectives more
difficult.
• They can pre-pos ition to a REMAB from which to conduct the airbor ne
operation.

(3) Rapid seizure of objectives is critical to success; speed and surprise are often more
critical than numbers. Often, decisive action with a small force can succeed early where
a fully assembled force cannot succeed later.

(4) Planning for a large-scale airborne operation should include preparation for air
movement of large ground units to permit prompt reinforcement of paratroopers after
their initial landing. To capture a suitable airhead for airland elements, the unit
conducting the airborne assault must be able to capture airfields or terrain suitable for
landing air transports. They must also be able to prevent enemy direct fire and observed
indirect fire on the LZ. The suppression of enemy air defense assets along the aircraft
approach and departure routes can be critical to success. Airlanded elements can be
committed only when these conditions are met.

c. Fire Support. The primary source of fire support for airborne assaults is the US Air
Force. US Navy/Marine Corps air assets and NGF if available will also be used. FA and
mortars will provide fire support for the airborne force within 15 minutes after the
beginning of the assault.

(1) The USAF must maintain air superiority for the airborne force to succeed in its
mission. The more tempor ary the air superiority, the shorter the time-distance factors
and duration of the flight should be. To establish and maintain air superiority, the USAF
can neutralize nearby enemy airfields and C2 facilities.

(2) The commander must plan to neutralize or avoid all antiaircraft installations along
the route selected for the flight. This can be a joint responsibility, depending on the
availability and capability of fire support assets. For example, when airborne operations
are conducted near the sea, NGF may provide much of the fire support to include
JSEAD.

(3) The USAF must isolate the obj ective by attacking the enemy's ground a nd air forces.
These attacks must begin late enough that the enemy does not identify the objective
until it is too late to react effectively. Immediately before an operation, the USAF
should consider incapacitating the enemy's fighter airfields and immobilizing enemy
radar, communications facilities, and reserves near the projected airhead. An air attack
on any enemy reserves moving toward the airhead can give the airborne unit extra time
to seize the assault objectives, to reorganize, and to prepare for the defense.

(4) Airborne units require CAS initially until division and corps artillery can support
them.

d. Mobility, Countermobility, a nd Survivability. Engineers provide--

• Mobility.
• Countermobility.
• Survivability.
• General engineering.
• Topographic support to airborne forces.

(1) The nature of airborne operations often requires engineers to fight as infantry more
often than in other operations. Engineers must be well trained in this aspect of their
mission.

(2) A primary mobility mission for engineers in support of airborne operations is

airfield runway clearance and repair. After the initial assault, airborne engineer units are
prepared to improve or create landing areas for follow-on units, equipment, and
supplies.
(3) Countermobility efforts are vital to the survival and success of the airborne force
inside the airhead. Obstacles are created or reinforced to secure the airhead and to
isolate it from reinforcing enemy forces.

(4) Survivability and fighting positions prepared from local materials are normal in
airborne operations. Because airborne engineer units have limited earthmoving
equipment, priority in preparing protective positions is normally given to key antiarmor
and other weapon systems, C2 facilities, and vital supplies.

e. Air Defense. The force must provide its own air defense. This is achieved by
establishing an air defense umbrella that is closely integrated with the USAF. Usually,
the enemy can respond fastest by air, so rapid establishment of air defense is critical. To
reduce fratricide, airborne forces must closely coordinate and train with the USAF.

f. Combat Service Support. Airdrop of equipment and supplies is the main resupply
method for airborne forces and requires extensive planning.

g. Command and Control. Unity of command takes precedence over all other C2
considerations. (Both air and ground units must be under one overall commander.) The
senior officer in the landing area commands the airhead until the arrival of the ground
force commander. Establishment of the shortest possible chain of command is critical to
success.

(1) Redundancy in all C2 systems should be established early in the planning stages of
an airborne operation and maintained throughout the operation.

(2) Airborne operations require CPs both on the ground and in the air. The airborne
force headquarters is divided into a mobile forward echelon and a stationary rear
echelon. They can operate from a REMAB, an intermediate staging base, or a forward
operating base. Commanders of airborne forces should land with the first units so that
clear battle directions can be given from the outset.

(3) A highly qualified and trained force is required to successfully plan and execute
airborne operations. A mutual understanding of the peculiarities, capabilities, and
limitations of both air and ground assets by all leaders involved is critical.

(4) Leaders must train systematically with emphasis on well-functioning joint air-
ground communications. (See Appendix G for more detailed information.)

(5) An airborne operation is as rapid in its execution as it is time-consuming in its

preparation. Commanders must develop contingency plans for possible follow-on
operations. These CONPLANs should be modified based on the most current
intelligence Proactive advanced planning can allow more rapid decision making and
timely commitment of forces.
CHAPTER 2
AIRBORNE PLANNING
Detailed planning a nd forceful, competent leadership are the keys to victory.
Thorough, flexible planning gives direction to units and leaders, and allows them
to concentrate combat power at the decisive point on the battlefield. This chapter
summarizes the procedures essential to planning a s uccessful airborne operation.

Section I. FUNDAMENTALS

Airborne operations are characterized by their complexity and joint nature. A successful
airborne operation requires--

• Use of the commander's estimate and the military decision-making process.

• Centralized, detailed planning and decentralized execution of mission-type
orders.
• Adherence to the principle of simplicity.
• Use of the reverse-planning process.

2-1. PLANNING RESPONSIBILITIES

The commander of a JTF initiates airborne operations with a planning directive to

participating units. The directive is assimilated through normal command channels at
corps and division-level, and pertinent information is issued to brigades. The directive
must--

• Specify missions.
• Outline the command s tructure.
• Identify participating ground and air forces.
• List forces in support.
• Provide a schedule of events.
• State conditions under which the operation will begin, be delayed, be altered, or
be terminated.

2-2. KEY PERSONNEL RESPONSIBILITIES

The responsibilities of key personnel include the following:

a. Airborne Commander. The airborne commander establishes mission-oriented

command a nd control by ensuring that his concept is understood a nd by defining the
responsibilities of key personnel. The airborne commander is responsible for--

(1) Accomplishing the ground mission.

(2) Loading aircraft with equipment and personnel.

(3) Assigning personnel to aircraft and preparing flight forms.

b. Airlift Commander. The airlift commander is responsible for--

(1) Allocating sufficient aircraft to support the ground tactical plan.

(2) Delivering assault elements to the correct DZ.

(3) Conducting resuppl y and evacuation missions.

c. Joi nt Responsibilities. The airborne and airlift commanders have joint responsibility
for--

(1) Establishing control parties at departure air bases.

(2) Supervising the loading of equipment and soldiers.

(3) Conducting rehearsals.

(4) Coordinating and standardizing SOI and prearranged signals.

(5) Selecting DZs, LZs, and EZs.

(6) Establishing control parties at DZs, LZs, and EZs.

(7) Unloading of aircraft at the LZ.

(8) Preparing the aerial resuppl y and evacuation plan.

(9) Securing departure airfields.

(10) Preparing the air movement table.

(11) Supervising JAAP procedures.

(12) Coordinating the movement of soldiers and aircraft.

Section II. PREPARATION OF PLANS AND ORDERS

Commanders begin planning for airborne operations with a visualization of the ground
tactical plan and work backwards through the landing plan, the air movement plan, and
the marshaling plan. Planning is conducted i n this order regardless of the type and
duration of the mission or the size of the force. It continues until the operation is
executed or cancelled.

2-3. COMMANDER'S ESTIMATE OF THE SITUATION

This process helps the commander determine how best to accomplish a mission.
Airborne commanders and staffs follow five steps to solve problems and plan tactical
operations:

STEP 1. Analyze the mission.

STEP 2. Analyze the situation and develop courses of action.

STEP 3. Analyze courses of action.

STEP 4. Compare courses of action.

STEP 5. Make a decision.

a. Decision-Making Process. The airbor ne commander, his staff, a nd his chain of

command use the related processes of troop-leading procedure and command a nd staff
actions to develop and execute decisions. (FM 101-5 discusses the military decision-
making process in detail.) (Figure 2-1.)
b. Intelligence Preparation of the Battlefield. The IPB process is that portion of the
intelligence cycle that integrates enemy doctrine with the weather and terrain, and
relates these factors to the mission and the specific battlefield situation. The formal IPB
process is performed at division, corps, and higher levels. (See Appendix F.) (FM 34-
130 contains a complete discussion of IPB.)

2-4. REVERSE PLANNING PROCESS

The airborne commander and his staff develop, in this order, the ground tactical plan,
the landing plan, the air move ment plan, a nd the marshaling plan. The ground tactical
plan drives the development of all other plans. (See Appendix F.) (Figure 2-2.)

a. Ground Tactical Plan. The ground tactical plan is the basis for the development of
all other plans. The airborne commander and his staff give special consideration to the
reassembly and reorganization of the assault forces and to the decentralized nature of
initial operations in the objective area. The subordinate commander requires the ground
tactical plan of his higher headquarters before he can begin planning. He needs to know
the type, location, and size of objectives; the mission and intent of higher headquarters
two levels up; and his task and purpose. The ground tactical plan is generated down the
chain of command as a mutual effort and i ncludes the following:

• Assault objectives and airhead line.

• Reconnaissance and security forces to include OPs.
• Boundaries.
• Task or ganization.
• Designation of reserve.
• Supply (accompanying, follow-up, routine).

(Chapter 3 provides details on the ground tactical plan.)

b. Landing Plan. The landing plan is the airbor ne commander's plan that links the air
movement plan to the ground tactical plan. It is published at brigade level and below.
Before the airborne commander can prepare an overall landing plan, he must know
where the subordinate commander wants to put his paratroopers. The landing plan is
generated up the chain of command as a mutual effort. The landing plan includes the
following:

• DZ/LZ/EZ locations and descriptions.

• Sequence of delivery.
• Method of delivery.
• Place of delivery.
• Time of delivery.
• Assembly plan.
• Type landi ng plan wor ksheet.

(Chapter 4 provides details on the landing plan.)

c. Air Move ment Plan. The air movement plan provides the information required to
move the airborne force from the departure airfields to the objective area. This plan is
the third step in the reverse planning process and covers the period from when units
load to when they exit the aircraft. The airborne commander designates the subordinate
units sequence of air flow and allocates aircraft. This allows the subordinate
commanders to conduct air movement planning. The air movement plan is generated up
the chain of command as a mutual effor t and includes the following:

• Departure airfields.
• Aircraft by serial.
• Parking diagram.
• Aircraft mission (air movement tables and flight routes).
• Unit providing the aircraft.

(Chapter 5 provides details on the air movement plan.)

d. Marshaling Plan. This plan is developed last in the reverse planning process and is
based on the requirements of the other plans. It provides the needed information and
procedures for units of the airborne force to prepare for combat, to move to departure
airfields, and to load aircraft. The marshaling plan also provides detailed instructions for
facilities and services needed during marshaling. It is generated down the chain of
command a nd includes the following:

• Movement to the marshaling area.

• Passive defensive measures.
• Dispersal procedures.
• Departure airfields.
• Marshaling camp operations.
• Briefback schedule.
• Preparation for combat (inspection, supervision, rehearsal, and rest).
• Communications.

(Chapter 6 provides details on the marshaling plan.)

e. Planning Assets. The complexity of air-borne operations demands great attention to

detail in the planning process. (Figure 2-3.) Planning is enhanced when subor di nate
commanders use--
(1) Small-scale air photos of the landing area.

(2) Large-scale photos of the landing area for selecting avenues of approach and
planning ground operations.

(3) Air photo and interpretation reports covering enemy activities and ground and air
installations within and adjacent to the projected airhead.

(4) Aerial reconnaissance reports.

(5) Overlays prepared with descriptions of obstacles and defensive works, navigational
hindrances, and landing areas.

(6) Maps.

(7) Information concerning enemy capabilities, methods, and tactics.

(8) Special studies that apply to the airhead.

(9) Accurate, large-scale terrain models of the landing area.

2-5. PLANNING CONSIDERATIONS

The airborne commander considers the following additional factors in the development
of his plans:

a. Echelonment. The airbor ne commander organizes Army combat elements within an

airborne force into three echelons:

(1) Assault echelon. The assault echelon consists of those forces required to seize the
assault objectives and the initial airhead, reserves, and supporting units.
(2) Follow-on echelon. The follow-on echelon consists of forces required for
subsequent operations. It enters the objective area by air or surface movement when
required.

(3) Rear Echelon. The rear echelon consists of administrative and service elements that
remain in the departure area. These elements may be brought forward to support in the
airhead, as required.

b. Concurrent Planning. Commanders plan for all phases of an airborne operation at

the same time since all phases are interrelated. This reduces the total planning time. A
subor dinate unit must maintain plans in draft until the next higher headquarters has
finalized its plans.

c. Coordination. Commanders normally provide plans and orders down the chain of
command. For airborne operations, however, higher headquarters often cannot complete
their plans until subordinate units have conducted a briefback of their plans.

d. Liaison. Parallel echelons of the airlift and airborne units coordinate continuously
from the time of the joint planning conference until the operation is executed or
cancelled. Before the operation, complete coordination is essential down to the smallest
detail.

(1) Commanders of US Army and USAF units exchange LOs to act as advisors and
coordinators immediately upon receipt of orders to participate in an airborne operation.
Army LOs must be familiar with all aspects of the airborne operation. They must attend
briefings and conferences, and must be provided with adequate transportation and
communications assets.

(2) Liaison officers are normally exchanged between the airborne force and--

(a) Army units supporting the operation from outside the objective area.

(b) Airlift elements.

(c) Linkup forces.

(d) Special operations forces, especially AC-130 assets.

(3) The specific duties of liaison officers include the following:

(a) Represent their unit headquarters at the headquarters to which they are detailed.

(b) Act as advisors to the headquarters on matters pertaining to their own commands.

(c) Coordinate matters involving dual responsibility.

(d) Discuss the time, place, personnel required and material to be covered at joint staff
meetings.

(e) Hold joint staff briefings.

(f) Examine parallel orders to ensure complete agreement of plans and arrangements.

(g) Assess and plan for the availability and procurement of equipment and facilities
required from the higher headquarters

(h) Attend all joint conferences to become acquainted with the agreements reached by
the commanders and with the operational plan.

(i) Prepare joint reports.

(j) Obtain copies of the marshaling plan and the parking diagram for their units.

(k) Know the location and capacity of all installations at the airfields and airlanding
facilities that concern their units.

(1) Review the plans and arrangements for reserve aircraft if last-minute failures occur;
prepare to assist the movement of paratroopers from aborting aircraft to reserve aircraft.

(m) Brief guides, who were furnished by the airborne unit, on airfield traffic procedures
and locations of aircraft to be loaded. At dispersed locations, an airborne unit
representative is located at the coordination facility to perform this function and to act
as individual liaison.

(4) Commanders exchange Los on a continuous duty status at corps and division level.
At brigade and lower echelons, the S3 LOs, the S3 air, or unit air movement officer can
perform these duties. For operations of less than brigade size, commanders exchange
LOs as needed at the discretion of the commanders concerned.

e. Briefbacks. Subordinate commanders must conduct brief backs on all aspects of their
plan to the next higher commander. (Figure 2-4.) This ensures that unit plans are fully
coordinated and in concert with the commander's intent. Commanders conduct
briefbacks on a terrain model, a sand table, or a map. Planning for an airborne operation
is a dynamic fast-changing process. A change in one plan has an impact on the other
three. Plans remain in draft until every commander in the chain has conducted a
briefback. All commanders must inform their subordinates of changes.
f. Rehearsals. Rehearsals are essential to the success of an airborne operation. They are
conducted at every level and involve both air and ground components. They are
performed on terrain similar to the objective and under the same conditions. Rehearsals
may be conducted on a sand table, terrain model, mock-up, or map if time permits a
full-scale rehearsal. Rehearsals are listed in order of priority as follows:

• Ground tactical plan.

• Landi ng plan with emphasis to assemble on the DZ.
• Air movement plan with emphasis on aircraft loading.

g. Mission-Oriented Command and Control. The purpose of command and control is

to allow the airborne commander to generate and apply combat power at the decisive
point on the battlefield. MOC 2 is a method of directing military operations in which
subordinates are encouraged to act alone, consistent with the intent of senior
commanders in executing assigned missions. (See FM 7-10, FM 7-20, and FM 7-30 for
a detailed discussion of MOC2.)

h. Dissemination. Leaders must be able to make decisions to support the commander's

intent. Plans and intelligence must be disseminated to the lowest level consistent with
security requirements.

(1) Security. The staff follows security requirements in disseminating the intelligence
required for subordinate units to develop their plans. Intelligence is provided on a need-
to-know basis. As H-hour approaches, units are provided with more detailed
intelligence.
(2) Precombat briefing. The commitment of an airbor ne unit is sudde n and complete;
there is no time for the commander to orient units immediately after landing. Plans and
intelligence must be thoroughly briefed before the operation begins.

i. Linkup With Special Operations Forces. When the airborne force follows an SOF
during a deployment, it requests a liaison before arrival in the operational area.

(1) During the planning phase, a n SOF LO is assigned to the brigade along with all
communications assets needed for immediate use with SOF assets at JSOF headquarters
and at the objective area. The SOI and signal plan must standardize not only frequencies
and call signs, but also address visual signals, and daylight and night operations.

(a) The SOCCE links up with the airbor ne commander through the SOF LO.

(b) The SOCCE coordinates with the S2/S3 sections and both elements provide the
current situation, commander's intent, and future operations of their respective forces
(within OPSEC limits).

(c) The SOCCE provides SOF locations through personal coordination, overlays, and
other friendly order-of-battle data to the FSE and brigade operation section.

(d) The SOCCE requests appropriate restrictive fire support coordination measures and
provides time windows when these measures are to be effective. The SOCCE must also
ensure that FSE dissemination of these measures does not result in OPSEC violations.

(2) Rangers can be OPCON with terminating conditions. They nor mally conduct a relief
in place with conventional forces.

(3) Communications capabilities are augmented to effect long-range communications

and proper liaisons. Equipment compatibility, crypto use, information sharing, and
security measures are considered when working with Army SOF, joint forces, and
combined security forces.
CHAPTER 3
GROUND TACTICAL PLAN
The ground tactical plan is the base from which commanders deve lop all ot her
plans. They must complete the ground tactical plan before finalizing t he landing
plan, t he air move ment plan, a nd the marshaling plan. It prov ides the
commander's intent, his concept of the operation, fire support plan, a nd task
organization of the units making the initial assault. Ground combat in airborne
operations is conducted along conve ntional lines but under unusual conditions.
Once these conditions are appreciated, the tactics and techniques of ground
combat can be applied to ai rborne operations. (See FMs 7-20 and 7-30 for a
detailed discussion of combat operations.)

Section I. PLANNING

Once the airborne force commander receives the initiating directive/WO, he begins
planning. This directive/WO includes the following:

• Missions for subordinate units.

• The higher commander's concept of the operation.
• Command structure for the operation.
• Time and duration of the operation.
• Intelligence and security requirements.
• Allocation and distribution of airlift assets.
• Unit deployment list and sequence.
• Departure airfields, REMABs, and ISBs.
• Signal requirements and i nstructions.
• Linkup and withdrawal concept.

3-1. ESTIMATE OF THE SITUATION

The military decision-making process incorporating the estimate of the situation results
in a course of action as in any other operation. Unit commanders and staff officers
cannot afford to deviate from this accepted procedure for the development process. As a
technique, the ground tactical plan will normally be developed as the basic operations
order/plan as discussed in FM 7-20 and FM 7-30. This is the most critical phase of the
airborne operation because all other plans are based on it. When conducting the
estimate, the commander and staff consider the various aspects of airborne combat
conditions with regard to METT-T.

a. Mission. The mission of an airborne infantry battalion or brigade is to close with the
enemy by means of fire and maneuver to destroy or capture him, or to repel his assault
by fire, close combat, and counterattack. These missions usually require the seizure and
defense of objectives and surrounding terrain. Forces rely strongly on the element of
surprise. (See Appendix F for detailed information on the application of the IPB process
as it relates to airborne operations.)
(1) In early linkup ope rations, the unit defends only the airhead a nd the required
maneuver space.

(2) In linkup and independent operations, the tactical ope ration begins with an initial
assault; it then passes to the defense of the established airhead until enough forces can
be delivered to the objective area.

(3) On reinforcement or on linkup with other ground forces, the airborne units resume
the offensive within the commander's concept of the operation or withdraw to prepare
for subsequent operations.

b. Ene my Forces. Commanders analyze all available information to determine the

enemy's situation. The following factors are considered:

(1) Enemy morale, leadership, and probable intentions.

(2) Enemy capabilities.

(3) Enemy tactics.

(4) Probable enemy reactions to an airborne assault.

(a) The enemy that can react the fastest poses the most immediate threat.

(b) The enemy that can cause the most damage or prevent the airborne force from
accomplishing its mission poses the most significant threat.

(5) Enemy reserves and paramilitary organizations (gendarmeries, police, border guards,
and militia) and their ability to mobilize and react. This is especially critical before deep
attacks.

(6) Enemy capability to conduct guerrilla, partisan, or sabotage activities and the
enemy's relationship to the local population.

c. Terrain and Weather. Within this category, the staff must consider and act on the
following factors:

(1) The availability of DZs, LZs. and EZs (division or corps staff provides a landing
area study to subordinate elements before the preparation of the landing plan). However,
the availability and selection of DZs should not influence the selection of assault
objectives, the airhead line, or unit boundaries.

(2) Obstacles within the airhead line and out to the maximum effective range of direct-
and indirect-fire weapons, with emphasis on those that can be prepared or reinforced
with minimal engineer effort.

(3) Enemy ave nues of appr oach, since the enemy will try to reach and de stroy the
airborne force before it can assemble and reorganize. This consideration weighs heavily
in determining the location of assault objectives.
(4) Key terrain that can determine how the airborne force can best defend the area in
depth.

(5) Friendly and enemy observation and fields of fire (particularly for indirect fires and
antiarmor weapons).

(6) Cover and concealment (especially for assembly and reorganization).

(7) The staff must also consider the effects of climate and weather on the following:

• Flight formations.
• Trafficability.
• Visibility.
• Close air support.
• Logistics.
• Personnel and equipment.

d. Troops Available. Commanders consider all forces available to accomplish the

mission. These include all assigned, attached, and supporting forces.

(1) US ground forces. Commanders evaluate the plans, missions, capabilities, and
limitations of US ground forces. They consider whether artillery can suppor t the
airborne forces and whether the forces will perform a linkup or passage of lines.

(2) Air Force. Close air support can often make up for the lack of armor and heavy
artillery. The airborne commander must consider the USAF ability to sustain the force
and must bring knowledgeable airlift and tactical air planners together early.

(3) Navy. The airborne commander examines the availability and feasibility of NGF
support and naval or USMC air support. Early arrangements for liaison and
coordination must be made to support the operation.

e. Time. Time is critical in all operations. There are several time considerations that are
unique to an airborne operation. Significant time may be required to mass the lift force
(Air Force aircraft). The time between the initial assault and the deployment of the
follow-on echelon must be considered. Supply and CSS planning is driven by the
amount of time before linkup or withdrawal.

f. Indigenous Population. The airborne force commander must consider national and
regional characteristics such as --

• Religion and c ustoms.

• Politics and tribal affiliations.
• Support (or lack of it) for central and local governments or occupying powers.
• Loyalty to political or military leaders.
• Available labor.
• Support (or lack of it) for US forces.

3-2. DEVELOPMENT OF THE GROUND TACTICAL PLAN

The ground tactical plan incorporates considerations for those actions to be taken in the
objective area; for example, during the assault and subsequent operations phases. This
will be the first plan to be finalized. It must be keyed on accomplishment of the
commander's concept of the operation.

a. The ground tactical plan is developed as any other tactical plan using the procedure as
delineated in FM 7-20, Chapter 2. However, the initial goal of airborne operations is the
establishment of an airhead and its subsequent defense.

b. The ground tactical plan's essential elements are developed in the following
sequence: the airhead line and the assault objectives (selected concurrently); the security
zone and R&S forces; boundaries and assault task organizations (selected concurrently);
and reserves.

3-3. SELECTION OF ASSAULT OBJECTIVES AND AIRHEAD LINE

Based on an analysis of the situation, commanders select specific assault objectives.

(Figure 3-1.) Although the airhead line is developed and the assault objectives
determined concurrently, the assault objectives dictate the size and shape of the airhead.

a. This selection does not necessarily include those objectives that the force must seize
to secure the airhead line. An appropriate assault objective is one which the force must
control early in the assault to accomplish the mission, or they must control to enhance
the security of the airborne unit during the establishment of the airhead.
(1) Objectives should allow for the accomplishment of mission-essential tasks while
meeting the commander's intent. They can include key terrain within the airhead or
terrain required for linkup. For example, the commander has directed the airborne force
to secure a bridge for later use by linkup forces. The force must secure this bridge
before the enemy can destroy or damage it; therefore, the commander designates the
bridge as an assault objective.

(2) The airborne unit is vulnerable from the time it lands until follow-on forces can be
delivered to the airhead. A mobile enemy unit attacking the airhead during these early
moments can completely disrupt the operation. Therefore, the commander selects as
assault objectives terrain that dominates places where high-speed enemy avenues of
approach enter the airhead.

(3) Enemy pos itions that bo th threaten the mission and are located within the airhead
can also be selected as assault objectives. However, commanders would not classify
mobile forces as assault objectives.

(4) Assault objectives must be seized immediately to establish the airhead and to
provide security for follow-on forces coming into the airhead.

b. Other considerations impact on the development and final selection of assault

objectives. Subordinate commanders decide the size, type, or disposition of the force to
gain/maintain control.

• Division selects brigade assault objectives.

• Brigade selects battalion assault objectives.
• Battalion selects company assault objectives.

(1) Senior commanders choose as few assault objectives as possible since subordinate
commanders must select additional objectives to establish a cohesive defense of their
assigned sectors of the airhead.

(2) Assault objectives are ranked in order. A unit SOP may predesignate a numbering
system for subordinate objectives. For example, all first brigade objectives begin with a
"Q", or for OPSEC purposes, they may be randomly numbered or lettered. Priorities are
chosen based on the most likely threat or on the needs of the friendly force.

(3) Assault objectives are secured before the defense is setup in the airhead line. The
airhead is then cleared of organized enemy resistance and forces are positioned to
secure the airhead line.

c. At the same time commanders select assault objectives, they consider the extent of
the airhead. The airborne force seizes hostile or threatened territory. The airhead
includes the entire area under control of the airborne force. It acts as a base for further
operations and as a respite that allows the airborne force to build up its combat power.
Once the force secures the airhead, they must clear any enemy force within it; then, they
must defend it. The airhead line, which delineates the specific area to be seized,
designates the airhead. Several principle factors determine the location, extent, and form
of the airhead/airhead line.
(1) The actual trace of the airhead line reflects the control of key/critical terrain essential
to the mission. (Figure 3-2.)

(2) The airhead line anchors on obstacles, and the airhead itself takes advantage of
existing natural and man-made obstacles.

(3) The airhead contains enough DZs, LZs, and EZs to e nsure interior rather than
exterior lines of communication and to permit mass rather than piecemeal assault.

(4) The airhead must allow enough space for dispersion to reduce vulnerability to NBC
weapons.

(5) The airhead must be large enough to provide for defense in depth, vet small enough
for the unit to defend. Although this is largely METT-T dependent, a battalion can
defend an airhead 3 to 5 kilometers in diameter. A brigade can occupy an airhead 5 to 8
kilometers in diameter.

3-4. RECONNAISSANCE AND SECURITY FORCES

Security in all directions is an overriding consideration early in any airborne operation,

since an airhead is essentially a perimeter defense. In ground operations, there are
several security echelons forward of the FEBA.

a. Security forces are landed early in the assault echelon. The reconnaissance and
security line is established immediately 4 to 6 kilometers from the airhead line to afford
security to the airbor ne force during its landi ng and reorganization, In the early stages of
an airborne operation, the security force acts as a screening force. In later stages (when
assault missions have been accomplished, when the airhead is relatively secure, and
when more forces are available), it acts as a guard or covering force. Security forces
come under brigade control except during short battalion missions such as raids, when
they come under battalion control. The mission of the security force is as follows:

(1) To give the airhead early warning.

(2) To develop intelligence, including the location, direction, and speed of an enemy
attack.

(3) To initially deny the enemy observation of and direct and observed indirect fire on
the airhead.

(4) To deceive the enemy as to the actual location of the airhead.

(5) To delay and disrupt the enemy.

b. The need for and positioning of additional security forces is determined by the next
subordinate commander. The security force includes scouts, AT weapons, engineers,
Army aviation, and (sometimes) light armor. When possible, mobile forces are selected
to facilitate rapid initial movement to positions and to facilitate withdrawal and
adjustment. An aggressive R&S effort at lower echelons augments the security force.
The following considerations apply to the selection of positions for the screening force:

(1) Locate them within radio communications and fire support range. However, this
range can be extended, if necessary, with retransmission stations; split section indirect-
fire operations; and attachment of vehicles mortars, or other assets to the security force.

(2) Locate them as roadblocks/obstacles, ambushes, patrols, or sensors (depending on

the enemy) on dominant terrain. This allows long range observation and fields of fire
out to the maximum range of supporting fires.

(3) Locate them to observe, control, and dominate enemy high speed avenues of
approach.

(4) Locate them to deny enemy long-range observation and observed indirect fire into
the airhead.

(5) Locate them far enough out to provide early warning.

(6) Locate them to provide routes of withdrawal to the airhead. Observation posts
generally rely on their ability to hide as their main protection; they can allow the enemy
to pass their position and not withdraw.

c. Designated forces under control of the airborne commander perform R&S missions
beyond the security zone established by ground forces; emphasis is placed on likely
enemy avenues of approach. The mission of these forces is to gain and maintain contact
with enemy units reacting to the airborne assault. This force is mobile and is not used to
defend a particular part of the airhead. It can include Army aviation, air cavalry, or light
armor; it can be supported with fire from Air Force assets, NGF, or Army missile
systems. The following considerations gove rn the employment of this force:

(1) These forces orient on enemy high-speed avenues of approach to develop

intelligence, including the location, direction, and speed of the enemy's advance.

(2) Commanders of these forces consider known enemy locations, the number of high-
speed approaches, and communications-relay abilities while orienting on enemy units.

(3) Usually employed beyond the airhead at a distance based on the tactical situation,
these forces protect the main force from surprise attack. The airborne commander can
extend their range if communications permit. Aviation assets can extend to 50
kilometers or more, although the commander must consider loiter time so the forces can
provide continuous coverage. (FARPs can increase this distance.) Long-range
surveillance teams may surveil enemy garrisons and major routes into the airhead.

(4) Reconnaissance forces must be mobile and task-organized for the mission from
cavalry, armor, scout, LRS, and antiarmor units.

3-5. BOUNDARIES AND TASK ORGANIZATION

Commanders visualize the employment of subordinate units to organize them for

comba t commensurate with the brigade missions.

a. Boundaries. Commanders use boundaries to assign sectors of responsibility to major

subordinate combat elements, who then clear the area of enemy forces. (Figure 3-3.) In
selecting and designating assault boundaries for airborne operations, several points are
considered:

(1) Each unit should be able to clear its assigned sector; therefore, commanders must
consider boundaries concurrently with task organization. To assign boundaries,
commanders subdivide the area into sectors with fairly equal tasks (not necessarily into
equal sectors). This requires a careful analysis of the enemy, the tasks to be
accomplished, and the terrain within the objective area.

(2) Commanders should avoid splitting (between two units) the responsibility for the
defense of an avenue of approach or key terrain.

(3) Commanders should ensure there is adequate maneuver space in the sector,
includi ng key terrain features that control it.

(4) Commanders should avoi d de signating boundaries in such a way that a . major
terrain obstacle divides a unit sector; this presents problems for maneuvering forces.

(5) The boundaries should provide adequate room to permit the commander to
maneuver forces on both sides of the assault objectives.

(6) The commanders must choose boundaries that are recognizable both on the map and
on the ground. Roads should not be used as a boundary because they represent a high-
speed avenue of approach and need to be covered with a clear understanding of
responsibility. Instead, commanders can use rivers, streams, railroad tracks, the edge of
a town, woods, the edge of a swamp, and so on.

(7) Ideally, each battalion sector should include at least one DZ and LZ to enable the
battalion and its attachments to land within the assigned sector during the assault. This
also facilitates resupply and evacuation of EPWs and casualties. Having an LZ and DZ
reduces the problem of coordination with adjacent units. This does not mean that
commanders must locate all battalion DZs in the battalion sector. Regardless of
boundaries, units should drop on the DZs closest to their assault objectives.

(8) Commanders should establish boundaries that will serve during the assault and
during later operations. These should be readily recognizable during limited visibility.

(9) Commanders should choose boundaries that do not require a unit to defend in more
than one direction at once. Also, they should not expect a unit to secure objectives
within the airhead at the same time they establish its defense.

(10) Boundaries should extend beyond the trace of the security force as far as necessary
to coordinate fires. This also allows subordinate units to operate forward of the airhead
with minimal coordination.

(11) Commanders should plan coordinating points at the intersection of the airhead line
and security force ground trace boundaries.

b. Task Organization. Once commanders have determined the principal features of the
ground assault plan (scheme of maneuver and fire suppor t), they or ganize units to
execute their assigned missions and they determine boundaries at the same time. To
ensure unity of effort or to increase readiness for combat, part or all of the subordinate
units of any command can be formed into one or more temporary tactical groupings
(teams or task forces), each under a designated commander. No standard team
organization can be prescribed in advance to meet all conditions. Infantry units usually
form the nucleus tactical groupings of the team; infantry unit commanders lead the
teams. These teams are tailored for initial assault by the attachment of required combat,
CS, and CSS units. They are attached as soon as possible in the marshaling area. Many
of the units detach as soon as centralized control can be regained and the parent unit
headquarters can be established o n the ground. O ther units such as higher echelon
assault CPs can be attached for the movement only.

(1) Brigade. Attachments for airbor ne infantry brigades usually include the following:

(a) An FA ba ttalion.

(b) A combat engineer company.

(c) An MP platoon.

(d) A light armor company/platoon.

(e) An IEW suppor t element, usually from the MI battalion.

(f) A forward area support team.

(g) An ADA battery.

(h) Other assets as determined necessary by the division commander based upon his
estimate of the situation.

(2) Battalion. For control, the airborne infantry battalions are usually reinforced for the
airborne assault and organized into task forces. This is especially true if battalions are to
land in widely separated DZs or LZs. A battalion TF usually consists of an infantry
battalion that is reinforced based on the brigade commander's estimate of the situation.
Reinforcements can include more infantry, armor, antitank, engineer, dedicated artillery,
and a ny other units or detachments needed in the initial attack. As in the brigade.
attachments to infantry battalions are made early in the planning phase. They can be
withdrawn as soon as the ground situation stabilizes.

(3) Rifle units. Rifle companies and platoons can be reinforced for the airborne assault
according to the usual considerations governing a ground attack. Attachments are made
before the move to, or on arrival in, the marshaling camp.

c. Organization for Assault Landing. After the task or ganization of soldiers for the
assault landing is announced, units organize into assault, follow-on, and rear echelons.

(1) Assault echelon. The assault echelon is composed of those forces required to seize
the assault objectives and the initial airhead, plus their reserves and supporting soldiers.
(2) Follow-on echelon. The airborne force does not need the follow-on echelon in the
objective area during the initial assault, but does need it for subsequent operations.
When needed, the follow-on echelon enters the objective area as soon as practical by
air, surface movement, or a combination of the two. It includes additional vehicles and
equipment from assault echelon units, plus more combat, CS, and CSS units. The
existence of any one of the following conditions requires an airborne unit to have a
follow-on echelon:

• Shortage of aircraft.
• Aircraft that cannot land heavy items of equipment.
• Any enemy situation, terrain, or weather that makes it impossible to land certain
soldiers or equipment in the assault echelon.

Airborne infantry units can be committed to an airborne assault without leaving a

follow-on echelon that must be brought forward by means other than air; however, it is
often desirable or necessary to leave certain personnel and equipment behind.

(3) Rear echelon. The rear echelon includes the part of an airborne unit that is not
considered essential for initial combat operations. It also includes people left at its rear
base to perform administrative and service support functions that cannot be done
efficiently in the combat area. The rear echelon is normally small for a brigade or
battalion. Higher headquarters usually controls the rear echelon for all units. The rear
echelon can remain at the REMAB when the unit is to be relieved at an early date; or it
can rejoin the unit when the brigade remains committed to sustained combat for a
prolonged or indefinite period. Also, if the airborne force continues in the ground
combat role after linkup, the rear echelon may be brought forward.

3-6. DESIGNATION OF RESERVE

The employment of the reserve element follows the normal employment of a reserve
unit in a ground operation.

a. The Battalion as the Division Reserve. The division reserve can be held in the
departure area ready to be committed by air when and where the situation dictates A
battalion can be the division reserve. This usually happe ns in large-scale airborne
operations when suitable airfields in the airhead are not available; however, it can cause
delays in commitment--

• If signal communications fail.

• If the air move is very long.
• If flying weather is unfavorable.
• If time is added for coordination of air cover.

With the reserve element at the departure airfield, the reserve commander must continue
planning for possible future commitment of his forces as far as maps, photos, and
infor mation of the situation permit.

b. Brigade and Battalion Reserves. These reserves enter the airhead as part of the
assault echelon. They provide depth to the airhead by blocking penetrations, reinforcing
committed units, and counterattacking. They consist of not more than a company at
brigade level or a platoon at battalion level; however, their small size is dictated by
tactical considerations and assigned missions. Commanders should organize, task, and
pos ition the reserve, ensuring that--

(1) The size of the reserve is compatible with likely missions.

(2) The reserve comes from the unit with the fewest priority tasks.

(3) The reserve is not assigned assault objectives or a sector of the airhead to defend.

(4) The reserve is near areas of likely employment such as near the main enemy avenues
of approach to speed commitment.

(5) The reserve is mobile. (This can be achieved using or ganic vehicles -- antiarmor
company, support platoon, light armor, and so on.)

(6) The reserve is located in an AA (both initial and subsequent) or battle position, so
that it does not interfere with units assigned assault objectives.

(7) The reserve is near an LOC in a covered and concealed location to provide ease of
movement, to reinforce, or to block.

(8) The reserve is located within the sector of one unit, if possible.

(9) The reserve's location allows for dispersion of the force.

(10) The reserve commander prepares and rehearses commitment contingencies IAW
guidance received from the commander designating the reserve.

Section II. EXECUTION

Execution of the GTP invol ves the initial seizure of DZs and LZs in and around the
airfield or the actual seizure of an airfield. (See Chapter 7.)

3-7. CONDUCT OF THE ASSAULT

The initial assault emphasizes the coordinated action of small units to seize initial
battalion objectives before the surprise advantage has worn off. As assault objectives
are seized, the airborne force directs its efforts toward consolidating the airhead.

a. Tactical surprise and detailed planning should enable units to seize their assault
objectives and to establish the airhead before the enemy has time to react in force.
Missions of units are changed as required by the enemy defense of initial objectives.
The enemy can be expected to q uickly launch uncoor dinated a ttacks along major
avenues of approach using local forces. The degree of coordination and strength of these
attacks increase progressively; the airborne force must develop correspondingly greater
strength in its defensive positions. Preparation of early defense against armored attack is
a major consideration.
b. Units assigned to pe rfor m R&S missions land in early serials so they can establish
roadblocks; locate enemy forces; disrupt enemy communication facilities; and provide
the commander with early warning, security, a nd infor mation. Since ground
reconnaissance by unit commanders is seldom possible before the airborne operation, it
must begin as soon as the unit lands. The flow of information must be continuous.
Information requirements do not vary from those employed by other ground units.
However, the unit's method of arrival in the combat area makes immediate and thorough
reconnaissance and transmission of information to higher headquarters necessary.

c. If the initial objectives are heavily defended, the bulk of the force is assigned the task
of seizing these objectives. When initial objectives are lightly defended, the bulk of the
force can be employed in clearing assigned sectors and preparing defensive positions in
depth. Extensive patrolling is initiated early between adjacent defensive positions within
the airhead line, and between the airhead and the R&S line. Army aircraft are well
suited for support of this patrolling effort. Contact with any friendl y guerrilla forces in
the area is established as soon as possible.

d. Personnel are briefed on unit plans, adjacent and higher units' plans, and alternate
plans. This helps units or personnel landing in unplanned areas to direct their efforts to
accomplishing the mission. Misdelivered units or personnel establish contact with their
respective headquarters as soon as practical.

e. Sufficient communications personnel and equipment must be moved into the airhead
in advance of the CP they are to serve to ensure the timely installation of vital
communications. As soon as communications and the tactical situation permit,
commanders regain centralized C2. Therefore, immediate establishment of the following
is necessary for effective C2 :

(1) Command and fire control channels within the airborne forces.

(2) Communications with supporting air and naval forces.

(3) Communications with airlift forces concerned with buildup, air supply, and air
evacuation.

(4) Communications with bases in friendl y territory.

(5) Communications between widely separated airborne or ground forces, such as

linkup forces, with a common or coordinated mission.

f. The commander influences the action by--

• Shifting or allocating fire support means.

• Moving forces.
• Modifying missions.
• Changing objectives and boundaries.
• Employing reserves.
• Moving to a place from which he can best exercise personal influence,
especially during the initial assault.
g. When initial objectives have been secured, subordinate units seize additional
objectives that facilitate the establishment of a coordinated brigade defense or the
conduct of future operations. Defensive positions are organized, communications are
supplemented, and reserves are reconstituted. These and other measures are taken to
prepare the force to repel enemy counterattacks, to minimize the effects of attack by
nuclear weapons, or to resume the offensive.

h. Reserves prepare and occupy blocking positions, pending commitment. Typical

missions for reserves committed during the initial assault include taking ove r the
missions of misdelivered units, dealing with unexpected opposition in seizing assault
objectives, and securing the initial airhead.

3-8. DEVELOPMENT OF THE AIRHEAD

After the airborne forces make the initial assault landings and accomplish the initial
ground missions, commanders must organize the airhead line.

a. Size. The airhead line extends far enough beyond the landing area to ensure
uninterrupted landings of personnel, equipment, and supplies. It secures the requisite
terrain features and maneuver space for such future offensive or defensive operations as
the mission calls for.

b. Occupation and Orga nization. Units occupy and or ganize the airhead line to the
extent de manded b y the situation. Commanders adjust the disposition of units and
installations to fit the terrain and the situation. Units take reconnaissance and security
measures; this usually includes the reinforcement of the R&S line. The de gree to which
the airhead line is actually occupied and organized for defense is largely determined by
the mission, enemy capabilities, and the defensive characteristics of the terrain.

c. Buildup. This proceeds concurrently with the seizure and organization of the airhead
line. As more combat personnel arrive and commanders organize them by unit, frontline
positions are reinforced, reserves are constituted, and preparations are mare for such
offensive operations as the mission requires.

3-9. BUILDUP OF COMBAT POWER

The buildup of combat power is the introduction of the follow-on echelon into the
airhead. This increase of friendly combat power yields a corresponding ability to
conduct a defense of the airhead and to conduct a short term sustainment of those
forces. The intent of the buildup is to provide a secure operating and logistic base for
forces working to move the airhead away from the original poi nt of attack. Usually, this
distance is equal to the enemy's direct fire capability to harass and destroy incoming
aircraft or landing craft (5 to 10 kilometers).

a. The composition of the follow-on echelon depends on the factors of METT-T. It can
consist of heavy, light, long-range FA, and combat engineers as well as significant CS
and CSS elements. Other forces required can include the following:

• Infantry Forces.
• Light/heavy task forces.
• Armored units task-organized with light forces already in the objective area.
• Field artillery.
• Engineers in addi tion to those in the assault echelon.
• Air defense artillery.
• CSS assets.

b. The time involved in defensive operations, if any, varies. It depends on the mission
assigned, the composition and size of the force, the enemy reaction, and the type of
operation contemplated. A well-prepared defense in short-duration missions in isolated
objective areas may not be required. Security can be accomplished by completely or
almost completely destroying or dispersing the enemy forces in the immediate objective
area during the assault; then, airlifting the striking force before the execution of a
coordinated enemy counterattack.

(1) Defense of an airhead. The airborne force usually defends an airhead by securing
key terrain within the airhead and do minating likely ave nues of appr oach. Units deny
the enemy the areas between the occupied positions with a combination of patrols,
mines, fire, and natural and man-made obstacles. Units aggressively reconnoiter
between positions within the airhead, between the airhead and the RSL, and forward of
the RSL. They increase emphasis on reconnaissance forward of the RSL during limited
visibility. The airhead configuration allows the commander to shift forces, reserves, and
supporting fires quickly to reinforce another sector of the airhead. Regardless of the
form of defense chosen, the force prepares positions in depth within its capabilities.

(2) Defense during withdrawal. Should withdrawal from the initial positions be
required, the final area to which the airborne force withdraws must contain adequate
space for maneuver, for protection of critical installations, and for planned airlanding or
air evacuation operations.

(3) Defense against armor. During the initial phases of an airbor ne ope ration, one of the
main defenses against enemy armor is tactical air support. Aircraft attack enemy armor
targets as they appear, as far as possible from the objective area, and continue to attack
and observe them as long as they threaten the airborne force. Strongpoints defending the
airhead use natural obstacles, plus mine fields, tank traps, demolitions, and man-made
obstacles. Units emplace AT weapons in depth along avenues of approach favorable for
armor. They cover all dangerous avenues of approach with planned fires. The Dragons
and LAWs of the rifle companies, the TOWs of the battalion antiarmor company, and
the AT weapons of division aviation units give the airborne force a substantial amount
of antitank firepower. Some of the antitank weapons, organic to battalions that are
holding sectors not under armored attack, can be moved to reinforce threatened sectors.

(4) Defense against air assault. All personnel must recognize that the enemy can
conduct air assault operations and must defend against these attacks. Helicopters afford
the enemy one of their best means of rapidly moving significant tactical forces to the
airhead area.

(5) Defense against airborne attack, guerrilla action, and infiltration. The defense must
include plans for countering enemy airborne attacks, guerrilla attacks, or infiltrated
forces attacking the airhead area. The basic defense against these attacks is an extensive
patrol and warning system, an all-round defense, and designated reserve units ready to
move out quickly to destroy the enemy force. Units must be especially alert during
limited visibility to prevent the enemy from infiltrating. If the enemy can build up
forces in the airhead interior, they can influence ope rations. During da ylight, units must
locate and destroy any enemy that have infiltrated the airhead.
CHAPTER 4
LANDING PLAN
The commander finalizes the landing plan after completing t he ground tactical
plan. The landing plan phases forces into the objective area at the correct time and
place to execute the ground tactical plan. The execution of the landing plan is vital
to the swift massing of combat power, protection of the force, and subsequent
mission accomplishme nt. This was de monstrated by t he 503d Parac hute
Regimental Combat Team in the airborne assault in support of the invas ion of
Corrigedor, Philippines on 16 February 1945.

February 16, 1945 was the beginning of one of the most unusual airborne operations in
the Southwest Pacific area during World War II. Because of Corrigedor's fortifications,
the joint commander was determined that more than just an amphibious assault was
necessary. The plan called for an intense air and naval bombardment of the island,
followed by an airborne assault to neutralize the fortifications and facilitate the
amphibious landing.

The planning for the operation was extensive. The regimental and battalion
commanders along with selected staff officers observed the island while riding as
passengers in planes making preparatory air strikes. After the aerial reconnaissance,
the Regimental Combat Team commander and his battalion commanders studied aerial
photographs of the island. Because the island was 1 square mile in area, only two areas
were suitable for a drop zone. The largest was only 150 by 275 yards and sloped down
to an abrupt 500-foot drop to the sea. Because the RCT commander had confidence in
the capabilities of his soldiers and a thorough knowledge of airborne techniques, he felt
that the mission could be accomplished successfully.

Because sufficient aircraft were not available to lift the RCT at one time, the
commander task-organized the regiment into battalion landing teams. There was a total
of 51 aircraft available for the drop and about 3,000 men to be transported. This meant
that the RCT had to be transported in three lifts. One battalion landing team would be
dropped on the morning of D plus 1, one in the afternoon, and the third on the morning
of D plus 2.

Because of the small DZs, the planes had to fly in trail formation (one behind the other),
divided into two columns, one over each DZ. The planes in the left column would fly
over DZ A, drop eight paratroopers and an equipment bundle, circle to the left, join the
tail of the column and, in a round-robin fashion, continue until all personnel and
equipment had been dropped. The planes on the right would do the same thing over DZ
B, except they would turn to the right. An airborne command ship was used to control
the drop and make corrections.

It took a little over an hour for the first battalion to be dropped. The operation was a
success --the Japanese were totally surprised. The airborne force suppressed the
defending Japanese and destroyed many gun and mortar emplacements, allowing the 3d
Battalion, 34th Infantry to make the amphibious landings with few casualties. Later
events revealed that the Japanese commander had been informed that he should devise
a defensive plan to repulse an airborne assault of the island. After he made a
reconnaissance he decided that such an attack was virtually impossible and did nothing.

The ability to rapidly assemble and conduct small-unit operations enabled the 503d
RCT to accomplish its assigned mission. Extensive training, detailed planning, and
thorough rehearsals contributed to the success of this combat operation. The regimental
commander task-organized his force to accomplish the ground tactical plan while
devising the simplest landing plan possible under the circumstances. He anticipated the
development many years later of the ABCCC by using an aerial command ship to
observe and control the drop.

Section I. PLANNING

The landing plan is the airbor ne commander's plan that links air move ment into the
ground tactical plan. The landing plan is published at the brigade level and below, but is
informal and not published at the joint level. The landing plan is a tabulation of the
sequence, method, and destination of paratroopers and materiel into the objective area.
The landing plan has five elements:

• Sequence of delivery.
• Method of delivery.
• Place of delivery.
• Time of delivery.
• The assembly plan.

4-1. REQUIREMENTS

To develop the landing plan, commanders at each level need to know their commander's
priorities the airlift tactics, the landing area study, the parent and subunit task
organization and ground tactical plans, and the subunit landing plan. During the
briefback of the ground tactical plan, the commander establishes airlift/delivery
priorities and airlift tactics. He provides as much of this information as possible to
subunits at the end of the ground tactical plan briefback.

a. Commander's Priorities. The commander must set the priorities for each assault
objective to determine the delivery sequence for units that are to secure these objectives.
This dots not necessarily match the sequence in which the units secure objectives. The
commander must also know:

(1) The priorities for deliveries on each DZ (personnel drop, CDS, heavy drops, and
LAPES).

(2) The DZ sequence.

(3) The priorities for delivering the remainder of the forces.

(4) The method of delivery for each unit and its equipment.

(5) The priorities for use of EZs.

(6) The location of the HEPI and the PPI.

b. Airlift Tactics. The Air Force element responsible for selecting airlift tactics
develops them with the Army element to best support the ground tactical plan. These
tactics include aircraft formations and the sequence of personnel drops, heavy drops,
and LAPES. The Army element chooses this sequence and the time intervals between
serials, which are groups of like aircraft (C-130s, C-141s) with the same delivery
method (personnel drops, heavy drops, LAPES) going to the same DZ.

c. Landing Area Study. Division or corps staff, working with US Army Topo graphic
Engineers and the Air Force, develops the landing area study and provides it to
subunits. This study enables subunits to select the location, size, and orientation of DZs
to best support their scheme of maneuver.

d. Subunit Landing Plans. Subordinate commanders should develop landing plans to

support their own respective schemes of maneuver. Subunits then briefback their
landing plans so that higher headq uarters can finalize their plans. Units must also know
the initial locations of CS and CSS elements. This information should become available
as subunits briefback their ground tactical plan.

4-2. CONSIDERATIONS

Commanders should e xamine the following considerations when developi ng the landi ng
plan.

a. Basic Methods of Attacking an Objective. There are three basic methods of

attacking an objective.

(1) Jumping or landing on top of the objective. This method works best for attacking a
small objective that is specially fortified against ground attack. However, an airborne
landing into an area strongly defended against air attack requires surprise to succeed.

(2) Jumping or landing near the objective. This method works best for the capture of a
lightly defended objective that must be seized intact such as a bridge. If the enemy has
strong defenses against air attack, only surprise can enable the unit to achieve success
with few casualties.

(3) Jumping or landing at a distance from the objective. This technique is the least often
used of the techniques available. Airborne forces use this method for large complex
objectives that must be seized by deliberate attack. The DZ is selected to emphasize
security and preservation of the force. The plan is based on METT-T considerations and
should capitalize on the principle of surprise.

b. Basic Methods of Landing. There are two basic landing methods.

(1) Multiple drop zones. The use of multiple DZs creates a number of small airheads in
the objective area. This technique supports the principle of mass by placing the
maximum number of paratroopers in the objective area in the minimum amount of time.
Additionally, the commander can capitalize on the principle of surprise because the
main effort is not easily determined by the enemy. This technique is nor mally used by
division-size elements and larger.

(2) Single drop zone. Brigade and smaller-size airborne forces often establish an airhead
by conducting the airborne assault onto a single drop zone. This technique allows the
assaulting unit to assemble quickly and mass combat power against the enemy.

c. Time-Space Factors. Commanders schedule the delivery sequence and the time
between serials to provide the least time and distance separation between each aircraft
and serial. The airborne force assembles maximum combat power on the DZ as quickly
as possible, using either of the following options:

(1) Land all elements in the same area. Aircraft approach the DZ in a deep, narrow
formation and all soldiers jump into a small area.

(2) Land all elements at the same time. Aircraft in a wide formation approach various
DZs situated close to each other and all soldiers jump at the same time or as near to it as
possible.

d. Landing Priorities. Airborne units are cross loaded to land close to their assault
objectives.

e. Organization. Airborne forces try to maintain tactical unity.

(1) Battalions or battalion TFs normally land intact on a single DZ. A brigade lands in
mutually supporting DZs. Two or more battalions land successively on the same DZ or
each can land on a separate DZ within a general brigade DZ area.

(2) The airborne force sends as many assault unit personnel and equipment as possible
into the area in parachute serials. Commanders must consider the mobility of equipment
after the landing. For example, the carriers or prime movers that are deliverable by
parachute, b ut difficult to manhandle on the ground, c an accompa ny the weapons in the
assault element. Paratroopers accompany their units' principal items of equipment.

4-3. SEQUENCE OF DELIVERY

The commander's priorities within the ground tactical plan determine the sequence of
delivery. Neither aircraft allocations nor the availability of aircraft should influence
these decisions. The commander determines final aircraft allocations after the landing
plan briefbacks. JAAP serials may precede the main airlift column to drop combat
control teams and Army LRSU. The CCT places and operates navigation aids on the
drop and landing zones; the LRSU provides surveillance on NAI and reports to the
ground force commander.

4-4. METHOD OF DELIVERY

This part of the landing plan addresses how the force with its needed supplies and
equipment arrives in the objective area. The assault echelon comes in by parachute. The
commander can use a number of other means to introduce additional personnel,
equipment, and supplies into the objective area.
a. Personnel Airdrop. The airborne force delivers assault personnel by parachute drop.
This method allows quick, nearly simultaneous delivery of the force. Planners choose
any terrain free of obstacles that allows the assault force to land on or close to
objectives. In some cases and with special equipment, it can deliver personnel into
rough terrain. Special teams, such as the JAAP, can use HAHO or HALO techniques.
These techniques allow for early delivery of the JAAP without compromising the
objective's location.

b. Equipme nt/Supply/Airdrop. Airborne forces can airdrop supplies and equipment

directly to units behind enemy lines or in other unreachable areas.

(1) Advantages.

(a) Prerigging and s toring emergency items for contingencies considerably reduces
shippi ng and handling time and increases responsiveness.

(b) Since the delivery aircraft does not land, there is no need for forward airfields/LZs
or materiel handling equipment for offloading.

(c) This reduces flight time and exposure to hostile fire and increases aircraft
survivability and availability.

(d) Ground forces can disperse more since they are not tied to an airfield or strip.

(2) Disadvantages.

(a) Airdrops require specially trained rigger personnel and appropriate aircraft.

(b) Bad weather or high winds can delay the airdrop or scatter the dropped cargo.

(c) Ground fire threatens vulnerable aircraft making their final approach, especially if
mountains or high hills canalize the aircraft.

(d) Since the aircraft do not land, no opportunity for ground refueling exists. Planned
aerial refueling can extend aircraft range and should be considered on long flight legs to
increase objective area loiter time and mission flexibility.

(e) Bulky airdrop rigs for equipment prevent the aircraft from carrying as much cargo as
when configured for airland.

(f) The possibility of loss or damage to equipment during the airdrop always exists.

(g) Ground forces must secure the DZ to pr event items from falling into e nemy hands.

(h) Recovery of airdropped equipment is slow and manpower intensive.

(3) Types of equipment delivery. Free drop, high-velocity drop, low-velocity drop,
HALO, and LAPES are different types of air deliveries. (See FM 100-27.)
(a) Free drop (less than 600 feet AGL). Free drop requires no parachute or retarding
device. The airdrop crew can use energy-dissipating materiel around the load to lessen
the shock when it hits the ground at a rate of 130 to 150 feet a second. Fortification or
barrier material, clothing in bales, and other such items can be free dropped.

(b) High-velocity airdrop (400 to 600 feet AGL). Parachutes, which have enough drag
to hold the load upright during the descent at 70 to 90 feet a second, stabilize loads for
high-velocity airdrops. Army parachute riggers place airdrop cargo on energy-
dissipating material and rig it in an airdrop container. This method works well for
subsistence, packaged POL products, ammunition, and other such items. The ground
commander may use the standard high-velocity delivery system, which is the container
delivery system, to deliver accompanying and follow-on supplies; they can be delivered
within an area 400 by 100 meters. A CDS is the most favored means of resupply; it is
also the most accurate of all airdrop methods. Each pallet holds up to 2,200 pounds. A
C-130 holds up to 16 of these containers, while a C-141B holds up to 40. Planners
should calculate the CARP near AAs or resupply points. The ALO or Army DZ support
team controls receipt of CDS. (Figure 4-l.)

(c) Low-velocity airdrop (1,100 feet or less AGL, depending on DZ size). Low-velocity
airdrop requires cargo parachutes. Crews rig items on an airdrop platform or in an
airdrop container. They put energy-dissipating material beneath the load to lessen the
shock when it hits the ground. Cargo parachutes attached to the load reduce the rate of
descent to no more than 28 feet a second. Fragile materiel, vehicles, and artillery can be
low-velocity airdropped.

• Heavy drop. Airborne forces use this method most often to deliver vehicles, bulk
cargo, and equipment. Airdrop aircraft deliver heavy-drop equipment just ahead
of the main body or, if following personnel drops, at least 30 minutes after the
last paratrooper exits. For night drops, the heavy drop precedes personnel drops.
• Door bundles and wedges. This procedure requires the use of either the A7A
cargo sling or the A21 cargo bag. With these, aircraft personnel can drop unit
loads of up to 500 pounds just before the first soldier's exit. Local SOPs dictate
the number and type of door bundles that specific aircraft can drop.

(d) HALO. Airborne forces use HALO to airdrop supplies and equipment at high
altitudes when aircraft must fly above the threat air defense umbrella. (Figure 4-2.) The
rigged load is pulled from the aircraft by a stabilizing parachute and free falls to a low
altitude where a cargo parachute opens to allow a low-velocity landing.

(e) Low-altitude parachute extraction system. The LAPES uses extraction parachutes to
airdrop palletized loads and equipment from airlift aircraft flying about 5 to 10 feet
above the ground. (Figure 4-3.) The extraction parachute that pulls the rigged load from
the aircraft also helps to slow the platform and load as it slides across the EZ. Some
airfields and EZs require special preparation for a LAPES delivery. (See Appendix A
for detailed infor mation on LAPES extraction zone requirements.)
• Airborne forces can use the LAPES to deliver vehicles, artillery, ammunition,
supplies, equipment, and water. It is a reliable way to rapidly introduce outsized
or heavy loads (such as the M551 S heridan) and bulk suppl ies (such as
ammunition and fuel). It allows accurate delivery into small perimeters.
• Adverse weather conditions, such as excessive surface or altitude winds or low
ceilings, inhibit airdrop, but they do not preclude the use of the LAPES.
Airdrops by the LAPES can be accurately delivered on plateaus, mountains,
cratered airfields, or assault LZs, and among other obstacles.
• The LAPES reduces aircraft radar signature; it allows the aircraft to avoid
enemy air defense systems by flying low, and it negates havi ng to de fend a gainst
ground fire. once ground forces have cleared the EZ. aircraft can deliver LAPES
airdrops in any sequence. Units must arrange the time, personnel, and equipment
to derig and remove the delivered LAPES load from the EZ before that EZ can
be used for another load. They can facilitate this by preparing multiple/parallel
EZs.

c. Airland. Airborne forces can accomplish certain phases of airborne operations, or

even the entire operation, by using airland to deliver personnel and equipment to the
objective area. (See FMs 7-20, 7-30, and 100-27.)

(1) Advantages. In some cases, airlanding rather than airdropping personnel and
equipment may be advantageous because airlanding --

(a) Provides the most economical means of airlift.

(b) Delivers Army aviation elements, engineering equipment, artillery pieces, and other
mission-essential items in one operation.
(c) Provides a readily available means of casualty evacuation.

(d) Allows units to maintain tactical integrity and to deploy rapidly after landing.

(e) Allows the use of units with little special training and equipment.

(f) Does not require extensive preparation and rigging of equipment.

(g) Offers a relatively reliable means of personnel and equipment delivery regardless of
weather.

(h) Precludes equipment da mage and pe rsonnel injuries units may experience in
parachute operations.

(2) Disadvantages. In other cases, airlanding is not advantageous because it --

(a) Cannot be used for forced entry.

(b) Requires moderately level, unobstructed LZs with adequate soil trafficability.

(c) Requires more time for delivery of a given size force than airdrop, especially for
small, restricted LZs.

(d) Generally requires improvement or new construction of airland facilities, which adds
to the engineer workload.

(c) Requires some form of airlift control element support at offloading airfields. Mission
intervals depend on airlift control element size, offloaded equipment availability, and
airfield support capability.

(3) Organization for movement. The tactical integrity of participating units is a major
consideration in an airland operation. Small units that are expected to engage in combat
on landing, airland organizationally intact with weapons, ammunition, and personnel in
the same aircraft, whenever possible. Joint planning stresses placing units as close as
possible to objectives, consistent with the availability of LZs and the ope rational
capability of the tactical aircraft employed. Because of aircraft vulnerability on the
ground, units unload as quickly as possible.

(a) The airborne commander determines the makeup of each aircraft load and the
sequence of delivery. The mission, the tactical situation, and the assigned forces
influence this decision.

(b) Units should use existing facilities, such as roads and open areas, to reduce the time
and effort required for new construction. They should consider layouts that facilitate
future expansion and provide maximum deployment and flexibility. As the size and
efficiency of an air facility improve, its value to the enemy as a target increases. To
reduce this vulnerability, the facilities should be dispersed and simple.

4-5. PLACE OF DELIVERY

The selection of DZs/LZs/EZs is a joint responsibility. The airlift commander is
responsible for the precise delivery of personnel and cargo to the DZ/LZ and for the
selection of approaches to the DZ. Both joint and component commanders must base
their decisions on knowledge of their respective problems and on the needs of the
overall operation. The nature and location of landing areas are important considerations
when preparing the scheme of maneuver. The general area in which they are to be
established is necessarily governed by the mission. At higher echelons, commanders can
assign landing areas in broad general terms. In lower units, leaders must describe their
locations more specifically. Drop zones are selected only after a detailed analysis.
Commanders should consider the following factors when making their selections.

a. Ease of Identification. The DZ should be easy to spot from the air. Airlift pilots and
navigators prefer to rely on visual recognition of terrain features to accurately deliver
personnel and equipment.

b. Straight-Line Approac h. To ensure an accurate airdrop, the aircraft should make a

straight-line approach to each DZ for at least 10 miles, or about four minutes at drop
airspeed, before the start of the drop.

c. Out of Range. The commander should choose a DZ that allows the units to avoid
enemy air defenses and strong ground de fenses and puts them outside the range of
enemy suppressive fires. To get to the DZ, aircraft should not have to fly over or near
enemy antiaircraft installations, which can detect aircraft at drop altitudes. They should
fly over hostile territory or positions for the least possible time.

d. Close To or On Top of Assault Objectives. If the enemy situation permits, the

commander should c hoos e a DZ directly on top of assault objectives.

e. Suitable Weather and Terrain. The commander must consider the weather and
terrain because these conditions affect the usability of a DZ.

(1) Weather. Commanders should consider seasonal weather conditions when selecting
DZs. Adverse weather effects can be devastating. Ground fog, mist, haze, smoke, and
low-hanging cloud conditions can interfere with the aircrew's observation of DZ visual
signals and markings. However, they do offer excellent cover for blind or area DZs.
Excessive winds also hamper operations.

(2) Terrain. Flat or rolling terrain is desirable; it should be relatively free, but not
necessarily clear, of obstacles. Obstacles on a DZ will not prevent paratroopers from
landing but will increase jump casualties. Sites in mountainous or hilly country with
large valleys or level plateaus can be used for security reasons. Small valleys or pockets
completely surrounded by hills are difficult to locate and should be used only in rare
cases. Commanders must avoid man-made obstacles more than 150 feet (46 meters)
above the level of the DZ within a radius of 3 nautical miles. High ground or hills need
not be considered a hazard unless the hills pose an escape problem that is beyond the
aircraft's capability. High ground or hills more than 1,000 feet (305 meters) above the
surface of the site should not be closer than 3 nautical miles to the DZ for night
operations. The perimeter of the DZ should have one or more open approach sectors
free of any obstacles that would prevent the aircrew's sighting of the DZ markings.
(a) Cover and concealment. Cover and concealment near the DZs/LZs area distinct
advantage when the airborne forces assemble and when airland forces land.

(b) Road net. Having a DZ near a good road net expedites moving personnel, supplies,
and equipment from that zone. If the landing area contains terrain that is to be
developed into an airlanding facility, a road net is of particular value -- not only for
moving items from the facility but also for evacuating personnel and equipment.

(c) Key terrain. The DZ site selected should aid in the success of the mission by taking
advantage of dominating terrain, covered routes of approach to the objective, and terrain
favorable for defense against armored attack.

f. Minimum Construction for DZs/LZs. Because of limited engineer support in the

airborne force, selected landing zones should have a minimum requirement for
construction and maintenance. Unless more engineer support is requested and received,
construction and maintenance restraints can limit the number of areas that can be used
or developed.

g. Mutual Support. Commanders should select mutually suppor ting DZs/LZs that
provide initial positions favorable to the attack.

h. Configuration. The division/brigade commander gives guidance on DZ size in

OPLANs or OPORDs. Then each unit commander determines the exact shape, size, and
capacity they need.

(1) Shape. The most desirable shapes for DZs are rectangular or round; these permit a
wider choice of aircraft approach directions. However, they also require precise
navigation and timing to avoid collisions or drop interference.

(2) Size. The DZ should be large enough to accommodate the airborne force employed;
one DZ that allows the aircraft to drop all of its load in one pass is desirable. Repeated
passes are dangerous because the initial pass can alert enemy antiaircraft and other
empl acements, and they will be waiting for subsequent drops.

(a) There are certain situations, however, when multiple passes can be used. This occurs
mainly when there is no significant air defense threat and orbits can be made over areas
where enemy antiaircraft systems are not positioned. This applies especially to the
seizure of islands where small DZs are the rule. If there are enough aircraft available to
deliver the force with less personnel on each aircraft, there is no real problem. However,
if there are only enough aircraft to deliver the assault echelon in one lift with each
aircraft carrying the maximum number of personnel, then the aircraft will have to make
multiple passes over the DZ.

(b) A large DZ can permit several points of impact to be designated and used. Although
it is desirable to saturate the objective area in the shortest possible time, there is a
reasonable limit to the amount of personnel and heavy drop that can be stacked on a
single drop zone. Therefore, it can be desirable to use multiple points of impact on a
single DZ -- provided the drop zone is large enough to permit this.
(3) Capacity. The DZ capacity is based on the expected number of units to be dropped
and their dispersion pattern. (See Appendix A for criteria for determining DZ capacity.)

i. Orientation. Thoughtful orientation allows the quickest possible delivery of the

airborne force into the objective area.

(1) Ideal DZs offset and parallel each serial. (Figures 4-4 and 4-5.) This allows aircraft
to share a flight route until they approach the objective area; then they can split at an IP
(RP) for simultaneous delivery on several DZs.
(2) Another technique that can be employed is to make two drops on two DZs in line
(thus eliminating a change of flight direction between the two drops). The DZs must be
far enough apart to permit the navigators to compute the location of the second release
point.

(3) Paratroopers are more likely to overshoot the DZ than to undershoot it. Therefore,
selection of the trailing edge of the DZ should be at the objective to place personnel
responsible for the primary assault objective at the front of the aircraft so that they exit
last.

(4) If a fighter aircraft escort or rendezvous is required for the drop, t hey must be kept
advised of the drop pattern, the direction of all turns to be flown around the DZ, and the
areas to look for possible enemy activity.

(5) Drop zones that require intersecting air traffic patterns should be avoided whenever
possible. They delay simultaneous delivery of the force because of the safety
requirements to stagger delivery times and clear the air by at least a 5- or 10-minute
formation separation time. They also require that JSEAD be accomplished for multiple
routes instead of one. This may result in piecemeal delivery and an unnecessarily
complicated plan, violating the principles of mass and simplicity.

j. Alternate Drop Zones or Landing Zones. Commanders must select alternate

DZs/LZs to compensate for changes that may occur.

k. Numbe r of Drop Zones or Landing Zones. The number of DZs to be used by the
assault parachute element of an airborne infantry brigade depends on the number, size,
and relative position of suitable sites; the brigade plan of maneuver; and the expected
enemy situation. The ba ttalions of a brigade can land successively on the same DZ, on
separate battalion DZs, or on adjacent areas within a single large brigade DZ.

(1) Single brigade drop zone. The use of a single brigade DZ on which ba ttalions land
successively has these advantages:

(a) It permits greater flexibility in the plan of maneuver and the plan of suppor ting fires.

(b) It facilitates coordinating and controlling assault battalions.

(c) It applies the principle of mass.

(d) It makes logistical support easier.

(e) It decreases the area of vulnerability.

The use of a single DZ also has disadvantages.

(a) It slows the buildup of combat power.

(b) It causes later airlift sorties to be vulnerable to enemy air as a result of the loss of
surprise.
(c) It allows the enemy to focus his efforts.

(2) Separate battalion drop zones. The use of separate battalion DZs has these
advantages:

(a) It increases readiness for action by deploying the brigade as it lands.

(b) It reduces conf usion on the DZs during the landi ng and reorganizing.

(c) It tends to deceive the enemy as to the intention and strength of the landing force.

(d) It makes capture of the brigade objective easier when there is strong opposition on
one drop zone.

(e) It increases the freedom of maneuver of the assault battalions.

The use of separate battalion DZs also has disadvantages.

(a) It makes C2 more difficult.

(b) It reduces flexibility because units are dispersed.

(3) Adjacent drop areas. Landing battalions on adjacent areas within a single large
brigade DZ has, although to a lesser degree, the same advantages and disadvantages of
dropping on separate DZs.

4-6. TIME OF DELIVERY

No set rule can be prescribed for the timing of an airborne operation. It varies with each
situation; however, the airborne force will try to conduct airborne assaults during
limited visibility to protect the force and to surprise the enemy. The commander sets the
specific time of delivery. However, for the landing plan, times are stated in terms of P-
hour (when the first paratrooper exits the aircraft). The following considerations affect
the timing of the operation.

a. Support of the Main Effort. The airborne assault can be a supporting attack. If so,
the time of commitment of the airborne forces in relation to the main effort is usually
directed by orders from higher headquarters. It is determined in advance IAW the
mission, the situation, and the terrain. For example, the airborne force can be committed
in advance of the main effort to give the airborne attack an increased element of
surprise. It can be committed during the main effort to neutralize specific areas or to
block the movement of enemy reserves. It can also be committed after the main effort to
assist a breakthrough or to block an enemy withdrawal.

b. Visibility. The decision as to whether the airborne force is committed by night or day
depends on the estimated degree of air superiority, the need for security from enemy
ground observation, the relative advantage to be gained by surprise, and the experience
of both airlift and airborne personnel.
(1) Night airborne operations offer the following advantages. They greatly increase the
chance of surprise and survivability, and reduce the chance of attack by enemy aircraft
during the air move ment. They also reduce vulnerability to antiaircraft fire, conceal
preparations for takeoff from the enemy, and reduce the effectiveness of the defender's
fires.

(2) Night airborne operations offer the following disadvantages. In zero visibility, they
require well-trained soldiers and aircrews to locate the DZ and assemble rapidly. They
provide more air and land navigation problems and offer slower rates of assembly than
daylight operations. Night operations also reduce the effectiveness of CAS.

(3) Daylight operations provide better visibility both from the air and ground, more
accurate delivery, quicker assembly, and more effective friendly fires than night
operations.

(4) However, daylight operations increase vulnerability to enemy air defense, ground
fires, and air attack, and they result in loss of surprise.

c. Intervals. The time interval between delivery of the assault echelon (P-hour) and the
follow-on echelon depends on the availability of aircraft, the capacity of departure
airfields, the number of aircraft sorties that can be flown on D-day, the availability of
DZs/LZs within the objective area, and the enemy situation. For example, if there are
unlimited aircraft, ample departure airfields, numerous DZs/LZs within the objective
area, and little or no enemy air defense, the commander could deliver the follow-on
echelon immediately after the assault echelon. Thus, the time interval could be so brief
that it would be hard to determine which was the last aircraft of the assault echelon and
which was the first aircraft of the follow-on echelon. Regardless of the timing selected,
avoid setting a pattern.

Section II. ASSEMBLY AND REORGANIZATION

Success or failure of the mission can depend on how fast the airborne force can regain
tactical integrity. The first goal of any airborne assault must be to deliver and assemble
all available combat power as quickly as possible. The sooner soldiers assemble and
reorganize as squads, platoons, and companies, the sooner they can derig their
equipment and s tart fighting as cohesive units. How efficiently and rapidly this happe ns
is a direct result of detailed planning, cross loading on the assault aircraft, and assembly
on the DZ.

4-7. CROSS LOADING

Cross loading of key personnel and equipment is an important factor in rapid assembly.
It must be given careful attention in training and on combat jumps.

a. Personnel. Separate key personnel in case any aircraft aborts or fails to reach the DZ.
This prevents the loss of more than one key officer/NCO of any one unit.

b. Heavy-Drop Loa ds. Always plan for the possibility that one or more heavy-drop
aircraft will abort before it gets to the DZ, or the equipment will streamer in and become
unserviceable.
c. Individual Equipme nt/Weapons. Separate radios, mortars, AT weapons,
ammunition bundles, and other critical equipment or supplies as much as possible. No
like items of combat-essential equipment from the same unit should be on the same
aircraft.

(1) The CWIE and the DMJP can and s hould be jumped at any position in the stick to
support cross loading and assembly plans. The commander must make a risk assessment
when he determines the location of paratroopers in the stick carrying this equipment.

(2) Risks to both the paratrooper and mission accomplishment are present. If the
paratrooper falls inside the aircraft, the remainder of the soldiers may not be able to exit
on that pass. Also, this equipment increases the risks of the paratrooper being towed
outside the aircraft.

DANGER
DURING TRAINING, THE PARATROOPER WITH THE DMJP CAN
ONLY JUMP FROM THE RIGHT DOOR OF THE AIRCRAFT. A
DMJP AND M1950 WEAPONS CASE CANNOT BE JUMPED
CONCURRENTLY BY THE SAME PARATROOPER. THE DMJP AND
MISSILE SIZE REQUIRE THAT THE PARATROOPER MUST BE AT
LEAST 66-INCHES TALL.

4-8. ASSEMBLY TECHNIQUES

Based on METT-T considerations, the ground force commander may elect to use one of
the following techniques:

a. Assembly o n the Objective: This technique may be used when speed is essential, the
objective is lightly defended, or the enemy can be suppressed.

b. Assembly o n the DZ: This technique may be used when the DZ will not be used by
follow-on forces, speed is not essential, and dismounted avenues of approach from the
DZ to the objective are available.

c. Assembly Adjacent to the DZ: This technique may be employed when the DZ is to
be used by follow-on forces or if the DZ is compromised during the airborne assault.

4-9. ASSEMBLY AIDS

To speed up assembly after landing, airborne units use assembly aids to orient
themselves on the ground and to locate their unit's AA. Assembly aids help identify
personnel, equipment, and points or areas on the ground. Units can use visual, audible,
electronic, natural, or individual aids; for reliability and ease of recognition, units
combine these. Operators of assembly aids land as close as possible to their AA so they
can mark the area. An Air Force CCT or LRSU places assembly aids if the situation
permits. Partisans, special forces personnel, or high-performance aircraft can deliver
assembly aids. Whenever possible, regardless of the method chosen to emplace the aids,
commanders should provide backup operators, backup aids, and backup delivery means.
a. Control Posts. An assembly control post is established by a small party equipped
with assembly aids, which moves after landing to a predesignated location to help
assemble soldiers. (Figures 4-6 and 4-7.) Each DZ/LZ has a control post in or near the
unit AA to coordinate and regulate assembly. No standard organization exists for
control posts; their composition varies with the size of the parent unit, the number and
type of assembly aids carried, the terrain, and the assigned mission.
b. Joi nt Airborne Adva nce Party. The JAAP has a variety of navigational and
assembly aids. They usually land o n the DZ/LZ from 15 minutes to 1 hour before the
main elements arrive. The senior commander prescribes how the JAAP helps units
assemble after landing.

c. Line-of-Flight or Clock System. Airborne soldiers observe the airdrop formation's

line of flight. The line of flight parallels the parachute landing pattern; this helps each
paratrooper establish his own landing position relative to those of the other members of
their plane load. Leaders use the clock system to brief soldiers, calling the direction of
flight 12 o'clock. (Figure 4-8.) After landing, soldiers assemble to the right of the DZ at
3 o'clock or to the left of the DZ at 9 o'clock. In AWADS conditions, commanders
should avoid choosing this method of aid.
d. Natural Assembly Aids. These aids include landmarks or easily recognizable terrain
features that units can use as AAs or that personnel can orient their movement on. These
features include hills; stream junctions; clumps of woods; or man-made objects like
radio towers, bridges, buildings, crossroads, or railroads. Units cannot rely on natural
features as the primary assembly aid. The assembly plan must be usable regardless of
the DZ. Execution of contingency plans en route may require assembly on an alternate
DZ; an emergency exit from the aircraft can place paratroopers on an unfamiliar DZ.

e. Assembly Equipme nt. Airborne units carry visual, audible, or electronic aids into
combat to help them assemble. Planners assign different colors, sounds, and coded
signals to each unit. The unit SOP standardizes assembly aids; however, units can adapt
them to fit specific situations or environments. Terrain restrictions and battlefield noise
do not restrict the use of the best assembly aids, which are also simple to use. Units
usually use visual assembl y aids.

(1) Visual aids. Visual aids include visible light sources, such as beacons, flashlights,
strobe lights, or signal mirrors; panels; flags; balloons; infrared lights, such as
metascopes, flashlights with filters, infrared weapons sights, or starlight scopes;
pyrotechnics; and chemical lights. These aids are simple to use and afford positive
identification of AAs. However, the enemy can see them as well as friendly personnel
can. The Stiner aid has a cloth panel with a colored letter; that is, HHC = White "H".
They are the same color for night use. (Figure 4-9.) It has pockets for 15-inch chemical
lights; the letter and pockets are on both sides. It is mounted on a sectional aluminum
pole that fits into an M1950 weapons case.
(2) Audible aids. Audible aids especially help small units assemble at night. They
include tin crickets, sirens, cowbells, air horns, triangles, dinner bells, ratchets, drums,
gongs, whistles, bugles, and voice signals; they can be used to identify individuals or
AAs. Strong winds, gunfire, aircraft sounds, an elevation high above sea level, and
other factors can limit their effectiveness. The normal sounds of the battlefield easily
mask or confuse the sounds of audible assembly aids.

(3) Electronic aids. Units can use organic radios to effectively direct small units to AAs,
using landmarks as references. They can also use radio homing devices. A homing
device is a lightweight attachment to a standard field radio; it is an excellent aid for day
or night assembly. With it, a RATELO can pick up a coded signal beam from a
transmitter at the AA. By following the beam, the RATELO homes in on the transmitter
and leads the unit to the AA. The unit uses the AT-784/PRC antenna with the AN/PRC-
77 to home in on the transmissions of another AN/PRC-77 or another FM radio on the
same frequency. Signal crews can make an equipment homing assembly aid from a
standard portable field radio or transmitter. The unit attaches the radio to the equipment
and turns it to a designated frequency. They encase it in shock-absorbing material just
before its extraction from the aircraft. This technique is especially useful for assembling
crews on heavy-drop loads.
(4) Field-expedient aids. The unit uses any of numerous field-expedient assembly aids;
only the unit members' imaginations limit the choices. For example, they can burn
gasoline-soaked sand i n cans or other containers; fashion a light gun or a one-direction
light source by placing a flashlight in the receiver of an M203 grenade launcher; or lift a
deployed main or reserve parachute so other unit members can see it.

f. Ide ntification Markings. Positive, rapid identification of soldiers and equipment

speed up a unit's assembly. The airborne unit standardizes personnel and equipment
markings for all subunits.

(1) Personnel markings. Soldiers use individual assembly aids to help recognize
individuals and assemble units. Individual aids include colored armbands or helmet
bands, distinctive patches or designs on uniforms, or helmet bands of luminous tape.
Sortie commanders and key leaders, jumpmasters, safeties, other jumpmaster personnel,
medics, and bump personnel also use distinctive markings. Larger unit SOPs prescribe
unit designations to prevent duplication and to allow unit-wide understanding.

(2) Equipment markings. Aerial equipment containers are identified by simple,

distinctive markings. Distinctive unit markings are prescribed by larger unit (brigade or
division) SOPs to prevent duplication and to assist in recognition by other units. Unit
codes are placed on the bottom and all sides of each container; they should be visible for
at least 50 meters. Various color parachute canopies, container colors, luminous tape
and paints, smoke grenades, homing devices and lights can be used with the containers
to facilitate identification on the ground and in the air. Lights, homing devices, and
grenades attached to equipment can either be activated manually aboard the aircraft just
before extraction, by improvised timer, or on the ground by the first individual to reach
the equipment.

(3) Assault aircraft markings. A simple code symbol (using various designs, colors, and
combinations of letters and numbers) can be painted on both sides of the fuselage of
assault aircraft to identify the contents. This symbol is large enough to be readily seen,
and it indicates not only the type of equipment contained in the aircraft but also the unit
to which the equipment belongs.

4-10. ASSEMBLY PLAN

Because the assembly plan is a key to success, it must be as foolproof as possible.

Assembly is more than accounting for personnel; the commander must also ensure the
unit has regained tactical integrity, has organized tactically, and is prepared to fight as a
combined arms team. The slower the force assembles, the more they risk failure. An
airborne unit's assembly plan consists mainly of the following techniques:

a. Secure assault objectives.

b. Place all organic and attached weapon systems into action as quickly as possible.

c. Reestablish C2 such as radio nets or reporting to higher headquarters.

d. Assemble the force and account for casualties and stragglers.

4-11. UNIT ASSEMBLY

Commanders base the assembly of airborne units on a simple, flexible plan that adapts
to any likely situation. They assemble the units speedily, silently, a nd without
confusion.

a. Drop Zone Assembly. To speed assembly on the DZ, units should --

(1) Establish an assembly control point located near the DZ centerline. The assembly
control point OIC or NCOIC accounts for all paratroopers as they report to the control
poi nt. He then gives them an azimuth and di stance and sends them to the assembly
area/assault objective. If the soldiers do not have a compass, they wait until someone
with a compass repor ts in and they move out together.

(2) Locate the unit AA in a covered and concealed position off the DZ. The first group
to arrive in the unit AA should erect an assembly aid ASAP to assist in directing the rest
of the unit to the AA.

(3) Move out rapidly on the assigned mission once most of the unit has gone through
the assembly control point and arrived in the AA. Leave a small element in the AA to
handle stragglers.

b. Troo p Briefings. Another key element of a good assembly is the thoroughness of

unit briefings and individual soldier briefbacks.

(1) BRIEF soldiers -- and rebrief them -- on the assembl y plan of his unit and on those
of other units scheduled to share the same DZ.

(2) USE visual aids such as maps, aerial photos, terrain models, and sand tables.

(3) WARN soldiers to resist guiding on what appears to be a prominent terrain feature
on a map. Once they are on the ground, the terrain feature probably cannot be seen. This
is especially true if soldiers land on the wrong DZ or on the wrong part of a DZ.

(4) AVOID instructing soldiers to move out on a particular azimuth or to go in a precise

direction unless they each have a compass.

(5) USE the clock directional system. Instruct soldiers to orient themselves and the
general location of the AA by the direction of flight.

NOTE: Regardless of the actual azimuth, the direction of flight is

always 12 o'clock.

c. Factors Affecting Assembly. When the assembly plan is prepared, the speed,
altitude, and flight formation of airlift aircraft and their effect (along with wind) on
dispersion of personnel and equipment in landing must be considered. The resultant
landing pattern significantly affects assembly, as does the DZ length and width, the
training level of the airborne soldiers and pilots, the enemy, and cross loading.
d. Dispersion. The extent of dispersion is the result of the airlift formation; type, speed,
and altitude of the aircraft; number of serials; sequence of delivery weather conditions;
and aircrew proficiency.

(1) The speed at which airplanes carrying paratroopers cross the DZ affects the length of
the landing pattern. The greater the speed, the greater the distance that is covered
between the exit of each paratrooper, thus increasing the length of the landing pattern.
Planes cross the DZ as slowly as is safely possible, and paratroopers exit rapidly to
reduce dispersion.

(2) As paratroopers descend, they drift with the prevailing wind, b ut usually not at a
uniform rate for each soldier. They can pass through strata of varying wind direction
and ve locity that causes some dispersion within the unit. The higher the altitude, the
greater the possibility of dispersion due to wind. Therefore the aircraft cross the DZ at
minimum altitudes that are consistent with the safety of aircraft and paratroopers.

(3) In parachute landings, the width of the landing pattern of soldiers and equipment is
the approximate width of the aircraft formation at the time of the drop. Therefore, the
formation is kept as tight as possible to keep the soldiers and equipment together. If
possible, a company or battalion is placed in the flight formation so that all plane loads
of the unit land in a small pattern as close as practicable to the AA. (See FM 100-27 for
basic patterns of aircraft formations.)

e. Drop Zone Visibility. Darkness, fog, haze, rain, brush, trees, and terrain affect DZ
visibility on the ground, a nd hence impact on assembly. Assembly during darkness is
complicated by poor visibility and difficulty in identifying or recognizing AAs, control
posts, personnel, and equipment. The darkness contributes to confusion, to stragglers,
and to the loss of equipment. An assembly during darkness takes longer and requires
more elaborate assembly aids and larger control posts than a daylight assembly.

f. State of Training. One of the most important factors that affect rapid assembly is
training. The de gree of proficiency of the individuals in a unit has a much greater
influence than the techniques they employ. Units must continuously practice parachute
assaults and assemble as they would in combat. For specific missions, previous training
is built on and tailored through detailed briefings, including maps, photos, and terrain
models. When possible, rehearsals using assembly techniques planned for the assault
are used. Thorough orientation, rigorous training, aggressive leadership, and individual
initiative have the single greatest impact on assembly.

g. Ene my. Enemy action can have both a direct and indirect effect on assembly. Enemy
action indirectly affects en route airlift capability to deliver the force to the correct DZ.
It directly affects friendl y assembly once on the ground.

(1) Every available device must be used to neutralize enemy air activity and antiaircraft
fire.

(2) Enemy opposition during or immediately after landing is a critical consideration

affecting assembly due to the unusual vulnerability of the airborne force between
landing and completion of assembly. Every possible precaution is taken to ensure that
the landing is unopposed or that provisions are made to deal with expected enemy
resistance. This requires accurate intelligence, responsive (air alert) CAS, and effective
OPSEC and deception.

4-12. MULTIPLE-LATERAL IMPACT POINTS

A slightly more complicated but more efficient method to facilitate rapid assembly of
soldiers, CDS, and heavy-drop loads is the use of multiple-lateral impact points.

a. The theory and techniques of cross loading apply as much to this method of delivery
as to any other. The Air Force drops the Army along a single track (line of flight) down
the center of the DZ and uses just one soldier and one heavy-drop impact point. On
special request, they fly multiple tracks across the DZ and use multiple impact points on
the DZ. By efficient cross loading, selection of AAs, and careful selection of personnel
and equipment impact points, soldiers, units, and equipment can be delivered closer to
the AA than the single-track, single-impact point method. (Figure 4-10.)

b. The DZ selected for multiple-lateral impact points must be wider than 700 meters.
(Figure 4-11.) This is due to the requirement for all impact points to be at least 350
meters in from the surveyed edge of the DZ. Multiple, lateral impact points apply to all
types of loads.

4-13. KEYS TO RAPID ASSEMBLY

Certain simple guidelines can be followed to ensure rapid and relatively easy assembly.
Rapid assembly results from well-thought-out and rehearsed cross loading, i ncludi ng
heavy-drop loads, and a thorough, but simple plan that applies for any DZ. Use the
clock system (not magnetic azimuth system nor north, south, east, west) for
direction/route to the AA. Use AAs that are easy to find without complicated assembly
aids, even if dropped on the wrong part of the DZ or on an unplanned DZ. Be prepared
with both day and night assembly aids, especially for drops scheduled at dawn or dusk.
Locate AAs as close as possible to where the soldier lands. To permit rapid assembly,
never locate AAs at either end of the DZ (soldiers should not have to walk from one end
to the other). Use special soldier/unit/equipment markings to speed assembly.
Brief/briefback to all units what marking the same serial will use. Sand tables are used
extensively to brief/briefback each soldier. Rehearse the procedures as often as possible

4-14. ACTIVITIES IN ASSEMBLY AREAS

Not only do units assemble as quickly as they can, but they also get out of the AA as
quickly as pos sible. They remain in the AA only long enough to establish CPs and
communication, to organize into combat groupings, and to determine the status of
assembly. They modi fy plans as needed to meet changes in the situation and issue
orders to lower units.

4-15. DEPARTURE FROM THE ASSEMBLY AREA

Assault battalions proceed on their assigned mission when assembly is complete or on

order of the brigade commander. Reorganization of a battalion is complete when all
lower units are assembled and command and fire control communications channels are
established. As a result of inaccurate landings, enemy action or excessive straggling,
assault battalions may have to attack before assembly is complete. The brigade
commander usually makes this decision. In the absence of other orders, the battalion
commander decides when enough of his battalion has assembled to accomplish the
mission. The time or conditions for assault units to move out on their assigned missions
are ordinarily established in the plans of higher units.

4-16. REPORTS

Because of the dispersion of personnel and equipment in landing, the possibility of

inaccurate landings, a nd the po tential loss of aircraft during the air movement,
commanders at all levels must learn the status of personnel and equipment in their units
as soon as possible after landing. They need this information to determine the combat
potential of the units before executing the ground tactical plan.

a. All units repor t their personnel and equipment status to the next higher unit at
predetermined times or intervals until reorganization is complete. These status reports
usually indicate the location of the unit; the number of soldiers assembled and the
number of known casualties; the number and type of crew-served weapons, vehicles,
radios, and other recovered key equipment; and any information available on missing
soldiers and equipment. Units make abbreviated status reports on the DZ as soon they
establish radio communications.
b. As soldiers arrive in company AAs, units make status reports by squad, platoon, and
company. As commanders establish CPs in the AAs, they receive status reports from
within the battalion by radio, messenger, or direct contact between commanders.

4-17. SECURITY MEASURES

Security during assembly includes protection of unit AAs and DZ/LZs. All units are
responsible for their own security regardless of the security provisions of higher
headquarters. Airborne units are vulnerable to enemy ground attack from all directions
during assembly. For this reason, and because of the size of DZs/LZs, the security
requirements are great in comparison with the size of the airborne force.

a. In small-unit drops, jumpmasters or chalk leaders provide local protection as their

plane loads assemble and recover equipment dropped in aerial delivery containers.
Commanders of airlanded soldiers provide local protection while the equipment is
unloaded. Soldiers move to company AAs in tactical formations suitable for security as
well as speed and control.

b. The assault element, after seizing assault objectives, has the mission of gaining and
maintaining the security of the DZ. The assault element protects the assembly of
soldiers on the DZ; they accompany supplies and equipment not recovered by assault
units and, in some cases, the later landing of other soldiers or unit air supply. The size
of the security force for a DZ/LZ depends on the expected enemy. The security force
can use a series of small OPs or roadblocks and patrols. These security provisions are
usually quite simple because of the short time the AA is to be occupied. However, the
planning is in minute detail, including mission, size, composition, and organization of
each security element; location of OPs or roadblocks; routes of patrols; communication;
supporting fires; and boundaries. Security groups move out on their assigned missions
promptly on arrival in the assembly area.

4-18. REORGANIZATION

The initial effort of all commanders and staff officers is the seizure of assault objectives
followed by reassembling and regaining command and control. Smaller units with
specific missions proceed without waiting for the parent units to assemble.
Reorganization is faster and more precise in the daytime than at night.

a. Planning. Reorganization details are included in the landi ng plan. Reorganization

occurs after initial assault objectives are secured. Factors to consider when planning
reorganization include:

• Designation of unit AAs.

• Use of assembly aids.
• The assembly plan.
• Reports.
• Security measures.
• Establishment of command and fire control communications.
• Reconnaissance.
• Coordination and final preparations before the attack.
• Time or conditions for assault units to move out on their missions.
• Recovery of accompanying supplies.
• Assembly of stragglers.

b. Considerations. Planning considerations for reorganization of units following an

assault landing include:

(1) Brigade commanders coordinate the reorganization plan of lower units. However,
the actual reorganization takes place at battalion and separate unit levels.

(2) Battalions and separate units reorganize in a prearranged manner, making use of
predesignated AAs, control posts, and assembly aids. The AAs are established on or just
off the DZ. For reference, they are identified by prominent landmarks and marked by
assembly aids carried by the soldiers. The first parachute units to land are charged with
gaining and maintaining the security of the DZ. Other units move directly to their AAs.
They carry all equipment needed for the assault.

(3) Units seize assault objectives and assemble as quickly as possible in the existing
conditions.

(4) Designated personnel remain on the DZs/LZs to protect the area, assemble
stragglers, care for casualties, and complete the removal of supplies.

(5) The reorganization is complete when units are assembled and communication is
established.

4-19. BRIEFBACKS

As with the ground tactical plan, each echelon (fire team through brigade) must
briefback his landi ng plan. The landing plan remains tentative until commanders
complete briefbacks and coordinate changes.

a. Landing Plan. In the case of the landing plan, br iefbacks ensure coor dination of who
is using what DZ/LZ/EZ and when, the preferred or ientation of DZs, and w ho is landing
in which sectors and when. The landing plans follow the commander's priorities, use the
best airlift tactics, and support ground tactical plans. Assembly plans of one unit do not
interfere with the assembly plans of other units.

b. Assembly Plan. One of the most critical parts of the landing plan is the assembly
plan. Each leader must brief his soldiers, require a briefback, rebrief his soldiers, and
require another briefback. Each soldier should know exactly what to do, how to do it,
and when to do it to assemble quickly.

c. Aircraft Requirements. The briefback of the landing plan identifies aircraft

requirements for each subunit. If there are not enough aircraft available to lift the entire
assault force at one time, commanders must decide the units that should be lifted first,
and then allocate aircraft accordingly. In making this decision, they analyze the
priorities dictated by the mission and the higher commander.
CHAPTER 5
AIR MOVEMENT PLAN
After development, briefback, and approval of the landing plan, planners begin to
deve lop the air move ment plan. This plan is the third step in planning a n airborne
operation and supports both the landing plan and the ground tactical plan. It
prov ides the required information to move the airborne force from the departure
airfields to the objective area. The plan includes the period from whe n units loa d
until they exit the aircraft. The air move ment annex to the OPORD contains the
air move ment plan.

5-1. JOINT PLANNING

Although the Air Force component commander is solely responsible for executing the
air movement phase, the air movement plan is the product of joint Army/Air Force
consulting and planning. The Army contributes its landing plan and the procedures for
the control and disposition of personnel at the departure airfield(s). The Air Force
controls takeoff times and, based on the Army's landing plan, coordinates timing
between different departure airfields to ensure the proper arrival sequence at the
DZ/LZ/EZ. The Air Force also designates rendezvous points and develops the flight
route diagrams. The combination of METT-T and the orientation of DZs/LZs/EZs
determine the orientation of the flight routes.

5-2. ELEMENTS

The air movement plan contains the information required to ensure the efficient loading
and delivery of units to the objective area in the proper sequence, time, and place to
support the ground tactical plan.

a. Elements of Air Movement Table. The air movement table forms the principal part
of the air movement plan, including the following essential elements:

• Departure airfield for each serial.

• Number of aircraft for each serial.
• Chalk numbers for each aircraft, each serial, and each departure airfield; aircraft
tail numbers correspond to aircraft chalk numbers.
• Unit identity of the airlift element.
• Name/rank of each USAF serial commander.
• Number and type aircraft.
• Employment method for each aircraft (PP/HD/CDS/LAPES).
• Army unit identity.
• Name/rank of each Army commander.
• Load times.
• Station times.
• Takeoff times.
• Designated primary and alternate DZs for each serial.
• P-hour for the lead aircraft of each serial (given in real time).
• Remarks such as special instructions, key equipment, a nd location of key
members of the chain of command.

b. Additional Ele ments. Besides the air movement tables, the air movement plan
contains the following information:

• Flight route diagram.

• Serial formation.
• Air traffic control.
• Concentration for movement.
• Allowable cabin/cargo loads.
• Airfield/FLS MOG (aircraft maneuver on ground space).
• Aircraft parking diagram.
• Army personnel and equipment rigging areas at the departure airfield.
• Army control procedures during preparation for loading.
• Emergency procedures including SERE/SAR planning.
• Weather considerations.
• JSEAD, counterair, and BAI considerations

5-3. TYPES OF MOVEMENT

The type of movement must be considered when determining how to load the aircraft. Is
it administrative or tactical? Airbor ne units can conduct an administrative move ment to
an ISB or REMAB, and then transload into assault aircraft by using tactical loading.
(Chapter 8 discusses transload operations.)

a. Administrative movements are nontactical. Soldiers and equipment are arranged to

expedite their movement and to conserve time and energy. Economical use is made of
aircraft cabin space, and planners make maximum use of ACL.

b. Tactical movements are when personnel and equipment are organized, loaded, and
transported to accomplish the ground tactical plan. The proper use of aircraft ACL is
important, but it does not override the commander's sequence of employment.

5-4. AIRCRAFT REQUIREMENTS

When the airborne unit deploys, planning guidance from higher headquarters indicates
the type of aircraft available for the movement. Based on this information, the unit
commander determines and requests the number of sorties by the type of aircraft
required to complete the move. The air movement planner must ensure that each aircraft
is used to its maximum capability. This is based on the information developed on unit
requirements, ACLs, and available passenger seats. The methods of determining aircraft
requirements are the weight method and the type-load method.

a. Weight Method. This method i s based on the assumption that total weight, not
volume, is the determining factor. Since aircraft sometimes run out of space before
exceeding the ACL, this method is no longer widely used. It has been replaced by the
type-load method. However, during recent operations, it was discovered that aircraft can
actually exceed their ACL before running out of space. The long distances involved in
reaching an objective area, the necessity of the aircraft to circle for extended periods
before landing, and the large amounts of fuel needed to sustain the aircraft can result in
the aircraft having to reduce its ACL. As a rule, the longer the deployment, the lower
the ACL.

b. Type-Load Method. In any unit air movement, a number of the aircraft loads contain
the same items of equipment and numbers of personnel. Identical type loads simplify
the planning process and make the tasks of manifesting and rehearsing much easier.
Used for calculating individual aircraft sortie requirements, the type-load method is the
most common and widely accepted method of unit air movement planning. It requires
consideration of load configuration and condition on arrival at a desired destination,
rapid off-loading, aircraft limitations, security requirements en route, and the anticipated
operational requirements. The type-load method, therefore, is more detailed and is used
in planning unit movements.

5-5. LOAD PLANNING CONSIDERATIONS

When preparing the air movement plan, the S3 Air considers tactical integrity, cross
loading, and self-sufficiency of each load.

a. Tactical Integrity. The S3 Air keeps units intact as much as possible. For parachute
ope rations, this can mean placing units larger than squads on separate aircraft so they
exit their respective aircraft over the same portion of the DZ. This facilitates rapid
assembly by placing units close to their AAs on landing.

(1) The S3 Air keeps squads together on the same aircraft if possible; fire teams are
never split.

(2) Fire support teams and their RATELOs should be on the same aircraft with the
commander they support; they should jump so as to land next to him.

(3) Platoon leaders (and PSGs on different aircraft) should have their FOs and
RATELOs and at least one machine gun crew and one Dragon gunner on the same
aircraft.

(4) Each aircraft must have at least one unit NCO or commissioned officer for each unit
with soldiers on board. Each aircraft has Army leadership present.

(5) Tactical integrity can be ensured by distributing the company commander, unit 1SG,
and XO in the lead, middle, and trail aircraft, respectively.

b. Cross Loading. Cross loading distributes leaders, key weapons, a nd key equipment
among the aircraft of the formation to preclude total loss of C2 or unit effectiveness if an
aircraft is lost. This is an important factor in rapid assembly and must be given careful
attention in training and o n combat jumps.

(1) Separate key personnel in case any aircraft aborts or fails to reach the DZ. This
prevents the loss of more than one key officer/NCO of any one unit. Properly planned
cross loading accomplishes the following:
(a) Soldiers from the same unit will land together in the same part of the DZ for faster
assembly.

(b) Equipment/vehicle operators and weapon system crews will land in the same part of
the DZ as their heavy-drop equipment so they can get to it, derig it, and get ready to
fight quickly.

(c) If one or more aircraft abort either on the ground or en route to the DZ, some key
leaders and equipment will still be delivered.

(2) When planning airborne force cross loading, remember -- the fewer key people on
the same aircraft, the better. If possible, separate the following personnel:

(a) The brigade commander and his battalion commanders.

(b) The battalion commanders and their company commanders.

(c) The commander, his XO, and his S3.

(d) The primary brigade and battalion staff officers and their assistants.

(e) The company commanders, XOs, and 1SGs from the same company.

(f) The platoon leaders and PSGs from the same platoon.

(3) Always plan for the possibility that one or more heavy-drop aircraft will abort before
it gets to the DZ, or the equipment will streamer in and become unserviceable.

(a) Cross load heavy-drop equipment to have the least possible impact on the mission if
it does not arrive in the DZ. Separate critical loads so if any aircraft aborts or fails to
reach the DZ, no single unit loses more than one key officer/NCO or a significant
proportion of the same type of combat-essential equipment.

(b) Coordinate closely with the Air Force so heavy-drop loads are loaded in the reverse
order they should land.

(c) Do not include the same type of critical equipment from the same unit, or like
equipment from different units in the same aircraft loads. This applies whether it is to be
airdropped or airlanded.

(d) Cross load heavy-drop e quipment in one of the following ways:

• Select HEPIs to support the ground tactical plan. Place loads so they land close
to the location where they will be used. Cross load the parachutists to first
suppor t the ground tactical plan; then coor dinate their landings with those of the
heavy-drop platforms. When using multiple HEPIs, coordinate the selected
HEPI for each load with the Air Force mission commander.
• Do not load two or more like platforms from the same unit on the same aircraft
because the aircraft are moving too fast to drop more than one platfor m in the
same sector.
(e) Separate radios, mortars, antitank weapons, ammunition bundles, and other critical
equipment or supplies as much as possible. No like items of combat-essential equipment
from the same unit should be on the same aircraft.

• A weapons system should be loaded on the same aircraft as its crew.

NOTE: Only one crew-served weapons squad/team should be on each

aircraft.

• A RATELO should jump the same aircraft as the leader he supports, either just
before or just after him. Another good technique is for the leader to jump the
radio himself. In this way, he can still set up immediate communications even if
he and his RATELO are separated on the DZ.
• The CWIE and the DMJP can and s hould be jumped a t any pos ition in the stick
to support cross loading and assembly plans. The commander must make a risk
assessment when he determines the location of parachutists in the stick carrying
this equipment. Risks to both the parachutist and mission accomplishment are
present. If the parachutist falls inside the aircraft, the remainder of the soldiers
may not be able to e xit on that pass. Also, this equipment increases the risks of
the parachutist being towed outside the aircraft.

DANGER
DURING TRAINING, THE PARATROOPER WITH THE DMJP CAN
ONLY JUMP FROM THE RIGHT DOOR OF THE AIRCRAFT. A
DMJP AND M1950 WEAPONS CASE CANNOT BE JUMPED
CONCURRENTLY BY THE SAME PARATROOPER. THE DMJP AND
MISSILE SIZE REQUIRE THAT THE PARATROOPER BE AT LEAST
66-INCHES TALL.

• Individual crew-served weapons (such as machine guns, mortars, antitank

weapons) and other critical equipment or supplies should be distributed on all
aircraft.
• Communications equipment, ammunition, and other supply bundles must be
cross loaded.

c. Self-Sufficiency. Each aircraft load should be self-sufficient so its personnel can

operate effectively by themselves if any other aircraft misses the DZ, makes makes an
emergency landing somewhere else, or aborts the mission.

(1) A single (complete) weapons system should have the complete crew for that system
on the same aircraft along with enough ammunition to place the weapon into operation.

(2) For airland or heavy-equipment drop operations, trailers and weapons are manifested
with their prime movers.

(3) Squads should stay together on the same aircraft; fire teams are never split.
Squads/fire teams should jump both aircraft doors to reduce the amount of separation on
the DZ.
5-6. LOAD PLANNING SEQUENCE

Planners can best accomplish the movement of forces by air for an airborne assault by
developi ng plans in an orderly sequence, such as --

a. Preparing vehicle load cards. (See paragraph 5-7.)

b. Preparing air movement planning worksheets for each unit (company through
battalion). (See paragraph 5-8.)

c. Preparing basic planning guides (company and battalion) and forwarding them to
higher headquarters (battalion and brigade). (See paragraph 5-9.)

d. Establishing priorities for entry into the objective area by echelon: assault, follow-on,
and rear. Units establish priorities within each echelon to phase personnel and
equipment into subsequent echelons if aircraft are not available.

e. Preparing a unit aircraft utilization plan to determine aircraft requirements and type
loads. (See paragraph 5-10.)

f. Preparing air-loading tables to facilitate rapid deployment. (See paragraph 5-11.)

Units receive their missions and review previous plans. Then they--

a. Revise the plans based on the task organization dictated by the ground tactical plan.

b. Allocate available aircraft. If aircraft are not available, they phase low-priority items
to the follow-on or rear echelon.

c. Prepare air-loading tables and manifests.

d. Prepare the air movement table.

e. Prepare a DD Form 1387-2 for hazardous materials IAW TM 38-250.

5-7. LOAD PLANNING OF VEHICLES

Vehicle load plans are based on SOP and mission tailoring. Then, they are updated
according to aircraft availability and type.

a. Heavy-drop vehicles are first loaded with as much unit equipment as they will hold.
The vehicle's load capacity should not be exceeded, and all cargo must be secured in the
vehicle's cargo compartment. Vehicles are measured and weighed after they have been
loaded. (Guidance for weighing and marking of airdrop vehicles is in FM 55-9 and AR
220-10.) Some items, especially ammunition, cannot be rigged on the vehicle, but can
be carried as ballast on the platform. (See the appropriate FM for rigging different
vehicles for heavy-equipment drop.)

b. Vehicle load cards are made for each vehicle to be loaded aboard an aircraft. (Figure
5-l.) Each sketch includes such infor mation as load data for the vehicle; length and
width of the vehicle; and, when the vehicle carries cargo, the names and locations of the
cargo in the vehicle.

5-8. AIR MOVEMENT PLANNING WORKSHEET

The air movement planning worksheet is a consolidated list of a unit's equipment and
personnel. (Figure 5-2.) It is not a formal DA form; it is an example of a locally made
for m. If necessary, any grid-type paper can be used in lieu of a printed form. The
worksheet lists all the dimensions and cargo loads of vehicles. It must include all on-
hand equipment and pe rsonnel, a nd the full amount authorized by the unit TOE. Items
that are short are still included as equipment, and personnel shortages can be filled if
alerted for deployment. This also prevents the need for constant revision of the
worksheet. Basic loads of ammunition carried with the unit, which must be palletized or
placed in door bundles, should also be included.

5-9. BASIC PLANNING GUIDE FORM

The basic planning guide form is a report prepared by ground units to determine the
aircraft required for an airborne operation. The example completed form shows the
exact status of a unit's personnel, vehicles, equipment, and supplies. (Figure 5-3.)
a. Preparation of the Form. The example basic planning guide form is first prepared
by commanders of lower units and consolidated by higher units that control and pl an the
operation. Thus, the ground forces commander has available for planning the exact
status of the personnel and equipment of his entire force.

b. Explanation of the Form. The separate items of the form are completed as follows:

(1) Heading. This information is completed by the preparing headquarters.

(2) Organization. The subor dinate units of an organization are listed. The battalion
commander lists each company in the battalion. The brigade commander lists each
battalion and separate company or any attached units. The division lists each organic
and attached unit in the division. Platoons and sections are not listed separately.
Company planning guides represent consolidated figures. Attachments, such as medical
specialists or FOs, are listed separately by organization to assist in identifying all units
involved.

(3) Personnel. This item addresses any of the following:

(a) Assault echelon. The commander's advisors inform him as to the approximate
number of planes or assault aircraft assigned to the unit. Advisors can inform the
commander if the unit is to move by plane; if so, all personnel going on the move are
listed under this column.

(b) Follow-on echelon. This echelon consists of personnel and equipment that are not
airdropped or airlanded in the initial airlift, but join the parent organization as soon as
possible or at a specified date during the operation.
(c) Rear echelon. This echelon consists of personnel who remain at the base camp or
similar installation. They do not necessarily move with the overland detail but can be
moved forward later.

(4) Vehicles, equipment, and supplies. The columns under this heading are used to show
the distribution of materiel for the operation. The number of each type of vehicle, as
well as heavy or bulky equipment and supplies, are listed herein.

(5) Remarks. In this item, addi tional infor mation or notes concerning personnel or
equipment (such as the contents of air delivery containers) are listed.

c. Collection of Forms. The S3 Air for the battalion collects the basic planning guide
forms from the subordinate companies and consolidates them at battalion level. He
submits them to US Army riggers, ALCE, and the DACG, depending on the type of
movement required.

5-10. UNIT AIRCRAFT UTILIZATION PLAN

The unit aircraft utilization plan identifies equipment by aircraft load; this simplifies
planning of identical types of loads. The goal is to have most aircraft loads the same.
The first step is to weigh personnel and equipment by echelon. Then, add up the aircraft
loads to determine how many aircraft are needed. If too few aircraft are available to
meet the planned echelonment, this becomes readily apparent. At this point, priorities
are applied and equipment and personnel are phased back to fit airlift constraints.

5-11. AIRCRAFT LOADING TABLES

The next step after completion of the unit aircraft utilization plan is to prepare the
aircraft loading tables.

a. Loading Table Layout. Using DD Form 2131 or MAC Forms 342 or 559, depending
on the type of aircraft employed, the placement of each vehicle and item of equipment is
planned. Using templates (which can be obtained from ALCE) and the for m for the
appropriate aircraft, each type of load is laid out and lines are drawn around the
template. The load must be within the aircraft's safe center of gravity limits; the ACL
must not be exceeded.

b. Cross-Loading Plan. Before final completion of loading tables, cross loading must
be accomplished IAW the landing and ground tactical plans.

c. Loading Table Approval. When all data have been entered on the appropriate form,
the Air Force (the affiliated ALCE) approves the loads.

5-12. DEVELOPMENT OF AIRCRAFT LOADS

The development of aircraft loads is accomplished through reverse planning The

planner must have a DZ mosaic or facsimile when developing the heavy equipment
points of impact, personnel point of impact, and personnel manifests. Aircraft loads
must support the assembly and ground tactical plans through effective cross loading.
a. Preparation of the Load. Using the mosaic, facsimile, or sketch, preparers mark the
desired single or multiple HEPI for all equipment, and the PPI. The sketch is lined off in
70-meter (75-yard) increments from the PPI. This represents the normal one-second
parachutist interval. These lines are made perpendicular to the line of flight so that the
name of the parachutist associated with a particular piece of equipment can be marked
on the sketch. For planning purposes, heavy-drop equipment lands 400 yards apart on
C-130 operations and 500 yards apart on C-141B operations. The name of the
parachutist who must obtain his equipment is entered on the line nearest the equipment.
Personnel not associated with a particular piece of equipment can be marked on the
lines closest to their AA. The personnel manifest is then taken directly off the DZ
schematic. The result is a manifest order that facilitates quick assembly.

b. Allocation of Seats. Once the commander has developed the cross-load plan, he
notifies invol ved units how many and which seats they have on each aircraft. Platoons
can be manifested in multiple aircraft to facilitate cross-loading, but personnel are
placed in stick order on each aircraft to exit and land in the same general area on the
DZ.

c. Internal Adjustments. Each compa ny commander in turn cross-loads his part of the
split platoon within his part of the stick to best support the assembly plan and ground
tactical plan. (Figure 5-4.)

d. Preparation of the Manifest. Manifesting is accomplished in the reverse order of

exit. (See paragraph 5-14.)
5-13. AIR MOVEMENT TABLE

The air movement table assigns units to serials within the air columns. The location of
units in successive serials is IAW priorities established for landing. Units maintain
tactical integrity of Army and airlift units as far as practicable. All elements in a given
serial land on the same DZ/LZ in the objective area; however, certain aircraft in a serial
can continue on to drop R&S forces in their planned areas of employment. The air
movement table form is prepared by the ground forces commander in coordination with
the Air Force commander. This form, used as an annex to the OPORD, allocates aircraft
to the ground units to be lifted. It designates the number and type of aircraft in each
serial and specifics the departure area and the time of loading and takeoff. Exact for mat
for the air movement table depends on the needs of the commander, which can be
specified by unit SOP. There is no specific format, but the air movement table should
provide the information herein.

a. Heading. When the air movement table is published as a part of the order, the
following elements are included:

• Classification.
• Annex and operations order number.
• Headquarters.
• Place of issue.
• Date and time.
• Map reference.

b. Serial Numbe r. Serial numbers are arranged consecutively in the order of flight.
Factors to be considered in the assignment of units to serials are the mission of the
airborne unit, the size of the DZ/LZ, and the distribution (cross loading) of personnel,
weapons, and equipment.

c. Chalk Number. The chalk number specifics the position of aircraft being loaded in
each serial. Loads are numbered sequentially IAW serial numbering, such as Serial 1
contains Chalks 1 through 12; Serial 2 contains Chalks 13 through 24.

d. Air Force Units. This section includes Air Force information that is important to the
ground force commander.

(1) Airlift unit. This is the designation of the airlift unit that is transpor ting or furnishing
the aircraft for each serial.

(2) Serial commander. This is the senior Air Force officer in the serial.

(3) Number and type of aircraft. The exact number and type of aircraft that actually fly
in the serial are shown in this column.

e. Army Forces. This section includes information directly related to the ground forces.

(1) Aircraft required. The number of airplanes required to transport the unit.
(2) Employment. Type of move ment such as parachute, heavy equipment, CDS,
LAPES, or airlanded.

(3) Unit loaded. The airborne unit being loaded.

(4) Serial commander. The senior airborne officer in the serial.

(5) Departure airfield. Name or code name of the departure airfield.

(6) Load time. The time established by the airlift and ground force commander to begin
loading. Parachutists can require from 30 to 45 minutes to load, depending on the
aircraft and any accompanying equipment (door bundles, wedges, and parachutes for in-
flight rigging). Heavy-drop and CDS loads should take about two hours for loading.

(7) Station time. The time the passengers, equipment, and crew are loaded and ready for
takeoff.

(8) Takeoff. The time the aircraft is scheduled to depart from the airfield.

(9) Aircraft formations. The type formation the aircraft will fly.

(10) Objective. The name or designation of the DZ, LZ, EZ, or airfield.

(11) Time over target. TOT is the time of arrival at the objective area.

(12) Direction of flight over the objective area.

f. Other Items. Other items that can be included in the air movement table (at the
commander's discretion) are as follows:

• Number of personnel by serial/chalk.

• Initial and final manifest call times.
• Prejump training times.
• Type parachute.
• Weather decision.
• Weather delay.
• Time for movement to the departure airfield.
• Air Force station time.
• Remarks.

5-14. MANIFESTS

The flight manifest is an exact record of personnel by name, rank, SSAN, and duty
position in each aircraft . It is also a brief description of the equipment, with the station
number, as loaded in the aircraft. Load computations for personnel and equipment are
also listed. A separate form is made for each aircraft. Copies are made for the
DACG/DACO, pilot, ALCE, and AACG; a copy is retained by the jumpmaster or
senior Army representative on the aircraft. The senior ground forces member or primary
jumpmaster in each aircraft finalizes the form. The Air Force authorizes it, and the
ground force representative signs it after verifying the personnel on the manifest.
5-15. AUTOMATED AIRLOAD PLANNING SYSTEM

The automated airload planning system is a computer-based automated system designed

to simplify the outload plans for combat units.

a. Files. By computerizing the necessary loading characteristics, weight restrictions, and

equipment configurations required to outload the airborne unit, this system
automatically tells the commander the load configurations and number of aircraft
required to move a specific force.

(1) Air Force aircraft characteristics. This file includes all data that affect the
placement of equipment on a particular aircraft; it contains data on the C-130, C-141B,
C-17, and C5A/B aircraft, which appropriate personnel update as changes occur.

(2) Items and uniform. This file contains size data on all the equipment in the unit that
requires floor space. Commanders use the data for airland, airdrop, or LAPES. The file
contains information about the aircraft center of balance, the psi of the tires, whether the
item requires shoring or not, a nd whether the item is turnable or not. The unique feature
of this file is that it considers inseparable items of equipment together; for example, a
jeep and trailer or a HMMWV and 105-millimeter howitzer. This permits the program
to load an item of equipment with its prime mover.

(3) Force package and options. This file contains 12 force packages and about 1,000
modular force package options.

b. Commander Input. The ALPS allows commanders to input force packages, options,
items, prime movers and the towed pieces of equipment, and multiples of each. Once a
force package or option is entered into the program, the force package or option can be
changed for the specific run of the program to meet mission requirements.
CHAPTER 6
MARSHALING
After the air move ment plan has been deve loped, briefed back refined (if
necessary), an d approve d, t he next plan to be deve loped is the marshaling plan; it
supports the previous three plans. The tactical, landing, a nd air move ment plans
are used to determine the number of personnel and vehicles to be stationed at or
move d through each airfield. The marshaling plan prov ides the necessary
information and procedures by which units of the airborne force complete final
preparations for combat, move to departure airfields, and load the aircraft. It also
prov ides detailed instructions for facilities and services needed during marshaling.
The procedures in this chapter assist airborne commanders and staffs in planning
for marshaling and CSS.

Section I. THE MARSHALING PLAN

The marshaling plan appears as an appendix to the service support annex of the airborne
force OPORD or as an annex to an administrative/logistics order. The S4 is the principal
assistant to the commander for the marshaling plans of specific units. Marshaling begins
when elements of the force are literally sealed in marshaling areas and it terminates at
loading. The procedures are designed to facilitate a quick, orderly launching of an
airbor ne assault under maximum security conditions in the minimum possible time.

6-1. PREPARATION BEFORE MARSHALING

Units complete the following preparations before marshaling -- especially for airdrops.
Last-minute marshaling activities include briefing personnel, inspecting, preparing
airdrop containers, issuing rations and ammunition, and resting.

a. N-Hour Sequence. As soon as a unit is notified of an airborne operation, it begins the

reverse planning necessary to have the first assault aircraft en route to the objective area
in 18 hours. The N-hour sequence (see Appendix G) contains the troop-leading actions
that must take place within a flexible schedule, ensuring that the unit is prepared and
correctly equipped to conduct combat operations on arrival.

b. Rehearsals. Rehearsals are always conducted at every echelon of command. They

identify po tential weaknesses in execution and enhance understanding and
synchronization. Full-scale rehearsals are the goal, but time constraints may limit them.
(For additional information, refer to FM 7-20.)

c. Assembly, Inspection. and Maintenance. As soon as practicable, units assemble the

equipment and supplies that are to accompany them to the objective area. Inspections
are held to determine the status of equipment. Maintenance is performed; parachutes,
aerial delivery containers, and heavy-drop loads are prepared. Commanders and leaders
brief soldiers, and rations and ammunition are issued. The soldiers should eat when time
permits.
d. Storage of Unneeded Items. Individual clothing and equipment and unit equipment
not needed in the objective area are packed in suitable containers and stored with the
rear echelon or rear detachment.

6-2. MOVEMENT TO THE MARSHALING AREA

Unit marshaling areas should be located near departure airfields to limit movement.
Higher headquarters can either control the movement to the marshaling area completely,
or it can get a copy of the march table and use it to control the traffic out of the AA,
along the route of march, and i nto the marshaling area. Advance parties assign soldiers
to areas.

a. Movement Resources and Requirements. The S4 of the unit to be marshaled

notifies higher headq uarters on the number of or ganic vehicles that the unit can furnish
to move its personnel and equipment to the marshaling areas. This information and the
personnel list furnished by the S3 must be available early enough during planning to
procure any other transportation required for the movement.

b. Airfield Marshaling Areas. When marshaling areas are on airfields, they are
temporarily placed at the disposal of the airborne unit's higher headquarters. The air
base commander's permission is obtained by the tactical units that must conduct
activities outside of the camp area.

c. Parachute Issue and Rigging. Parachute issue and rigging may be conducted on the
ramp, alongside the aircraft, or in-flight.

(1) Ramp side advantages are as follows:

• Reduces the parachute supply problem.

• Efficient use of personnel.
• Supply accountability.

(2) Ramp side disadvantages are as follows:

• Parachutists may require transportation to the aircraft.

• Parachutists are rigged for a greater period of time.

(3) Plane side advantages are as follows:

• Parachutists are not required to walk while rigged.

• Decentralized execution reduces rigging time.

(4) Plane side disadvantages are as follows:

• Parachutes must be transported to the aircraft.

• Rigging process may impede other activities.

(5) In-flight advantages are as follows:

• Prevents fatigue during long flights.

• Provides more time for rehearsals and inspections.

(6) In-flight disadvantages are as follows:

• Reduces the number of parachutists that an aircraft can carry.

• Requires loading of parachutes on the aircraft.

6-3. PASSIVE DEFENSE MEASURES

Uncommitted airborne forces pose a strategic or operational threat to the enemy.

Concentration of forces during marshaling should be avoided to keep impending
operations secret and to deny lucrative targets to the enemy. Dispersal techniques
include the following:

a. Move. Units move rapidly under cover of darkness to dispersed marshaling areas near
air facilities.

b. Control. Commanders control movement to loading sites so most personnel arrive

after the equipment and supplies are loaded on the aircraft.

c. Prepare. Commanders prepare for loading before arrival at the loading site.

d. Avoid. Commanders avoid assembling more than 50 percent of a brigade at a single

point at any time.

6-4. DISPERSAL PROCEDURES

The degree of dispersal is based on an intimate knowledge of the operation's problems

and what is best for the overall operation. Regardless of the dispersed loading
procedures, the airlift commander ensures that aircraft arrive over the objective area in
the order required by the air move ment plan. Depe nding on the situation, one of the
following dispersed loading procedures is used:

a. Movement to Departure Air Facilities. Airborne personnel and equipment are

moved to departure air facilities where airlift aircraft maybe dispersed.

b. Movement to Interme diate Staging Base. Before the mission, airlift aircraft fly to
an ISB to pick up airborne personnel and equipment. Personnel and equipment are
airlifted to dispersed departure airfields; the mission originates from these facilities.

c. Combination of Procedures. Airlift aircraft fly to ISBs for the equipment before the
mission. The equipment is airlifted to the dispersed departure airfields and the mission
originates from these facilities, or airlift aircraft stop en route at ISBs to pick up
personnel. Crews load aircraft quickly, so the fewest possible aircraft are at the ISB at
one time.

6-5. SELECTION OF DEPARTURE AIRFIELDS

Departure airfield selection is based on the proposed air movement and the capability of
airfields to handle the traffic. Loading sites near departure airfields are designated after
the selection of departure airfields. For any specific situation or operation, one or a
combination of the following factors can determine the selection:

• Mission.
• Airfields (number required, location, and type).
• Runway length and weight-bearing capacity.
• Communications facilities.
• Navigational aids and airfield lighting.
• Location of participating units and marshaling areas.
• Radius of action required.
• Vulnerability to e nemy action, i ncludi ng NBC.
• Other tactical air support available or required.
• Logistical support available, required, or both.
• Facilities for reception of personnel and cargo.
• Facilities for loading and unloading of personnel and cargo.
• Facilities for dispatch of personnel and cargo.

NOTE: While dispersion is necessary to avoid the effects of nuclear

weapons, excessive dispersion increases control problems and can
diminish the effectiveness of other supporting ground and air operations.

6-6. SELECTION AND OPERATION OF MARSHALING CAMPS

The marshaling area is a scaled area with facilities for the final preparation of soldiers
for combat Commanders select marshaling camps within the marshaling area based on
the air movement plan and other considerations. Another way to avoid concentration of
personnel is to time-phase the movement of soldiers from their home bases through the
marshaling area to the departure airfield, minimizing the buildup of forces. After
choosing the marshaling areas and departure airfields, choose loading sites near the
airfields.

a. Selection. The following factors are considered when selecting marshaling areas.

• Distance to airfield(s).
• Time available.
• Existing facilities.
• Availability of personnel and materials for construction.
• Availability/access of maneuver and training areas.
• Communications requirements.
• Briefing facilities.
• Location of participating units.
• Security/vulnerability to e nemy action.
• Logistical support available or required.

b. Assignment. In the marshaling plan, the S4 (in coor dination with the S3) assigns
units to marshaling areas near the departure airfields the units will use. Every effort
should be made to locate the areas as closely as possible to departure airfields to reduce
movement time between them; it also reduces the requirement for vehicles.
c. Operation. The airborne forces' higher commander is responsible for the operation
and maintenance of the marshaling areas.

(1) Operating detachments and necessary equipment are provided for each camp. These
detachments furnish signal communications, transportation, medical, and postal
services. They also operate mess facilities and utilities.

(2) Personnel from the units being marshaled or from follow-on units of the airbor ne
force can assist in the operation of the camps if it does not interfere with their
preparations for the airborne operation. Equipment from these units cannot be used
because it must be packed and loaded for movement to the objective area.

(3) Small stocks of supplies and equipment of all services are maintained at each camp
to fill last-minute shortages of the units being marshaled. Service maintenance support
is furnished as required.

(4) The number of personnel required to support operation and maintenance of

marshaling areas varies. Based on past experience, about 10 percent of the number of
personnel being marshaled is required for supporting services.

6-7. FACILITY REQUIREMENTS

Commanders can use this infor mation as a guide to the selection and modification of
existing facilities for brigade TF use. Figure 6-1 shows a typical marshaling area layout
for a brigade-size unit that needs about 100 acres.
a. Task Force Camp. The brigade or battalion (task-organized for the mission) and a
MACG occupy a brigade TF camp. If no facilities exist, support elements must
construct the camps.

b. Camp Specifications. The brigade TF camp should be near a departure airfield and
large enough to support the brigade, its attachments, and supporting personnel. The
MACG supports the marshaling requirements of the brigade camp. Each brigade camp
has a site for rigging the brigade's equipment for air delivery (airland, airdrop, and
LAPES).

c. Camp Security. The camp itself should be surrounded by security fencing or, at
least, triple-strand concertina. It should have a posted security zone outside the
perimeter that is at least 50 meters wide and cleared of brush and trees. If available,
lights should be used to illuminate the security zone. Gates to the camp s hould be two
lanes wide to accommodate heavy traffic.

d. Billeting. Quarters, unit headquarters, messes, supply rooms, and latrines should be
constructed and allocated to maintain unit integrity.

(1) Bivouac site. If billets are not available, a bivouac site can be prepared with tents
laid out in company streets. (See FM 101-10-1/2 and CTA 50-909.)

(2) Mess facilities. FM 101-10-1/2 provides the guidelines for determining mess hall
size.

(3) Latrine areas. There should be enough latrines to serve at least 4 percent of the male
soldiers and 6 percent of the expected female soldiers. Latrines should be built at least
100 yards downwind from food service facilities to prevent contamination of food and
water. They need to be 30 yards from the end of the unit area, but within a reasonable
distance for easy access.

(4) Shower facilities. Enough shower facilities should be provided to support the size
force in the marshaling area.

e. Rigging. The airborne force requires facilities for rigging heavy-drop equipment,
CDS, and LAPES platform loads. Although equipment can be rigged outdoors, it should
be rigged in a large building, such as a hangar, where it is protected from weather. The
following facilities are needed to out-load:

(1) Loading area control center. The LACC is provided for the initial preparation of
vehicles for heavy drop, LAPES, or airland. It should have a 10-foot by 20-foot area for
each vehicle and a 20-foot-wide area between rows for maintenance. A large area must
be provided on either side of the LACC for maneuverability within the LACC for
maintenance or other vehicles. Figure 6-2 shows an example LACC for heavy-drop
rigging.
(2) Rigging sites. The rigging site shown in Figure 6-3 accommodates the rigging and
outloading of about 50 platforms in a 24-hour period, depending on the availability of
trained personnel, equipment, and supplies. The rigging site uses an assembly line
rigging technique. Riggers can operate as many lanes as required (with augmentation
and as available space allows), although four are provided in this example.
(a) Lanes. Each lane has five rigging stations, one for each of the following:

• Vehicle preparation.
• Platform preparation and load positioning.
• Lashing installation.
• Parachutes and extraction system.
• Joint Army/Air Force load inspection.

(b) Personnel. Each rigging site requires about 240 support personnel and 60 riggers
(two shifts), Support personnel typically include:
• One OIC for each rigging site.
• Two warrant officers (MOS 921A) for each rigging site.
• Twenty-five support personnel for each rigging lane.
• Twenty support personnel for each platform outload at a rigging site.
• Each site requires 30 riggers, plus 1 for each rigging station, 2 for each joint
airlift inspection station, and 1 for each outload station.
• One ammunition specialist (MOS 55B) for each rigging site.

(c) Equipment. The following items of equipment are usually required to load
equipment on platforms and to load platforms on vehicles for transportation to the
departure airfield:

• Four 14-ton air-transportable cranes.

• One 40-ton crane.
• Two 5-ton wreckers.
• Ten 10-ton M172 semitrailers and tractors.
• One 6,000-pound, rough-terrain forklift.
• One 10,000-pound rough-terrain forklift.
• Five tractors and trailers for hauling air items.
• Trailers with ammunition for ballast.

(d) Rigging areas. A 75- by 110-meter area (roughly) is required for the rigging area
itself. The ground surface should be clear, level, and compact. Each assembly line is
about 25 feet wide by 110 feet long; it has at least a 30-foot gap between lanes to allow
for vehicular move ment Each line requires a foundation of 2-inch by 10- or 12-inch
planks by 25-feet-long planks; it is laid side by side every 5 feet to support the roller
conveyors (if a hardstand is not available). Space is reserved at the beginning of each
lane to pa ck ammunition and o ther suppl ies onto ve hicles and at the end of each lane to
operate the loading equipment.

(E) Holding areas. Holding areas for rigging supplies are provided on either side of the
rigging site for delivering and unloading rigging supplies. (Figure 6-4.) Enough space
must be provided to drive through and park the trucks delivering materials to this site.
6-8. STAFF AND SUPPORT AGENCY RESPONSIBILITIES

The staff of the unit to be marshaled advises the MACG, through a liaison officer or by
personal contact, of the requirements for the deploying unit at the marshaling areas.
Support units provide their services until the assault force departs and the marshaling
areas close.

a. Staff Members and Duties. Staff members of the marshaling unit perform specific
duties as follows:

(1) The S1 requisitions replacements, requests recreational facilities, and coordinates

medical support.

(2) The S2 coordinates security and deception measures to ensure secrecy.

(3) The S3 submits the personnel roster and outlines training, briefing, and rehearsal
requirements.

(4) The S4 identifies the deploying unit's requirements for suppl y, maintenance,
transportation, and storage facilities.

(5) The staff makes all arrangements far enough in advance of the marshaling period to
enable support personnel to procure the facilities and install them where necessary.

b. Support Agencies. When the divisional airborne brigade deploys and the marshaling
areas close, the division support command acts as the provisional logistical unit at the
home station. The theater commander responsible for the AO provides the provisional
logistical support unit for the ISB. If a support unit cannot pre-position at the ISB, a
support unit from the home station command is included i n the adva nce party.
Marshaling control agencies assist the airborne and airlift force in the execution of the
operation.

(1) Marshaling area control group. To enable the majority of the airborne force to
concentrate on preparing for planned operations, support agencies are designated by
division headquarters to provide most of the administrative and logistical support. These
nonor ganic units and certain or ganic units not participating in the airbor ne assault are
organized into a provisional unit known as the MACG. The MACG commander is the
principal logistical operator for the deploying force; he executes the logistical plan.
Typical assistance provided by this unit includes:

• Transportation.
• All classes of supply.
• Communications.
• Campsite(s) construction, operation, and maintenance.
• Messing.
• Maintenance.
• Rigging.
• Recreation and other morale services.
• Local security personnel to augment the Air Force, when required.
• Health service support.

(2) Airlift control element. The ALCE coordinates and maintains operational control of
all airlift aircraft while they are on the ground at the designated airfield. This includes
aircraft and load-movement control and reporting, communications, loading and off-
loading teams, aeromedical activities, and coordination with interested agencies. The
ALCE's support function includes activities that relate to the airfield. Typical tasks for
this Air Force unit include:

(a) Support and control exercises and contingency operations, as defined in MAC and
TAC manuals and mission directives, on both a planned and a no-notice basis.

(b) Conduct around-the-clock operations to provide supervisory control and to ensure

effective use of the tactical airlift force on assigned missions.

(c) Direct, execute, and coordinate mission directives, plans, and orders assigned.

(d) Distribute completed loading manifests as required.

(e) Furnish copies of the aircraft parking plan to support units.

(f) Coordinate loading of aircraft.

(g) Coordinate disposition of Army equipment and pe rsonnel remaining be hind or

returning because of aborted sorties.

(h) Ensure that appropriate and adequate briefings for Army and AF personnel are
conducted.
(i) Coordinate flight clearances.

(j) Coor dinate configuration of aircraft.

(k) Schedule and coordinate proper AF coverage of assault LZs, DZs, and EZs.

(l) Schedule and publish air movement tables for supported units.

(m) Provide or arrange weather support for the mission.

(3) Departure airfield control group. The DACG ensures that Army units and their
supplies and equipment are moved from the marshaling area and loaded IAW the air
movement plan. Timing is critical at this point in the operation -- strict control of both
air and ground traffic must be maintained on and across active runways.

(4) Arrival airfield control group. The organization of the AACG is similar to the
DACG. When personnel, supplies, and equipment are arriving on aircraft and need to be
moved to marshaling camps or holding areas, the AACG is responsible for offloading
them. Like the DACG, the AACG works closely with the ALCE unit at the arrival
airfield.

Section II. OUTLOAD

Complex outload operations are more difficult because they are usually conducted at
night under blackout conditions.

6-9. OUTLOAD PLAN

Since most or all of the airborne units' vehicles are rigged for air delivery, airborne units
must rely on the supporting unit for transportation during outload. These requirements
are closely related to and dictated by the loading plans developed for the operation.

a. Contents of Loa ding Plan. Loading preparations are included in the marshaling
plan. Loading plans outline the procedures for moving personnel and heavy-drop loads
from the alert holding area to plane side. They also outline the use of available
materiels-handling equipment. The loading plans are closely coor dinated with the
supporting airlift units.

b. Formulat ion of Loa ding Plan. A loading plan is formulated at joint conferences. It
contains information about the number of personnel and the amount of equipment to be
airlifted, ACLs, and the general sequence of movement.

c. Adherence to Load ing Plan. Strict adherence to the loading timetable is mandatory.
The loading of equipment and supplies must be completed in time to permit postloading
inspection, joint pretakeoff briefing, and personnel loading by the designated station
time.

d. Load ing Responsibilities. The general delineations of loading responsibilities in

connection with the airborne operation are as follows:
(1) Airlift commander. He --

(a) Develops plans for specific loads and the sequence of movement in conjunction with
the unit being moved.

(b) Establishes and disseminates instructions for doc umenting and manifesting all cargo
and personnel.

(c) Provides instructions for loading and unloading aircraft and for cargo tie-down.

(d) Parks aircraft IAW the parking plan.

(e) Provides loading ramps, floor conveyors, tie-downs, load spreaders, and other
auxiliary equipment such as operation ejection equipment.

(f) Prepares aircraft for ejection of cargo and for the safe exit of parachutists from
aircraft in flight. Cargo to be ejected in flight is tied down by Air Force personnel.

(g) Ensures that an Air Force representative is present to provide technical assistance
and to supervise the loading unit during the loading operations of each aircraft.

(h) Verifies documentation of personnel and equipment.

(i) Furnishes and operates materiels-handling equipment required in aircraft loading and
unloading if the Army unit needs it.

(2) Airborne commander. He --

(a) Establishes the priority and sequence for movement of airborne personnel,
equipment, and supplies.

(b) Prepares cargo for airdrop, airland, or extraction IAW applicable safety instructions.

(c) Marks each item of equipment to s how its weight and c uba ge and, w hen appr opr iate,
to show the center of gravity. Ensures hazardous cargo is prope rly annotated o n DD
Form 1387-2 IAW TM 38-250.

(d) Documents and manifests all loads of Army personnel, equipment, or both.

(e) Directs and monitors movement of ground traffic to the departure airfield or loading
area, and accepts delivery at the destination.

(f) Delivers properly rigged supplies and equipment to the aircraft IAW the loading
plan.

(g) Loads, ties down, and unloads accompanying supplies and equipment into and from
the aircraft with technical assistance from a representative of the Air Force. Cargo to be
ejected in flight is tied down and ejected by AF personnel. (Exception is made in the
case of containers of supplies and equipment that are pushed from the jump e xits by
paratroopers immediately before their exit from the aircraft.)
(h) Ensures that Army personnel are seated aboard aircraft, are properly equipped, and
have their safety belts fastened by station time.

(i) Briefs and supervises Army vehicle operators to ensure that the operators thoroughly
comprehend airfield vehicular traffic procedures and pertinent safety precautions before
they operate vehicles around aircraft.

(j) Provides vehicles and loading personnel to outload Army personnel and cargo from
aborting aircraft and reload them on spare aircraft if time permits.

6-10. OUTLOAD PROCEDURES

A control system at arrival airfields is essential to prevent congestion and to facilitate

orderly movement of cargo and personnel.

a. Parking. The main parking consideration is loading access. Dispersal must provide
the most security possible with the least possible vulnerability and, at the same time,
allow maneuvering roo m for loading the equipment.

(1) Chalk number. To facilitate identification of individual aircraft during loading, all
aircraft are given a chalk number IAW the parking plan. The displayed chalk number
should be readily discernible to personnel approaching the aircraft.

(2) Parking plan. The airlift force commander furnishes the airborne unit commander
with an accurate parking plan to include airfield layout, location of aircraft by chalk
number, location of standby aircraft, and access route(s).

b. Controlling Traffic. A traffic control system is essential to avoid congestion at

loading and unloading sites. In outloading, any force control is accomplished by using a
call-forward system in which loads are brought into the loading area as required. The
following control system outline applies to airlanding facilities as well as airfields.
(Figure 6-5.) The system provides a separate loading facility for personnel, heavy-drop
loads, and aerial supply. The separation is essential to control loading and decrease the
time required to load. The airfield control system is set up with the minimum required
personnel and communications equipment, a nd with regard to the size of the forces
being moved.
c. Loading Procedures. The actual outload is complex and requires close supervision
to ensure all equipment and personnel are loaded on the correct aircraft as quickly and
efficiently as possible.

(1) Initially, personnel and equipment are dispersed in marshaling areas distant from the
loading airfields, but in close communication with control groups at the airfields.

(2) When called, the unit or equipment is moved by planeload to the call-forward area.
The fewest possible planeload are maintained on hand in the call-forward area to ensure
uninterrupted loading. Guides and military police are used as required.

(3) As aircraft arrive in the loading area, planeload are called forward; unit members
load and tie equipment down with the technical assistance of Air Force personnel.

(4) Control personnel maintain a log listing the departure of each aircraft. It contains the
following information:

• Aircraft tail number.

• Summary of load or unit load number. (Manifests are correlated with this entry.)
• Time aircraft was available for loading.
• Station time.
• Takeoff time.
• Remarks.
d. Unloading Procedures. At arrival airfields, the control system is the reverse of that
used at departure airfields. On arrival, crews unload aircraft and move the loads to
dispersed holding areas where arriving elements build up to conve nient size for further
movements. Crews keep load categories separated to facilitate control and movement.
CHAPTER 7
TACTICAL OPERATIONS
The employme nt of airborne forces on the ground is similar to that of other
infantry ground units. The entire range of these operations is move ment to contact,
deliberate attack, hasty attack defense, or withdrawals. FMs 7-8, 7-20, a nd 7-30
discuss doctrinal employme nt of airborne units. They also discuss tactics,
techniques, and procedures for the conduct of tactical operations. This chapter
only discusses the differences that result from va riations in orga nization,
equipment, and method of arrival in the combat area.

Section I. GROUND TACTICAL OPERATION

The ground tactical operation phase of an airborne operation can include raids, linkup,
relief, withdrawal (either overland or by air), exfiltration, recovery, survival operations,
or airfield seizure. Aspects of these operations, when conducted from the objective area,
are in this section.

7-1. RAIDS

The organization, equipment, and capabilities of airborne units give them the ability to
conduct airborne raids behind e nemy lines. Dispersed and fluid-type warfare provide
many opportunities for the conduct of airborne raids. Army, Air Force, or Navy aircraft
can be used to transport the raiding force. (See FMs 7-20 and 7-85 for information on
the planning, preparation, and execution of raids.)

a. Mission. The airborne force can conduct raids--

• To destroy enemy installations or positions.

• To capture or kill the enemy.
• To rescue friendly personnel.
• To harass or disrupt enemy operations.
• To seize critical equipment or similar intelligence objectives.

A planned withdrawal is executed on completion of the assigned mission.

b. Objectives. Types of objectives vary; commanders can find suitable objectives deep
in enemy territory or close to the area of combat. When there is a choice, the objective
that most nearly fulfills the following conditions proba bly gives the best chance for
success:

• It can be successfully engaged with small forces.

• Once seized, it can be held and defended with available forces.
• It is difficult for the enemy to reinforce.
• It is easy to locate under poor visibility conditions.

c. Similarities to Ground Raids. Airborne raids are similar to ground raids, except the
raiding force uses air transport to move to the objective area and can withdraw by air.
Air transport permits the raiding force to bypass enemy positions and to overcome
terrain barriers and distance factors. The objective of the airborne raid is more likely to
be beyond the supporting distance of the parent unit than other types of raids.

d. Coordination. Commanders compile overall plans at higher command levels because

of the coordination required with multiservice agencies. The raiding force is mainly
concerned with the scheme of maneuver employed within the objective area. Higher
headquarters coordinates the operation with other Army agencies, Air Force units, and
Naval units that may be involved. The commander's initial estimate of the situation
determines the time required for planning.

e. Preparation. This closely parallels the preparation required for an airborne assault
with emphasis on the following aspects:

• Detailed intelligence.
• Deception and CI plans.
• Detailed withdrawal plans, including contingency plans.
• Force composition.

f. Training. Special training for each operation should be conducted except when raids
must be mounted on short notice. The training should be immediately before the
operation and teach the raiding force its duties and roles. Training should end with at
least one joint rehearsal of the operation, including the withdrawal phase. This rehearsal
should occur early to ensure that lessons learned can be incorporated into the OPLAN.

g. Composition. The nature of the mission may require attachment of specialized units
or equipment to the airborne unit conducting the raid. The size of the force should be as
small as possible and still accomplish the mission; usually, it is no larger than a
battalion. The raiding force is reorganized into self-contained elements tailored to
accomplish special tasks, including assault parties, security parties, and a reserve.
However, the TOE structure is retained so the established chain of command can be
used. To maintain flexibility, a reserve may be kept outside the objective area until
needed.

h. Time and Duration. Airborne raids can be conducted at night, dawn, or twilight; in
fog or mist; or during other low visibility conditions. These conditions facilitate surprise
and the delivery of the raiding force to the objective with a minimum risk of detection.
Executing a da ylight raid usually requires greater use of support fires, including tactical
air support, and the use of measures to limit enemy observation and intelligence.

i. Conduct. Immediately on landing, the elements of the raiding force independently

begin their assigned tasks without further assembl y.

(1) The actions of the raiding parties are decentralized; each operates as required by its
own missions, but their actions are coordinated by the raid commander. In the attack of
objectives, speed should be stressed.

(2) The force entering the objective area must be strong enough to defeat the enemy
forces in the immediate AO and to accomplish the assigned mission. Therefore, the key
to the success of the overall mission is to isolate the objective area; it prevents the
enemy from moving strong tactical forces into it to defeat the raiding force. Isolating the
battle area can be accomplished by stealth or force.

(a) Stealth. The raiding force can enter the objective area with such speed and stealth
that enemy forces do not have time to locate them or time to react with sufficient
combat power. Stealth operations are possible when the objective area is in a remote
part of the enemy area or when the unit can quickly accomplish the mission.

(b) Force. If the mission cannot be accomplished before the enemy can locate the
raiding force and move tactical forces to the area to attack, then force must be used.
This requires extensive support from outside agencies to isolate the objective area, to
keep the enemy from moving forces to the area, and to prevent the enemy from
launching a major air attack into the area.

j. Withdrawal. The withdrawal is carefully planned because it is usually the most

difficult part of the operation to execute. The raiding force can be withdrawn by air,
land, or sea or a combination of these.

(1) The airborne withdrawal can be performed by assault or medium-transport aircraft,

helicopter, or water-based aircraft; it can be preceded by overland withdrawal to pickup
points. Space in the returning aircraft is restricted. All equipment and supplies should be
evacuated if possible, but plans should stress the withdrawal of personnel rather than
equipment. All equipment that cannot be withdrawn is destroyed.

(2) The commander must designate the required landing areas early in the planning
phase. He should not change areas at the last minute.

(3) The raiding force can withdraw overland by exfiltration. (See paragraph 7-5.)

(4) Evacuation by sea is practicable wherever water approaches exist. Submarines,

destroyers, and small boats can be used. Plans should provide for alternate beaches and
possibly for NGF to cover the withdrawal.

k. Requirements for Army Aircraft. The characteristics of Army aircraft (mainly

helicopters) make them ideal for use in raid operations. Habitual employment of the
same Army aviation personnel during raid-type training lessens the need for extensive
rehearsal before raid operations. Army aircraft are needed in the objective area for
reconnaissance, movement, and evacuation of forces that remain in contact with the
enemy.

l. Communications. A reliable communications system must be established within the

objective area, and from the objective area to the headquarters outside the area that
controls the overall operation.

m. Command Structure. The headquarters that controls the operation must have over
all the units taking part in the operation; control of all elements by one commander is
essential.

7-2. RECOVERY OPERATIONS

Recovery operations are specialized raids organized to liberate imprisoned or detained
personnel or to return specific equipment to friendly control. These operations are
normally performed by SOF, but may be performed by infantry units. They include
recovering and extracting downed or hijacked aircrews and political or military leaders.
Airborne forces use surprise and combat power to overwhelm resistance before
detainees or prisoners can be harmed.

a. Success of the Operation. Success depends on--

• Speed and surprise.

• Violent action.
• Quickly ide ntifying, securing, a nd safeguarding evacuees.
• Limited time on the objective.
• Rapid and orderly extraction.

b. Planning. The planning of personnel and equipment recovery operations is the same
as for the raid. The difference is that the commander must plan for the extraction of
recovered personnel and for the loading and extraction of sensitive equipment.
Personnel and equipment recovery raids are often executed as contingency missions.
They require the commander to pl an and e xecute the recove ry quickly. An ISB or
REMAB should be considered for rehearsals and OPSEC.

c. Augme ntations. This type of ope ration often requires augmentation by personnel
with special skills. Examples are medical personnel, technical experts, mechanics, or
crew members trained in repair and retrieval operations, and linguists or translators.

d. Organization. The recovery force is organized the same as for a raid. Special teams
are sometimes needed to perform certain missions involved in the recovery.
Reconnaissance teams can be inserted ahead of the force to reconnoiter the objective, to
locate the detained or imprisoned personnel, and to provide guides.

(1) All planning and execution takes place as described for the raid. The emphasis must
be on detailed, timely intelligence.

(2) Medical teams, to include a physician, must be available to care for the detainees;
they should accompany the search team.

(3) Guide teams and escort teams are planned. Escorts should be planned on a 1:1 ratio
for detainees.

(4) Teams must be trained in searehing and clearing buildings and operations in a
MOUT environment in general. (See FM 90-10-1 for detailed information on infantry
operations in urban an area.)

e. Exe cution. The enemy must be assaulted when he least expects it. The force must
ensure that friendly detainees are not harmed during the assault--either by friendl y or
enemy personnel. Evacuees can be categorized as follows:

• Category 1. All previously identified US nationals. No special security measures

are required.
• Category 2. All other US nationals with credible proof (visa or passport), such as
tourists, American expatriates, or US businessmen. No special security measures
are required.
• Category 3. T hose with questionable US citizenship a nd foreign nationals and
their immediate families, such as those employed by the US government. Armed
security guards are required.
• Category 4. Possible infiltrators, saboteurs, and unfriendly foreigners. These
personnel are treated the same as EPWs.

Recovered personnel can be identified by total numbers or by name, if names are

available to the recovering force. The evacuee's chain of command can assist in
assembly and identification.

f. Extraction. The commander should plan for the extraction point to be close to the
point of recovery. This prevents the detainees from moving cross-country or the raid
force from transporting bulky equipment long distances. For small groups of detainees
or small items of equipment, the extraction point can be farther away. Recovery
operations can use any method, or combination of methods, of extraction. Close
planning and coordination are required with Army, Air Force, or Navy aviation for
evacuation of the target area.

g. Operations After Recovery. Once evacuees have been recovered to a secure

location, they are processed for return to control of the appropriate authority. The
recovery area is organized into five operational areas: command, reception, processing,
comfort, and departure. All evacuees are registered and informed of their legal rights.
They are screened for medical problems and intelligence information. Evacuees are
updated on the host nation in a secure area. Their privacy is protected. Evacuees are
later prepared for further transportation, if required.

7-3. WITHDRAWAL/EVACUATION OF UNITS

Evacuation/withdrawal of an airborne force can be preplanned or become necessary

because of enemy action. The limitations of transport aircraft and the circular shape of
the airhead introduce complicating factors not present in a normal ground withdrawal.
(Figure 7-l.)
a. Evac uation Sequence. When the situation permits, the plan usually provides for
evacuation in the following sequence: supplies, materiel, and soldiers.

b. Withdrawal/Evacuation Factors. The following factors must be considered when

executing either a withdrawal or an evacuation.

(1) The operation requires sufficient aircraft and suitable LZs.

(2) Local air superiority or absence of enemy air interference is essential.

(3) The operation is sensitive to weather, primarily in the objective area, but also in the
base area.

(4) Surprise and deception are essential to the operation's success. An alert and
determined enemy can be expected to try maximum interference as soon as he detects
evidence of a withdrawal.

(5) The withdrawal of the DLIC is the most critical phase of the withdrawal.

(6) The decision to withdraw by air must be made early to permit adequate planning and
coordination.
(7) Priorities for evacuating soldiers, supplies, and materiel must be established;
supplies and equipment that cannot be evacuated are destroyed (with the exception of
Class VIII medical supplies).

c. Responsibilities and Procedures. The breakdown of withdrawal or evacuation

responsibilities is as follows:

(1) Airborne commander. The overall commander directing the conduct of an airborne
operation orders the withdrawal or evacuation of the force.

(2) Ground force commander. The ground force commander determines the priority of
unit move ment. He furnishes the airlift commander a list of units broken dow n by
priority into aircraft loads, indicating departure points and destination. He establishes
the DACG, which perfor ms the following functions:

(a) Ensures that prescribed planeloads of personnel and equipment are available in the
ready areas and are prepared to load.

(b) Calls prescribed planeloads forward from ready areas as aircraft arrive.

(c) Notifies the Air Force when aircraft are loaded.

In a planned withdrawal, the ground force commander provides trained teams to load
and secure equipment; technical assistance is given by qualified airlift personnel. In a
forced withdrawal, such teams are not available. Therefore, the ground force
commander can request the airlift commander to land Army loading teams in the
objective area.

(3) Airlift commander. The airlift commander controls air movement, establishing
facilities within the objective area to coordinate the arrival and departure of aircraft.

7-4. LINKUP

When the commander anticipates that an airborne force will engage in sustained combat
after linking up with ground forces, planning should provide for this. Preservation of the
force is vital since the airborne force will most likely be deployed behind enemy lines.
(See FMs 7-20 and 7-30 for information on linkup operations.)

7-5. EXFILTRATION

If an airborne force cannot link up with ground forces or cannot be extracted by air, it
must prepare to conduct an exfiltration by single companies, platoons, or squads to
reach friendly lines.

a. Situat ions. Stealth and evasiveness are key elements of exfiltration Commanders
favor this method o f extraction when--

(1) The enemy has air superiority.

(2) The enemy can prohibit air or water extraction.

(3) The distance to friendl y lines is short.

(4) The terrain provides cover and concealment (for movement on foot) and limits
enemy mobile units.

(a) Soldiers and units can use multiple exfiltration routes if the enemy detects them.
They can also use captured enemy vehicles and equipment to assist in the exfiltration.

(b) The exfiltration force can exfiltrate in one bod y or in small groups. Exfiltrating in
small groups saves the time assembly can cost the unit.

(5) The exfiltrating force moves lightly equipped and unburdened with captured
personnel or materiel.

(6) The exfiltration route passes through an area occupied by friendly locals or guerrilla
forces who can assist the movement.

(7) Areas along exfiltration routes are uninhabited.

(8) The enemy force is dispersed or cannot concentrate against the exfiltrating force.

b. Patrolling. Units employ aggressive patrolling to detect enemy weak points.

c. Size of Units. Units should be small to avoid detection but large enough to protect
themselves. Terrain (especially avenues of approach to friendly lines), enemy strength,
and friendly strength (including fire support) determine the size of units. All elements
should have communications equipment. They should move at night or during limited
visibility over close terrain.

d. Use of Vehicles. Commanders can exfiltrate vehicles or can use them in a limited
maneuver role. Before departure, units redistribute supplies. They also determine the
disposition of dead and wounded personnel, and allocate vehicles for their
transportation. Crews can destroy in place vehicles that are not mission capable or those
to be left in the airhead, then join the main body as it exfiltrates.

e. Approach of Friendly Lines. Units should appr oach friendly lines in da ylight. The
units depart the airhead at a prescribed time interval while the covering force maintains
security and simulates nor mal unit activity.

f. Communications. Units establish communications with friendly forward units and

coordinate fire support, recognition signals, and passage of lines.

7-6. SURVIVAL OPERATIONS

A vital part of all premission planning is the development of en route plans and
postmission plans for survival, evasion, resistance and escape operations, and for SAR
operations. Such plans enhance survival of the force and the transport of aircrews. (See
FM 20-150, FM 21-76, and AR 350-30.)
a. Responsibilities of Airborne Commander. The airborne commander is responsible
for helping develop the plan in coordination with all supporting agencies. He ensures
that all members of the airborne force and supporting aircrews are briefed on the plan.

b. Development of Plans. Each plan is unique because each situation has unique
problems. The plan devised by the airborne commander must address these problems,
while gaining from the individual abilities and training of the airborne soldiers and their
supporting aircrews. The following considerations apply to SERE/SAR plans devised
during airborne operations.

(1) Plans enhance survival of soldiers who can no longer accomplish their assigned
missions. The group's senior combat arms officer must decide if any missions remain
that the group can accomplish. If not, then he must try to evade and escape enemy
capture if unable to link up and be extracted with the rest of the force. Because of the
depth of penetration behind enemy lines, most successful plans can involve either air or
water movement away from enemy-held territory.

(2) Dismounted forces can move a great distance (especially at night) over rugged
terrain to reach an area where they can rendezvous with SAR aircraft or boats. Escape
and evasion plans for airborne elements should include avoiding contact with the locals;
however, the aid of friendly insurgent forces can be enlisted. The plan can also include
the use of E&E networks that are in place behind enemy lines; however, these nets must
not be compromised by the volume of evaders.

7-7. BREAKOUT FROM ENCIRCLEMENT

A breakout from encirclement is conducted when units ope rating behind e nemy lines
are cut off from friendly forces and surrounded by superior forces. Given airborne unit
missions, the chance of operating as an isolated force behind enemy lines is great. The
breakout is characterized by determination of enemy weak points, deception, massing of
combat power, and a direct attack for a violent and timely breakout. (FM 7-20 discusses
the considerations for planning and the execution of breakout operations.)

7-8. RELIEF

Airborne personnel are capable of sustained action after their heavy equipment has been
introduced into the airhead. They can be used in any role that might be assigned to an
infantry unit. When ground or naval forces link up with airborne personnel who may
face employment in another airborne operation, the controlling headquarters should
relieve the airborne forces so they can be withdrawn to a rear base, reorganized, and
readied for the next airborne operation. (Reliefs are discussed in FMs 7-20 and 7-30.)

Section II. AIRFIELD SEIZURE

An airfield seizure is executed to clear and control a designated airstrip. The purpose
can be to allow follow-on airland forces to conduct transload operations or to establish a
lodgment in order to continue combat operations from that location. Airfields can be
seized and occupied by friendly forces for a definite or indefinite period.

7-9. REQUIREMENTS
Requirements for the seizure of an airfield, s ubsequent securing of the airhead, a nd the
introduction of follow-on forces depend heavily on the factors of METT-T and the
commander's concept of the operation.

a. Planning Factors. Certain factors must be considered when conducting the estimate
for an airfield seizure.

(1) The key element is surprise. Assault of the airfield should be conducted at night to
maximize surprise, security, and protection of the force. Timing is critical; the assault
should be executed so that the follow-on assault echelon (airdrop or airland) can also be
delivered under the cloak of darkness.

(2) Enemy air defenses near the airfield and along aircraft approach and departure
routes must be suppressed.

(3) The size of the airfield must be sufficient for landing and takeoff of aircraft to be
used after seizure. Minimum ope rating length de termines how much of the airfield must
be cleared.

(4) The configuration and condition of the airfield, including taxiways and pa rking,
determines the maximum-on-ground capacity for aircraft at one time. This, combined
with offload/transload time estimates, impacts directly on scheduling follow-on airflow
into the airfield. Surface composition and condition and predicted weather conditions
must allow the airfield to accept the required number of sorties without deteriorating the
surface below minimum acceptable safety standards.

(5) The airfield location must facilitate follow-on operations. If transload operations
must occur, the follow-on target must be within the range of the aircraft to be used. If
not, then forward area rearm/refuel assets must be available and positioned to support
the follow-on operation.

(6) The airfield must be defensible initially with assault forces against any immediate
threat and with planned follow-on forces against larger, coordinated counterattacks.

b. Airborne Force Task Organization. The airborne force's task organization varies,
depending on METT-T factors. However, airfield seizures require the designation of
elements to clear runways, assault designated objectives, and screen areas valuable to
the operation besides normal task-organization considerations. Supporting assets and
attachments should be considered in organizing the force. As with any other airbor ne
operation, the commander organizes his force into three echelons: assault, follow-on,
and rear.

(1) The future of the army is fighting joint combined-arms operations with a mix of
light and heavy forces. The original concept for the light division and the restructure of
the airborne and air assault divisions envisioned that the needs for antiarmor and other
CS would be provided by corps in the form of plugs. The concept of fighting pure is
contrary to the concept of combined-arms warfare. Heavy units would be task-organized
with light infantry and o ther forces into TFs to gain the complementary effect of the
combined arms. The mix of the force would be determined by the threat. The insertion
of light armored assets in the assault echelon would pr ovi de, in the early phases, an
increased antiarmor capability.

(2) Reconnaissance and security teams can be deployed ahead of the main body. They
can be used to determine enemy dispositions on the airfield and whether airfield
runways are cleared or blocked. They can also look for enemy air defense assets near
the airfield. These teams maintain radio contact with the airborne commander who is en
route to the objective. They can be used in the selective destruction of enemy facilities
by directing air strikes or by employing laser target designators to limit collateral
damage to the airfield. Reconnaissance and security teams can also be used to sever
land-line communications not vulnerable to friendly EW efforts or to provide early
warning of the approach of enemy reaction forces. Reconnaissance and security teams
can come from a LRSU, special operations forces, or battalion scout platoons. However,
the commander must weigh the risk of team compromise and consequent loss of
surprise against the value of intelligence obtained.

(3) Air Force CCTs are required to provide airspace management assistance as well as
control of aircraft after landing (for example, parking locations and taxiing control).
Combat control teams can be inserted ahead of the force as part of a JAAP; it can jump
with the airborne assault or can airland with the first assault aircraft.

(4) TOW, scout, and MP vehicles, or other mobile weapons platforms, should be front-
loaded in the airland assault echelon. These vehicles, relying on surprise and speed for
security, must quickly move to blocking or screening positions. They also provide a
mobile antiarmor capability.

(5) If engineer units are to accompany the assault force, they should be tasked to clear
the runways of obstacles. Special consideration must be give n to the type and quantity
of obstacles on the runway. This has a major impact on engineer assets required by the
TF, the time for clearance, and the planned time of arrival of airland sorties. To assist
the engineers, bulldozers and mine detectors (metallic and nonmetallic) can be dropped
in the initial assault. To reduce injuries, the commander should outfit runway clearing
elements with elbow and knee pads when they are parachuting onto a hard-surface
runway. Selected personnel can be tasked to jump-start disabled vehicles or airfield
support vehicles required to assist the offload. Engineer personnel must understand the
amount of space required to land specific types of aircraft. (See Appendix C.)

(6) Civil affairs and PSYOP personnel help the commander control civilians and PWs.

(7) Depending on the threat, commanders can determine that certain objectives near the
airfield and key terrain surrounding it (control towers, communications nodes, terminal
guidance facilities) should be secured at the same time units are clearing the runways.
This requirement increases the number of personnel designated to participate in the
initial airborne assault. Should this be necessary, commanders can adjust aircraft loads.
Those aircraft designated to drop personnel cannot transport as much airland cargo
because the station near the jump doors must remain clear.

(8) A number of other assets can be available to assist insertion, C2 and support.
(a) Airborne battlefield command and control center. The ABCCC's mobility and
communications capabilities provide valuable C2.

(b) C-130 Talon. This aircraft's sophisticated navigational equipment permits insertion
even under the most adverse weather conditions.

(c) AC-130. The availability of AC-130s allows for continuous fire support from a
mobile and accurate airborne platform. If air refueling is available, the AC-130 can stay
on station and provide overhead support for extended periods. (For more information,
see FM 7-20.)

(d) Unit-level communications. At this level leaders can augment communications by

using hand-held radios for special elements and teams and by setting up special nets for
the initial assault.

c. Airfield/Lodgme nt Actions. Several actions must take place to accomplish the

seizure of an airfield and the subsequent establishment of the lodgment. These actions
or considerations include:

(1) Quickly seize critical enemy C2 facilities that will prevent the reinforcement of the
enemy force defending the airfield complex. At the same time, the assaulting force must
isolate the objective area to further reduce the possibility of reinforcement.

(2) Deploy and employ enough ground combat forces to prevent enemy penetration of
the lodgment area (airhead, beachhead).

(3) Establish a coherent defense against air attack to ensure that the assaulting force is
not interdicted or the airfield damaged or destroyed by air-delivered munitions.

(4) Ensure enough combat power (ADA, maneuver, FA, and so on) is employed to
preserve the air and sea LOCs and to facilitate the delivery of follow-on forces by air,
land, or sea.

(5) Seize the airfield quickly enough to facilitate a rapid buildup of forces to e xpa nd the
airhead into a lodgment line. This ability is expressed in terms of airframes to perform
over-the-horizon insertion of forces.

(6) Quickly establish an AACG. This group can be under the control of the battalion
XO or S3 Air. It requires positive control to facilitate rapid offloading of aircraft.
Aircraft execute either combat offloading of pallets or engine-running offloading of
vehicles, equipment, and personnel. Personnel should prepare all vehicles and
equipment for immediate offloading as soon as the aircraft stops. Dunnage and tie-
downs remain on the aircraft to save time.

(7) Deny the enemy the use of airborne sensors and UAVs. All ADA measures, air
superiority, and effective camouflage operations measures must be executed to
contribute to this effort.

7-10. SEQUENCE OF OPERATIONS

The sequence of events during the assault, seizure and consolidation of the force on the
captured airfield dictates the timing of the delivery of the follow-on echelon to the
objective area.

a. Insertion of the CCT/JAAP Into the Objective Area. Insertion can be overt or
covert based on the threat. Insertion of these teams depends on the ability to get them
into the area undetected. If surprise is paramount, the airborne force may rely on other
means to pinpoint the objective area and on other sources of intelligence and navigation.

b. Preassault Fires. Preassault fires maybe used when collateral damage can be
controlled with no danger to the airfield. They are normally used to suppress or
neutralize enemy air defense systems and installations (SEAD). Air Force assets may be
used to jam enemy radar and communications during this period and before the
parachute insertion.

c. Airborne Assault (by Assault Echelon A if the airborne force is so task-

organized) to Isolate the Airfield and Establish the Airhead. The assault initially
starts at P-hour to eliminate enemy resistance on the airfield and to secure the runway(s)
from direct fire. The airfield complex is further isolated by the establishment of
blocking positions to deny access to and from the airfield area. Simultaneously, key
facilities are seized and or neutralized. Particular attention should be directed to limit
collateral damage since these facilities may be necessary for sustained combat
operations after the lodgment is established.

d. Insertion of Assault Echelon B with Additional Combat, CS, a nd CSS Assets. An

RSL is established to provide early warning to the main body. It may consist of a series
of infantry OPs and a ntiarmor ambush sites as well as a cavalry screen. Assets for this
task are best formed from vehicle-mounted scouts or light armor assets. They should be
task-organized with infantry to fight and delay the enemy as the main body prepares for
a possible counterattack.

e. Reserve. A reserve should be constituted at every level to weight the main effort. A
mounted reserve provides the greatest degree of flexibility. The reserve should be
committed to exploit success, complete the mission, or to handle contingency missions.
(For more information, see FM 7-20.)

f. Clearance of the Runway(s). The enemy may have pre-positioned vehicles or other
obs tructions on runways, taxiways, or parking aprons to deter and slow down the use of
the airfield complex by attacking forces. Once the assault echelon has seized initial
objectives, the runway clearance teams (engineers, infantry, and other designated
personnel) begin clearing or repairing the runway(s), This clearance includes the
removal of dunnage from heavy-drop platforms. It must be done immediately to
facilitate the introduction of follow-on forces by airland delivery.

g. Follow-on Echelon Deploy me nt. The follow-on echelon is deployed to the objective
area once the initial assault objectives are secured and the airhead is established. This
echelon may be deployed by paradrop or by air-land if the airfield facilities have been
identified, repaired, and placed into an operational status.

7-11. SECURITY FORCE OPERATIONS

The battalion may be required to conduct security force operations in its area of
responsibility, concurrent with offensive ope rations against the enemy. All actions,
however, must be strictly within established r ules of engagement and the law of land
warfare. The objectives of security force operations are as follows:

• To isolate the insurgency from its civilian suppor t (pop ulation and resource
control).
• To prevent interference with friendly operations by the civilian population
(population control).
• To secure military installations and lines of communication from insurgent
attack.
• To solicit the active support of the civil population for the friendly cause. (For
more specific information, see FM 7-20.)

7-12. NONCOMBATANT EVACUATION OPERATIONS

Political concerns dominate shows of force and demonstrations. Military forces conduct
these operations within delicate legal and political constraints. The political will to
employ actual force--should a de monstration of it fail--is vital to the success of these
operations. Actual combat is not their goal. The force coordinates its operations with the
country team or teams. Before commitment, the chain of command s hould certify that
the force understands the national purpose, ROE, and inherent risks of the operation.
Noncombatant evacuation operations relocate threatened civilian noncombatants from
locations in a foreign or host nation. These operations normally involve US citizens
whose lives are in danger. They may also include selected host nation natives and third
country nationals.

a. Under ideal circumstances, there should be little or no opposition to an evacuation;

however, commanders should anticipate possible hostilities. In the LIC environment,
this type of operation usually involves swift insertion of a force and temporary
occupation of an objective, followed by a planned, quick withdrawal. This mission is
ideally suited to a n airborne element. It involves only the force required for self-defense
and the protection of the evacuees.

b. Military, political, or other emergencies in any country may require evacuation of

designated personnel as the situation deteriorates. The Department of State initiates
requests for military assistance; they also obtain necessary clearances from other
governments. This assistance can include basing and overflight authorizations, and the
use of facilities essential to performing the evacuation.

c. If the chief of the US diplomatic corp expects trouble, he should direct the early
withdrawal of dependents and nonessential personnel by ordinary transport. If this has
already occurred, only a minimum of personnel normally require emergency military
evacuation. Thorough planning ensures that US, host nation, a nd i nternational media
understand the ope ration's intent. This enhances security and the dissemination of
positive information.

d. The evacuation may take place in a benign environment, face a threat of violent
opposition, or require combat action. The specific situation determines the type of
evacuation required. The evacuation force commander has little influence over the local
situation. He may not have the authority to pr eempt hostile actions by military
measures; yet, he must be prepared to defend the evacuation effort and provide
protection for his forces. Thus, the key factor in NEO planning is a correct appraisal of
the political-military environment in which the force will operate.

e. An understandi ng of the role and status of host nation security forces is impor tant.
Host nation resources can provide essential assistance to the operation. These politically
sensitive operations are often monitored or controlled at the highest level. Diplomatic
and legal restraints limit military action to only those activities that permit the
evacuation without hindrance. Care of the civilians and the maintenance of order at the
evacuation site will be the ground forces commander's responsibility.

f. Airlift operations demand close cooperation among the airlift control element, the
ground forces commander, and the diplomatic mission. Aircraft commanders supporting
the evacuation should coordinate flight information with the appropriate sovereign
airspace authorities to the maximum extent possible, However, positive airspace control
may be difficult and airspace control systems may be inadequate. In cases where
sovereign authorities are unable or unwilling to either approve or deny clearance, each
aircraft commander must operate at their own discretion. They use caution proportionate
to the circumstances to lessen risk. If no effective airspace control exists, the airlift
commander should assume airspace control responsibilities and keep the diplomatic
mission and ground forces advised on the progress of the airlift.

g. Commanders should remember that NEO can quickly turn into pe acemaking or
peacekeeping operations. They must plan for these contingencies.

h. Rescue and recovery operations are sophisticated actions that require precise
execution, especially when conducted in hostile countries. They may be clandestine or
ove rt. They may also include the rescue of US or friendly foreign nationals; and the
location, identification, and recovery of sensitive equipment or items critical to US
national security.

(1) Hostile forces can oppose rescue and recovery operations. On the other hand, these
operations may remain unopposed if the potentially hostile force is unaware of them or
unable or unwilling to interfere. Stealth, surprise, speed, and the threat of overwhelming
US force are some of the means available to overcome opposition.

(2) Rescue and recovery operations require timely intelligence, detailed planning,
deception, swift execution, a nd e xtraordinary security measures. They usually invol ve
highly trained special units, but they may also receive support from the general purpose
forces.

i. The US executes strikes and raids for specific purpos es other than gaining or holding
terrain. Strikes and raids can support rescue or recovery operations or destroy or seize
equipment or facilities that demonstrate a threat to national collective security interests.
They can also support counterdrug operations by destroying nareotics production or
transshipment facilities or suppor t a hos t gove rnment's actions in this regard, Strikes and
raids are the most conventional of peacetime contingency operations The principles of
combat operations apply directly. The unified CINC normally plans and executes them.
Section III. SUPPORTING OPERATIONS

Airborne units can deploy from a CONUS base directly to the objective area. A more
common method would be for the airborne unit to first deploy to a REMAB or to an
ISB before establishing a lodgment in the AO. In certain circumstances, the objective
can be beyond the range of aircraft operating from a REMAB or ISB in friendly
territory. Therefore, a forward operating base in hostile territory can be seized to
facilitate or project further operations.

7-13. REMOTE MARSHALING BASE

The REMAB is a secure base to which the entire airborne unit (including or ganic and
attached support elements) deploys and continues mission planning. (Figure 7-2.)

a. Location. The REMAB is within the geographical area encompassed by the

command a uthority of the theater or JTF commander. This ensures that the CSS
elements providing support to the airborne unit are operating within their normal area. It
prevents or lessens out-of-sector support requirements for CSS elements. The REMAB
should be in an area similar in terrain and climate to the objective area. Time spent at
the REMAB lets the unit begin acclimatization.

b. Planning a nd Coo rdination. The REMAB also provides a secure location for the
unit to conduct detailed planning and coordination with the controlling headquarters
staff.
c. Command Preparation. In the REMAB, the commander conducts rehearsals,
refines and modifies plans, determines PIR, and coordinates with the proper intelligence
source to receive that information.

d. Additions to t he Unit. In the REMAB, individual specialists who augment the force
are integrated into the unit if they have not already joined. Specially trained supporting
units, such as aviation and communications elements, also join the force at the REMAB.

e. Functions of a REMAB. The REMAB must provide--

(1) Access to the controlling headquarters staff.

(2) Physical security of billeting, planning, maintenance, and communications areas.

(3) Mess, billeting, latrine, and shower facilities for the force and its supporting
elements.

(4) Access to a C-141- or C-130-capable airfield, possibly with all-weather operations.

(5) Access to secure communications and processed intelligence.

(6) Access to rehearsal areas where sites can be built and live-fire rehearsals can be
conducted.

(7) Access to the unit locations of major supporting elements such as naval landing craft
or Army aviation units.

(8) An external security force and a n active CI agency.

(9) Vehicle transport for personnel lift, equipment transfer, and administrative use.

(10) Access to maintenance support facilities.

(11) Medical support facilities to augment the airborne medical personnel.

(12) Covered areas for packing parachutes and rigging airdrop loads.

7-14. INTERMEDIATE STAGING BASE

Elements of the airborne force deploy to an ISB to make final plans, coordinate, and
task-organize. The unit's organization and composition are finalized for movement to
the objective area. Deployment to the ISB is common when terrain or distance precludes
insertion to the objective area directly from the REMAB or CONUS. Contingency
missions often involve the use of an ISB. Intermediate staging base operations are often
employed when the mission requires transloading from strategic airlift assets to theater
airlift assets.

a. Facilities. The ISB is not occupied for long periods; however, some facilities are
needed to support the airborne force. These include the following:
• Materiels-handling equipment required for transloading.
• A location away from civilians or traffic routes.
• Security and CI elements.
• Secure communications.
• Fuel for aircraft and vehicles.
• Potable water supply.
• Austere airfield support facilities, possibly capable of all-weather operations.
• Areas for test firing weapons.
• Covered and concealed areas for assembly of the airborne force and rigging of
parachutes and door bundles.
• Austere billets or rest areas.
• Austere messing arrangements.
• Medical treatment facility.

b. Location. The ISB location should provide adequate OPSEC to prevent compromise
of the operation.

7-15. FORWARD OPERATING BASE

Objectives for airborne or airland assault operations may be beyond the range of aircraft
operating from an ISB or REMAB in friendly territory. Therefore, a base in hostile
territory must be seized for the further projection of force or for the recovery of
previously deployed forces.

a. Establishing an FOB requires seizure of an airfield or airstrip. The force conducting

the follow-on operation can be a part of the force seizing the FOB or a new force
introduced after the FOB is seized. In most operations, the FOB is retained only as long
as necessary to support the follow-on mission. A planned withdrawal is executed on
mission completion.

b. Before launching subsequent airborne or airland assaults, reorganization may be

required. This is especially true if the subsequent assault force comes from the unit that
seized the FOB. To lessen this requirement, the follow-on assault force can be the
reserve for the initial mission, or it can be a completely new force that only refuels or
transloads at the FOB. Transloading must be accomplished quickly. Loads must be
prerigged and loaded to facilitate transloading. Control is established by the CCT and
ADACG.

c. If the FOB is used to receive previously committed forces, planning considerations

must include:

• Accountability procedures.
• Medical care and evacuation.
• Maintenance requirements.
• Resupply/refueling operations.
CHAPTER 8
COMBAT SUPPORT
The commander uses combat support elements to e nhance the combat power of
his subordinate maneuve r units. He must know CS capabilities, as sign them
appropriate missions, and control their operations to apply superior combat power
at the decisive time and place. Specific applications of the command and support
relationships are discussed in this chapter and outlined in Table 8-1.

Section I. COMMAND AND SUPPORT RELATIONSHIPS

Regardless of the relationship of the CS element to the unit, the airborne commander is
responsible for integration and synchronization of available CS to accomplish his
mission.

8-1. ELEMENTS

Combat support elements provide significant amounts of more combat power. The
leader of a CS element that is attached, OPCON, or DS serves as special staff officer to
the commander besides functioning as the CS leader. During planning, preparation, and
execution of the mission, the CS leader advises the commander and staff on the
employment of the CS unit, then he follows the commander's directions.
8-2. DECENTRALIZATION

During the airborne assault, most CS units are initially attached to the elements of the
assault echelon (battalion/company). As more assets enter the airhead, including the
parent headquarters of these CS units, CS assets can be returned to parent-unit control
for more effective employment.

Section II. FIRE SUPPORT

Fire support planning for an airborne operation is initiated on receipt of the mission.
Concurrent with the development of the concept of the operation, the commander plans
for fire support so that it is provided throughout the operation.

8-3. UNIQUE ASPECTS

Fire support planning, coordination, and execution for airborne operations are more
complex than in conventional ground operations; the differences are as follows:

a. The assault elements of the airborne force are quickly placed in direct contact with
the enemy deep in hostile territory. Initial operations are decentralized and
communications can be limited or nonexistent

b. Airbor ne unit vulnerability increases during the time between landing and assembl y
into a fighting force. This time varies based on unit size and METT-T factors. During
this vulnerable period, reliable communications are essential to the coordination and
execution of fire support missions.

c. Calls for fire are often sent under conditions where units are in critical need of fire
support. Units lack firm knowledge of the situation, especially the location of friendly
and enemy units. This can also come at a time when reliable ground communications
have not been firmly established.

d. Initially, artillery support in the airhead is limited. This situation occurs at the same
time as the arrival of the assault echelon, the main effort, or the operation's opening
phase. Consequently, the bulk of fire support must come from air support, organic
mortars, or NGF. Support can also be provided by long-range artillery of advancing
friendly forces (if in range), long-range rocket/missile fire, and strategic air force bombs
or bombers.

e. During the initial airborne assault and periodically thereafter, airspace over the DZ
contains a high density of airdrop aircraft. This complicates fire support aspects of
airspace management.

8-4. MISSIONS

Fire support assets can perform a variety of missions in support of the airborne assault.
The following are examples of standard missions arranged by type of asset.
a. Tactical air support, mortars, and limited field artillery can be the only fire support
available to the airborne force until the lodgment is established. It can provide any or all
of the following types of support:

(1) Close air support.

(2) Column cover for the assault echelon, follow-up echelon, and resupply sorties.

(3) Suppression of enemy air defenses along the corridor selected for penetration and
near the objective.

(4) Reconnaissance both before and during the operation.

(5) Counterair operations to gain and maintain air superiority along the corridor and in
the objective area.

(6) Preassault fires of the airhead and other critical targets, and deception.

(7) Battlefield air interdiction of the objective area, including armed reconnaissance
missions targeted against enemy forces that react to the airborne assault.

(8) Air defense of marshaling areas, resupply airfields, and the airhead.

b. Naval gun fire, when available and in range, is a reliable, accurate, high-volume
source of fire support. It can provide any or all of the following types of support:

(1) Preassault fires of the objective and other critical targets.

(2) Suppression of enemy air defenses.

(3) Direct support and general support of forces in contact.

(4) Interdiction (land and sea).

c. Artillery of linkup forces within range can provide the following support:

• Interdiction fires.
• SEAD fires.
• Counterbattery fires.
• Direct support to maneuver units.

d. Army aviation assets can augment other fire suppor t when the ISB/FSB is within
range or when a secure airfield permits airland and buildup of Army aviation
transported in USAF airlift aircraft. They can support--

(1) R&S forces.

(2) Interdiction of enemy reaction forces, especially mechanized forces with accurate,
long-range antitank fires.
(3) Seizure of objectives with rocket fire and gunfire.

8-5. PRINCIPLES

Fire suppor t planning and e xecution relies on careful, thorough planning based on fire
support principles designed to support maneuver. (See FM 6-20-30 for a detailed
discussion.)

a. Unity of Control. This principle is met through the establishment of a joint

headquarters (such as JTF) to include a joint operations center, which is responsible for
providing adequate fire support to the maneuver commander.

b. Continuous Liaison. Liaison, especially between Army and Air Force units, is
necessary at all echelons down to battalion level. It must be supported with adequate
communications to facilitate command and to control lateral dissemination of
information and coordination. Joint agreements memorandums of understanding, joint
SOPs, and joint SOIs all facilitate the use of this principle. Each assault battalion and
brigade must have attached TACPs and naval gunfire LOS (if NGF is available).

c. Centralized Coor dination. Due to the nature of the airhead (basically a perimeter
defense) and the required continuous airflow into the airhead, fire support assets must
be closely controlled to prevent fratricide and waste of assets.

(1) During the initial stages of an airborne operation and before adequate ground
communications can be established, coordination and control of fire support are
accomplished from an airborne platform (an ABCCC or JACC/CP). (Appendix D
provides detailed information on operations of the ABCCC and AWACS.)

(2) On landing, each battalion or brigade/regimental headquarters establishes contact

with the ABCCC (or JACC/CP) through the TACP or FSO. Fire support, such as CAS,
beyond that available from organic or DS assets would be requested from the ABCCC.
Prioritization and coordination of requests arc accomplished by the ground force
commander's representative in the ABCCC. His responsibilities include the following:

• Prevent fratricide of ground personnel.

• Ensure that requests do not interfere with incoming serials, other aircraft, or
naval operations.
• Determine the fire support means to be employed in coordination with
appropriate battle staff members.
• Determine (in coordination with the battle staff) any added safety or control
measures required; transmit them to the appropriate ground elements.

(3) For air missions, the battle staff establishes contact with the appropriate flight,
provides essential information, and then hands the flight off to the appropriate TACP or
FAC for mission execution. At that poi nt, the mission is conducted the same way as
conventional operations. If NGF or air support is available, it is essential that a naval
gunfire LO be present in the ABCCC to perform a similar function.

(4) Once adequate C 2 facilities have been established in the airhead, fire support
coordination responsibilities are passed from the airborne platform to the ground to be
conducted as in conventional operations--there is no doctrinal time for this transfer. In
some situations (for example, raids), this cannot occur; however, once a brigade main or
tactical CP is on the ground, the transfer takes place.

d. Application of Adequate Control Measures. Fire support coordination measures,

both permissive and restrictive, are employed to ensure the safety of friendly personnel,
to synchronize all fire support means, and to permit maximum flexibility with minimum
restrictions on the employment of fire support. The joint commander must also establish
a common target and map grid system to pe rmit transmission of target and friendly unit
locations. This is critical if standard maps are not available. Provisions must also be
made to identify friendly force locations through the employment of smoke, panels,
beacons, or other devices. (Airspace control measures are discussed in Chapter 2. See
FM 6-20-30 and FM 101-5-1 for a detailed description of fire support control
measures.)

8-6. PLANNING

On receipt of the WO, the commander and his staff begin planning. They develop four
basic plans (regardless of the type mission, force size, or duration of the operation) in a
reverse planning sequence. The FSO responsibilities for each plan are as follows:

a. Ground Tactical Plan. The following fire support planning and coordination actions
are the responsibility of the brigade/battalion FSO during ground movement.

(1) Suppor t the scheme of maneuver. The goal is to place the maximum amount of
indirect fire power on the ground as quickly as possible.

(2) Control indirect-fire systems. Initially, control is decentralized; an FO calls for fire
directly to a fire support asset.

(3) Plan fires to block enemy avenues of approach (consider FASCAM delivered by
air).

(4) Plan fires to eliminate enemy resistance (groups and series in the objective area).

(5) Plan fires to defend key terrain needed to link up with friendly forces.

(6) Plan fires to support security/reconnaissance forces in the objective area.

(7) Plan fires on top of, to the flanks, and beyond assault objectives.

(8) Plan close air support.

(9) Plan final protective fires.

(10) Recommend priority of fires.

(11) Select initial FA and mortar positions that can be quickly occupied from DZs/LZs.
(12) Select subsequent FA and mortar positions to provide combat outposts and security
forces.

b. Landing Plan. Planning and coordination of fire support during the air movement
and preassault fires are the JTF's responsibility; he plans SEAD fires along the flight
route and in the objective area. Once on the ground, friendly positions are marked. The
airborne FSO must ensure that preassault air strikes are planned against other enemy
positions in the objective area. Preassault fires are planned as follows:

• On and around the LZ/DZ (alternate and false).

• On enemy air defense artillery.
• On enemy command, control, and communication.
• On enemy indirect-fire systems.
• Sequence and location of delivery for FA and mortars.

c. Air Move ment Plan. Fire support during movement to the objective area is the
responsibility of the airlift commander and staff. However, the airborne force
commander must be closely involved because of the possibility of downed aircraft or a
mission being diverted. Planning considerations include the following:

(1) Ensure fire support personnel and equipment are included on load plans and
manifests.

(2) Plan targets on enemy ADA along flight routes and alternate flight routes (JTF
level).

d. Marshaling Plan. The FSO starts planning on receipt of the mission and assignment
of assets. All leaders and fire support personnel must take part in the planning process
from the beginning. All fire support personnel and equipment are prepared and
rehearsals are conducted. Then, the fire support plan is briefed to all other leaders and
staff involved in the operation.

8-7. ARTILLERY EMPLOYMENT

The initial phase of the airborne operation is decentralized and flexible until the assault
objectives are secured and the airhead is established. During the parachute assault, the
FA battalion is attached to the airborne infantry brigade. As soon as practicable after
organizing on the ground, nor mal command relationships are resumed; FA support is
provided within thecontext of assigned tactical missions. After reorganizing, airborne
artillery adheres to tactics and techniques applicable to other artillery units. (FM 6-20-
30.)

Section III. NAVAL GUNFIRE

When operating on islands or near a coastline, NGF support may be available to the
airborne force. Naval guns can provide high-volume, long-range, accurate fires, which
employ a variety of ammunition.

8-8. AIR AND NAVAL GUNFIRE LIAISON COMPANY

The ANGLICO provides ship-to-shore communications and fire control teams to adjust
fire. In the absence of ANGLICO fire control teams, the FIST can call for and adjust
fires through the ANGLICO team.

8-9. ANGLICO ORGANIZATION

Deployed ANGLICO forces comprise a command element, operational element

(air/NGF teams), and support element.

a. The compa ny is organized into groupi ngs. (Table 8-2.) The headquarters/support
section and divisional air/NGF section furnish command, control, administration,
training, and logistics support for the company. They also provide fire support planning
and liaison personnel to the airborne unit. Three brigade air/NGF platoons provide
liaison and control for air and NGF to the assault companies, battalion, and brigade.

b. Each brigade platoon is divided into a brigade team and two supporting arms liaison
teams, which support two forward battalions. Each SALT has two firepower control
teams, which support the forward companies of the battalions. (Table 8-3.)
c. The ANGLICO assists the staff in matters concerning air and NGF. It coordinates
requests for air and NGF support from the battalions of the brigade and represents the
ABCCC, AC-130, and AWACS, if required.

d. The LO and FCTs operate in the ground spot net. They communicate with the ship by
HF radio to request and adjust NGF. The FCT communicates with the LO, using VHF
radios. The LO also can communicate with aircraft using UHF radios.

8-10. TACTICAL MISSIONS

Naval gunfire ships are assigned one of two tactical missions: direct support or general
support.

a. Direct Support. A ship in DS of a specific unit delivers both planned and on-call
fires. (On-call fires are to the ship what targets of opportunity are to artillery units.) A
fire control party with the suppor ted unit conducts and adj usts on-call fires; they can
also be adjusted b y an NGF air spotter.

b. General Support. General support missions are assigned to ships supporting units of
brigade size or larger. The normal procedure is to have the fires of the GS ship adjusted
by an aerial observer or to have the LO assign the fires of the ship to a battalion SALT
for fire missions. On completion of the mission, the ship reverts to GS.

8-11. COORDINATION AND CONTROL MEASURES

Coordination and control measures that apply to NGF are the same as for FA except for
the addition of the terms fire support area and fire support station.
a. Fire Support Area. The FSA is a sea area within which a ship can position or cruise
while firing in support. It is labeled with the letters "FSA" and a Roman numeral--for
example, FSA VII.

b. Fire Support Station. The FSS is a specified position at sea from which a ship must
fire; it is very restrictive positioning guidance. It is labeled with the letters "FSS" and a
Roman numeral-for example, FSS VII.

Section IV. AIR FORCE SUPPORT

A sound air support plan is an integral part of the ground combat plans.
Reconnaissance, interdiction, and CAS are planned and ample communications for
liaison and control are provided.

8-12. TYPES OF MISSIONS

All air combat missions are performed concurrently and are mutually suppor ting. They
include CAS, interdiction, tactical surveillance and reconnaissance, tactical airlift, and
specialized tasks.

a. Counterair Operations. The ultimate objective of counterair operations is to gain

and maintain theater air supremacy. This has two purposes; it prevents enemy forces
from effectively interfering with friendly areas and activities, and it precludes
prohibitive interference with offensive air operations in the enemy area. This is
accomplished by destroying or neutralizing the enemy's air offensive and de fensive
systems.

(1) Offensive. Offensive counterair operations are conducted to seek out and neutralize
or destroy enemy air forces at a chosen time and place. They are essential to gain air
supremacy and to provide a favorable situation for other missions. Typical targets
include the following:

• Enemy aircraft.
• Airfields.
• Tactical missile complexes.
• Command and control facilities.
• POL and munitions storage facilities.
• Aircraft support equipment and their control systems.

(2) Suppressive. Suppression of enemy air defense is conducted to neutralize, destroy,

or temporarily degrade enemy air defense systems in a specific area by physical attack,
electronic warfare, or both.

(3) Defensive. Defensive counterair operations contribute to local air control by

countering enemy offensive actions. An in-place and operational radar warning and
control system, consisting of both ground and airborne elements, can be effectively used
by theater forces. They integrate and control the employment of fighters, surface-to-air
missiles, and antiaircraft artillery systems.
(4) Tasks. Counterair tasks that can be employed as a part of offensive and defensive
counterair operations include air-to-surface attacks, fighter sweeps, and force protection
(escort).

b. Close Air Support. The objectives of CAS are to support surface operations by
attacking hostile targets close to friendly surface forces. Each air mission requires
detailed integration with those forces.

c. Air Interdiction. The objectives of AI are to delay, disrupt, divert, or destroy an

enemy's military potential before it can be brought to bear effectively against friendly
ground forces. These combat operations are performed far enough away from friendly
surface forces so that detailed integration of specific actions with the maneuver of
friendly forces is not possible or required. AI attacks against land force targets that have
a near-term effect on the scheme of maneuver of friendly forces, but are not close to
friendly forces, are referred to as BAI.

d. Tactical Surveillance and Reconnaissance. The TSR operations are directed toward
satisfying the requirements of joint force and component commanders engaged in
surface and tactical air operations. These operations provide timely information, either
visually observed or sensor recorded, from which intelligence is derived for all forces.
Surveillance operations continuously collect information; reconnaissance operations are
directed toward localized or specific targets.

e. Tactical Airlift Operations. Tactical airlift forces perform four primary tasks:
deployment, employment, logistics support, and aeromedical evacuation. Deployment
operations make possible the movement of entire units within an area of operations.
When combat forces and their logistics support are moved by air into an objective area
for combat, the airlift is termed an employment operation.

f. Air Force Specialized Tasks. Specialized tasks are those operations conducted in
direct or indirect support of primary tactical air missions. These activities include, but
are not limited to electronic combat, combat search and rescue, and air refueling
operations.

8-13. ORGANIZATION OF TACTICAL AIR SUPPORT

Tactical air support can be provided through missions incidental to air activity
throughout the combat zone. It can also be provided by air units in DS of or attached to
a joint force, or under OPCON of a joint force commander. A single tactical air force
supports an airborne operation. The tactical air force, or designated units, can be
attached to or under OPCON of a joint airborne force. When the mission requires the
basing of tactical air support units in the airhead, they are always attached to the joint
airborne force.

8-14. PLANNING TACTICAL AIR SUPPORT

Adequate tactical air support of an airborne operation requires some integration of

airborne forces and tactical air activity to support conventional ground operations.
a. The air support plan is based on the overall Air Force mission and the amount of
available strategic, tactical, and airlift effort. The effect of forecasted weather en route
and in the proposed AO must also be considered.

b. Offensive and defensive air operations must be continuously planned in support of an

objective area. Immediate tactical air support must be continuously available (on air
alert) in spite of an apparent absence of targets.

8-15. COMMAND AND CONTROL

With the beginning of air operations in the objective area, provision must be made for
command and air control of these operations and for integration of the air and ground
effort. A joint operations center, where the supporting tactical air force and the airborne
force is represented, performs the planning, integration, direction, and supervision of the
air effort IAW the needs of the airborne force.

a. Preparatory Phase. If a joint airborne force develops and includes tactical air
elements, the joint force commander directs part or all of the preliminary air efforts
while other preparations for the operation are completed. If the airborne force does not
include tactical air elements, tactical air support before and during the mounting of an
airborne operation is an Air Force responsibility. Therefore, requests from the joint
airborne force commander involving both reconnaissance and fire missions are
processed through normal JOC channels.

b. Assault Phase. Requirements during the assault phase are the same for all airborne
operations. During the dropping or airlanding and assembly of assault elements, aircraft
that are on air alert status over DZs/LZs defend against hostile surface or aerial reaction
to the assault.

c. Consolidat ion and Exploitation Phase. Air control net facilities in excess of TACPs
and ABCCC are meager until the airlanding of more supplies and reinforcements during
this phase. In an operation that does not involve an immediate linkup after seizure of
objectives, the airlanding of reinforcing or supporting elements provides for the rapid
expansion and improvement of tactical air control nets to meet the needs of any
anticipated emergency.

(1) Aircraft provi ding suppor t subsequent to the assault phase can be based within the
objective area, outside the objective area, or both. In view of the logistics demands of
aircraft, air support is based within the objective area only when it cannot be effectively
provided from outside. Limitations in the effective radius of aircraft are the determining
factors. An existing airstrip or sufficiently adaptable terrain is one of these factors in the
selection of an objective area.

(2) A single commander in the objective area has command over both ground and air
elements. However, such command can be retained by an officer charged with broader
responsibilities whose headquarters is outside the objective area.

8-16. AIR TRAFFIC CONTROL

Air traffic control in the airhead is initially an Air Force CCT responsibility. The CCT
can be augmented with and later replaced by Army ATC units. Air traffic services
provided to airborne units come from contingency corps assets. Liaison, beacon, and
tower teams are the most frequently employed elements.

a. During alert, marshaling, and deployment, a liaison team is sent to the headquarters
that is planning the operation; it serves as a part of the section and provides advice on
airspace management, especially in the airhead. The main concern in planning is the
hando ff be tween CCT and ATC parties, which takes place within 72 hours after the
assault. CCT controls the airhead with the advice and assistance from ATC personnel
until follow-on ATC elements arrive.

b. Beacon and tower teams deploy with the aviation or infantry brigade assault CP
attached to the S3 section. These teams provide initial ATC in the airhead. The beacon
team provides terminal guidance for Army aircraft from their ISB into the airfield. The
tower team augments the CCT party and controls helicopter movement. The amount of
control given up by CCT to the ATC teams depends on the size of the airflow.

c. Operational control of ATC assets usually passes to the senior aviation unit
commander once he is established in the airhead. FARP and aviation assembly area
operations include ATC elements and services, as specified by the senior aviation unit
commander.

Section V. ARMY AVIATION OPERATIONS

Army aviation provides the force with unique capabilities. When properly used, it
increases the force's combat power by providing the advantages of speed, range,
mobility, flexibility, and increased firepower.

8-17. HELICOPTER TACTICAL MISSIONS

Army Aviation provides close support to units in contact and the capability for air
assault operations in support of the ground tactical plan. (Table 8-4.) They serve as
aerial CPs that enable the commander to make his presence felt on the battlefield and to
influence the action at the decisive point in the battle. Army aviation assets can evacuate
the wounded, provide aerial R&S, and transport radiological and chemical survey
teams. Appropriate missions for these forces include the following:

• Exploitation of initial airborne assault.

• Armed aerial reconnaissance and counterreconnaissance.
• Limited CAS capability.
• Early warning of guerrilla, airborne, or other infiltration threats.
• Engagement and destruction of enemy ground forces by highly mobile
maneuver tactics.
• Domination of unoccupied areas between highly dispersed friendly positions.
• Provision of immediately responsive air-to-ground fire support for either air or
surface mobile task forces.
• Provision of tactical and logistics support for guerrilla and special forces.
• Provision of organized raid-type forces.
• Tactical cover and deception.
• Electronic warfare.

Note: Table 8-4 should be used only as a guide for commanders because
environmental conditions will affect capabilities.

8-18. DEPLOYMENT

When possible, organic and attached Army aircraft self-deploy to the objective area,
arriving as soon as possible after the initial assault. Flights are closely controlled and
regulated to avoid interference with airlift aircraft flights. Terminal guidance can be
furnished by pathfinder teams, USAF combat control teams, or Army ATC teams in the
airhead.

a. When the distance from the departure area to the objective area is beyond the range of
Army aircraft, many deployment options exist. When the distance from the forward
battle area is within their range capabilities, aircraft are serviced in the departure area
and flown to forward areas within a planned schedule. They are reserviced in the
forward area and depart over planned routes to the objective area. Forward arming and
refueling points can be leapfrogged ahead if multiple legs are involved. A variation of
this technique is the employment of Naval carrier-type vessels as a refueling base or for
transport on one leg of the trip to the objective area. Selected utility and cargo
helicopters can employ extended-range fuel tanks to assist in deployment. Also, USAF
aircraft aircraft, such as the C-130, may refuel Army helicopters at remote, unimproved
airfields using the wet-wing technique.

b. W hen none of these methods can be used because of the distance to the objective
area, Army aircraft can be disassembled and transported in airlift aircraft. For light
Army aircraft, no or partial disassembly for transport and reassembly for use in the
objective area is possible. However, this can be time-consuming depending on the
aircraft--the impact on tactical plans must be considered. For other aircraft, particularly
large helicopters, the complexity of the reassembly process in the objective area
prohibits their early employment.
NOTE: See FM 1-100 for a detailed discussion of combat aviation
operations.

Section VI. AIR DEFENSE

Air defense of an airhead occurs in an environment that is unique in two respects: First,
it is in an area that has a high density of friendly aircraft, Second, the quickest and
potentially most deadly threat to the airhead can be enemy air. The principles and
guidelines for employment of air defense weapons in support of airborne operations arc
similar to those for other operations. The following major factors of ADA employment
operations are unique.

• The phasing of units and air defense support into the airhead.
• Early warning procedures.
• Airspace control measures.

8-19. AIR DEFENSE ARTILLERY ELEMENTS

The airborne brigade is normally task-or ganized to i nclude an ADA ba ttery. This
battery can be augmented with added assets, depending on the level of air threat
expected.

a. During the initial phase of the operation, one battalion from the brigade will normally
be inserted with one Stinger section, which will provide air defense as the battalion
develops the airhead. Stingers are not jumped with the team members, but are palletized
or door-bundled and dropped separately.

b. Once the entire brigade is on the ground, a main CP is established. The SHORAD
battery commander normally locates his CP with the brigade CP. He assumes control of
all platoons, and he coordinates defense of the airhead.

c. The SHORAD battery has three Vulcan platoons, a Stinger platoon, and, normally,
two forward area alerting radars. Vulcans and FAARs are usually airlanded. FAARs
should be moved into the airhead as soon as airframe availability permits since they
provide essential early warning to the air defense and maneuver units.

d. The SHORAD battery commander ensures that early-warning infor mation is

disseminated to his Vulcan platoons and Stinger sections. This will normally be done
over an early-warning net rather than the battery command net.

e. The air defense liaison team at the brigade CP is the SHORAD battery commander's
representative to the brigade commander. The liaison team advises the brigade staff on
the air defense status. They coordinate with the Air Force LO, the Army aviation
officer, and the FA officer on all matters concerning airspace usage.

8-20. EARLY WARNING

Early-warning capability for the airhead can be provided by either the US Air Force or
the Army.
a. Early warning will initially be provided by the Air Force in the initial assault or for
short-term operations.

(1) An Air Force CRC will transmit early-warning information if the airhead is within
range, or will retransmit by ABCCC if necessary.

(2) An Air Force CRP may also be deployed to the ISB to provide early warning. The
CRP can employ the same communications as the CRC.

(3) If airland operations are scheduled, an Air Force vehicle-mounted FACP can be
delivered to the airhead. (See Appendix D for more information.)

(4) The AWACS can send its early-warning messages to the ground commander's
TACP, or the SHORAD CP. (Specific procedures for AWACS early warning of Army
units in contingency ope rations are discussed in TRADOC Pam 34-4.)

b. The Army has two systems for early warning in the airhead.

(1) Tactical defense alert radar. The TDAR can be airdropped with the air defense unit,
and then linked by wire or radio to all air defense units in the airhead. The TDAR has a
20-kilometer range, which provides a warning of air attack. The time of the warning
varies, depending on air speed (fixed-wing can be one to two minutes in advance while
rotary-wing may be up to ten minutes in adva nce). The TDAR can be mounted on a
pedestal or in a HMMWV.

(2) Forward area alerting radar. The FAAR system is a complete, self-contained,
acquisition radar system (AN/MPQ-49), which consists of a radar set (AN/TPQ-43 and
TPX-50 IFF), the M561 Gamma Goat, and a trailer with a 5-kilowatt generator set. The
system must be airlanded into the airhead. It requires about 30 minutes to emplace and
can detect targets out to 20 kilometers.

Section VII. ENGINEER SUPPORT

Combat engineers are critical combat multipliers. The primary mission of airborne
engineers is to increase the combat effectiveness of friendly soldiers, to facilitate their
movement, and to hinder the enemy's move ment. Many of the principle functions of the
standard combat engineer battalion are carried on by airborne engineers but with
different emphasis on the type and extent of work to be accomplished due to the limited
transpor tation and heavy engineer equipment. Both corps and divisional engineer assets
will be needed to support a divisional deployment. Airfield construction and repair
packages, as well as airborne combat engineer battalions from the corps engineer
brigade, will be task-organized to support divisional operations. This section focuses on
forward aviation combat engineering as the primary engineer task in an airborne assault.

8-21. ENGINEER EMPLOYMENT

The task or ganization and s ubsequent C 2 of engineer assets depends on the mission. An
airborne combat engineer company is usually attached to a brigade for the airborne
assault. The combat engineer company or its elements can be further attached to
airborne battalions/companies based on the brigade's mission and ground tactical plan.
After the engineer battalion lands, the combat engineer companies are brought under its
control.

8-22. TACTICAL MISSIONS

During airborne operations, priority is established among the following engineer

support missions:

a. Mobility. Engineers provide mobility support to ground and air units.

(1) Forward aviation combat engineering, including preparation or rehabilitation of

airstrips/airfields, EZs, and LZs.

(2) Assistance in the assault of fortified positions.

(3) Removal of mines, booby traps, and obstacles.

(4) Construction and repair of roads.

(5) Assistance in stream crossing.

b. Countermobility. During the expa nsion and de fense of the airhead be fore
reinforcement by air or ground linkup, engineers provide the following countermobility
support:

(1) Erection of obstacles, roadblocks, and mine fields to secure the airhead.

(2) Destruction of bridges, railroads, power plants, communications centers, and key
installations, or the preparation of such installations for demolition as part of strategic
interdiction operations.

c. Survivability. Based on the commander's concept of the operation, engineers plan

and construct defensive positions for facilities, air transport facilities, antiarmor
weapons, FA, and dismounted forces.

d. Other Engineer Tasks. Engineers can support the airborne force in other ways:

(1) Division and corps engineer terrain analysis detachments can analyze the terrain
selected for DZs, LZs, and assault airfield sites.

(2) Army or corps topographic companies can produce quick response map overprints,
map revisions, and photo maps to provide the deploying units with the most current
information available.

(3) Engineer well-drilling detachments can be airlanded to provide water for sustained
operations.

(4) Engineer bridge companies can be airlanded to provide medium or heavy bridging
support.
Section VIII. FORWARD AVIATION COMBAT ENGINEERING

The combat engineer construction and maintenance effort in support of forward aviation
operating facilities is a mobility functional area. Immediately available resources are
used to accomplish FACE missions. Expedient techniques are used a nd e xtensive
construction is limited to avoid enemy detection. The FACE projects that fall into this
mobility function are discussed herein. (See FM 5-101 for detailed information on all
facets of FACE operations.)

8-23. CAPABILITIES

The following are the capabilities of the combat engineer construction and maintenance
effort:

a. Construction of Landing Zones. Landi ng zones are required during helicopter

movement of personnel and logistics, refueling and rearming, medical evacuation, and
reconstitution. Engineer support is rudimentary for each type. Locations are selected
that have suitable soil conditions without strength improvement to carry helicopter
loads. Loose objects, including powdery snow, are cleared from the rotor wash area; all
trees must be cleared from the rotor zones.

b. Construction of Low-Altitude Parachute Extraction System Zones. LAPES zones

require relatively flat, stump-free terrain with features similar to those for a C-130
landing strip as specified in TM 5-330. Since the fixed-wing transport aircraft (typically
a C-130) does not land when discharging its cargo, the ground strength requirements are
based on the equipment being discharged.

c. Construction of Flight Landing Strips. The flight landing strip allows landing and
takeoff of specific fixed-wing aircraft (see criteria established by TM 5-330). It must be
relatively flat with a surface that can support fully loaded, freed-wing aircraft. Proper
site selection is based on minimal need for surface improvement and earthwork.

d. Maintenance/Repair of Forward Aviation Facilities. Maintenance includes all

activities required to correct deficiencies resulting from normal damage and
deterioration. Repair includes restoration of damage due to abnormal use, accidents, and
hostile forces. As an economy measure, maximum use of existing facilities should be
planned.

8-24. RESPONSIBILITIES

The ground force commander is responsible for the construction, repair, and
maintenance of airlanding facilities in the airhead. The airlift commander furnishes the
ground force commander his requirements and the recommended priorities in order of
accomplishment. The ground force commander establishes final priorities after joint
consideration of the ground force and airlift requirements. Any deviations are
coordinated with the airlift commander.

a. Construction or rehabilitation of airlanding facilities and airfields is initiated early.

Plans for the initial assault provide for the seizure of airfields or sites for airlanding
facilities to support the tactical and logistics plans. Assault units are augmented to
perform minimum initial construction.

b. The airborne and airlift commanders prepare plans to cope with the problem of
disabled aircraft on landing facilities. Airborne personnel provide assistance in moving
disabled aircraft that might interfere with subsequent operations.

8-25. PLANNING

A large number of widely dispersed, low-activity, airlanding facilities are used in

preference to a few highly developed airfield complexes, both in the departure and in
the objective areas.

a. The number and location of airlanding facilities and airfields vary with the--

• Size of the force to be employed and supported.

• Planned buildup, including the number and type of aircraft to be accommodated.
• Tactical and logistics plans.
• Terrain in the objective area with particular attention to airfields, highways and
roads, open areas, soil characteristics, relief, and vegetation.
• Enemy capabilities.
• Engineer capabilities.
• Weather during the time of operations.

b. At least one assault airlanding facility is desirable in each brigade/battalion area. This
does not include facilities for employment of organic and attached Army aviation,
alternate facilities to offset losses from enemy action, or desired additional facilities.

8-26. SITE SELECTION

Certain technical principles should be considered when selecting sites for airlanding
facilities. Maximum use should be made of all existing aviation facilities. The site
selection should fulfill the mission and provide for future expa nsion. It should be on
terrain with soil that can be quickly and easily compacted to the standards listed in TM
5-330. The amount of earthwork is minimized by choos ing a location that takes
advantage of all prevailing grades that fall within the required specifications.

a. Airstrips and EZs are constructed across long, gentle slopes for ease of drainage. The
bottoms of valleys or other depressed areas are avoided. Locations that require
extensive clearing of flightway obstructions to meet glide angle requirements are also
avoided.

b. Approaches are oriented IAW the prevailing winds in the area. The orientation should
ensure 80 percent wind coverage based on a maximum allowable beam wind of 13 mph.
If dust is a problem, the runway should be located 10 degrees to the prevailing wind so
that dust clouds blow diagonally off the runway.

8-27. EXPEDIENT SURFACING

Landing mats and membranes are used as expedients for FACE site surfacing. Landing
mats are used when the strength or smoothness of landing surfaces is not adequate.
Membrane surfacing is used where soil strength is adequate but can become too weak
when wet. Membrane is placed under all landing mats in high-traffic areas, such as
runways and taxiways, to provide a waterproof covering for the soil. It is also used for
dust control in aircraft traffic areas where chemical dust palliatives are either less
satisfactory or require more time and effort to use. (The types, specifications, and
emplacement of matting material are described in TM 5-330. Placement techniques,
anchoring, repair, and maintenance of surfacing membrane are discussed in TM 5-337.)

8-28. REPAIR OF CAPTURED FACILITIES

An appraisal of the damage to a captured aviation facility precedes the decision to

rehabilitate it. Occasionally, the effort to restore a badly damaged site is greater than
that required to construct a new one. The enemy usually uses one or more of the
following destruction measures:

• Placing delayed-action bombs, mines, and booby traps.

• Demolishing drainage systems and pavements.
• Placing obstacles and debris on the landing surface
• Flooding surfaced areas.
• Blowing craters in runways and hardstands.

The first priority in restoring a captured airfield is to establish minimum facilities for
immediate operation of friendly aircraft. This requires removing delayed-action bombs,
mines, and booby traps from the traffic areas; clearing debris from the traffic areas; and
repairing craters and landing surfaces. Adequate repair to the drainage system must be
made promptly.

8-29. ENGINEER PACKAGES

A number of engineer support packages are available to the commander to meet his
requirements for FACE tasks. The greater the requirement for construction, the larger
the number of aircraft sorties needed. The teams discussed herein are typical and can be
modified to fit the situation.

a. Airfield Seizure. From an engineer perspective, airfield seizure involves three basic
tasks: assessment, clearance, and repair.

(1) Airfield assessment team. This team consists of two or three qualified combat
engineers who deploy into the airhead as early as possible. Once in the airhead, they
assess runway/airfield damage and repair requirements and provide recommendations to
the commander on use of unda maged por tions of the airfield. They also de termine what
local construction materials and equipment are available, minimizing engineer impact
on airlift sorties.

(2) Runway clearance element. This element is responsible for removing obstacles and
demolitions from the runways in preparation for airland sorties and repair teams. It
typically contains teams trained in detecting and neutralizing mines and booby traps,
"hot wiring" secured ve hicles, and an obs tacle removal team that can be equipped with
heavy equipment (bulldozers or scoop loaders) to remove runway obstructions too
heavy to be manhandled. This equipment can also be used to jump-start inoperable
equipment left on the runway as obs tructions.

(3) Light airfield repair team. This team repairs light damage to an airstrip due to
bombing or erosion and sustains extensive airland operations. (Figure 8-1.)

(4) Heavy airfield repair team. This team repairs extensive damage to an airfield.
(Figure 8-2.) It can be provided by a construction platoon from the airborne light
engineer company.
b. Airfield Construction. Tactical operations can occur where a facility does not exist
for use in expa ndi ng the airhead a nd establishing the lodgm ent. In these instances, the
airborne force must be tailored with enough engineer assets to build needed runway
facilities within the allotted time. Airfield construction can be accomplished by an
airborne combat engineer battalion (corps), an engineer combat support equipment
company, or an airborne light equipment company with augmentation. The
recommended equipment package is show n in Table 8-5.

Section IX. INTELLIGENCE AND ELECTRONIC WARFARE SUPPORT

Airborne operations often take place well beyond the range of some intelligence assets,
which otherwise could support the airborne force. During planning for airborne
operations, corps, EAC, other services, and national systems are the primary sources of
intelligence. During the operation, organic resources provide much of the intelligence
needed with more support coming from higher levels. MI units provide the airborne
force with teams for interrogation, EW, and signals intelligence collection as well as CI
support. They also provide a key part of the system designed to quickly collect, analyze,
and disseminate information to the airborne force.

8-30. INTERROGATION SUPPORT

Interrogators are specially trained linguists and intelligence analysts. Their job is to
screen and interrogate EPWs, detainees, and refugees and to exploit captured enemy
documents. Their mission is to collect and report all information that meets the priority
intelligence and i nfor mation requirements of the supported commands.

a. Interrogation operations conducted below division level stress rapid screening and
brief tactical interrogations of EPWs, detainees, and refugees. Enemy documents found
on EPWs are used to support the screening and interrogation efforts; these documents
can provide substantive combat information or intelligence for the commander. All
other equipment and documents are evacuated as soon as possible to the rear areas for
exploitation.

b. Forward-deployed interrogation teams can be placed in DS of the maneuver brigade.

The brigade can further allocate these DS interrogation teams to its subordinate
maneuver battalions to accomplish specific missions for a specific period. Direct
support interrogation teams are tasked by, and respond to, the brigade or battalion S2.
These teams usually operate from the maneuver brigade's EPW collection point in the
BSA. Each team has two interrogators, one vehicle, and one VHF FM radio.

8-31. COUNTERINTELLIGENCE SUPPORT

Contingency missions for the airbor ne division, and the manner in which its subor dinate
maneuver brigades are deployed, can dictate one or more CI teams (reinforced) to be
placed in DS of brigade combat operations. The CI teams revert to MI battalion control
for GS to the entire division once the division is deployed and operational.

a. Counterintelligence teams can identify and recommend countermeasures to the

specific enemy HUMINT and surveillance and target acquisition means that pose a
significant threat to airborne brigade operations. They help develop or refine friendly
forces profiles and monitor and evaluate the most sensitive aspects of the brigades'
OPSEC program and deception operations. More specifically, they assist the brigade's
coordinating and special staff in the following:

(1) Identify the hostile collection and rear operations threat to the brigade and its
subordinate maneuver battalions.

(2) Determine the EEFI that require protection.

(3) Identify brigade and battalion vulnerabilities to enemy RSTA, reconnaissance, and
destruction activities.

(4) Maintaining intelligence, OPSEC, and deception data bases.

(5) Nominate enemy RSTA and reconnaissance assets or units for suppression,
neutralization, de struction, or exploitation.

(6) Recommend OPSEC and deception measures to be employed, and monitor their
effectiveness.

b. Individuals from supporting CI teams are located with EPW interrogators at the
battalion/brigade EPW collection point. They perform CI screening and line-crosser
operations from this location. These teams will operate in and out of the brigade's zone
of operations and may cross boundaries to accomplish their mission.

8-32. ELECTRONIC WARFARE/SIGNAL INTELLIGENCE ASSETS

All ground-based EW/SIGINT systems available within the division MI battalion can
support the airborne brigade/battalion. The division's airborne EW system, QUICKFIX
IIB, also has a significant collection capability; it can operate within the airhead if
airlanded via airlift aircraft. All these systems can support airborne unit operations once
deployed into the airhead. Major Army EW/SIGINT systems available to airborne units
are discussed herein. Additional assets are available from the corps MI assets (see FM
34-25).
a. AN/ALQ-151(V) 2, QUICKFIX IIB. The AN/ALQ-151(V) 2 subsystem is a
division-level, special-purpose countermeasures system. This subsystem is part of the
helibor ne system (EH-60A). The EH-60A includes a modified UH-60A helicopter fitted
with special avionics and EW mission equipment to include ESM and ECM equipment.
The ESM equipment is used to detect a target signal of interest and to locate its
transmitting antenna.

b. AN/MSQ-103B, TEAMPACK (Lightweight). The AN/MSQ-103B, TEAMPACK,

is a division-level, special-purpose receiving set. It is mounted in a protective shelter on
an M1028 CUCV. It is used to intercept, process, display, and record
noncommunications signals. The set operates over a frequency range subdivided into
six separate bands within the UHF/SHF ranges. The operator has a secure VHF radio
for tasking and reporting. The operating range of the AN/MSQ-103B is line of sight out
to 30 kilometers.

c. AN/PRD-10, MANPACK. The AN/PRD-10, MANPACK is a division-level, man-

portable, vehicular radio receiver and DF processor system. It is configured using
commercial, nondevelopmental item equipment, which is easily transported and
maintained in the field. The AN/PRD-10 provides accurate intercept and line-of-bearing
information.

d. AN/TLQ-17A(V)1-Series, TRAFFICJAM. The AN/TLQ-17A(V) 1,

TRAFFICJAM, is a division-level, transportable, electronic countermeasures set. This
tactical mobile-jamming set is used against communications signals transmitting in the
1.5- to 80-MHz frequency range. The AN/TLQ-17A(V)1 can be used for surveillance or
jamming against ground and airborne communications. It has both manual and
automatic jamming capabilities for VHF and HF groundwave frequencies and can be
operated in a mounted or dismounted configuration. The range is LOS dependent. A
VHF secure voice radio provides communication.

e. AN/TRQ-32(V) 2, TEAMMATE. The AN/TRQ-32(V) 2, TEAMMATE, is a corps-

and division-level radio receiving set. It is used to receive, record, and determine the
direction of transmitted signals. Communications intercept is provided in the HF, VHF,
and UHF ranges. Direction-findi ng LOB support is provided in the VHF range only. Up
to four sets can be netted by way of FM data links for automated DF operations. The
AN/TRQ-32(V) 2, TEAMMATE, is housed in an S-457B/G shelter, which is mounted
on an M1028 CUCV. The communications subsystem provides secure FM voice radio,
nonsecure field telephone, and secure UHF data links.

8-33. REMOTE SENSORS

Remote sensors are a near all-weather, da y/night surveillance system. They provi de an
added source of information for the battalion commander. These sensors can be used
either alone or to complement or supplement other assets, such as GSRs. They provide
infor mation for the prod uction of intelligence and timely, accurate target acquisition
data. Sensors are emplaced in areas of expected enemy activity and monitored by teams
in friendly forward areas. Movement of enemy forces within the sensor radius is
detected and indications are transmitted to the monitoring team. These indications are
then analyzed by the team, a nd the resulting infor mation is repor ted to the battalion S2.
a. Ground surveillance system personnel from the division's MI battalion can be
attached to, or placed in direct support of, the maneuver battalion. They can be further
attached to the maneuver battalion's subordinate companies or the scout platoon. These
sensors are used--

• To monitor roads, trails, and avenues of approach to the airhead.

• To monitor road junctions and bridges.
• To monitor possible AAs.
• To monitor DZs and LZs.
• To provide target data for immediate use.
• To extend OP capabilities.
• To monitor obstacles and barriers.
• To perform similar tasks designed to detect the movement of personnel or
vehicles.

b. Sensors are hand emplaced in the target area by emplacement teams. The major
advantages of hand emplacement include accurate determination of sensor location,
better camouflage, and confirmed detection radius of each sensor. Disadvantages
include threat to the emplacement team, the time required to install several strings, and
the limited number of sensors that can be carried by the emplacement team. The
emplacement team is transported by helicopter providing an accurate and quick
response to the ground commander's request for support. This means of delivery
provides access to areas normally inaccessible to ground elements, speeds emplacement,
and increases the number of sensors that can be emplaced during a single mission.

c. Airborne units can employ the remotely monitored battlefield sensor system. In a
tactical environment, REM BASS will provide the commander with a near all-weather,
day and night target development capability in all types of terrain. Such a capability is
necessary for the timely allocation of resources and combat power. With REMBASS,
the commander has the capability for real-time detection of the enemy, and their exact
location. REMBASS is integrated into the overall battlefield RSTA plans at each
echelon (battalion and brigade).

(1) The REMBASS is a ground sensor system. It detects, classifies, and determines
direction of movement of intruding personnel and vehicles. It uses monitored sensors
emplaced along likely enemy avenues of approach. These sensors respond to seismic
and acoustic disturbances, IR energy, and magnetic field changes to detect enemy
activities.

(2) The three types of sensors (magnetic, seismic/acoustic, and infrared-passive) are
nor mally employed i n arrays of strings that complement one another. They are designed
to function automatically, transmitting information when movement activates them.
Each sensor has detection/classifying techniques suited to the physical disturbance
(magnetic, seismic/acoustic, and infrared-passive). Each has a built-in, self-disabling
and antitampering feature. Target data is transmitted by FM radio link to the monitor.
The following information can be obtained:

• Target detection.
• Rate of movement.
• Length of column.
• Approximate number of targets.
• Type of targets (wheeled vehicles, armored vehicles, or dismounted forces).

(3) The REMBASS has transmission ranges of 15 kilometers, ground to ground and 100
kilometers, ground to air. Because of its flexibility and wide range of applications,
various equipment combinations can be selected to suit any given mission.

8-34. GROUND SURVEILLANCE RADARS

Ground surveillance radars provide the maneuver battalion with a highly mobi le, near
all-weather, 24-hour capability for battlefield surveillance. Units can employ them on
patrols and at OPs and can use them with remote sensors and NODs. Ground
surveillance radars can be used near or forward of the units' FLOT, on their flanks, or in
their rear areas. The S2, company commander, or scout platoon leader of the supported
battalion selects general locations for the GSR; then GSR team leaders select the actual
site.

a. Surveillance platoons organic to the division's MI battalion have two types of radar--
AN/PPS-5 and AN/PPS-15--that provide the supported commander with timely and
accurate combat information and target acquisition data. They can detect and locate
moving objects when other assets cannot. They are best used for random, short periods
of time to search small areas or on a schedule for random or specific targets.

b. The AN/PPS-5 radar detects and warns of enemy dismounted movement over 3,000
meters; AN/PPS-15 radar works between 1,500 and 3,000 meters. Units can also use the
AN/PPS-5 to search beyond engaged forces for indications of reinforcement,
withdrawal, and enemy move ments to outflank or bypass friendl y forces in the
engagement area.

c. The AN/PPS-15 radars provide the commander with highly mobile GSR support in
operations where the heavier, less portable AN/PPS-5 radar is impractical.

8-35. EMPLOYMENT

The airborne force commander attaches intelligence and EW assets from the MI
battalion to maneuver units for the airbor ne assault. The or ganization of the IEW unit
varies based on the situation. Some assets return to higher echelon control as these
levels of command establish CPs in the airhead. Other assets can remain attached (GSR,
CI/IPW, and so on) to the battalion or brigade. (FM 34-80 provides a detailed
discussion of employment, C 2, and information flow for IEW assets.)

Section X. SIGNAL SUPPORT

Victor y on toda ys fast-moving, complex, lethal battlefield requires a reliable, secure,

quick, a nd flexible communications system. This section discusses the key signal
resources employed in airborne operations. Many sources provide signal support to the
airborne force to include the joint communications support element in the joint
headq uarters, or ganic airbor ne signal units, and US Air Force or US Navy/Marine
elements.
8-36. JO INT AIRBORNE COMMUNICATIONS CENTER/COMMAND POST

The joint communications support element provides modified C-130 and C-141 aircraft
for the JTF commander to use en route to the theater or in orbit. The aircraft have roll-
on/roll-off modules and provide SATCOM, UHF, VHF, HF, secure/nonsecure voice,
and teletype to link the JTF commander with higher headquarters and component
commanders. (Table 8-6.) After arriving in theater (for example, at an ISB or REMAB),
crews can off-load the JACC/CP modules and place them into operation in a ground
mode. The Defense Communications Agency provides more communications support
through the Defense Communications System. Through DCS satellite relay suppor t, the
DCA connects the JTF commander in the JACC/CP to higher headquarters.

8-37. AIRCRAFT COMMUNICATIONS

Signal units organic to the airborne force usually provide support for installation of
Army communications in Air Force aircraft. These units can install air-to-air or air-to-
ground communications equipment and associated equipment based on mission
requirements. Three communications systems options exist: a secure en route
communications package that is UHF air-to-air; HF air-to-ground; and SATCOM air-to-
ground a nd air-to-air.

a. Secure En Route Communications Package . The SECOMP is used mainly for air
to air between key ground force leaders on different airdrop aircraft. It has an AN/ARC-
51BX radio that can transmit and receive voice between aircraft. The operator uses the
intercom position to talk to the commander on the same aircraft when outside
transmission is undesirable. The radio has KY-58 VINSON security. The operator can
use a guard receiver to monitor a fixed-frequency guard channel. The frequency range is
225- to 399.95-MHz and the operator can preset up to 20 channels. About 10 minutes
before the drop, the operator can set on LOS mode to net with JAAP SATCOM radios
in the airhead, a lthough this net is used only to de liver abor t instructions or other last-
minute information.

b. High-Frequency O perations. After coordination, the ground commander can use the
second HF radio in the aircraft. He can secure this radio with the KY-65 PARKHILL
device, using the DMDG with the secured radio for communications. The DMDG
enables the commander to send and receive digital messages in electronic form.

c. Satellite Communications Operations. MC-130, AC-130, ABCCC, and JACC/PT

aircraft (as well as HH-53, PAVE, low helicopters) have hard-mounted, hatch-mount,
satellite antennas; they routinely employ SATCOM during ope rations. SATCOM is
more reliable than HF for long-distance communications between airborne force
elements, JTF headquarters, and any elements in the objective area. JCSE or organic
signal units can provide SATCOM support. There are several SATCOM radios in the
aircraft, but the main ones used are the URC-101 and AN/PSC-3, both of which operate
in the 225- to 400-MHz range.

d. Hatch-Mounted Antennas. Sattelite communications and HF systems, which are

employed o n C-130, C-141, and C-5A aircraft, require hatch-mounted antennas. The
most often used antenna is round, platter-shaped and, once mounted, sits parallel to the
skin of the aircraft. Both UHF antennas can be used for SATCOM communications.
Their radiation patterns slightly overlay. This provides useful information when the
operator compares the flight route and aircraft location in reference to the satellite used.
The operator can access both antennas, keeping one operational and one on standby.

8-38. RADAR BEACONS

The use of portable radar beacons in tactical operations improves radar-equipped

TACAIR, bombers, and NFG support ships to provide night/adverse weather support to
forces in the airhead. Commanders can use beacons in CAS, naval bombardment, AI,
aerial delivery, and special operations.

a. Close Air Support. Radar beacons deployed with ground combat elements provide
an accurate radar offset aim point for radar bombing of immediate or planned CAS
targets. Commanders can use them to provide the direction to the target area while laser
designators provide an exact aim point. Subordinate commanders request radar beacon
CAS missions with standard air request procedures. The agency coor dinating and
directing CAS support ensures that the radar beacon and aircraft radar system are
compatible, that the threat is permissive, and that radar beacons are the best delivery
mode.

b. Air Interdiction. Planned AI attacks use previously emplaced radar beacons as

radar-significant, offset, aim points. The positions, operational status, and codes of each
radar beacon are published in the OPORD.

c. Aerial Delivery. Ground forces can deploy radar beacons for aerial delivery (airdrop)
operations as agreed on between the CCT, or other terminal control personnel, and the
mission controlling agency. Radar beacons provide airlift aircrews a positive means to
locate, recognize, and align on a DZ, LZ, or EZ. Aircrews can make airborne radar
approaches and airdrops under adverse weather/night conditions using the radar beacon
as a terminal reference.

d. Aircraft Position Updates. Aircrews can use radar beacons placed along ingress
routes to update their aircraft position. This reduces the need for navigation aids at or
near the target and increases radar delivery accuracy.

e. Naval Gunfire Operations. The NGF radar beacons can be employed in any joint
operation or to support other naval operations--for example, mine sweeping, patrolling,
or coast-watching activities.

(1) Navigation. Accuracy of NGF depends on the ability of the ship to fix its position.
Ships depend o n visual reference poi nts or landmarks to fix their pos ition. When
visibility is reduced, ships can use radar to determine their position relative to the
known location.

(2) First-round accuracy. Radar beacons aid in the delivery of accurate NGF under all
ceiling and visibility conditions. Navigation errors can be minimized, improving first-
round accuracy.

f. Operational Considerations. When using radar beacons, units must consider the
following:

(1) Range. Radar beacon employment range for an aircraft mission is limited by aircraft
radar capability, offset data, and aircraft altitude. Targets should be within 15 NMs of
the radar beacon location when the aircraft can ingress to the target at or above 10,000
feet AGL. When aircraft must ingress to the target at a low altitude (below 1,000 feet
AGL), targets should be within 5 NMs of the beacon. Shipborn radar has the ability to
"see" a full 360 degrees of horizon. However, because it sits lower than aircraft radar,
target coverage for an NGF mission is limited by radar beacon signal transmission
range.

(2) Placement. Placement of radar beacons depends on the following:

(a) Terrain and foliage attenuation. Since transmission of radar energy to and from the
radar beacon is LOS limited, the beacon should be placed at the highest elevation
available, while still providing for security of operations. Foliage attenuation greatly
reduces acquisition ranges.

(b) Aircraft headings. Ideally, the axis of aircraft attack should be within 45 degrees of
the beacon-to-target bearing, with the beacon placed beyond the target. Heading directly
toward the beacon can degrade the accuracy of the system--some offset can be required.
(Figure 8-3.) Because of typical aircraft radar sweep limits, a heading variance of over
45 degrees can cause the beacon to disappear from the radar scope before delivery. If a
run-in heading in excess of 45 degrees offset is dictated by other factors, degradation of
delivery accuracy can occur. Overflight of friendly soldiers should be avoided to the
extent threat and airspace permit. Placement of the beacon along the axis of the run-in
heading is not a factor for gunship operations since the gunship usually orbits its target.
For airlift aircraft, the beacon should be placed on the PI for airdrops, either side of the
leading edge of the LZ for airland, and between the right release panels for extractions.

(c) Aircraft position updates. For aircraft position updates, the radar beacon should be
located en route to the target and be within 10 NMs either side of the proposed ingress
flight route.

(3) Electromagnetic energy. Radar beacons are vulnerable to enemy DF equipment.

Operators should limit "on" times to prolong survivability. "On" times must be firmly
established during premission coordination between supporting and supported units.
Most beacons can be triggered by any pulse-type signals of sufficient power transmitted
in the beacon-receiving frequency band. Like any radar system, the beacon is
susceptible to radar jamming and accidental interrogation.

(4) Weather. Areas of heavy precipitation between the aircraft or NGF support ship and
beacon can reduce the radar energy enough to prevent triggering the beacon. The trigger
range and beacon detection range can be extended or reduced by atmospheric
conditions, especially in the mid latitudes and tropics. Cold weather adversely affects
most batteries; more time can be required for warming up the magnetron before use.

(5) Communication. The controlling agency should relay mission data to the aircrew
before takeoff or during ingress. When radio communications are impossible, alternate
methods must be prearranged.

(6) Air threat. Radar beacons can be best employed in a permissive environment. This
provides for higher flight profiles and better acquisition.

g. Responsibilities. Responsibilities for beacon employment during joint airborne

operations are divided among a number of agencies.

(1) Before deployment, the Air Force TACC coordinates the allocation of Air Force
radar beacon assets as required by the JFC and ensures that allocated aircraft are
compatible with the deployed beacons. The JFC is responsible for frequency
management.

(2) During execution of airborne operations, the ABCCC in its role as ASOC/TAC
extension maintains operational control and a current status list of TAF RBs in its
tactical area of responsibility. This includes the type, location, operational status, code,
on/off status, and responsible ground unit or TACP. The ABCCC directs the
employment of radar beacons in its area of responsibility and computes the required
bombing data for planned and immediate missions. TACP computations can be used for
actual missions when the ABCCC is unable to provide the data. The ABCCC can relay
beacon bombing data to the AWACS or FACP for air interdiction and CAS missions. If
AWACS is not available, the ABCCC controller can provide data to the flight.

(3) The AWACS, as an extension of the CRC, provides vector assistance to the beacon
attack aircraft, as required. It passes radar beacon bombing data received from the
ABCCC to the attack aircraft.

(4) The TACP employs beacons for CAS. They determine beacon location, target
location, and bearing and range to the target. The TACP reports beacon status to the
ABCCC.

(5) The airlift control center maintains close coordination with appropriate TACC for
beacon use and directs the allocation of beacons for aerial delivery operations. The
ALCC resolves conflicts between CCT radar beacon activity and associated ground or
AF units before employment.

(6) The tactical airlift liaison officer coordinates the use of radar beacons for aerial
delivery operations with appropriate units and agencies. He assists the airborne unit in
forwarding specific aerial delivery mission beacon requirements to higher echelons.

(7) The CCT employs radar beacons to support aerial delivery operations in the airhead.
They report beacon location, operational status, and code on/off status to the AATCC,
TALO, ABCCC, and ALCC.
(8) During airhead operations, the airborne force commander forwards additional
requirements for radar beacon coverage to the JFC and coordinates relocation of
beacons with the ABCCC.

h. Airdrop Procedures. Radar beacons provide a positive means to locate, identify, and
align on DZs, LZs, and EZs. While not a normal peacetime delivery method, with some
restrictions aircrews can successfully perform airdrop missions using the beacon as a
terminal reference. The navigator receives the beacon on the aircraft radar and provides
headings for the pilots to fly to the release point. C-130 airdrops in IMC require either
AWADS-equipped aircraft or a radar beacon. A C-141 requires an AN/TPN-27 (zone
marker) or a radar beacon to perform IMC airdrops. Special restrictions must be
complied with anytime the beacon is used to airdrop. All formation airdrops in IMC
also require aircraft equipped with station-keeping equipment.

i. AC-130 G unship Procedures. The primary concern in any AC-130 gunship

operation with ground soldiers is the identification of friendly positions. Beacon
operations are ideal for this purpose, especially during adverse weather. Once in radio
contact, ground personnel provide beacon offset range in meters and specify whether
the bearing is in reference to magnetic or true north. When correcting fire, ground
personnel call ordnance impacts in meters long/short, and meters left/right from the
ordnance impact area to the target. They use bearing from the radar beacon to the target
as the base line. If ground personnel are not at or near the radar beacon, they can elect to
call the impacts in range and bearing from the target.

j. Naval Gunfire Procedures. Three fire control methods can be employed using a
radar beacon. The NGF support ship selects the best method, considering ship position,
target pos ition, a nd whether the beacon pos ition is accurately know n.

(1) Method Alpha. This method can be used when the exact location of the radar beacon
is know n (OPORD or radar beacon team information). The beacon is used as a
navigation aid to determine the ship's position.

(2) Method Alpha modified. This method c an be used when the exact location of the
radar beacon is unknown, and when combat grid charts are not available. The target
location is given in polar coordinates from the beacon. The ship plots the beacon, the
ship's relative positions, and target relative position to engage the target.

(3) Method Bravo. This method can be used whether or not the radar beacon location is
known. Target location is expressed in polar coordinates from the radar beacon. The
beacon location is the point of aim, and offsets are introduced into the NGF computer to
lay the gun on target.

k. Authentication. Proper joint authentication procedures must be used during radar

beacon missions. Because intraservice authentication tables differ, each air, land, and
sea element must obtain the joint authenticator, AKAC-1553, through unit COMSEC
custodi ans. This joint authenticator, which has been developed for crisis or contingency
use only, is called the Dryad Numeral/Authentication System. This system is used for
joint interoperability worldwide and is a portion of the intertheater COMSEC package.
Section XI. MILITARY POLICE SUPPORT

The MP have four battlefield missions: they ensure battlefield circulation control; they
provide area security; they are charged with the EPW mission; and, at the discretion of
the echelon commander, they provide law enforcement assistance. These missions are
composed of a number of combat, CS, and CSS operations. The operations are
performed independently or in any combination needed to accomplish assigned
missions. The MP, in performing these operations, provide a full range of battlefield
support.

8-39. MILITARY POLICE (AIRBORNE) STRUCTURE

Airborne MP companies (consisting of 99 soldiers each) have four 21-man platoons to

support their divisions. The remaining platoon provides battlefield circulation control
and area security near the division main CP.

8-40. MILITARY POLICE OPERATIONS

Airborne MP accompany their divisions during the assault phase to provide support to
the division airheads and support areas. Military police generally provide DS to the
maneuver brigades during the assault. After the assault is complete and the airhead
established, the MP platoons revert to a GS role.

a. The nature of airborne operations makes the capture of EPWs likely. Thus, during the
first stage of the assault phase, priority of MP support is given to EPW operations. After
assembly on the DZ, MP collect EPWs captured during the assault. Combat elements
are relieved of EPWs as far forward as possible. Enemy prisoners of war are collected at
the airhead and held for later movement to a central collecting point. Also during the
first stage of the assault, MP perform limited straggler control and undertake
reconnaissance operations. They also provide security for critical supply storage points
when possible.

b. When the airhead is established in the second stage of the assault, the priority of MP
support normally shifts to BCC. Although vehicle support is limited in the airhead, BCC
measures are needed due to the limited roadnets with the airhead. Battlefield
coordination center measures ensure timely and efficient use of the roadways by
vehicles needed to support the assault. Also, during the second phase of the assault, MP
elements take on muc h of the EPW and security suppor t requirements. They provi de
area security in the expanding areas created by the outward bound tactical forces, They
also begin to move EPWs to the central collection point for later movement to a holding
area.

c. As the airhead is expanded during the third stage of the assault, MP stress battlefield
circulation control, area security, and EPW operations to support the division
commander's tactical plan. When the operation enters the defense phase, MP support
expands to include all MP missions, as dictated by the commander.
Section XII. NUCLEAR, BIOLOGICAL, AND CHEMICAL PLANNING

The airborne force will fight on the integrated battlefield the same as on the
conventional battlefield. However, CSS and communications will be disrupted more
and the airborne force may be isolated or its movement restricted by radiation or
chemical contamination. Tactics used on the conventional battlefield are especially
suitable to the integrated battlefield--full use of cover and concealment, overwatch, and
suppression. However, in such an environment, the unit must be prepared to quickly
implement protective measures to enhance its survivability. They must also provide
timely information to higher headquarters to assist in the employment of and protection
from nuclear and chemical weapons.

8-41. COMMAND AND STAFF RESPONSIBILITIES

The commander meets his responsibility for preparing individuals and units to operate
in an NBC environment by the following:

• Reduce unit vulnerability through terrain shielding and increase protective

measures, while positioning elements to accomplish the mission.
• Specify a level of protection, when faced with an NBC threat, that will reduce
the risk of mass casualties.
• Receive and submit reports on enemy use of NBC weapons IAW procedures
established by higher headquarters.
• Withstand a n NBC attack with minimum interference to the assigned mission.

More specifically, the brigade/battalion commander in conjunction with his staff--

• Determines the presence of a chemical hazard (using observation, chemical

alarms, or detection devices), warns personnel, and takes proper defensive
action.
• Requires that tasks be performed while personnel are in MOPP.
• Determines the presence of a radiological hazard (using radiation detection
equipment), warns personnel, and takes proper defensive action.
• Conducts monitoring and s urve ying to de termine the extent and degree of
contamination in a given area.
• Establishes priorities for the treatment and evacuation of casualties.
• Decontaminates personnel and equipment.
• Conducts area damage control operations to minimize the impact of NBC
weapons.

8-42. CHEMICAL STAFF

The brigade/battalion commander relies primarily on his chemical staff to provide

advice and recommendations on all aspects of NBC operations. The chemical staff
consists of a chemical officer, a chemical operations NCO, and an NBC enlisted
alternate. The chemical staff is normally assigned to the S3 section of the battalion staff.
Specific responsibilities include the following:

• Prepare unit NBC defense SOP.

• Supervise NBC training and defense preparation.
• Ensure that NBC equipment is available and serviceable.
• Advise commanders and other staff officers on all aspects of operations in an
NBC environment.
• Coordinate efforts of NBC defense assets within the company/battalion.

8-43. UNIT PROTECTIVE MEASURES

The following paragraphs provide guidance on measures which will reduce the
brigade/battalion's vulnerability to NBC effects, and enhance its ability to detect, avoid,
and measure NBC hazards.

a. Unit Vulnerability. A unit's vulnerability to a n NBC attack is determined by its

nearness to the enemy, its dispersion, its level of NBC training, and the degree of
protection available to its personnel and equipment. When de termining this
vulnerability, it is assumed that the enemy can deliver his weapons on the most
vulnerable location within the brigade/battalion area.

(1) To determine how vulnerable a brigade/battalion would be to an enemy-delivered

weapon--

(a) Determine, from brigade, the yield of the weapon most likely to be used against the
brigade/battalion.

(b) Determine the degree of exposure of brigade/battalion elements.

(c) Determine the radius of vulnerability. The Rv is the radius of a circle within which
friendly soldiers will likely become casualties.

(d) Estimate the results of a potential enemy attack by drawing a circle showing the Rv
on a transparent map scale, aligning the map scale to find the most vulnerable point, and
making a visual estimate to determine coverage of the brigade/battalion.

(2) If coverage exceeds a level acceptable to the commander, the unit may decrease its
vulnerability by digging positions or moving into existing protection, such as built-up
areas. A centralized location may be depopulated if the unit is in an assembly area.
Units may be separated laterally or in depth in a defensive situation. Distance between
moving elements in the offense may be increased.

(3) While dispersion decreases the risk of destruction from nuclear attack, it may
increase the possibility of defeat in detail and complicates the problem of control. The
degree to which units can be dispersed depends on the mission of the brigade/battalion
and on the risk the commander is willing to accept.

b. Monitoring. Radiological monitoring involves the use of radiac instruments to detect

and measure residual radiation. Monitoring is performed while stationary. Its primary
purposes are to allow warning of all personnel of the arrival or presence of a
radiological hazard and to provide a basis for prompt action by the commander to
minimize the hazard. Monitoring is included in normal reconnaissance and intelligence
activities of all units. Radiological monitoring at all levels is initiated on order of the
commander, on order of higher headquarters, or as required by SOP or other standing
instructions. Units discovering radiological contamination in an area report according to
their SOP and mark the area with a radiological contamination marker. Company-size
units ensure soldiers are trained to operate unit dose-rate meters.

(1) Periodic monitoring. Periodic monitoring is routinely conducted when operating on

the integrated battlefield. It requires units to monitor a designated point in their area a
minimum of once each hour.

(2) Continuous monitoring. All units initiate continuous monitoring when a fallout
warning is received; when on an administrative or tactical move; when a nuclear burst is
reported, seen, or heard; when radiation above 1 centigray a hour is detected by periodic
monitoring; and on order of the commander.

c. Surveying. Surveying may be necessary if monitoring reports do not provide the

information needed to evaluate the contaminated area.

d. Operation Expos ure Guide. Battalion operations in a nuclear environment will be

complicated by the necessity to control exposure of personnel to nuclear radiation. An
OEG provides a method of determining the maximum radiation dose to which units may
be exposed. The OEG will be received from higher headquarters and stated in terms of
degree of risk. The maximum dose is determined using the past accumulated dose or
radiation history of the unit.

e. Defense Against Biological Attack. Defense against a biological attack is keyed on

recognition of a biological threat by the enemy, preventive measures that can be taken
by friendly units, and prompt evacuation of casualties.

(1) Recognition is accomplished by alerting unit personnel of indications that a

biological agent may have been employed.

(2) Preventive measures can be taken by each unit to reduce casualties from biological
attack. These include the following:

• Maintain personal hygiene and field sanitation.

• Avoid practices that produce extreme fatigue.
• Provide immunization for enemy biological agents.
• Provide instruction on the care of wounds.
• Use only approved sources of food and water.
• Ensure rodents and other pests are controlled.
• Quarantine contaminated areas.

(3) Casualties of biological attacks will be processed the same as an illness resulting
from normally transmitted diseases. The patients are reported to an aid station by unit
aidmen or evacuated from the airhead (on available aeromedical evacuation) to a
hospital, as required.

8-44. DEFENSE AGAINST CHEMICAL ATTACK

Unit protective measures are governed by the nature of the threat, the mission, the
situation, a nd the weather.
• Avoid crossing contaminated areas as much as possible consistent with the
mission.
• Cross unavoidable contaminated terrain as quickly as possible, preferably in
vehicles, at speeds and intervals that minimize contamination of following
vehicles.
• Decontaminate after crossing.
• Plan heavy work-rate activities for the coolest part of the day, if the situation and
mission permit.
• Thoroughly train each soldier in the use of individual and collective protective
measures.

8-45. MISSION-ORIENTED PROTECTION POSTURE

Mission-oriented protection posture is a flexible system of protection used in chemical

warfare to facilitate mission accomplishment. It requires soldiers to wear individual
protective equipment consistent with the chemical threat, the work rate imposed by the
mission, and the temperature. Individual protective clothing becomes standard combat
dress when directed by the theater commander.

a. Mission-oriented protection posture gives the commander and staff a choice of

chemical protection for their units ranging from no protection at all to full protective
clothing and equipment (Table 8-7). Ideally, a balance between the need for chemical
protection and the work rate required by the mission can be determined to minimize
chemical and heat casualties.

b. All combat operations are conducted under the MOPP system. When there is a
continuing immediate threat of chemical attack, the unit may be required to wear
protective clothing and equipment for extended periods.
c. The flexibility of MOPP in providing for varying levels of individual protection is
limited by heat exhaustion, fatigue, senses, and personal needs.

d. The staff, with primary staff responsibility in the S3 section, will be required to
recommend appropriate MOPP for a particular mission. When the commander gives his
planning guidance for a particular mission, he may specify variations on the MOPP
levels and any such variations from the orders as published in the coor dinating
instructions of OPORDs and OPLANs. In de termining what MOPP to recommend, the
staff evaluates the following:

(1) The type of mission and its relative importance to the overall mission.

(a) What work rate does the mission involve?

(b) What will the temperature be during the mission?

(c) Can the mission given to subordinates be changed or modified to achieve similar
results with an increase in protection or a decrease in risk?

(2) The chemical threat and the capability of the threat forces to employ chemical
agents, and the probability that they will do so.

(3) The expected number of heat casualties versus chemical casualties.

(4) The support required to minimize casualties from all causes, and the estimated time
to complete the mission.

(5) The effects of environmental factors such as temperature and windspeed. (High
winds decrease the probability that the enemy will use chemical agents.)

e. Before the start of a mission, the commander specifies the MOPP level to be used. He
may later direct that this level of protection be increased, decreased, or varied among
individuals or elements within the unit according to his evaluation of the current
situation and operational limitation. He must consider that as the temperature and work
rate increase, the level of individual protection must be reduced and work-pacing
options must be taken, or he must accept the possibility of more heat casualties. One
option is to reduce the chemical protection according to the temperature and work rate.
Other options arc contingent on the hazards of contamination present.

(1) In a contaminated area, the commander may do one of the following:

(a) Rotate jobs requiring a heavy work rate among subordinate units, elements, or
individuals.

(b) Authorize longer and more frequent rest periods. Rest periods are necessary to allow
enough cooling time for the dissipation of built-up body heat. Work/rest periods may be
repeated as many times as necessary to complete a job.

(c) Provide adequate water supply so that personnel can increase their water intake by
drinking small amounts frequently.
(d) Use vehicular transportation whenever possible.

(2) When there is no immediate hazard from chemical agents, a commander may rotate
personnel to various combinations of reduced chemical protection to provide relief from
buildup of body heat. The commander may also allow a small percentage of his soldiers
to be out of their chemical protective clothing at one time. The number of personnel in
reduced protection is determined based on his evaluation of the local situation. Reduced
protection is permitted on a selective basis for personnel performing certain tasks that
require manual dexterity, visual acuity, and voice communication. It may also be
necessary after considering the long-term psychological effects on personnel wearing
full chemical protective clothing and equipment for extended periods.

(3) When there is no danger from chemical contamination (verified by the use of the
unit's chemical-agent detector kits) and soldiers are required to operate at moderate to
heavy work rates, the commander may authorize them to progressively reduce their
protection by--

• Opening the zipper of the hood (and possibly rolling it up) for ventilation.
• Removing the protective gloves.
• Removing the protective mask and hood.
• Opening the duty uniform or the chemical protective clothing for ventilation.
(This will require loosening or removal of external LBE.)
• Removing some or all of the protective clothing.

(4) The commander can increase the work times significantly when a job requires a
sustained effort for proper accomplishment or is an emergency. It must be noted,
however, that soldiers who work for a long period will then require an extended rest to
dissipate the built-up heat.

8-46. DECONTAMINATION

Chemical decontamination involves removing, neutralizing, absorbing, or weathering

the chemical agent. Biological decontamination involves destroying or exposing the
biological agent to sunlight. Radiological decontamination involves physically
removing the radioactive material.

a. Types of Decontamination. There are three types of decontamination. See FM 3-5

for more information on all types of decontamination operations.

(1) Chemical contaminants on the skin are removed or neutralized by basic soldier
skills.

(2) Hasty decontamination is done to remove gross amounts of NBC contaminants from
weapons, combat vehicles, and each soldiers' clothing and equipment.

(3) Deliberate decontamination is conducted by specialized decontamination units so

that soldiers do not have to wear complete NBC protective equipment.
b. Priorities. The battalion commander normally prescribes the priority of
decontamination. He allocates necessary decontamination squads to ensure its
accomplishment. The following are normal priorities:

(1) Personnel. Individuals or units are removed from contaminated areas, if possible,
and are provided water for bathing. Fresh clothing and equipment are made available,
and a means of disposing of contaminated clothing, equipment, and water is provided.

(2) Food and water. Ration containers are decontaminated with soap and water or other
neutralizing agents, and rations are inspected by qualified medical personnel before
consumption. Closed containers of water may be decontaminated by neutralizing
agents, or uncontaminated water may be transported from another location.

(3) Critical equipment. Personnel and unit equipment vital to mission accomplishment
are decontaminated or exchanged as required.

(4) Terrain. Small terrain areas may often be decontaminated by weathering, or by

moving or turning the contaminated earth with spades or mechanical means.
CHAPTER 9
COMBAT SERVICE SUPPORT
Combat service support for airborne operations must be planne d, orga nized, an d
executed to sustain a fast tempo in highly mobile and dispersed operations. J ust as
the airborne force is tailored for airdrop or airland combat operations, the
logistical system is tailored to s upport and sustain the airhead or lodgme nt by
airdrop, airland, overland, or sea, as resources are available. Doctrinal distances
do not always apply to airborne operations. Therefore, the logistical planner must
be prepared to a dapt and innovate with the resources at hand. Thus, airborne
operations logistics depend greatly on outside support.

Section I. LOGISTICAL PLANS AND PREPARATIONS

Logistical plans cover the four essential elements of logistics: supply, maintenance,
transportation, and services. Brigades, battalions, and companies start their logistical
plans as soon as they receive a WO or instructions to implement an OPLAN. The plan
covers both support during combat and preassault preparation. The part of the plan
covering the preassault phase includes suppl ying the unit, movi ng to the marshaling
area, and conducting logistical operations in the target area. Brigade plans are more
inclusive and detailed than battalion and company plans; battalions and companies are
more concerned with the execution of scheduled logistical functions.

9-1. LOGISTICAL STRUCTURE

A DISCOM forward area support team in each brigade support area provides the
brigade with CSS. The team is tailored to satisfy the requirements of the supported
brigade and is formed around a forward support maintenance company and a forward
medical company. The division support command forms three echelons to support the
assault echelon, the follow-on elechon, and the rear echelon. Each is tailored to the
mission.

a. Assault Echelon. This echelon consists of a portion or all of the FAST as determined
by the commander's concept of the operation. It is normally attached to the supported
brigade during marshaling. This attachment remains effective during the assault phase.
The FAST is tailored for the mission and can include elements from a forward
maintenance company, a forward medical company, and a forward supply company. It
can also include a detachment from the quartermaster airdrop equipment support
company that can assist in the recovery and evacuation of airdrop equipment from the
DZ. The FAST may receive augmentation from corps based on mission needs.

b. Follow-On Echelon. Most of the DISCOM enters the AO in the follow-on echelon
under control of the DISCOM. Normally deploying by airland assault, the CSS follow-
on echelon includes the remainder of the DISCOM HHC (-), a detachment of the
quartermaster airdrop equipment support company, the remainder of the maintenance
battalion, and the supply and transportation battalion. Remaining DISCOM units stay at
the departure airfield in the rear echelon.
c. Rear Echelon. This echelon remains at the departure airhead or ISB and consists of
elements not immediately required in the airhead to support the airborne force. These
elements include the remaining por tions of the DISCOM MMC, maintenance battalion,
quartermaster airdrop equipment support, and the finance and personnel service
compa nies (corps unit). Dependi ng on the duration and nature of the ope ration, the rear
echelon may be called forward and deployed into the AO after the lodgment is
established.

9-2. LOGISTICAL PLANNING RESPONSIBILITIES

Responsibility for planning various logistical aspects of the operation is shared by

several agencies.

a. Assault Force. The airborne force (normally, a brigade or battalion TF) conducting
combat operations has the following responsibilities:

(1) Concentrate, organize, and equip the airborne forces.

(2) Load soldiers and their accompanying supplies and equipment.

(3) Recover airdropped supplies and equipment, and provide CSS units to unload
aircraft in the airhead.

(4) Move supplies from landing fields to airhead supply points by airhead supply units.

(5) Operate airhead supply points.

(6) Conduct logistical operations within the perimeter of the airhead with normal
logistical agencies.

(7) Repair or construct the required airfields within the airhead until ground linkup.

(8) Consolidate, treat, and evacuate casualties from airhead airfields.

b. Division Support Command, Rear Echelon, a nd COSCOM Units. These units

have the following responsibilities:

(1) Receive, procure, and deliver equipment and supplies to rear air bases for
transportation to the airhead.

(2) Move airborne forces to the marshaling camps, and provide for accompanying
equipment and supplies.

(3) Evacuate from rear air bases.

(4) Operate marshaling areas.

c. Air Force Units and Installations. These elements have the following
responsibilities:
(1) Maintain aircraft.

(2) Receive unload, and temporarily store supplies at rear air bases.

(3) Load supplies for delivery to the airhead.

d. Military Airlift Command. These units have the following responsibilities:

(1) Conduct air movement of soldiers, equipment, and supplies to landing areas within
an airhead.

(2) Assist in logistical organization for the receipt of supplies on airfields in the airhead.

(3) Evacuate casualties from airfields in the airhead.

(4) Construct, rehabilitate, and maintain airfields in the airhead after ground linkup.

(5) Supervise loading and lashing operations at the rear air bases for flying safety.

(6) Coordinate deployment of aeromedical evacuation liaison teams, and establish the
tactical aeromedical evacuation system.

9-3. LOGISTICAL PLANNING CONSIDERATIONS

A number of factors and considerations affect logistical planning. Preliminary data

needed to prepare the logistical plan includes an analysis of the AO, the ground tactical
plan, the anticipated duration of the operation, and unit strength.

a. Basic Decisions. For the logistical plan to progress, planners make basic decisions as
early as possible. This allows all responsible agencies to prepare and execute plans for
procurement and assembly of aircraft, supplies, equipment, and personnel. They decide
on the following:

(1) What forces will be involved, how they will be organized, and what their principal
objectives will be.

(2) What the tentative strength and composition of logistical units in the airborne force
will be.

(3) What amount/type of equipment should accompany the airborne force.

(4) What initial supplies will be taken.

(5) What level of supplies should be maintained in the airhead.

(6) What airfields will be used for the landing of soldiers and supplies.

(7) Where marshaling camps will be; what soldiers and materiel will be marshaled at
each camp.
(8) How long it should take to organize airheads in the landing areas.

(9) How follow-on echelons of major airborne force units should be organized, and
what method of movement should be planned for them.

(10) Where rear air bases to be used for supply purposes should be located.

(11) How available aircraft should be allocated for soldiers and supply.

(12) When (on what date) airborne forces should be ready for embarkation by aircraft.

(13) What capacity of the ISB should be maintained at advance air bases to facilitate
supply.

(14) What evacuation policies should be set up.

b. Detailed Plans. Planners prepare detailed logistics based on the basic decisions. The
following considerations also affect the plan:

(1) What facilities are required for staging soldiers at marshaling camps.

(2) How the desired quantities of supplies will be delivered to rear air bases at the
proper time.

(3) How many, what size, and what type aircraft are available, and what their loading
characteristics are.

(4) What materiels-handling equipment is available.

(5) What the distance is between rear air bases and landing areas.

(6) What the characteristics of the proposed airhead are, including road net, storage, and
other facilities.

(7) How long the follow-on supply phase will go on before normal supply procedures
are in effect, including time for construction, repair, or capture of airfields.

(8) How much or how many supplies, equipment, and materials will be available within
the proposed airhead for possible exploitation.

(9) What is the climate, or what season.

(10) If units will have to designate transportation assets for the medical unit to transport
casualties.

(11) If dedicated air MEDEVAC (fixed- or rotary-wing) are required and available.

(12) How casualty assets arc to be evacuated if no corps augmentation is available.

9-4. PHASES OF SUPPLY

There are three supply phases for airborne operations: accompanying supplies, follow-
on supplies, and routine supplies.

a. Accompanying Supplies. These include supplies taken into the airhead by assault
and follow-on units. Accompanying supplies are issued to units before marshaling for
early preparation before air movement and for delivery in the assault. They are carried
into the assault area and include the supplies airdropped with the deploying unit. Each
unit receives and protects its own accompanying supplies, which include unit, force, and
reserve supplies.

(1) Unit supplies. These supplies include each soldiers' combat loads, basic loads of
ammunition and other supplies, and prescribed loads of other classes of supply.
Rigging, loading, recovery, issue, and control of unit supplies are the responsibility of
the airbor ne unit.

(2) Force supplies. These are bulk supplies retained at battalion or brigade that the
backup unit provides. They include all classes of supply. The S4 of the deploying unit is
responsible for controlling these supplies.

(3) Reserve supplies. These are additional supplies brought into the airhead under
DISCOM control; they consist of the airborne force reserve of Class III, Class V,
selected items of Classes II and IV, and Class IX.

b. Follow-on Supplies. Follow-on supplies include all classes of supply; they are air-
delivered after the unit has made its initial assault to help the unit operate until normal
supply procedures can be set up. They are usually prepackaged, rigged, and stored at the
beginning of the operation for immediate distribution on request. COSCOM units will
most likely provide assistance in the packaging of follow-on suppl ies. Quantities are
based on the G4's estimate of the unit's daily requirements. Plans must be developed
that permit flexibility in composition of daily requirements. The battalion S4 requests
follow-on supplies for the battalion. Follow-on resupply is discontinued as soon as
practicable.

(1) Automatic follow-on supplies. These are delivered on a preplanned schedule once a
day, beginning at a time based on the ground tactical plan. The number of days of
scheduled follow-on suppl y depe nds on the specific situation and s hould be enough for
the airborne forces to continue their operations until routine supply is available.
Automatic follow-on supplies are either airdropped to the unit or airlanded at a central
supply point. Follow-on suppl y should not be scheduled for automatic delivery on the
day the ope ration is to be gin because units within the airhead should be fully occupied
with seizing assault objectives, establishing the airhead, and recovering accompanying
supplies.

(2) On-call follow-on supplies. These are held in the departure area in readiness for
immediate delivery to units on specific request. They include more of the items supplied
by automatic follow-on, major items of equipment, and supplies that arc not used at a
predictable rate. The airborne force determines the quantities and types of supplies to be
included in on-call suppl y. Dependi ng on the situation, on-call supplies can be
segregated and prepackaged into loads by type, such as 105-millimeter artillery
ammuni tion, or can be maintained in bulk pe nding emergency requests for specific
types and amounts. Emergency supplies must be delivered within 24 hours. Routine
supplies arc delivered on a flexible schedule--24 to 72 hours after the request. Whenever
any of the on-call follow-on supplies are used, the expended amounts are replaced.

c. Routine Supplies. These are requested and delivered by normal supply procedures.
The DISCOM commander decides when routine supply deliveries should begin,
depending on the tactical situation and s uppl y status of the division.

9-5. CLASSES OF SUPPLY

The following paragraphs provide information about the classes of supply, the use of
captured supplies and salvage, water supply, and special supplies and equipment

a. Supplies are divided into 10 major categories so that items can be readily identified to
each particular class. Classes of supply are the same for all types of combat operations.

(1) Class I. This class includes meal, ready-to-cat, tray pack, and A-type meals.
Airborne units use MREs as the basic load and for follow-on suppl y. Tray packs and A-
type meals may be used later as the airhead develops and the lodgment becomes secure.
Personnel strength reports determine Class I requirements, thereby eliminating
complicated unit ration requests.

(2) Class II. This class includes clothing, individual equipment, tentage, hand tools,
administrative and housekeeping supplies and equipment, and chemical
decontaminants. It also includes suppl ies and some equipment (other than principal
items) prescribed in authorization or allowance tables; it does not include repair parts.
Accompanying supplies include some Class II items. Follow-on and routine supply
include small stocks of individual clothing and equipment while on-call follow-on
supply includes major items of equipment, as the situation dictates.

(3) Class III. This class includes POLs. Unit ve hicles and equipment are usually
delivered to the airhead with fuel tanks 3/4 full to allow for expansion during airlift.
Forecasts for POL are used by units to program delivery of POL as part of the assault
and follow-on supplies. Packaged POL and bulk POL supplies are used. Care must be
taken to e nsure that bulk aviation fuel is dispensed using fuel filters and separators.
Plans for POL should include retrograde of containers for refill.

(4) Class IV. This class includes construction materials and all fortification/barrier
materials. Units can only take a limited amount of Class IV supplies into the objective
area. Careful choice of drop and assault LZs reduces the amount of Class IV supplies
needed to support the operation by minimizing the requirement for construction
equipment and material. Units exploit local resources.

(5) Class V. This class of suppl y includes all ammunition. Planners must consider that,
during the assault phase, a mmunition tonnage is greater than the combined weight of all
other supplies. Units take a basic load only. The amounts are expressed in number of
rounds for each weapon each day. Specified amounts of all types of ammunition for
airborne forces weapons (enough for continuity of the combat operation) comprise
follow-on supply. The amounts of ammunition needed depend on the type of operation
and the strength of enemy opposition. Follow-on resupply should be cross loaded to
offset loss of one type of item if aircraft are lost. Planners provide in advance for
possible additions or deletions of certain types of ammunition. Expenditure rates are
based only on staff estimates, which must take into consideration the following factors:

• Degree of opposition to be encountered during and after the landing.

• Number and type of weapons landed with airborne forces.
• Planned time of follow-on supply.
• Number and types of aircraft to be used.

(6) Class VI. This class includes personnel de mand (Army and Air Force Exchange
Service) items that are usually unavailable in the airhead for sale or issue to soldiers and
other authorized individuals. It should not be confused with the ration suppl ement and
sundries pack. (The sundries pack has items necessary to the health and comfort of
soldiers such as essential toilet articles, tobacco, and confections. It is available in
theaters of operation for issue through Class I channels, pending establishment of
adequate service facilities.)

(7) Class VII. This class includes major end items. Certain items of this class can be
retained for use in on-call resupply to replace those lost in combat or during airdrop.
This is critical for certain items of equipment; especially, engineer items whose loss
could significantly affect the operation.

(8) Class VIII. This class includes medical materiel, which is discussed with health
services.

(9) Class IX. This includes repair parts such as kits, assemblies and subassemblies, and
repairable and nonrepairable parts required for maintenance support of all equipment.
Maintenance elements entering the airhead carry PLL, shop stocklisting, and designated
items from the ASL.

(10) Class X. This includes materiel to support civil affairs and nonmilitary programs.
Airborne operations usually require minimal Class X during the assault phase.

b. Captured Supplies and Salvage. Within limitations prescribed by the commander,

units use captured or abandoned enemy materiel and supplies. The use of captured
equipment/materiel eases the logistical burden in the airhead by reducing the number of
airframes needed in the early stages of the operation. (See FMs 100-10 and 63-20 for
infor mation abo ut restrictions on the use of captured equipment/materiel.) Logistical
considerations require recovery of salvageable equipment; especially parachutes, air
delivery containers, and heavy-drop platforms.

c. Water. Airborne forces carry filled canteens and water purification tablets. They
carry enough full organic water containers for travel to the airhead and consumption
while they are there. Planners must plan for resupply in the air flow to ensure soldiers
have enough water in the airhead. Planners should also determine the location of
possible water supply points. Water purification units are made available in the airhead
as early as practicable.

d. Special Supplies and Equipment. Changing situations in airbor ne ope rations can
make additions, deletions, and substitutions of standard equipment and units' prescribed
loads necessary. Conditions often require the use of nonstandard items such as escape
kits, recognition devices, currency, special individual medical supplies and equipment,
and individual maps. Each unit arranges for these items and distributes them either
before or during marshaling, according to security principles.

9-6. DISTRIBUTION OF SUPPLY

Supply and transport units can accompany the assault echelon to recover assault
supplies transported under control of the airborne force and to establish necessary
supply points. The airborne force can use supply point distribution, unit distribution, or
both to handle supplies. Helicopters can deliver priority supplies.

a. Throughput distribution bypasses one or more intermediate supply echelons to avoid

multiple handling. Commanders choose this method whenever possible to deliver
supplies from the rear echelon to the using unit in the airhead.

b. In the unit distribution method, the issuing agency transports supplies to the receiving
unit's area. They can use ground transpor tation from suppl y poi nts near DZs or airfields,
or they can airdrop supplies directly to the using unit.

c. With supply point distribution, the receiving unit picks up supplies from a distribution
point and moves them in organic transportation. Distribution points for essential combat
supplies are positioned close to the soldiers being served to benefit from the security
provided by the combat elements. This also prevents infiltrating hostile forces from
cutting the suppl ies off from the receiving unit, and s hortens suppl y lines.

d. Supplies must be delivered to the airhead configured for easy handling. Limited
MHE, CSS, and transportation assets available, as well as the tactical situation, affect
supply distribution in the objective area. Multiple DZs must be selected including sites
close to the forward battalions/companies. Some supplies should be packed into CDS
bundles for expedient follow-on resupply.

9-7. RESUPPLY BY AIR

Army and Air Force assets are used for both airland and airdrop, although most Air
Force deliveries are airdrop. Airland is better because special equipment or rigging is
not required. W hen airdrop i s necessary, the Army furnishes the airdrop e quipment and
rigs the loads. Airdrop rigging support for division airdrop resupply comes from
division and corps airdrop units.

a. Preplanned Resupply Requests. Preplanned airdrop resupply can be automatic or on

call. Automatic airdrop resupply can be arranged for a designated time and place to
support specific operations. On-call airdrop resupply uses prerigged and pre-positioned
supplies that are arranged for before an operation and delivered when requested by the
supporting unit. To obtain a preplanned airdrop, units in the airhead request supplies
and equipment from their DS unit in the FAST. (Figure 9-1.)
b. Imme diate Airdrop Resupply Requests. Immediate airdrop resupply missions
result from unanticipated, urgent, or priority requirements. Immediate requests for
resuppl y missions must be flown faster than preplanned missions. Unless the JFC has
allocated airdrop assets for strip alert or has otherwise kept airlift in reserve, immediate
airdrop resupply requests are filled by preempting, diverting, or canceling lower priority
preplanned missions. (Figure 9-2.)
9-8. MAINTENANCE

The probl em of maintenance is usually magnified by the need for security for
maintenance personnel in the assault during the initial combat and by the da mage that
may occur during the air delivery of equipment. (See FM 43-5 and AR 750-1 for
detailed information on all maintenance resources found in airbor ne units, a nd their
employment.)

a. Follow-On. When deployed in the follow-on echelon, the maintenance battalion

provides a forward support company to the FAST supporting each brigade. Habitual
attachments are used to establish working relationships and develop SOPs. Maintenance
responsibilities and procedures may vary through each phase of the operation.

b. Marshaling a nd Deploy me nt. To reduce maintenance requirements in the airhead,

intensive maintenance is performed before departure. Maintenance units support unit
marshaling with unit and DS maintenance, as required. The maintenance battalion,
augmented by MACG elements, provides maintenance contact teams to inspect and
repair equipment during marshaling. Units report items requiring GS maintenance that
cannot be repaired in time for the operation to the DMMC, which requisitions
replacements for those items. The DMMC directs the maintenance battalion to use the
operational readiness float to fill critical combat requirements. The maintenance
battalion repairs all equipment that cannot be repaired at DS level in time for unit
deployment and places it in the division's ORF. Maintenance support units are
positioned as needed to provide repair services.

c. Maintenance in the Objective Area. Maintenance during the initial assault and
subsequent ope rations phase is usually perfor med by maintenance personnel organic to
the battalions and separate companies. The complete forward support company plus
other designated individuals and equipment from the maintenance battalion enter the
objective area in the follow-on echelon. These personnel deploy as part of the FAST to
provide DS of primary weapons systems and communications equipment. They carry
the DS maintenance company's ASL. They use battle damage assessment and repair
procedures for severely damaged or inoperable systems to maintain the maximum
number of systems available for combat. Direct support maintenance support teams
perform mission-essential maintenance; they perform other maintenance only as time
permits. Priority for maintenance is usually give n to weapon systems that require
minimum effort to restore to mission-capable condition. Maintenance support teams are
as far forward as practicable under the control and coordination of the FAST.

d. Expansion and Buildup of the Airhead. During this phase, the remaining DS
maintenance elements are deployed. Direct support is provided to the brigade by the
maintenance company in the BSA. Backup DS is provided by the remainder of the
maintenance battalion in the DSA. The maintenance unit also provides backup DS to
the forward maintenance elements. General support is provided to the division by
nondivisional maintenance assets from the corps.

9-9. TRANSPORTATION

Transportation plans provide for the transport of soldiers and accompanying supplies to
the marshaling area, transpor tation needed during marshaling, a nd the loading of unit
transpor t with suppl ies and equipment for the assault.

a. In an airborne operation, transportation means in the airhead are limited. Captured

enemy vehicles are used to supplement limited transportation resources; efficient use of
organic transportation is essential. The assaulting battalions and brigades will have
austere organic transportation assets and will not be capable of sustained combat
operations without augmentation. Ground transportation for the brigade is provided
largely by the division supply and transportation battalion. Requests for movement of
supplies are processed through logistics channels from the requesting unit S4 through
the FAST to the movement control officer on the DISCOM staff. The MCO controls
and allocates vehicles from the S&T battalion. The MCO controls commitment of the
transportation motor transport company vehicles for CSS within the division.
Requirements that cannot be satisfied are forwarded to the division transportation
officer. He can request the use of divisional aircraft or vehicles support from other units
in the division from the G3 to satisfy these requirements These aircraft and vehicles
may be provided by other divisional units, the COSCOM MMC, or the host nation
when the tactical situation permits.

b. During an airborne operation, greater reliance is placed on Air Force transportation of

supplies, personnel, and equipment than on ground transpor tation. Airhead
transportation requirements can be reduced by delivering supplies and equipment
directly to the battalion or company in Air Force aircraft. LAPES, CDS, and heavy-
drop, properly used and delivered at the correct location, can reduce transportation
requirements speed delivery, and reduce the vulnerability of ground transportation
assets to enemy action. Air Force airlift missions are categorized as preplanned or
immediate.

9-10. FIELD SERVICES

Field services provided by division personnel to the brigade and battalion during
wartime operations include graves registration and salvage. A COSCOM service
element provides these services when division personnel cannot. General support units
operated by corps provide other field services such as laundry, bakery, textile
renovation, and airdrop. Limited GRREG services are usually the only field service
available in the airhead, although all can exist in the marshaling area. Staging bases in
the rear provide airdrop support as a service.

a. Graves Registration. Airborne units have no graves registration capability and

require augmentation to perform this function. Soldiers must learn how to identify and
process remains and to establish and operate collection points. Units recover remains
and evacuate them to designated locations IAW unit SOP.

(1) Evacuation. After identification, designated unit personnel evacuate remains to the
collecting point in the BSA or the division collection point in the DSA using available
transportation. After coordination with the Air Force, Army units move the remains to
the airfield for aerial evacuation.

(2) Burial. Units perfor m hasty or mass burials only when the tactical situation preve nts
evacuation. The TF commander retains authority for mass burials. The training of
graves registration personnel should include the procedures for marking and recording
hasty burial sites.

b. Airdrop Support. Airdrop is a method of delivering supplies and equipment from

aircraft to ground elements. The division relies on its organic quartermaster airdrop
equipment support company and corps airdrop units for support. (See FM 10-400 for
more information.)

Section II. PERSONNEL PLANS AND PREPARATION

Airborne operations pose all the personnel problems found in other types of operations.
Many airborne unit administrative personnel remain at the rear base where
administrative tasks are more efficiently performed. These factors usually require the
airborne division to decentralize and delegate many of its personnel functions to
brigades and battalions.

9-11. PERSONNEL STRENGTH ACCOUNTING

A record is kept of the personnel participating in the airborne assault and of those that
remain in the departure area. After the assault landings have been made, the units of the
airborne force submit strength reports as prescribed in the force SOP. They include the
number of personnel from other units who have joined the reporting unit. Ideally, the air
mission commander will notify the ground unit commander of personnel who do not
exit the aircraft.

9-12. PERSONNEL REPLACEMENT OPERATIONS

Airborne operations should be launched with full-strength units. Replacements are

retained at division level to fill initial combat losses, as required.

a. Overstrength Replace ments. Personnel losses sustained during the initial stages
(about the first three days) of the airborne operation are estimated and reported. These
include loss estimates for the air movement and early ground phases. Shelf requisitions
for overstrength replacements are based on the total loss estimate. These replacements
should be received in time to be assigned to and train with subordinate units of the
division. They do not participate in the initial airborne assault, but are held in the
departure area and delivered to the objective area when required. Aircraft are allocated
for the movement of overstrength replacements to the objective area.

b. Unit Replacements. It is desirable to have company- to battalion-size unit

replacements briefed and available in the departure area for commitment as required.
These units remain under the control of the next higher headquarters until released to
the airborne commander.

c. Other Replacements. Replacements required besides overstrength replacements are

requisitioned in the usual manner.

9-13. CASUALTY REPORTING

The first soldier having knowledge of casualties submits prompt, factual, and accurate
casualty reports. This is done IAW appropriate regulations, through unit SOPS, and
channels to headq uarters DA for next-of-kin notification. The G1/AG and S1 prepare
casualty-repor ting plans, a nd furnish precomba t instructions and pr ocedures. Each
echelon must prepare to make accurate and timely casualty reports. (See FMs 10-20 and
10-30 for a detailed discussion of casualty reporting at battalion and brigade level.)

9-14. HEALTH SERVICE SUPPORT

Limited numbers of tactical/strategic airframes or the limited duration of the mission

(such as hostage rescue and withdrawal) makes comprehensive planning for austere
operations necessary. Medical plans should include tailored medical packages to
suppor t the initial assault force, with follow-on support to arrive during the lodgment or
subsequent operations phase. Health service support planners must be involved early in
the planning process to ensure that timely and adequate medical support is provided to
the deployed force. Planning considerations include, but are not limited to, the
following:

• Medical threat.
• Casualty estimates.
• Anticipated areas of patient density.
• Anticipated casualty mix.
• Lines of patient drift.
• Field hygiene, sanitation, and other preventive medical considerations.
• Preplanned patient treatment stations, patient collecting points, and ambulance
exchange points.
• Evacuation policy.
• Mode of evacuation.
• Augmentation for the provision of en route medical care on nonmedical
vehicles.
• Augmentation for patient decontamination support.
• Mass casualty plans.

Note: See FM 8-55 for a complete discussion of health service support

planning factors.

a. Health Service Support Planning. The same principles of combat medical support
that apply to other combat Army units also apply to airborne units. The mobility of
airbor ne medical units must match that of the units they suppor t. The medical units
accompany soldiers at all times to provide prompt and efficient medical care and
evacuation. Airborne and air assault divisions' medical support units are the only
division-level medical elements that have emergency surgical capabilities.

(1) In short-duration operations, a very short-term evacuation pol icy is nor mal; usually
less than 72 hours. When air evacuation is possible, necessary medical installations are
near suitable airlanding facilities. When aircraft cannot land for purposes of evacuation,
more medical facilities with an increased holding capacity will be required in the
objective area.

(2) In long-duration operations, allowing for the establishment of medical facilities will
permit a longer evacuation policy as the operation progresses. A firm policy for a long-
duration operation cannot be established in advance; it is modified as circumstances
permit or require.

(3) Evacuation and treatment elements of division-level health service support must
enter the objective area early because unit-level health service support does not have a
holding capability.

(4) Most of the division medical battalion is introduced into the airhead during the
airland phase of the assault. One medical company is initially attached to the FAST to
simplify operational control. The rest of the battalion is committed at a time and place
that best supports the division as a whole and provides the best possible medical care.
Medical battalion headquarters resumes control of subordinate companies supporting
the brigade as early as possible to ensure effective use of the limited medical resources
available in the airhead. Medical companies supporting brigades are scheduled for
deployment early in the assault phase. They provide prompt relief for battalion aid
stations temporarily perfor ming an expa nded treatment and holding mission. Unless the
brigade mission requires offensive action over extended distances, the supporting
medical company establishes a full-size clearing station near an LZ that is centrally
located in the brigade sector.

(5) When a significant delay is anticipated between the deployment of medical

companies and the scheduled arrival of Air Force aeromedical staging facilities in the
airhead, the medical companies are reinforced by corps medical resources. These added
resources provide the capability for holding patients and for helping to load them aboard
evacuation aircraft.

(6) Medical company ambulance resources are reinforced to ensure the capability of
simultaneous support to battalion aid stations and evacuation of patients from the
clearing station to the LZ embarkation point. Elements of the division medical battalion
assigned to undeployed combat battalions are retained at departure airfields unless an
extremely large patient work load develops in the airhead. One or more of the following
methods can be used to evacuate from division clearing stations:

• Aeromedical evacuation from the airhead by the Air Force.

• Evacuation to airland corps medical units arriving in the airhead later in the
operation.
• Evacuation through nor mal charnels after ground linkup.

(7) Medical elements of a division directed to link up with the airhead should be
prepared to immediately supplement airhead medical support, to accept patient
overloads, and to eliminate surgical backlogs in airhead clearing stations. The linkup
division may require reinforcement to perform this relief mission.

(8) If corps medical resources are not readily available because of airframe shortage or
limited response time, the division forward support medical company may have to
assume some of the duties of the MASF. An aeromedical evacuation liaison team can be
deployed with the medical company to interface with the AECC. The FSMC will
assume the MASF duties of staging, manifesting, a nd locating the casualties.

b. Phases of Employme nt. Medical support planning is conducted for each phase of the
airborne operation.

(1) Marshaling phase. Limited outload of divisional units from the CONUS base is
accomplished by CSS within the division. Medical support for the outload of brigade-
size or less airborne forces is accomplished with organic divisional medical assets.
Medical support to a force greater than brigade-size must be provided by a fixed facility
or corps-level medical units. Organic medical platoons within maneuver battalions and
the lead medical company required during the deployment (assault) phase can provide
only limited tailgate medical support to organic elements because personnel and
equipment are preparing to deploy.

(2) Air movement and assault phase. Medical actions during this phase depe nd on the
size of the deploying force. Unit members are cross loaded on multiple aircraft. This
ensures that the loss of one aircraft does not keep other members of the unit from
performing the mission. The fact that airbor ne ope rations usually occur at night to
increase the elements of security and s urprise adds further conf usion on the DZ. The
paratrooper must be able to perform independent actions (such as providing aid to
himself and his budd y) because he maybe separated from the aidman during the initial
assault.

(a) The medical platoon organic to the combat battalion provides immediate medical
support on deployment. It has limited treatment capabilities and no holding capacity.
After the initial parachute assault is completed, unit aidmen in the combat medic section
link up with organic line compa nies and establish CCPs.

(b) As part of the DISCOM FAST, the FSMC provides division-level medical support
to a two-battalion-to brigade-size element. The medical company can be tailored in size
for the initial mission of the airborne assault (Alpha Echelon), with a follow-on
complement (Bravo Echelon) to follow during airdrop or airland activities.

c. Air Force Health Service Support. The airborne unit collects and transports
regulated patients to the Air Force MASF when it is established. It also provides patient
staging in the airhead until the Air Force has facilities available. The Air Force, using
the tactical aeromedical evacuation system, begins intratheater evacuation to supporting
medical treatment units. The TAES is a highly mobile system designed to
deploy/redeploy on short notice to any airfield, including the foremost assault airfields
used to support combat ground forces. As a complete aeromedical evacuation
subsystem, the TAES functions as a total system to provide interim medical care and
expedite the evacuation of the sick and injured. In its deployed form, the TAES
comprises three elements:

(1) The aeromedical evacuation liaison team coordinates with the MRO of the forward
medical treatment units, the aeromedical evacuation control center, and the MASF to
ensure a smooth and rapid flow of patients within the system.

(2) The AECC is the C2 element for the subsystem, coordinating activities among the
elements and ensuring tactical aircraft are made available to meet aeromedical
evacuation requirements.

(3) The MASF provides short-term holding and supportive treatment for patients that
are to be evacuated. The medical flight crews deployed in support of the TAES provide
in-flight nursing care aboard the aircraft. In an emergency, personnel from the MASF
can also provide in-flight nursing care.

The mission of the TAES is to evacuate patients between points of treatment within the
combat zone, and from the combat zone to points outside. Using backhaul aircraft
capability, TAES relieves combat commanders of patient care and protection. The
MASF does not possess any aircraft or physicians. The aircraft are obtained from the
ALCC and the physicians are at the origination and destination facilities. Therefore, it is
vital that all patients be as stable as possible when they arrive at the MASF. Figure 9-3
shows request procedures for aeromedical evacuation via Air Force aircraft.
9-15. PRISONERS OF WAR AND CAPTURED MATERIEL

As with any combat operation, an airborne assault and the subsequent operations phase
will produce PWs, captured materiel of the enemy, and damaged materiel both friendly
and enemy. Plans must be made to handle these potential circumstances with limited
physical battlefield clutter, to recover equipment for rehabilitation and reissue, and to
process enemy PWs to minimize their effect on friendly operations.

a. Prisoners of War. Prisoners of war are captured and tagged with identifying
information; then, they are evacuated from the objective area as directed by the airborne
commander IAW instructions from higher headquarters. They are evacuated to
designated facilities within the departure area. The Army processes, stages, and
provides guards for the evacuation. Prisoner of war collection points are near airlanding
facilities to ease air evacuation.

b. Captured Materiel. Captured materiel to be evacuated by air are designated,

processed, and prepared for air movement by the Army IAW instructions from higher
headquarters. An appropriate notation on the manifest informs the airlift unit of the
classification, designation, and destination of materiel to be evacuated.

9-16. OTHER PERSONNEL SERVICE SUPPORT

Other personnel suppor t system functions include the following:

• Personnel actions.
• Personnel records.
• Administrative services.
• Chaplain activities.
• Legal services.
• Finance services.
• Morale support activities.
• Public affairs.
• Postal services.

(See FM 12-6 for more detailed information.)

a. Personnel Actions. Intense combat greatly reduces the processing of personnel

actions. Therefore, actions that do not seriously affect morale receive a lower priority.
Authority to process personnel actions is decentralized to the lowest organizational level
consistent with effective management, but not so low that an unnecessary or unwanted
administrative burden is placed on that level.

b. Personnel Records. Only the minimum individual personnel records required to

support personnel services are kept within the theater. These records are maintained as
far to the rear as possible, consistent with their use, and no further forward than division
rear or separate brigade (regiment) rear. During contingency operations, personnel
records are maintained in CONUS.

c. Administrative Services. The administrative services office of the G1 section

provides only essential round-the-clock administrative services to the TOC and to the
division main CP during combat operations.

d. Chaplain Activities. While the unit's religious program is under the authority of the
unit commander, the chaplain is the commander's special staff officer responsible for
implementing the program. He ensures personnel can freely exercise their religion. Unit
chaplains perform and coordinate worship services, rites, sacraments, and religious
observances. They give particular attention to providing religious services before
deployment. The chaplain is also a personnel staff officer with direct access to the
commander. (See FM 16-1 for more information.)

e. Legal Services. Legal services are provided to commanders and soldiers of the
division by the Office of the Staff Judge Advocate. The judge advocate provides legal
advice and assistance on all matters involving military, domestic, foreign, and
international law and regulations. The staff judge advocate also supervises the
administration of military justice, processes claims for and against the gove rnment, a nd
furnishes legal assistance to authorized personnel. (See AR 210-1 and AR 210-10 for
more information.)
f. Financial Services. Personnel deploying on an airborne operation will undergo
processing for overseas replacement; any required pay documents will be completed at
that time. Soldiers will be given the opportunity to buy invasion currency, if
appropriate. Combat payments will also be offered, subject to the commander's
approval. (See FM 14-7 for complete details of finance operations in a combat zone.)

g. Morale Support Activities. Morale, welfare, and recreation are the responsibility of
the tactical force commander, but they depend on support from the rear support areas.
The division G1 and brigade/battalion S1s are responsible for requesting external
support from the corps/TAACOM.

h. Public Affairs. Commanders can expect a great deal of media interest in their
activities as they prepare to deploy and conduct parachute operations. Deploying units
should coordinate with the PAO to obtain information for briefings on soldier's
responsibilities and rights when dealing with representatives from the media.

i. Postal Services. Outgoing mail is ordinarily suspended several days before the
operation for security reasons. However, this fact need not be publicized. Because of the
critical status of air transportation, incoming mail is usually suspended during the initial
stage of airborne operations. Once the airhead is established, postal operations are
located in the DSA and are composed primarily of mail-handling activities. Battalion
mail clerks deliver outgoing mail to the postal section, and pick up incoming mail for
delivery to soldiers assigned to their units. Unit mail clerks are responsible for the
delivery of mail to each soldier. (See FM 12-6 for more information.)

9-17. CIVIL AFFAIRS

The G5/S5, if assigned, plans for civil affairs operations in the airhead. If the
commander does not assign a G5/S5, the S1 assumes this role. During airborne
operations, the airborne force cannot provide substantial care and assistance to the local
populace beyond minimum needs. (See FM 41-10 for more information.) Civil affairs
support includes civilian protection and control, labor, and equipment.

a. Civilian Protection and Control. Civil affairs takes population control measures,
evacuates civilians from high-risk or sensitive areas, or relocates civilians from the
airhead. This prevents congestion and provides space for military operations facilities.

b. Civilian Labor. Civil affairs identifies and locates civilians to work within the
airhead. Civilian labor can handle supplies; construct airfields, field fortifications, and
obstacles; and clear fields of fire. (See AR 210-10 for restrictions.)

c. Civilian Equipme nt. Civil affairs identifies and locates civilian equipment that can
be used to support the airborne force. Key items include vehicles, construction
equipment, and materiels-handling equipment.
CHAPTER 10
COMMUNICATIONS
Dynamic, e ffective leadership, more than any ot her element of combat power,
decides victory. A reliable, durable, secure, quick, and flexible command and
control system supports leaders. This system must communicate orders, coordinate
support, a nd provi de direction to the unit in spite of enemy ac tions, loss of
command facilities, and loss of key leaders. The systems available to facilitate
command and control of airborne operations have deve loped into detailed,
universally unde rstood operating procedures. These procedures are designed to
enhance complex joint operations and to e nsure that the airborne operation
capitalizes on surprise. This is ac hieved through centralized detailed planning t hat
supports decentralized operations, e mphasizing mission-type orders. The actions
of the 82d Airborne Division during the invasion of Sicily in July 1943 de monstrate
the need for a robust, flexible, command and control system and confirmed the key
role mission-type orders play in airborne operations.

On 9 July 1943, the first of 226 planes loaded with 3,405 paratroopers and their
equipment began taking off from departure airfields in northeastern Tunisia to take part
in the invasion of Sicily. The force was composed of the 505th Parachute Infantry
Regiment and the 3d Battalion of the 504th Parachute Infantry Regiment, along with
other supporting units. The mission was to assist the 1st Infantry Division landing in
Sicily, to capture the Parte Olivio airfield and to disrupt enemy communications and
movement of reserves. This was the first time in military history that an airborne unit of
this size had been given such a mission. It was also the largest night drop ever made.

During the flight across the Mediterranean, there was no interplane communication. A
strong tail wind broke up the planned formations and blew some planes off course. As a
result, many pilots missed their checkpoints and became lost. Some turned back but
most continued on in the general direction of the island. Because the formations had
been so badly broken up, planes approached Sicily from many directions. Once over
land, the pilots found many of the planned DZs hidden by haze and dust from the
preinvasion bombing. Many planes came under heavy antiaircraft fire and either turned
away from their DZ or dropped their sticks of paratroopers early. Paratroopers and
their equipment were spread over 60 miles of enemy-held territory--not dropped on the
planned DZs.

Despite the scattered drop that forced drastic changes to the original plans, each
soldier knew his mission. When paratroopers realized they were not on their correct
DZs, they immediately organized into small groups led by whatever officers or NCOs
were present. They began disrupting enemy communications, destroying enemy
positions, halting enemy movement toward the landing beaches, and fighting their way
to their original objectives. Later, Italian prisoners estimated the number of American
paratroops to be between 20,000 and 30,000, a considerably larger number than the
actual 3,405 paratroopers of the 82d Airborne Division.

During an interview after the war, General Kurt Student, commander of the German
paratroops during the war, gave his assessment of the airborne operation in Sicily. He
described it as effective even though the paratroopers were widely scattered. In his
opinion, the amphibious landing could have been driven back to the sea if the soldiers
of the 82d Airborne Division had not blocked the German reserves.

A comprehensive communications system has developed since the operation in Sicily.

The system requires detailed planning and coordination to ensure effective control
during airborne operations. This chapter outlines a communications system that allows
the battalion or brigade commander to act within the operational concepts of AirLand
Battle doctrine. (See FM 101-5, FM 7-20, and FM 7-30 for additional information and
doctrine on C2 for all levels of command.)

10-1. FUNDAMENTALS FOR USING SIGNAL FACILITIES

Several guiding fundamentals exist for using signal facilities in airborne operations C2.

a. Airborne forces use all available means of communication with priority to command
channels.

b. Airborne commanders have access to all signal facilities controlled by the USAF on a
common-user basis.

c. Commanders exchange LOs with radios to maintain contact between headquarters

and to ensure close real-time coordination.

d. Commanders coordinate with and thoroughly brief all personnel to include

supporting combat aviation, airlift forces, higher headquarters, lateral units, and follow-
on ground units. The briefings ensure proper use of a large number of channels in the
integrated s ystem.

e. Commanders ensure positive and continuous communication by establishing alternate

or duplicate channels and routes of signal communication.

f. To ensure radio contact, commanders must make provisions for relaying or

retransmitting messages.

g. Essential signal personnel must move in the first air serials; all subsequent signal
units precede the echelon they serve.

h. Elements cross load communications personnel and identify them with their key
leaders for relocation in the bump plan.

i. The joint commander establishes communications with the airborne and airlift
commanders.

10-2. CONSIDERATIONS

Airborne operations require communications between all elements, which is not always
easy. Communications inherent in airborne operations are discussed herein.
a. The use of special navigational aids and horning devices to lead the aircraft to the
correct DZ/LZ can cause communications problems. Highly specialized airborne force
personnel (CCT/LRSU) equipped with navigational aids, homing devices, radar, and
visual signals must be airdropped into the objective area in advance. Personnel can then
set up their equipment to guide subsequent aircraft.

b. For proper control in the subsequent movement of personnel, supplies, and equipment
into the objective area, units in the area must have long-range radio communication with
the rear base. Units initially establish long-range radio communications from higher to
lower headquarters. The higher headquarters can be on land, sea, or air many miles from
the objective area. Often, they must maintain contact through a system of relays or
retransmission sites.

c. Airlift forces bringing reserves or supplies require air-ground radio communications

when--

• The operation is aborted.

• The weather prevents the planned resupply.
• The enemy gains control of the DZs/LZs/EZs.
• Undetected antiaircraft installations exist along the line of flight and preclude
resupply.
• Reserves are needed at any one of several points other than the primary DZ/LZ.

d. Close air support plays a more important role in airborne operations than in normal
operations. The airborne commander needs direct and positive radio communication
with supporting CAS until sufficient fire support assets can be delivered to the airhead.

e. Key leaders jump with their tactical radios or use small handheld radios to quickly
establish control once on the ground. Also, small radios can be carried in by soldiers or
parachuted into the area in separate containers. The method of delivery and the need for
ground mobility impose limitations on the size, weight, and amount of communications
equipment for RATELOs. Larger vehicular-mounted sets can be brought in by heavy-
drop platforms or airland aircraft.

NOTE: Units plan for alternate means of communications to prevent

loss of signal security. (See FM 24-1 for tactics and techniques.)

f. Commanders must resolve C2 relationships, nets, frequency management, code s,

navigation aids, and a myriad of other details before mission execution. The operation's
joint nature creates the greatest potential for communication problems. Contingency
plans, rehearsals, and joint SOIs aid the commanders in resolving problems. Airspace
control and air defense communications deserve special attention for three fundamental
reasons:

(1) DZs or LZs have a high volume of air traffic.

(2) Close air support initially provides the main means of fire support.

(3) The enemy might respo nd first by air, so Army air defense systems must quickly
distinguish friend from foe to prevent fratricide.
10-3. COMMUNICATIONS PLANS

Commanders must prepare C3 plans. These ensure integration and coor dination of the
signal facilities of each of the following airborne force components:

• Airlift units.
• US Naval, US Air Force, and artillery units that provide fire support.
• The command that retains control until it makes contact with adva ncing ground
forces.
• The commander of advancing ground forces.
• Friendly advancing units with whom contact is expected in the airhead.

a. Communications Plan. Communications plans for airborne forces should include the
following:

(1) Procurement of additional personnel for special communications facilities.

(2) Preparation of SOPs and SOIs.

(3) Headquarters communication to subordinate, adjacent, higher, and other concerned

headquarters.

(4) Allocation of frequencies, channels, codes, and ciphers not included in the SOI.

(5) Instructions to subordinate signal officers concerning proposed signal

responsibilities.

(6) Distribution of plans and orders for all units in the marshaling area.

(7) Signal intelligence and signal security.

(8) Use of joint and special cryptographic aids.

(9) Communications personnel and equipment to go into the airhead by teams with each
serials.

(10) Communications equipment and supplies to be landed by aircraft and the sequence
of their delivery. (This should include extra equipment to replace losses expected in the
assault.)

(11) Signal unit elements that remain at the departure airfield to aid in the movement of
communications supplies and equipment.

(12) Location of the rear echelon in the airhead or at the departure airfield/ISB and the
communications personnel required.

(13) The installation and operation of communications channels used for air support
requests.
(14) In addition to provisions for the standard ground communications system airborne
communications plans must be provided for the following:

• JAAP units.
• Small-unit assembly in the forward area.
• Contact nets.
• Communication to and among base elements that remain in the departure area.

b. Communications During Marshaling. Communications during marshaling mainly

concerns facilities provided by the MACG and the USAF. Airborne force
communications personnel are mainly concerned with preparing for the operation.

(1) Facilities furnished by the MACG can include FM radio, HF radio, TACSAT,
retransmission, wire, telephone, teletype, facsimile, and messenger service.

(2) Airborne and airlift unit communications centers maintain close liaison.

(3) For prompt relay of messages, signal personnel must maintain telephone, teletype,
and auxiliary radio channels between the airborne headquarters in the rear area and the
temporary headquarters in the departure area.

(4) Communications required to control the dispersed elements of the command in the
several departure areas depend on--

(a) Length of time various elements are to be in the marshaling area.

(b) Communications facilities of the US Army and USAF units in the marshaling areas.

(c) Possibility of establishing a permanent rear echelon at the departure area.

(d) Requirements for communications with points of arrival and departure.

(e) Availability of personnel and equipment not destined for immediate transfer into the
airhead.

(5) Higher headquarters has the responsibility to establish an internal wire net within the
marshaling area.

(6) Units must use existing facilities.

c. Communications During Air Move ment. En route to the objective area, the
airborne commander can use SECOMP to pass changes in the plan to other aircraft
loads. In the absence of SECOMP, aircrews can relay messages. Aircraft key personnel
or jumpmasters use internal PA systems to pass changes to onboard personnel. To pass
key intelligence updates or to initiate contingency plans, selected aircraft have hatch-
mounted SATCOM radios. These radios can receive transmissions from reconnaissance
or JAAP teams in the objective area or from the rear CP at the marshaling camp or
REMAB.
d. Communicat ions in the Objective Area. The airborne force communications officer
plans communications for the objective area. These plans include the following:

(1) An assault net to operate early during the operation in the objective area.

(2) A transition from the assault net operations to the normal C2 nets.

(3) Communications from the objective area are to--

• Airlift forces.
• Follow-on forces.
• Higher headquarters.
• Supporting tactical air elements.
• Departure airfield (if possible).
• Linkup forces (if applicable).

e. Consolidation and Exploitation. Communications during consolidation and

exploitation of an airhead are the same as for other ground operations.

10-4. ARMY NETS

Army C 2 radio nets provide flexible communications for the initial assault phase of an
airborne operation, for quick displacement of CPs, and for periods when commanders
must maintain voice communication.

a. Predeployme nt TACSAT/IHF Net. Communications personnel from the deploying

unit's higher headquarters install, operate, and maintain this net. Units use it for a
variety of purposes, including intelligence updates and receipt of combat information
from LRSUs or the JAAP. (Figure 10-1.) LRSUs or JAAPs operating in this net arrange
predetermined contact times. They establish code words or procedures to indicate when
the LRSU/JAAP net is operating under duress. The senior commander establishes
contingency plans and pr ocedures for when the LRSU/JAAP and headquarters miss
their communications checks.
b. Outloa d Net. The deploying Army unit commander uses an outload net to monitor
and control unit outload. (Figure 10-2.) The unit uses either small handheld radios or
standard FM equipment, and should always use a secure net. FM equipment comes from
a support unit employed until load time, so the deploying unit can load its own
equipment. If the deploying unit uses handheld radios, it must coordinate frequencies to
prevent interference with aviation operations.

c. En Route (LOS) VHF SECOMP Net. The airborne commander uses this net to
relay instructions and upda tes to s ubor dinates in other aircraft. (Figure 10-3.)
Supporting communications personnel install, operate, and maintain it. Although it is a
secure net, the enemy may still detect transmissions Therefore, either US Army or
USAF commanders can impose listening silence restrictions, mainly during penetration.
The airborne commander's aircraft acts as the net control station.

d. En Route TACSAT Net. Supporting communications units install, operate, and

maintain this net; operators and equipment remain on the aircraft. (Figure 10-4.) The
secure TACSAT net links the airborne force commander, airborne rear CP (which acts
as NCS), ABCCC, and JAAP. This allows rapid adjustments and implementation of
alternate plans that result from last-minute intelligence or combat information. Airborne
elements can practice listening silence LRSU/JAAP and rear CP elements can employ
blind transmissions to provide situation updates. To ensure that this net remains
operational, at least two aircraft in the formation must have TACSAT capability. If
ground aborts occur, the airborne commander can move to the second aircraft as part of
the bump plan. If an air abort or communications malfunction occurs, the formation still
has TACSAT communication with the objective area and the rear CP.
e. FM Nets. Brigade- and battalion-level TFs employ the following FM nets:

(1) Brigade command net. User stations install, operate, and maintain this FM-secure
net. (Figure 10-5.) The brigade TOC serves as the NCS. This net can serve as the assault
net for the initial phase of the airborne assault.

(2) Brigade operations and intelligence net. Units use this FM-secure net to pass routine
and recurring intelligence reports. (Figure 10-6.)
(3) Brigade administrative and logistics FM net. The Brigade S4 in the BSA serves as
the NCS for this secure FM net. The net is used to coor dinate CSS during ground
operations. (Figure 10-7.)
(4) Battalion task force command net. Users install, operate, and maintain this FM-
secure net, which serves as the assault net for the battalion. (Figure 10-8.) The TF TOC
serves as the NCS.

(5) Battalion task force operations and intelligence net. Scouts, combat and
reconnaissance patrols, and attached MI assets can use this FM-secure net as a reporting
net. (Figure 10-9.) Assets for this net may have to be allocated from other
noncommitted units to provide communications equipment to units.
(6) Battalion task force administration and logistics net. The unit S4 i n the comba t
trains serves as the NCS for this secure FM voice net. (Figure 10-10.) The S4 uses it to
coordinate CSS during ground operations.

f. Special-Purpose Nets. Units employ the following nets for special purposes
connected with the conduct of airborne operations.

(1) Airfield seizure net. This secure net requires standard FM voice equipment normally
handheld. ( Figure 10-11.) Units use this net to command a nd control the airfield seizure
operations during the airborne assault.
(2) Airfield control net. The TOC uses this FM voice net to control and coordinate
airfield activities and airland sortie arrivals. (Figure 10-12.) The A2C 2 element includes
at least the S3 air officer, FSO, ADA officer, and TACP. Optional elements include
aviation liaison personnel, Army ATC personnel, and ANGLICO personnel. Need and
communications availability determine who participates in this net. When feasible, wire
communications should supplement radio communications.
(3) Air traffic control net. This net actually includes two nets (UHF and VHF) for
control of fixed-and rotary-wing communi cations. (Figure 10-13.) Collocated
CCT/ATC elements act as the NCS for this net.

(4) JTF TACSAT VHF voice net. This net interfaces TACSAT to FM. It allows the
ground commander to talk to the JTF commander, the ISB, R&S forces, or other units
via FM radio. (Figure 10-14.) This arrangement provides the advantages of TACSAT
range and FM radio mobility. The JTF operations center serves as the NCS. Supporting
communications units install, operate, and maintain this system. Planning for
employment must include a TACSAT-to-FM interface frequency.
(5) JTF TACSAT VHF data net. This net provides facsimile support to elements of the
JTF by rapidly transmitting plans, orders, and overlays. (Figure 10-15.) Supporting
communications units install, operate, and maintain it. The JTF operations center
functions as the NCS.
(6) Brigade radio teletypewriter net. Units employ this RATT net to send hard-copy
messages for long distances without reliance on SATCOM assets. (Figure 10-16.)
Along with IHF radios, it serves as a SATCOM backup system.

10-5. TECHNIQUES

The C 2 communi cations techniques depend on the communications equipment, w hich

depends on the type, size, and mission of the unit.

a. Initial Radio Communications. Airborne units committed by parachute depend on

lightweight, two-way radios; visual communications; and messengers. They can use
TACSAT to send messages back to the rear echelon. The dispersion of landing forces
and the quick action required for success on landing make communications difficult to
establish and maintain.

b. Reinforced Radio Communications. Units can airdrop extra wire and radios and
other communications equipment mounted on vehicles. The value of the vehicular-
mounted radios in airborne operations lie in the unit's mobility-CPs and units are
moving during the initial phase of an airborne operation. Units can also use longer-
range vehicular-mounted radios to communicate with CAS and airlift aircraft; elements
of the land, sea, or air LOC; and the rear support base. COMSEC is crucial, and units
must train and rehearse regularly to maintain COMSEC.

c. Wire Communications. In the initial phases of the airborne operation, units seldom
use wire communication because of the weight of materiel, the time needed for initial
installation, distances involved, and the rapid initial movement off the DZ. As the
situation stabilizes, units lay telephone wire between CPs and within units. Sometimes,
units can use local communications systems that have been seized. To reduce the length
of wire circuits, commanders locate CPs as near to subordinate units as conditions
permit.

d. Messengers. Units use messengers often to carry documents, maps, photographs, and
code books. Leaders must ensure messengers know their destinations and routes.
Efficient messenger service requires intelligent, well-trained, resourceful personnel.

e. Miscellaneous Communications. Other forms of communications that can be used

are panels, pyrotechnics, sound and visual signals, and code words.

(1) Units can use air-ground recognition panels extensively. Planned codes should
always provide for--

• Unit identification.
• Location of friendly soldiers and installations.
• Target designation.
• A simple method of requesting supplies.

(2) Units can use pyrotechnics as a supplementary means for communicating with
aircraft, adjusting artillery, designating targets, and marking bomb lines.

(3) Because airborne operations require precise timing and are normally executed in
phases, units can develop code words for execution of tasks. When arranged in a desired
sequence, this execution checklist perfor ms two functions: units can use code words to
report critical events or tasks when they occur or are executed; and they can schedule
repor ting (due to events) to occur during the operation (enemy contact, mission abort,
and so on). Units can use this technique to preserve radio listening silence. Tailoring
execution checklists to unit requirements by certain elements aids memorization and
prevents compromising the information.

10-6. AIRSPACE CONTROL

The joint force commander usually assigns overall responsibility for airspace control to
the USAF compo nent commander. The airspace control authority works through the
Army Air Traffic Control Center and controls all aircraft operating in the designated
airspace until completion of the airborne operation. This includes centralized control in
the objective area as required by airlift/airborne concepts; it covers operations dispersed
from air facilities over multiple routes with simultaneous operations at several DZs/LZs.
USAF, Army aviation, and air defense units all participate in airborne operations by
closely coordinating in their operations with the commander who controls the airspace.
Brigade and battalion commanders must be prepared to manage this airspace with
organic, assigned, and attached personnel and equipment until dedicated USAF
personnel arrive and assume the responsibility. They may be reinforced with assets from
corps and from the USAF to assist with this responsibility. (See FM 100-28, FM 100-
42, and FM 100-103.)

10-7. ELECTRONIC WARFARE PLANNING

The need for air superiority in an airborne operation requires disrupting or destroying
the enemy air force and air defenses so they cannot interfere with the operation. US
Army and USAF EW assets aid in this process. The JTF commander or a designated
component commander, has other dedicated assets. Commanders within a joint force
have many resources that can satisfy their EW requirements. The information derived
from all EW assets within the JTF must be available to its elements as quickly as
possible.

a. Staff Responsibilities. All staff elements must coordinate to ensure a well-organized

command and a successful operation. Commanders structure staffs to ensure the
integrated application of intelligence, firepower, deception, OPSEC, logistics, and other
staff functions. Rapid improvements in warfare technology require commanders to
stress the integration of protective countermeasures such as EW.

(1) The intelligence staff offers recommendations to the command. The operations staff
is responsible for operations to include applying ECM, firepower, deception, and
OPSEC.

(2) The brigade or battalion commander is responsible for EW support within his
command. He can assign this job to an existing staff element (S2), the signal officer, or
a component element of the division that supports the assault force.

(3) Tactical units, brigade and below, request information from, or forward information
directly to, subordinate tactical commands at the same time they forward it to higher
commands.

b. Support Requests. The S3 coordinates EW support for the land battle. For
conventional ground operations, he does this through the division G3. The G3 sets the
priority for requests and forwards them to the appr opr iate agency based on the urgency
of the request (planned or immediate) and on the assets available.

(1) Predeployment. Requests for EW support while planning for the airborne operation
usually follow conve ntional lines. Units send requests through ope rations channels to
the G3.
(2) En Route. Requests for EW support en route are the responsibility of the AMC.
Immediate requests usually relate to adjustments needed to aid penetration of enemy
airspace. These measures include counterair and JSEAD. The AMC commands and
controls EW assets through an EW weapons controller located on the ABCCC. (Figure
10-17.)

(3) Objective Area Support. Once the airborne force seizes the airhead, they can relay
requests for preplanned Air Force EW support back to ARFOR for tasking. Air Force
channels (TACP) handle immediate requests similar to immediate CAS requests. The
ABCCC, however, is the processing and tasking agency for these requests in its role as
airborne TACC/ASOC.
APPENDIX A
JOINT AIRBORNE ADVANCE PARTY
Terminal guidance aids and control measures are used on the ground in the
objective area to assist and guide incoming airlift aircraft to the designated
DZs/LZs. Combat control teams comprised of Air Force personnel are organized,
trained, a nd equipped to prov ide aircraft terminal guidance. Army teams from the
LRSU, a divisional asset, are organized, trained, and equipped to deploy into the
objective area an d conduct R&S operations before the deploy ment of the airborne
force. The combination of the CCT and LRS teams is known as the JAAP.

Section I. COMBAT CONTROL TEAM AND LONG-RANGE SURVEILLANCE UNIT

A-1. EMPLOYMENT

The CCT's mission is to locate, identify, and mark the DZ/LZ and to establish and
operate navigational aids and ATC communications. This assists and guides airlift
aircraft to the appropriate DZ/LZ. Long-range surveillance teams place under
surveillance one or two NAI in the objective area. They observe and report to the
ground force commander. One of the assigned NAI are usually the main body DZ/FLS.

A-2. DEPLOYMENT

The ground force commander develops plans to deploy the CCT and LRS teams during
the planning stage of an airborne operation. Because of the risk of compromise in
deploying teams into the objective area before the assault phase, the timing for
employment and method of delivery is determined jointly by the airborne and airlift
commanders. They consider the requirement for CCTs to be fully operational in
minimum time after reaching the DZ/LZ. This allows navigational, identification, and
directional aids to be available for the maximum number of aircraft. Early deployment
of the LRS teams is also critical so that detailed and accurate information can be
assembled and passed to the ground force commander.

a. The CCT and LRS teams can be delivered to the objective area by the following
methods:

(1) Airdropped using static line or military free-fall parachuting techniques (HALO,
HAHO) in advance of the airborne assault.

(2) Airlanded using STOL or rotary-wing aircraft in advance of the airborne assault.

(3) Airdropped or airlanded in the lead serial.

(4) Deployed over land by infiltration or other deceptive means.

(5) Deployed by submarine or small-surface craft.

(6) A combination of any of the above.

b. HALO is the preferred method of deployment for the JAAP. Insertion occurs about
24 hours before the insertion of the main airborne force.

c. The organization for deployment depends on the size of the CCT, the number of LRS
teams, and the equipment to be deployed. Necessary airlift for the JAAP is from aircraft
allocated to the Army airborne units.

d. The elements of the JAAP may operate independently in the objective area, or they
may operate out of the same patrol base. They always remain in communication and
conduct linkup immediately before the airborne assault to exchange information and
report. Security of the JAAP is provided through stealth.

e. Unit integrity must be maintained if the JAAP is deployed with the main body. For
airborne operations, they must be deployed with their equipment in a lead aircraft
toward the front of the stick. In airland operations, allocate the JAAP and their
equipment space in a lead aircraft to put required navigational and control facilities on
the ground as soon as possible.

A-3. COMBAT CONTROL TEAM MISSION

The CCT's mission is to quickly establish assault zones (DZs/LZs) in austere and
nonpermissive environments. The mission includes initially placing en route and
terminal navigational aids; controlling air traffic; providing communications; and
removing obstacles and unexploded ordnance with demolitions.

A-4. COMBAT CONTROL TEAM FUNCTIONS

For each tactical airlift mission involving the use of an assault DZ/LZ/EZ, a CCT
performs the functions described below.

a. Formulates and issues ATC clearance, instructions, and advisories to effect safe,
expeditious movement of air traffic in the assault zone area of responsibility.

b. Establishes an airport traffic area around each assault zone and controls all air traffic
within this area under visual and i nstrument flight rules to include conve ntional
approach control functions.

c. Relays advice and information to inbound aircraft about conditions in DZ/LZ/EZ

areas that can have an impact on mission accomplishment. This includes any
information deemed necessary to assist in guiding the inbound aircraft to the objective.

d. Develops terminal instrument procedures for assault zones.

e. Provides and operates navigational aids to support airlift operations that are not
suppor ted b y a comba t communications group or other agency.

f. Marks the assault zone. Army/Navy unconventional warfare forces employ a

receiving unit on the ground to provi de terminal guidance. A CCT is usually not
required. Unconventional warfare forces use only the ground mark release system.
g. Removes obstacles and unexploded ordnance from assault zones.

h. Provides limited weather information and observation.

i. Establishes ground-to-air and point-to-point communications. For each mission, the

CCT can establish any or all of the following communications nets:

(1) UHF/AM. Ground-to-air communications for the control of air traffic.

(2) VHF/AM. Ground-to-air communications for the control of air traffic.

(3) VHF/FM. Primary poi nt-to-point communications with the CCT for intrateam C 2. It
is also used as point-to-poi nt communications between CCTs and other agencies within
an objective area (such as LRS teams, FDC, medical personnel) or as an alternate
ground-to-air communications capability with Army and allied aircraft.

(4) HF/SSB, ground-to-air long-range communications net. This net can be used to
control air traffic.

(5) HF/SSB, point-to-point. This communications net is used by CCTs, ALCC, TALO,
and ALCE for the of the airlift forces.

(6) SATCOM, point-to-point. This communications net is used for like the HF/SSB
point-to-point net.

j. Enters the objective area by the most feasible means in a combat situation.

k. Selects or assists in selecting sites for assault zones and recovery zones.

l. Gathers current ground intelligence data in the objective area, and coordinates with
intelligence representatives to ensure the timely exchange of data.

m. Coordinates with Army and Air Force medical personnel on casualty and patient
staging points.

n. In the absence of an ALCE, performs limited ALCE duties when directed by the
airlift commander.

o. Records statistical data concerning airland extraction and airdrop operations,

including circular error and short field landing assessment.

p. Due to its unique qualifications, also functions in related tactical operations such as
special missions, combat search and rescue, USAF special operations, and forward air
guide duties.

A-5. COMBAT CONTROL TEAM ORGANIZATION

The Air Force assigns combat control teams to MAC. MAC numbered air forces task
CCTs to support joint airborne operations and training exercises, surveys, and other
higher headquarters requirements. Each team consists of Air Force parachutists trained
and equipped for mobile operations. A standard team is composed of 2 officers and 24
enlisted men; however, a commander may tailor manning authorizations as required. If
a tactical situation does not warrant the use of an entire team, it is task-organized into
smaller elements for simultaneous operation of DZs, LZs, or EZs.

A-6. ARMY LONG-RANGE SURVEILLANCE TEAM MISSION

The Army LRS team in the airborne assault conducts R&S operations on one or two
NAI in the objective area. The team also observes and reports on the status of the
DZ/FLS. All reports are made to the ground force commander over long-range, man-
portable communications systems.

A-7. ARMY LONG-RANGE SURVEILLANCE TEAM FUNCTIONS

On notification of impending deployment into an objective area, LRS teams can

perform any of the following functions:

a. One or two days before the insertion, LRS teams to be deployed to isolate with the
CCT, receive an OPORD, and conduct mission planning.

b. Perform static line or HALO parachute operations to insert into the objective area.

c. Conduct surveillance operations on assigned NAI--for example, road intersections,

bridges, main supply route in the objective area, enemy nodes, helicopter LZs. The main
assault force DZ will be treated as a named area of interest.

d. Conduct surveillance of enemy high-value targets.

e. Conduct forward area limited observation program to provide limited weather and
terrain infor mation to the commander.

f. Establish communications with friendly forces in the objective area with the TF
commander at the home station. For each mission, the LRS team can establish any or all
of the following communications nets:

(1) URC-101 tactical satellite communications. Used to report to the TF commander en

route to the objective area.

(2) PSC-3 data burst high-frequency transmission device. Used to send LRS
SPOTREPs to the home station from the objective area.

(3) PRC-104 long-range high frequency. Used by the teams to report back to the base
station in the objective area.

(4) PRC-77/126 FM radios. Used for communications within the team and with other
agencies in the objective area.

g. Other potential missions as directed by the commander to include:

(1) Conduct radiological/chemical surveys of the objective area before the main body
deploys.

(2) Emplace remote sensors, guidance beacons, or jamming equipment.

(3) Direct-fire missions for artillery and NGF.

(4) Conduct pathfinder operations as necessary to support airborne/air assault

operations.

(5) Conduct da mage assessment and NBC-1 report in the AO.

(6) Conduct linkup ope rations with conve ntional and unconve ntional friendl y forces in
the objective area.

(7) Assess indigenous communications systems for pos sible future friendl y use.

(8) Collect information through eavesdropping and wiretapping.

A-8. ARMY LONG-RANGE SURVEILLANCE TEAM ORGANIZATION

The LRSU in the airbor ne division consists of six teams of six men each. The team
leader is a SSG; his assistant is a SGT. There are three SP4 scout/observers and one
PFC RATELO. All members of the team carry the basic infantry MOS and are required
to be parachute qualified. The team leader is coded as an airborne ranger. A TF may
employ from one to six LRS teams in the assault with two to three teams being the
norm.

Section II. DROP ZONES

The selection and marking of DZs to support the airborne operation is a critical event in
the planning stages and s uppor ts the ground tactical plan. The DZs must be large
enough to accommodate the required number of personnel and equipment to be
delivered by airdrop and must be identifiable from the air to prevent a disintegration of
the unit as a result of dispersion on the ground.

A-9. DROP ZONE CRITERIA/SELECTION

Drop zone criteria/selection is the joint responsibility of the COMALF and the
commander of the forces being supported. In accordance with AF Regulation 3-1, DZs
are measured in yards when working with Air Force aircraft. They are measured in
meters when working with Army aircraft.

a. Personnel From Single Aircraft. The minimum size DZ for one parachutist from a
single aircraft is 600 yards wide and 600 yards long. For each added parachutist, 75
yards is added to the length. For example, to find the minimum DZ for a 20-man stick
from a single aircraft, the calculation is as follows:

Length for one man = 600 yards

Length for 19 additional men = 19 X 75 = 1,425 yards

Length for 20 men = 600 + 1,425 = 2,025 yards

For unilateral CCT operations or training, the 75-yard increment allowed for each
additional parachutist can be computed from the point of impact rather than added to the
total length of the minimum size DZ for one man.

b. Equipme nt From a Single Aircraft. The minimum DZ is 600 yards by 1,000 yards
for a drop of one heavy equipment platform from a single aircraft. For each other
platform, 400 yards is added to the DZ length. (For C-141 aircraft, 500 yards is added to
the minimum length for each added platform.)

c. Multiple Points of Impact. To meet specific operational requirements, multiple

points of impact are authorized if the drop personnel have been properly prebriefed. If
the points are placed laterally, the width must be increased accordingly. (This manner of
placement reduces the amount of wake turbulence across the DZ.)

d. HALO/HAHO Personnel. The size of the DZ varies with the number of personnel
to be dropped, their proficiency, the exit altitude, and wind. The CCT leader determines
the suitability of a DZ for a HALO/HAHO jump. The CCT leader should be a qualified
HALO/HAHO jumpmaster, or a member of the JAAP should be qualified to give
advice about the DZ criteria. DZ suitability criteria arc identical for HALO and HAHO
operations.

e. Container Delivery System. The minimum sizes of CDS DZs depe nd on three
factors: the drop altitude, the number of bundles being dropped, and the number and
type of aircraft. Tables A-1 provides the minimum DZ sizes consistent with these
factors.

f. AWADS Formation SKE Procedures. The DZ width is increased by 400 yards.

g. Limited Visibility and Visual Formation Procedures. The DZ width is increased

by 100 yards (50 yards on each side of the DZ centerline).
h. Instrume nt Meteorological Conditions Airdrops. When airdrops are conducted
during instrument conditions, ceiling and visibility minimums must be enforced for
Army personnel training drops. A 200-foot AGL minimum ceiling is required. For Air
Force training, a 300-foot ceiling and 1/2 mile visibility are required for personnel and
equipment. For combat, ceiling and visibility minimums are zero/zero. For joint
exercises, AF personnel are authorized to use Army minimums. When the ceiling is less
than a 600-foot AGL, all personnel, including CCTs, are cleared from the DZ no later
than five minutes before the airdrop TOT. They remain clear until completion of the
drop(s).

i. DZ Selection Criteria. Some DZs are selected to support highly mobile ground
forces, but are not surveyed. Drop zone size is determined by mode of delivery, actual
load dispersal statistics, and personal knowledge. Recovery of air items and air load are
considered, For example, small trees covering the entire DZ might limit recovery of air
items but allow 100 percent recovery of the air loads.

j. Area DZs. An area DZ comprises a planned flight track over a series of acceptable
drop sites (1/2 nautical mile either side of track). This establishes a line of flight
between points A and B. The distance between A and B should not exceed 15 NMs with
a change in elevation of no more than 300 feet. The CCT or special operations reception
committee is free to receive the drop at any location along the line of flight between
points A and B. The selected DZ is marked by a beacon, prebriefed block letter, or
GMRS.

k. Circular/Random Approac h DZs. A circular DZ has multiple run-in headi ngs. The
size of the DZ is governed by mission requirements and useable terrain. A verbally-
initiated release system can be used with no markings.

A-10. DROP ZONE MARKINGS (DAY)

Drop zones will not normally be marked for combat drops unless the CCT or pathfinder
teams have been inserted before H-Hour. Daylight markings must be established and
understood by all participants. (Figure A-1.)
a. Timing Points. For day VFR airdrop operations, the timing points are not marked.
The lead navigator selects the timing point, which is usually a prominent terrain feature.
In the absence of such a feature, two timing points can be selected (before employment,
if possible) and marked by the CCT. If terrain allows, these points are an equal distance
from the extended centerline of the DZ; no more than 1,300 yards before the point of
impact, and between 300 and 350 yards on either side of the centerline (350 yards
minimum for C-141).

b. Point of Impact. For computed air release point drops, except AWADS, the PI is
marked with raised-angle markers or colored panels placed flat on the surface. These
panels form a block letter a minimum of 35 feet by 35 feet; the only authorized letters
are A, C, J, R, and S. (See MAC Regulation 55-130 for suggested circular/random
approach DZ markings.) The letters H and O are authorized for circular DZs. Smoke
(other than red) can be displayed adjacent to and downwind of the letter identifier to
assist in visual acquisition of the DZ and to indicate the surface wind direction. For
CDS drops, smoke should be displayed 150 yards before the PI (six o'clock position).
The PI is not marked for AWADS drops nor will smoke be displaced other than red
smoke.

c. Trailing Edge . The trailing edge of the DZ is not marked for daylight ope rations.

d. Red Smoke Flare Light. Red smoke flare lights on the DZ indicate a no-drop.

e. Signals Other Than Red. Smoke/flares/lights other than red on the DZ indicate
clearance to drop.
f. No Smoke. When smoke is not displayed, a prebriefed signal displayed at the PI or a
radio call from the CCT (or designated reception party) is clearance to drop.

g. Eme rge ncy Signals. Communications security permitting, visual signals should be
confirmed by radio instructions to the aircrews. Temporary closing of the DZ or
temporary postponement of the airdrop is indicated by forming the letter identifier into
two parallel bars; they are placed perpendicular to the line of flight. An emergency no-
drop or drop cancellation is indicated by red smoke/flares/lights or by forming the letter
identifier into the letter X.

A-11. DROP ZONE MARKINGS (NIGHT)

Assembly of personnel and equipment at night on an unfamiliar and hostile DZ may be

the most di fficult task an airborne force must do. The marking of the DZ can be done
using the same techniques discussed for daylight DZ marking. However, the uncertainty
and confusion that is inherent with a night drop must be considered. (Figure A-2).

a. Timing Points. For night operations, timing points are marked (if the tactical
situation permits). If terrain allows, these points should be an equal distance from the
extended centerline of the DZ, b ut not further than 1,300 yards before the poi nt of
impact. The timing points should be between 300 yards and 350 yards (minimum 350
yards for C-141) from either side of the centerline. Each timing point is marked with a
green rotating beacon.

b. Point of Impact. The PI is not marked for AWADS drops. If the hostile environment
permits, the PI for VFR airdrops is marked with a minimum of nine white
omnidirectional lights placed to form a block letter that is a minimum size of 35 feet by
35 feet. The only authorized letters are A, C, J, R, and S. The letters H and O are
authorized for circular DZs. When more than one DZ is in the area, a different letter
must be used on each. Besides the block letter, white ATC lights or flares are displayed
on the PI. For CDS airdrops, the white ATC lights or flares are displayed 150 yards
from the PI at the 6 o'clock position.

c. Trailing Edge . An amber rotating beacon is placed on the centerline axis of the DZ
at the trailing edge (if the tactical situation allows).

d. Emerge ncy Signals. A no-drop condition is indicated by a red beam from the ATC
lights and flares. During unilateral training operations, the absence of prebriefed DZ
markings indicates a no-drop situation. A cancelled mission is indicated by making the
block letter into an X.

Section III. LANDING ZONE OPERATIONS

Airfield criteria to be used in a specific theater of operations are based on local

conditions and determined by Army and Air Force staff engineers acting for the joint
force commander.

A-12. LANDING ZONE CLASSIFICATION

The following general data are intended to relate the Army airfield classification system
to the Air Force classification system. The correlation of these airfields cannot be exact;
specifications depend on operating gross loads, use of aircraft arresting equipment, and
criteria for the particular instrument approach planned, as well as the model and type of
aircraft. Air Force airfields are constructed to standards that indicate the expected life of
the airfield. Expedient airfields arc those surfaced with membrane, landing mat, or both.
Airfields intended for longer use are of semipermanent construction and confor m to the
full operational standards of the theater of operations. Pavement standards are usually
upgraded by using conventional asphaltic or portland cement concrete. They are
constructed to the required thickness for extended use.

a. Assault Zone. This is an unsurfaced landing area, usually clay or compacted soil,
which meets the following criteria:

(1) It is in uncontrolled airspace with no terminal ATC available.

(2) It is not published in IFR/VFR supplements.

(3) It is 3,500 feet or less in length.

(4) It is surveyed b y a CCT.

Requests for CCTs to perform assault zone surveys are evaluated by MAC NAF CCT
staff agencies on an individual basis. For example, the zone can be longer than 3,500
feet, paved, and require a CCT survey. Combat control teams are not qualified to
perform engineering surveys and, therefore, do not survey sites for anticipated DZ
construction.
b. Expeditionary Zone. This zone is surfaced with membrane, landing mat, or both. It
is usually surveyed b y Army or Air Force engineers. Comba t control teams can conduct
surveys of this type of airfield but require assistance from engineering personnel to
determine the weight-bearing capacity of the landing surface.

c. Semipermanent/Permanent Zone. This is surfaced with asphalt or cement. It is

usually surveyed b y engineering units but can be surve yed by a CCT. Air Force survey
teams may consist of an ALCC/ALCE commander or representative, a flight safety
officer, a pavement evaluation engineer, and flight facilities personnel. CCTs can be
tasked by the COMALF to conduct reconnaissance reports of captured enemy airfields
of this type.

A-13. MARKINGS AND IDENTIFICATION

Specific details concerning the type and location of LZ markings as well as airfield
identification procedures are agreed on at joint planning conferences. (Figure A-3.)
Existing international agreements are considered. This information is a special subject at
the final briefing to e nsure all required ground a nd aircrew members understand the LZ
recognition and identification procedures.
a. Airfield Markings. Landing zones are designated with conve ntional markings. The
figures in this appe ndix pertaining to LZs reflect landi ngs in only one direction. When
landings can be expected at both ends of the LZ, the first 500 feet at each end are
marked as the approach end. The COMALF directs the establishment of required
communications and NAVAIDS. These communications and NAVAIDS are usually
provided from within CCT resources during transitory operations.

b. Control Point Locat ion. The control point should be located so the entire length of
the landing, taxiing, a nd pa rking areas are in full view of the controllers. It should be
upwind of the landing area so the dust and debris that rises from an unimproved landing
strip dots not obscure the vision of the controllers.

A-14. DAY OPERATIONS

The usable landing area is marked with vertically mounted VS-17 panels. Orange panels
are placed only at the approach end; all other panels arc cerise. The appropriate airlift
commander reduces the panel markings to the approach end, touchdown area, and end
of runway on well-defined runways during day VMC ope rations. The taxiways and
ramp areas are not marked for daylight operations. For emergency signals, either a red
flare or red light beam denotes a go-around. The ATC light gun is aimed directly at the
pilot.

NOTE: All marker panels are erected vertically to enable the pilot to
readily observe the markings when the aircraft is on the final approach.
At the discretion of the mission commander, the panel markers can be
erected to provide for landing in the opposite direction by folding the
panels in half.

A-15. NIGHT OPERATIONS

The usable landing area must be marked with portable lights (or suitable substitutes).
(Figure A-4.) Six green lights are placed at the approach end-three on each side (about 6
feet apart). Four red lights are placed at the departure end of the runway--two on each
side (about 6 feet apart). All other runway lights are white. Reflectors can be used to
suppl ement the lights.
a. Loading and Taxiing Areas. Loading and taxiing areas are marked as determined
during mission planning. Suitable lights with blue lenses are used; they are placed 500
feet apart on straight parts of the areas. When possible, reflectors are placed halfway
between the blue lights. Light spacing can be reduced to 75 feet on curves and at
corners or intersections.

b. Visual Aids. Visual aids such as strobe lights, rotating beacons, or others may be
needed. When strobe lights are used, they are placed 100 feet apart on the extended
runway centerline. The light closest to the LZ should be placed at the outer edge of the
overrun. The rotating beacon and other visual aids are positioned as determined during
mission planning.

Section IV. LOW-ALTITUDE PARACHUTE EXTRACTION SYSTEM

Sustained ground operations after a successful airborne assault may depend on resupply
by means other than airlanding of suppl ies and follow-on forces. A primary means of
resupply is the low altitude parachute extraction system. LAPES is a low-altitude
method of aerial delivery. This system employs a 15-foot drogue parachute deployed
behind the aircraft and attached to a towplate on the aircraft ramp. At the release point,
the parachute forces are transferred from the towplate to the ring slot main extraction
parachute(s), which then extracts single or tandem platforms from the aircraft. Ground
friction decelerates the load. The total distance from release to stopping point of the
load depends on ground speed, size, number of extractions parachutes, weight of the
load(s), and the type of terrain. Using LAPES with tandem platforms, loads up to
37,175 pounds can be delivered into a small EZ. Since proper site selection for the EZ
depends on a variety of conditions, specific criteria to ensure safety must be used in
physically locating the EZ. (Figure A-5.)

A-16. EXTRACTION ZONE CRITERIA AND MARKINGS FOR LAPES (DAY

OPERATIONS)
The impact/slide-out zone should be clear of obstructions and relatively flat, but it can
contain grass; dirt; sand; short, light brush; or snow.

a. The approach zone on the leading edge of the impact/slide-out zone should consist of
two 400 foot zones (800 feet in total length).

(1) The 400-foot zone nearest the impact/slide-out zone can be a graduated slope. It can
slope from a maximum of 1 foot at the leading edge of the impact/slide-out zone to 12
feet at the farthest end from the impact/slide-out zone.

(2) The next 400-foot zone can be a graduated slope from a maximum of 12 feet at the
inner edge to a maximum of 50 feet at the farthest end.

(3) The inner portion of the approach zone must be clear enough so the impact panels
are visible. Because of the steep aircraft approach, the approach zone slope must not
exceed a 15:1 ratio.

b. The clear area can be a maximum of 1 foot high adjacent to the impact/slide-out zone,
sloping upward to 2 feet at the outer edge.

c. The lateral safety zone can be a graduated slope with obstacles limited to a maximum
of 2 feet at the inner edge to 12 feet at the outer edge.

d. The climb-out zone should contain no obstructions that would prevent a loaded
aircraft from maintaining normal obstacle clearance climb rate after an inadvertent
touchdown, delivery abort, or extraction malfunction.

A-17. EXTRACTION ZONE CRITERIA AND MARKINGS FOR LAPES

(NIGHT OPERATIONS)

The impact/slide-out zone should be clear of obstructions and relatively flat but can
contain grass; dirt; sand; short, light brush; or snow. (Figure A-6.)
a. The approach zone on the leading edge of the impact/slide-out zone should consist of
two zones: one 600 feet in length and the other 1,000 feet in length (1,600 feet total
length).

(1) The 600-foot zone nearest the impact/slide-out zone should be a level area.

(2) The next 1,000-foot zone can be graduated from a maximum of 1 foot at the inner
edge to a maximum of 12 feet at the farthest end.

(3) The entire approach zone must be clear so approach zone and impact area lights are
visible to the aircraft.

b. The clear area and lateral safety zone are the same as for daylight operations.

A-18. EXTRACTION ZONE CRITERIA AND MARKINGS FOR LAPES

(MULTIPLE OPERATIONS)

Lane dimensions for multiple LAPES operations are the same as for single operations.
When establishing two or more lanes, only the right side of the lane is marked. If
available, radar reflectors are placed at the trailing edge of the first and last lanes.
(Figure A-7.) When possible, additional lanes are staggered 100 feet down from lane
one. However, additional lanes can be established side by side beginning at the same
parallel starting point. There are always 150 feet between lane centerlines. Extraction
lanes are designated in numerical sequence from left to right. The left lane in direction
of flight is designated as lane one. The lead aircraft extracts on the downwind lane.
Normally, aircraft spacing is either 10 seconds or 1 minute.
APPENDIX B
DROP ZONE SUPPORT TEAMS
This appendix o utlines the require ments for US Army DZ support teams to
support tactical airdrop operations. It will be used to deve lop imple mentation
plans for assuming DZ support responsibilities. US Army DZSTs will support unit
airdrops of personnel, e quipme nt, and CDS in single-ship and formation-type
airdrops. With some exceptions, t hese airdrops are limited to day/ night visual
conditions. MAC Regulat ion 3-3 governs the operation of Air Force CCT efforts.
Many of the requirements of MAC Regulation 3-3 also apply to US Army DZST
operations. (When referring to MAC Regulation 3-3, DZSTs must ensure that
their copy is current.)

B-1. DROP ZONE SUPPORT TEAM LEADER DUTIES

The DZSTL represents both the airlift commander and the ground forces commander.
He has overall responsibility for the conduct of operations on the DZ.

a. Considering flight safety as well as ground safety, the DZSTL coordinates closely
with the DZ safety officer to observe and evaluate all factors that could adversely affect
the safety of the airdrop operation. If radio contact is possible, the DZSTL will pass
surface wind information and limited weather observations to inbound aircraft and
units, as required. When radio contact is not pos sible, the DZSTL must ensure DZ
markings are properly displayed as prebriefed to convey the appropriate message to
aircrews. The DZST must have radio contact with the drop aircraft for IMC/AWADS
drops.

b. The DZSTL must also evaluate the condition of the DZ before the drop to e nsure that
it is suitable for a safe personnel landing, as well as to ensure that airdropped equipment
can be recovered. The DZSTL places personnel, vehicles, and support equipment so
they are not enda ngered by the airdrop. (Possible parachute malfunction should be
considered when determining placement.) He also ensures the DZ is clear of all
personnel and equipment not required to support the airdrop no later than 10 minutes
before the estimated time over target.

c. The DZSTL is responsible for the operation of all visual acquisition aids and
electronic equipment, such as smoke, flares, signal lights, and radios. He ensures that
this equipment is not used b y untrained pe rsonnel.

d. If conditions are not safe for a successful airdrop, the DZSTL uses prebriefed visual
signals or radio communications to e nsure that the no-drop condition is made known to
the incoming aircraft.

B-2. COMPOSITION/QUALIFICATIONS OF DROP ZONE SUPPORT TEAMS

The DZST consists of at least two members. More members may be required depending
on the complexity of the mission. The senior member of the DZST functions as the
DZSTL and meets the following requirements:
a. He must be an NCO or officer.

b. He must have completed training as a DZST member and satisfy parent service
currency requirements.

c. He must be a qualified and current jumpmaster or an airborne qualified pathfinder for

personnel and heavy equipment drops.

B-3. PREMISSION COORDINATION PROCESS

Premission briefings are vital to the successful accomplishment of any operation. When
possible, all participating members and agencies should take part in premission
coordination and briefing. This allows them to resolve all conflicts and to ensure all
agencies are informed of the details of the operation.

a. Safety Considerations. The monthly joint airbor ne/air transpor tability training, or
appropriate joint exercise planning, conference is the source of most taskings for
missions. Taskings are coordinated as far out as possible to meet many training
requirements.

(1) Add on missions (JA/ATT, special assignment airlift missions, and so on) outside
the normal planning cycle may generate additional taskings. Requested add-on missions
accepted by a MAC airlift unit must be supported by the requesting unit if a CCT is not
available. Add-on mission requirements are fully documented by message traffic to all
concerned units.

(2) After the mission is tasked, the receiving unit coordinates as required IAW a
checklist. (See Figure B-1 for an example.)
b. Operational Responsibilities. Specific responsibilities of the various personnel
involved in the establishment of a DZ are as follows:

(1) The senior combat control representative

(a) Locates in the ALCC or on the AFSOB.

(b) Coordinates with the G3 Air and the TALO.

(c) Ensures that either a CCT element or a DZST is available to operate each drop zone.

(d) Coordinates airspace.

(e) Resolves conflicts with other missions.

(f) Adjusts DZ di mensions and headings.

(g) Develops aircraft communications and handoff procedures for each mission.

(h) Establishes poi nt-to-point radio communications between the DZST and the ALCC
or the AFSOB.

(2) The CCT --

(a) Deploys with the Army airborne and light infantry divisions.

(b) Establishes and operates DZs.

(3) The DZST --

(a) Establishes and operates DZs.

(b) Communicates with the ALCC or the AFSOB.

(c) Maintains the equipment required to operate a DZ.

B-4. EQUIPMENT

The following equipment is required to support DZ operations. It may come with a

CCT, but any unit must have --

• Raised angle marker or VS-17 high-visibility signal panels.

• Smoke (red or green, white, or yellow).
• White light (omnidirectional).
• Signal mirror.
• Binoc ulars.
• Flare device with red and other colored flares (other than pen-type survival
flares).
• Surface wind measuring device (anemometer).
• Compass.
• Strobe light.

Normally, rehearsals and exercise drops should have every acquisition aid a nd safety
device available for the airdrop aircraft if the mission scenario permits. Drops should
have the benefit of air-to-ground communications, PIBAL mean effective wind
measurement, ATC light gun, smoke or flares, and so on, if these items available.
During contingency or wartime ope rations, units may not be able to carry as much
airdrop support equipment. Therefore, it is vital that premission coordination and
briefings thoroughly discuss visual signals (such as drop cancellation, postponement,
authentication procedures).

B-5. DROP ZONE OPERATIONS

Drop zone support team leaders must allow enough time to locate the PI, establish a DZ
heading, locate the control point, and have the DZ operational at least one hour before
the drop. During rehearsals and exercises, the DZSTL may be required to evaluate the
conditions of DZs that have not been used for one year or longer. This should be done
before a mission is scheduled to that particular DZ. In such cases, the DZSTL compares
data in the DZ survey for m with actual conditions in the DZ and s urroundi ng area. He
ensures that significant changes are properly annotated and discussed with the aircrew.
He also notifies the appropriate MAC NAF of the differences. The DZSTL must be
sensitive to the safety requirements of both paratroopers and aircraft.

NOTE: It is common for trees to be within the boundaries of any given

DZ. Trees are not always considered DZ obstructions or a hindrance to
recovery operations.

a. During combat operations, DZ criteria and selection is the joint responsibility of the
airlift commander and the ground forces commander. (For training operations, the
minimum DZ sizes are specified in MAC Regulation 3-3.)

b. Normally, the control point is set up at the PI because this location usually offers the
best view of the DZ and approaching aircraft. If the tactical condition permits, the
DZST may take advantage of this positioning, or he may locate the control point
elsewhere.

(1) For CDS operations, locate the control point 150 yards at 6 o'clock in relation to the
PI and DZ heading (tactical situation permitting).

(2) For all AWADS and station keeping equipment drops, the control point is off the
DZ when the ceiling is less than 600 feet. All personnel are also kept off the DZ.

c. Drop zone markings for computed air release points are discussed in Appendix A.

d. Surface wind limitations for training operations are as follows (unless otherwise
established by the airdrop unit's service):

(1) Thirteen knots for personnel drops (including gusts within 10 minutes of drop time).

(2) Thirteen knots for equipment without ground-quick disconnects.

(3) Seventeen knots for equipment with ground-quick disconnects.

(4) Twenty knots for CDS drops using G13/14-type parachutes.

B-6. PHRASEOLOGY
When radio communication is available to the DZST, it is important for air-to-ground
communications to be brief, concise, and clear to reduce cockpit distraction. Aircrew
members are extremely busy during run in from the initial poi nt to the DZ and
throughout the escape flight path.

NOTE: The DZST must be aware of COMSEC requirements. All air-to-

ground signals must be kept to the absolute minimum.

a. For a no-drop situation, the phrase "no drop, no drop, no drop" must be transmitted.
The reasons for the no drop should be cited at the first opportunity and the aircraft
commander asked what his intentions are. The aircraft commander may elect to airland,
or fly a race track and attempt another drop. If the DZSTL notices a factor that could
affect the safety of the operation (such as a helicopter transiting low over the DZ while
the drop aircraft is on approach), he should notify the aircraft.

b. If the situation requires minimum radio transmissions, a premission coordination or

briefing may establish a drop clearance call as the only necessary communication. Few
C-130s have FM; however, all are equipped with UHF/AM and VHF/AM capability.
Some using units may have UHF/VHF radios. This must be discussed at the premission
briefing.

B-7. GROUND MARKED RELEASE SYSTEM

The most common type of GMRS DZ establishment uses the inverted "L" marking
system. The ground marked release system places the responsibility for determining the
airdrop release point on the ground party. When the DZST is tasked to operate the DZ
using the GMRS, several factors must be considered in determining the release point.

a. Forward Throw. Basically, this is the distance along the flight path that an object or
a paratrooper travels from the time of exit from the jump platform until the parachute
canopy fully opens. This allows other natural forces to act on the load and parachute.
Different loads have different forward throw values.

b. Wind Drift. To determine the distance that an airdropped object travels under canopy
as a result of wind action, use the formula: D = KAV (D = distance travelled in yards; K
= constant value [4.1 for personnel and 2.5 for equipment]; A = drop altitude in
hundreds of feet; and V = wind speed). Mean effective wind speed should be used, if
possible.

c. Panel Place ment. The following procedures are used to establish a GMRS DZ. The
placement of the pa nels is shown in Figure B-2.
(1) Locate the desired PI.

(2) Measure the wind and compute the wind dr ift using the D = KAV for mula.

(3) From the PI, walk the required distance into the direction of the wind.

(4) From this spot, face the direction of the flight path and pace off the distance for the
forward throw. This establishes the actual release point overhead.

(5) Turn 90 degrees to the right and pace off 110 yards (100 meters) for the offset. This
is done so the aircraft pilot can look out his left cockpit window while abeam the release
point and see the panels. The corner panel is placed here. It is best to elevate the panels
at a 30-to 45-degree angle for greater visibility from the air.

(6) The other panels are located as shown in Figure B-2.

(7) Night inverted "L" drops are laid out the same way using directional/omnidirectional
white lights. Small fires, flares, or flashlights may also be used; however, this should be
precoordinated.

B-8. TACTICAL DROP ZONE ASSESSMENTS

During operations, DZSTs are expected to tactically locate and assess a potential DZ for
follow-on airdrop resupply/reinforcement.

a. Normally, the Air Force CCT would be tasked to accomplish this reconnaissance-
type mission, using the MAC Form 339. When a CCT is unavailable, a tactical DZ
assessment may be made using the following checklist guidelines:

• Drop zone name or intended call sign.

• Topographical map series and sheet number.
• Recommended approach axis magnetic course.
• Point of impact location (eight-digit grid coordinates).
• Leading edge centerline coordinates (eight-digit UTM).
• Drop zone size in yards/meters.
• Air traffic restrictions/hazards.
• Name of surveyor and unit assigned.
• Recommendation for approval/disapproval (for disapproval state reason).
• Remarks (include a recommendation for airdrop option CARP, GMRS, VIRS, or
blind drop).

b. Airdrop operations on tactically assessed DZs are made only under the following
conditions:

(1) During training events, the airdrops will be within a military reservation or on US
government leased property.

(2) The supported service accepts responsibility for any damage that occurs as a result
of the airdrop activity.

(3) There must be adequate time for safe, effective planning.

B-9. VERBALLY INITIATED RELEASE SYSTEM

A simple, yet accurate means of ground support of an airdrop operation involves

guiding the aircraft from the ground to the release point via air-to-ground
communications. The DZSTL calculates the release point in the same way as described
for GMRS. He places himself on that release point and guides the aircraft to a spot
directly overhead and radios the aircraft to release cargo/personnel. The following is a
typical scenario:

(Aircraft) L41 - This is Bulldog, over.

(DZST) L41 - authenticate Charlie tango, over.

(Aircraft) L41, Bulldog - Sierra, reporting five minutes, over.

(DZST) Bulldog, L41 - not in sight, continue, over.

After one minute:

(DZST) Bulldog, L41 - In sight, turn left . . . . .

(DZST) (Call sign calls cease) Turn left . . . . .stop turn.

(DZST) Stand by (call about five seconds from drop).

(DZST) Execute, execute, execute. L41, out.

NOTE: Direction changes are given in relation to the direction of flight.

Aircraft will drop on the first call of "execute."

This airdrop option is not too difficult, especially after the DZST has the experience of
controlling even one drop this way. When executing this option, the DZSTL could
conceal himself in bushes, tall grass, or a fighting position at the release point.
APPENDIX C
AIRLIFT PLANNING FACTORS
Air transport resources are seldom sufficient to satisfy all de mands, especially in
large operations. In planning for airlift, commanders must use the fewest aircraft
needed to complete the task in the required time; they decide on the use of
airborne combat forces in light of continuous planning at the highest joint
headquarters in the field. The allocation of air transport resources to supported
services requires detailed staffing. To reduce the time required for staffing,
planning staffs must have the following data available:

• The number of aircraft and crews available, by type.

• The payload that the aircraft can carry for the distance that the operation
demands.
• The number and weights of soldiers, weapons, vehicles, equipment, and supplies
in each unit involved.
• The routine maintenance requirements of the deployed force.
• The availability of materiel-handling equipment.
• Any operational limitations such as the maximum number of aircraft allowed on
the ground at any one time (MOG).
• Intelligence on the enemy situation.

Section I. AIRLIFT ESTIMATES

Planning factors presented in this appendix should be used to make rough estimates of
airlift capability. Due to the many variables involved in every airlift operation, these
factors do not universally apply. Instead, they provide "order of magnitude" estimates.
The use of detailed computer simulation models is encouraged for extensive
calculations.

C-1. AIRLIFT CATEGORIES

The following paragraphs provide broad airlift planning factors for peacetime and
wartime operations. Six airlift mission categories are described, although many airlift
aircraft can perform in more than one mission category.

a. Strategic Airlift. Aircraft in this category provide continuous air movement from
CONUS to or between different overseas areas.

b. Theater Airlift. These aircraft provide air movement of personnel, supplies, and
equipment on a sustained, selective, or emergency basis to dispersed sites within a
theater of operations.

c. Civil Reserve Air Fleet. Aircraft in this airlift category provide airlift services during
emergencies and contingencies through contractual arrangements with selected US
airlines.
d. Tanker And Cargo Airlift. Aircraft in this category provide about 8 percent of the
wartime cargo airlift capability.

e. Aeromedical Airlift. These aircraft move theater casualties to rear area medical
facilities during comba t. They suppor t the DOD regional health care system in
peacetime.

f. Operational Support Airlift. Aircraft in this category support the following Air
Force requirements:

• Command and staff movements.

• Aircrew repositioning.
• Medical team moves.
• Intelligence.

C-2. PALLET INFORMATION

The standard 463L pallet is 108 inches wide by 88 inches long, weighs 355 pounds with
the restraining nets, and uses 2.25 inches of available aircraft height. Unless otherwise
noted, a 463L pallet is a Type I as defined by MIL-P-27443 (USAF). After deductions
for tie-down equipment, the remaining usable area on the pallet is 104 inches by 84
inches. When one of these pallets is loaded to 8 feet (the height allowance for pallet
loads), the space used equals 485 cubic feet. The pallet permits maximum loads,
including wheel loads of 250 psi.

C-3. MAXIMUM PAYLOADS

The size, shape, and density of most payloads rarely permit loading to 100 percent of
the maximum payload capacity. Maximum payload data should not be used for
planning. Using average payload data results in more accurate sorties predictions.

C-4. AVERAGE PAYLOADS

To determine the average payload for bulk cargo, multiply the number of pallets by the
average weight of a pallet. Average bulk payloads are calculated using 2.3 short tons for
each pallet position, including the weight of the pallet. Oversize and outsize payloads
are based on actual loading exercises or output from the load-generator model.

C-5. AIRCRAFT DIMENSIONAL RESTRICTIONS

The following factors are used in determining the longest single item di mensional
restrictions.

a. The loading entrance cross-section dimensions usually gove rn the size of the LSI.
(Table C-1.) However, many other factors (such as vehicle ground clearance, ramp
incline approach angle, cargo compartment geometry, the three dimensional conditions
of the cargo, and floor-loading restrictions) must be considered before conclusive LSI
guidance can be provided.
WARNING

WHEN CARGO CLEARANCE IS WITHIN 6 INCHES OF THE

DIMENSIONAL FACTORS GIVEN IN TABLE C-1, DAMAGE TO THE
AIRCRAFT COULD OCCUR DURING LOADING.

b. Regulations require an aisle of about 14 inches on C-130 aircraft because they do not
have catwalks in the cargo compartments. Aircrews use this aisle to inspect loads and
systems while in flight.

C-6. FUEL REQUIREMENTS AND CONSUMPTION

When planning an airlift mission, fuel requirements must be considered. Aircraft range
and payload are greatly affected by a mission's fuel requirements. As the distance
increases, the fuel requirements increase and the allowable load decreases. Payloads
shown in various figures of this manual already consider fuel needs. However, these
figures usually assume fuel is available at the offload location. Each aircraft requires a
specific fuel type and has a unique fuel consumption rate. (Table C-2.) Before using the
payload figures in this manual, the planner should e nsure that adequate stoc ks of the
correct fuel exist for refueling the aircraft. If refueling is not possible at the offload
station, potential payloads could be reduced, or additional en route stops could be
required. The payloads generated by figures in this manual are based on zero wind fuel
requirements and are suitable for general planning. Actual mission payloads would have
to be adjusted to allow for wind factors at the time of the operation.
NOTE: Performance can be affected if alternate grades of fuel are used.

C-7. AIR REFUELING

The mission planner should never consider more than two air refuelings unless unusual
circumstances exist. When considering air refueling, the deployment distance divided
by three equals the critical leg.

C-8. SPECIAL AIRLIFT DELIVERY MODES

The many variables in determining theater airlift capability make it impractical to show
comprehensive planning factors in a tabular form. To correctly estimate the airlift
capability for specific missions, headquarters MAC/DOOM can be consulted. Theater
airlift missions are developed to support specific exercises and contingency operations
in contrast to intertheater airlift missions, which operate over established routes.

C-9. AIRFIELD RESTRICTIONS

Each aircraft has specific requirements and restrictions to ensure efficient operations
into diverse airfields worldwide. Airfield size, MOG, weather, ATC, and navigational
facilities all influence the selection of alternate airfields. Due to the number of variables
invol ved in determining minimum runway requirements and maximum payloads, an
operational decision is made on a case-by-case basis. Headquarters MAC/DOVF, Scott
AFB IL 62225-5001, can be contacted to obtain the most current data on suitable
worldwide airlift airfields.

C-10. MATERIELS-HANDLING EQUIPMENT

The MHE is a family of forklifts, cargo transport loaders, wide-body loaders, container
lift trucks, and associated smaller equipment designed to interface with the rollerized
cargo movement systems in air terminals and on military aircraft. They are designed to
move palletized cargo on standard 88- by 108-inch pallets between the air terminal and
cargo aircraft in support of airlift operations. Materiel-handling equipment is always
required at the departure airfield and at the arrival airfield once airland operations be gin.

C-11. MISSION SUPPORT REQUIREMENTS

For many airlift missions, MAC support equipment and personnel are necessary to
ensure the success of the airlift flow. Depending on the size and specific circumstances
of the mission, support can range from small requirements routed through common
MAC bases to large requirements routed mainly through undeveloped airfields. These
airfields have no capability to receive or process a major airlift flow. While specific
planning factors provide a wide range of possibilities, it is important to recognize the
likelihood that mission support requirements will increase as the movement
requirements increase.

C-12. AEROMEDICAL EVACUATION CAPABILITY

Aeromedical evacuation capability varies significantly by aircraft type. (Table C-3.) The
C-141B is the primary strategic aeromedical evacuation aircraft. Although other aircraft
can be used on an opportune basis to move patients, the C-130 and C-9A are the
primary aircrafts for theater aeromedical evacuation missions.

a. Assigned aeromedical airlift unit equipment is used to determine the mount of

retrograde airlift for aeromedical evacuation (retrograde airlift is airlift returning from
the area of hostilities).

b. The number of aeromedical evacuation medical crew members required for strategic
evacuation operations is computed on the basis of 50 mission hours a month and a crew
planning factor of 1:25. (one crew member is planned for each 10 patients. For example,
a standard crew complement to support the C-141 planning factor of 65 patients would
be three flight nurses and four medical technicians.)
c. The number of aeromedical evacuation medical crew members required for tactical
evacuation operations is computed on the basis of 60 mission hours a month and a crew
ratio of 1:25. (A standard crew to support C-130 operations would be two flight nurses
and three medical technicians.)

d. Airlift requirements for aeromedical evacuation arc determined by dividing the

number of patients by the patient load factor. (Table C-3.)

C-13. PLANNING FACTORS

Airlift planning factors can be used as source data in a computer simulation model.
They can also be used to estimate how long it would take a given airlift fleet to deliver
(close) a force to a specific location. Section II of this appendix gives detailed
information on each airlift aircraft.

C-14. ESTIMATION OF PAYLOAD DATA

The average payload of an airlift is a basic factor in converting airlift tonnage

requirements into numbers of airlift sorties.

a. Determine the route segment distance.

b. Determine the average payload for each mission. (Table C-4.)

c. Determine the number of missions required using this formula:

NOTE: Any fraction of a mission is always rounded up.

C-15. COMPUTATION OF CYCLE TIME

The cycle time of an airlift aircraft can be used to determine the number of tons a single
aircraft can deliver a day. Cycle time can be affected by choke points in the airlift
system such as diplomatic considerations, airfield availability, weather, and en route
support.

a. Determine the block speed for each route segment at peacetime cruise speeds.
Average block speed can be calculated using this formula:
b. Determine the RTFT using this formula:

c. Determine the TGT using this formula: (Table C-5.)

TGT = Onload Time + En Route Time + Offload Time

d. Determine the cycle time using this formula:

Cycle Time = RTFT + TGT

C-16. DETERMINATION OF CLOSURE

Closure is defined as the total elapsed time from takeoff of the first airlift mission at the
onload base until the last airlift mission lands at the destination base. The following
process provides a closure estimate for moving an airborne division from Tinker AFB to
Cairo. Wartime planning factors apply. The aircraft allocation is 20 C-5s and 50 C-
141s. This example only covers the cargo requirement; however, the passenger
movement could be handled in a similar manner.

a. Determine the Movement Require ments. The Army estimates the Airborne
Division, pre-positioned at Tinker AFB, has these characteristics:

Outsize Oversize Bulk Total

Tons Tons Tons Tons

500 14,000 500 15,000

Since the movement requirement contains outsize cargo, an outsize capable aircraft
must be included in the airlift allocation.

b. Determine the Aircraft Routing. Many common MAC route segment distances are
available; however, if a specific route segment is not listed, t he planner must use
appropriate flight planning documents or compute great circle distances. These figures
are available:

Route Segment Distance (NM)

Tinker - McGuire 1,138

2,234
McGuire - Lajes 3,154

Lajes - Cairo

c. Determine the Average Payload for Each Aircraft Type. The longest route
segment is used to determine the average payload; however, operations into a field with
a short runway could severely limit the payload. Since over 90 percent of the movement
requirement consists of oversize cargo, the "oversize" column should be used to
determine average payloads. (Table C-4.) The 3,500 NM row yields:

C-5 average payload = 65.1 tons

C-141 average payload = 19.6 tons

d. Determine the Cycle Time for Each Aircraft Type. To determine the cycle time for
each aircraft type, the following formulas are used.

(1) Determine block speeds for each aircraft.

Leg C-5 C-141

Distance Block Speed Block Speed

1,138 389 370

2,234 415 394

3,154 427 405

(2) Determine the RTFT for each aircraft type using this formula:
(3) Determine the TGT for each aircraft type using this formula (Table C-5):

TGT = Onload Time (Tinker) + En route Time (McGuire) +

En route Time (Lajes) + Offload Time (Cairo) +
En route Time (Lajes)

TGT (C-5) = (2 + 15) + (2 + 15) + (3 + 15) + (3 + 45)

TGT (C-5) = 13 + 45 = 13.75 hours

TGT (C-141) = (2 + 15) + (2 + 15) + (2 + 15) + (2 + 15) + (2 + 15)

TGT (C-141) = 11 + 15 = 11.25 hours

(4) Determine the cycle time for each aircraft type using this formula:

Cycle Time = RTFT + TGT .

Cycle Time (C-5) = 31.2 + 13.75 = 44.95 hours

Cycle Time (C-141) = 32.2 + 11.25 = 43.45 hours

(5) Determine the tons a day, an aircraft type (T/D/AC) using this formula:

(6) Determine the total tons delivered a day (TT/D) for the fleet using this formula:

TT/D =T/D/AC (C-5) + T/D/AC (C-141)

TT/D = 716.5 + 654.5 = 1,371.0 tons/day

(7) Determine the closure using this for mula:

e. Determine Revised Cycle Time. This example explains one situation when the cycle
time might have to be revised. It involves a large-scale operation where most of the fleet
of an aircraft type are scheduled to be used. In this case, the cycle time might have to be
adjusted to maintain an objective use rate. The UTE rate is not a limiting factor unless
most of the fleet is involved. The example operation involves 210 C-141 aircraft (nearly
all of the C-141s) with a cycle time of 32 hours and an RTFT of 22 hours. The fleet
must not exceed a UTE rate of 10 hours a day. The planned UTE rate is computed using
the following formula:

Since the planned UTE rate of 16.5 hours per day exceeds the objective UTE rate of 10
hours per day, a revised cycle time must be computed using this formula:

The adjusted cycle time should now be used to compute closure.

C-17. PRODUCTIVITY FACTORS

Productivity factors (percentages) are gross measures of an aircraft's ability to move

cargo and passengers to a user.

a. On a strategic airlift mission invol ving an outbound and a return leg, the outbound leg
is productive and the return leg is nonproductive. Therefore, the productive factor would
be 50 percent. It is assumed that the cargo has already been positioned at the aircraft's
departure point. Usually, airlift aircraft must fly one or more positioning legs to an on-
load location. Since productive cargo is usually not moved at this time, positioning legs
reduce the overall productivity factor to a value less than 50 percent. For example, an
aircraft is flying from Charleston AFB to an aerial port of embarkation at Pope AFB
(positioning leg). Then to an aerial port of debarkation at Torrejon AB (outbound leg)
and ba ck to Charleston AFB (return leg). Although the entire round-trip distance is
7,550 miles, only 3,550 miles (the distance from Pope to Torrejon) is considered
productive. Therefore, the productivity factor is 47 percent (3,500 + 7,550).

b. A similar example for theater airlift is not as straightforward. Within a theater,

productive cargo is moved on both inbound and outbound legs. However, the overall
productivity factor for theater airlift aircraft is lower, because the positioning and
repositioning legs compose a greater part of the total distance.

c. Both the strategic and theater productivity factor calculations arc situation specific.
To provide productivity factors with broad planning applications, the following average
productivity factors are compiled:

Strategic Airlift - 47 percent.

Tactical Airlift - 40 percent.

In this context, strategic airlift refers to any aircraft that is performing an intertheater
mission. Theater airlift refers to any aircraft that is operating solely within a theater.

Section II. SPECIFIC AIRCRAFT DATA

This section provides statistical data and comparisons of the characteristics of the major
USAF airlift aircraft. (Figure C-1.)
C-18. C-130E/H DATA

a. Description.

General. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Lockheed, 4
turboprop
engines.

Wing span. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 132 feet, 7 inches.

Overall length. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 99 feet, 6 inches.

Main gear track . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14 feet, 3 inches.

Usable fuel. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . 60,112 pounds.

Mission . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . Cargo, soldiers,

tactical
airdrop, and airland.

b. Loading Characteristics.

Rear ramp, ground, or truck bed level, and 463L system.

c. Main Cabin Dimensions.

Length (maximum usable) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 470 inches.

Width (maximum usable). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 114 inches,

105 inches.

Height (maximum usable). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 108 inches.

Usable floor area (fixed and ramp) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 370 square

feet.

Usable cube (main compartment) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2,8l8 cubic

feet.

d. Door Dime nsions.

Width . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 123 inches.

Height . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 108 inches.

e. Performance. (H-model characteristics that are different are shown in parentheses.)

Maximum ferry range . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3,685 nautical

miles.
(3,962 nautical
miles).
Average cruise speed . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 280 knots (300
knots).
Takeoff gross weight (emergency or wartime) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 173,700
pounds.
Takeoff gross weight (peacetime) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 153,700
pounds.
Normal operating altitude . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18,000
feet/26,000 feet.
(23,500
feet/28,000feet).
Minimum runway requirements:
Takeoff. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2,600 feet
(2,300 feet).
Landi ng. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2,700 feet
(2,360 feet).
Maximum ACL (floor loaded). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35,000
pounds
(35,500 pounds).
Maximum number of 463L pallets . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6.
Maximum number of soldiers:
Wartime . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 91.
Peacetime. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 74.
Maximum number of paratroopers. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 64.
Minimum pavement for 180-degree turn. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 74 feet.
Minimum runway width . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 60 feet.

C-19. C-141B DATA

a. Description.

General . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. .. . . . . . . . . . . Lockheed, 4
turbojet
engines.
Wing span . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 160 feet.
Overall length . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . 168 feet, 4
inches.
Main gear track . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21 feet, 7
inches.
Usable fuel. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 153,352
pounds.
Mission. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Cargo,
soldiers, tactical
airdrop.
b. Loading Characteristics.

Rear ramp, ground, or truck bed level, and 463L system.

c. Main Cabin Dimensions.

Length . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1,120 inches.

Width. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 123 inches.

Height . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 109 inches.

Usable floor area (fixed and ramp) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 937 square

feet.

Usable cube (main compartment) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7,024 cubic

feet.

d. Main Doo r Dimensions.

Width. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 123 inches.

Heigth. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 109 inches.

e. Performance.

Maximum ferry range. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4,531

nautical miles.
Average cruise speed . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . 425 knots.
Takeoff gross weight (emergency or wartime). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 343,000
pounds.
Takeoff gross weight (peacetime). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 323,000
pounds.
Normal operating altitude . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . FL 310-
410.
Minimum runway requirements:
Takeoff (wartime weight) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8,420 feet.
Takeoff (peacetime weight). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7,350 feet.
Landing (brakes only). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3,840 feet
Maximum ACL (floor loaded) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 89,000
pounds.
Maximum numbers of 463L pallets. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13.
Maximum number of soldiers:
Wartime . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 200 (Flying
overland).
153 (Flying
over water).
Peacetime . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 143.
Maximum number of paratroopers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 155.
Minimum pavement for 180-degree turn . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 137 feet.
Minimum runway width . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 98 feet.

C-20. C-17A DATA

a. Description.

General. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . McDonnell
Douglas,
4 turbofan
engines.

Wing span. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 165 feet.

Overall length. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 175.2 feet.

Mission. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Long-
range, heavy-lift
cargo
transport.

b. Cabin Capacity.

Length. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 88 feet.
Width. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18 feet.
Height. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12.3 feet.
Floor area. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1,584
square feet.
Usable cube. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20,900
cubic feet.

c. Main Doo r Dimensions.

Width. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18 feet.
Length . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19 feet, 8
inches.

d. Performance.

Maximum ferry range . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4,700

nautical miles.
Average cruise speed. . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 460 knots.
Takeoff gross weight. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 580,000
pounds.
Normal operating altitude . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . FL 30 to
FL 41.
Minimum runway requirements:
Takeoff . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7,600 feet
with
167,000-pound payload.
Landing (thrust reversal). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3,000 feet
with
167,000-
pound payload.
Maximum ACL. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 172,200
pounds.
Maximum number of 463L pallets. . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . 18.
Maximum number of paratroopers. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 102.
Minimum pavement fo 180-degree turn . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 90 feet.
Minimum runway width. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . 90 feet.

C-21. C-5A/B DATA

a. Description.

General. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Lockheed, 4
turbojet
engines.
Wing span. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 222 feet, 8
inches.
Overall length. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 247 feet,
10 i nches.
Main gear track (outside) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37 feet, 6
inches.
Fuel capacity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 332,500
pounds.
Mission . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Airlift
cargo and soldiers.

b. Loading Characteristics.

Front and aft ramp, ground, or truck bed level, and 463L system.

c. Cabin Capacity.

Length. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 121 feet, 1

inch.
Width . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19 feet, 0
inches.
Height . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13 feet, 6
inches.
Usable floor area (fixed and ramp) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2,747
square feet.
Usable cube-main compartment
(floor loaded). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .18,368
cubic feet

d. Door Dime nsions.

Front . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 228 inches

wide,
162 inches
high.
Rear:
Drive in (ramp down) forward or
level kneel . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .228 inches
wide,
161 inches
high.
Drive in (ramp down) aft kneel . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 228
inches wide,
153 inches
high.
Truck loading (ramp level) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 228
inches wide,
114 inches
high.

e. Performance.

Maximum ferry range . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6,238

nautical miles.
Takeoff to block-in speed. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 436 knots.
Average cruise speed . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 436 knots.
Maximum takeoff gross weight . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 769,000
pounds.
Normal operating altitudes. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . FL 310-
410.
Minimum runway requirements:
Takeoff . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9,150 feet.
Landing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4,610
feet.
Maximum payload (floor loaded) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 291,000
pounds.
Maximum number of 463L pallets. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 36
Maximum number of soldiers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 340
(Airbus
configuration; nor mally
73 soldiers
will ride
in ups tairs
troop

compartment.)
Minimum pavement for 180-degree turn. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 150 feet.
Minimum runway width . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 150 feet.
APPENDIX D
AIRBORNE ELEMENTS OF THE TACTICAL AIR
CONTROL SYSTEM
Airborne operations require extensive coordination between the US Air Force, US
Army, and often other services. The airborne element of the tactical air control
system, consisting of the AWACS and the ABCCC, a ugme nt and eve n replace the
ground-based elements of TACS when response time is critical.

D-1. AIRBORNE WARNING AND CONTROL SYSTEM

The AWACS (designated by the Air Force as the E-3 radar) is a modified Boeing 707
that houses a radar subsystem and va st communications equipment. It is under OPCON
of the TACC. The AWACS radar system can compensate for the major limitations of
ground-based radar systems such as their inability to detect low-flying aircraft due to
line-of-sight restrictions. Other limitations of ground-based radar systems include their
susceptibility to ECM and their vulnerability to attack.

a. Communications. To complement its flexible receiving ability, the AWACS can

communicate with a wide range of systems. It has extensive HF, VHF, and UHF radios
that can be used to communicate with ground controllers, airborne forces, and ground
forces.

b. Missions. The three major missions the E-3 radar can support are tactical, air defense,
and humanitarian.

(1) Tactical. In a conventional warfare environment, AWACS serves as an airspace

control element. From this vantage point behind the front lines, the tactical commander
monitors the allied and enemy forces. He makes the decisions needed to conduct the
battle. The E-3's radar flexibility in the tactical environment is one of its major assets.

(2) Air defense. The E-3's radar flexibility allows it to support tactical missions,
defensive missions, or both at the same time. The aircraft can be used for weapons
control or as a surveillance platform. In an air defense role, the E-3 radar provides
weapons control and surveillance capabilities. It also provides C2 for weapons and
control for air defense regions during stages of increased alerts.

(3) Humanitarian. The E-3 radar can fly into a natural disaster area and can provide an
airborne CP to monitor the situation. It can also provide the needed communications
and control during large-scale disasters.

D-2. AIRBORNE BATTLEFIELD COMMAND AND CONTROL CENTER

The mission of the ABCCC is to provide a worldwide capability for control of air
ope rations during contingencies; in the absence of or in concert with the ground TACS;
and in the forward battle areas beyond the range of ground-based TACS elements. The
ABCCC can act as an extension of a TACC combat operation, as an interim TACC
combat operation, or as an alternate ASOC. It can also coordinate electronic combat,
serve as a joint rescue coordination center, and provide tactical threat warning.

a. Airborne Battle Staff Composition and Duties. The ABCCC battle staff is divided
into four functional areas: command, operations, intelligence, and communications.

b. Communications Capability. The ABCCC was designed to support the air-to-

ground war. As such, each capsule has 20 radios for the ba ttle staff to use. They include
four VHF/AM, four VHF/FM, four HF, and eight UHF. Six of the eight UHF radios are
equipped with HAVE QUICK (antijam). This mix of radios allows the ABCCC to work
with all elements of the TACS and the forces employed.

c. Missions. The ABCCC has five missions:

(1) Airborne ASOC. The ABCCC can fulfill a limited ASOC role or can ensure proper
communications between the ASOC and TACPs or between fighters and FACs.
ABCCC is often the only agency that can fulfill the ASOC role at the onset of
hostilities.

(2) TACC combat operations. In the role of combat operations center, the ABCCC
maintains ground alert and airborne asset status. The real time compilation of
intelligence and operations information allows for flexibility in perfor ming current
operations. In the first stages of conflict, ABCCC allows appropriate TAF operations to
be conducted in the absence of the traditional ground-based TACS.

(3) Electronic combat. With its unique communications ability, the ABCCC can
maintain radio contact for coordination with all electronic combat assets (ESM and
ECM) available to the tactical commander. The combination of intelligence and
operations information within ABCCC allows the situational awareness required to
perform the function. Electronic combat coordination is a growing role for the ABCCC.

(4) Joint rescue coordination center. As a JRCC, the ABCCC can track aircraft;
maintain the status of SAR forces; coordinate with other services' SAR forces; scramble
assets; and marshal, coordinate, and control SARs. These SAR operations can be
conducted in peacetime or war.

(5) Crisis management. The ABCCC can provide on-the-scene C 2 during crisis
situations. Tasks are much the same as for TACC/ASOC missions but are accomplished
on a time-compressed schedule. (See TAC Regulation 55-130 for more information
about employment of ABCCC.)
APPENDIX E
BRIEFINGS, INSPECTIONS, AND REHEARSALS
Preparation for combat includes briefings and briefbacks, inspections, an d
rehearsals.

Section I. BRIEFINGS

All commanders must closely supervise briefings. Soldiers should receive enough
information about the weather, terrain, and enemy in the objective area to perform their
duties intelligently. To allow for contingencies, each person should also know the
overall plan.

E-1. BRIEFING PLAN

A tentative plan for briefings in the marshaling area is prepared before marshaling.

a. Each of the higher units prepares a briefing plan that includes the following:

• Time and place for each briefing.

• Briefing facilities available.
• Personnel involved in each briefing.
• Details to be covered in each briefing.
• Security measures during each briefing.

b. The briefing schedule is coordinated with airlift units so that the crews of assault
aircraft and other selected airlift personnel can attend briefings with the soldiers they
transport.

c. The briefing schedule must allow for briefback of all aspects of the plan at each level.
This requires flexibility in the plan.

E-2. BRIEFING FACILITIES

On arriving at the marshaling area, units establish briefing rooms in buildings, huts, or
tents within the sealed area. Briefing rooms should contain the best possible briefing
aids. The rooms should be big enough to hold the platoon, the aircraft load, or the
largest group to be briefed at one time. Some platoon and squad briefings take place
outside regular briefing rooms with simple aids like maps, photos, and sketches.

a. Each brigade and battalion establishes at least one briefing room. When possible,
each company establishes its own. Otherwise, the battalion provides one or more
briefing rooms for its companies to use. Platoons (or aircraft loads) are rotated through
the assigned briefing rooms according to the briefing schedule. Individual squads can
also be rotated through briefing rooms.

b. On the departure airfield, briefing facilities are established in the joint CP for joint
briefings of the senior airborne and airlift commanders and their staffs.
c. The briefing facilities used by the assault units are kept for use by buildup units.
Advanced landing fields, AAs, and routes in the airhead can be shown to interested
personnel, and the current situation reviewed on the basis of situation reports.

E-3. BRIEFING RESPONSIBILITIES

The S3 prepares the briefing schedule in coordination with the S2 for inclusion in the
marshaling plan. Briefings are critical and are conducted down to the lowest level of
command. Except for key commanders and staff officers, information about the
operation is on a strict need-to-know basis before marshaling, so marshaling area
briefings must be detailed. Each soldier must know exactly the part he plays in the
operation. He must also know the plans of his unit and of adjacent units. Contingency
actions for individuals and units must also be included in these briefings. The S2 should
ensure that the necessary briefing aids are available before soldiers enter the marshaling
areas. An annotated low-altitude air photo of the landing area, explained by photo-
interpreter personnel, is the most effective briefing aid. Accurate terrain models and
sand tables of the airhead are effective. Large-scale maps with defenses and obstacles
overprinted from the latest air photos are valuable as well.

E-4. JO INT BRIEFINGS

For coordination and understanding, a series of joint briefings is conducted during

marshaling for selected airborne and airlift personnel. At these briefings, information
and instructions are given on all matters that are of joint interest in the air movement
and ground assault plans. The schedule and scope of joint briefings are determined at
the joint commanders' conference. Airborne and airlift commanders and selected staff
officers attend the command briefings conducted as part of their conferences. (FM 100-
27 provides a recommended format for joint briefings.)

a. Airlift Crew Attendance at Airborne Unit Briefings. The crews of aircraft should
attend the briefings of the airbor ne unit they are transporting; the aircraft crew and the
airborne unit land are a team in the objective area.

b. Ground Unit Attendance at Airlift Briefings. Ground units send representatives to

airlift unit briefings to learn all they can about Air Force plans, especially air move ment
plans. Although airlift units are responsible for the air movement, airborne units are
interested in --

(1) Takeoff arrangements, i ncludi ng marshaling of aircraft on the ground a nd assembly

in the air.

(2) Routes to the objective, including alternate routes.

(3) Final approach to the objective, including direction of flight, checkpoints on the
ground, altitude, and aircraft formation.

(4) Details of fighter cover and friendly air defense units.

(5) Intelligence estimates on expected enemy air and antiaircraft opposition.

(6) Evasion and escape procedures.

(7) Ditching procedures.

(8) Anticipated weather, including the direction and velocity of the wind at the
objective.

(9) Communications, including signals for the parachute exit.

(10) Use of alternate DZs/LZs.

c. Final Briefing. All aircraft commanders attend the final aircrew briefing, if possible,
It is conducted by the airlift commander or representative just before takeoff. It includes
all last-minute infor mation and i nstructions for the air movement.

E-5. MISSION BRIEFING

The mission briefing is presented by the Air Force for the commanders of the various
dispersed airfields, and for required crew members, plus representatives from other
organizations or services as appropriate. When the dispersed concept is employed, each
commander at the dispersed airfields conducts mission briefings for the crew members
at their respective locations. Joint representation provides a basis for mutual
understanding before the mission and is encouraged at all briefings. This briefing is a
comprehensive coverage of all the mission's phases.

a. Scope. Since the scope of the mission briefing varies with the nature and complexity
of the mission to be performed, it is not possible to outline all detailed matters to be
covered. Handouts can be used for certain subjects such as navigation, operations, and
others at the discretion of the commander. The briefing order is as follows (although the
briefing includes only the items that fit the mission):

• Opening statement by the unit or mission commander.

• Intelligence.
• Operations (first of two sections).
• Navigation.
• Weather.
• Communications.
• Flight surgeon.
• Operations (second section).
• Commander.
• Chaplain.

b. Content. The following items are discussed in the mission briefing. Special briefings
for more detail are the option of the commander.

(1) Opening by the unit or mission commander. This includes --

(a) A brief description of the overall operation.

(b) The purpose of the operation.

(c) The role of the unit.

(d) Participation of other organizations.

(2) Intelligence. This includes--

(a) The general situation, e nemy, a nd friendly forces.

(b) Enemy capabilities.

(c) Friendly air and ground activity, i ncludi ng rescue.

(d) Priority intelligence requirements.

(e) Evasion and escape.

(f) Conduct if captured.

(g) Security.

(h) Reports.

(i) Debriefing, as required.

(3) Operations. This includes --

(a) Execution of the marshaling plan and trip numbers (including designation of spares).

(b) Loading of emergency equipment needed for the mission.

(c) Inspection of aircraft.

(d) Loading of aircraft, including liaison with unit being transported.

(e) Inspection of personal equipment and crew.

(f) Completion of forms (including clearance, weight and balance, and manifests) and
collection of them before takeoff.

(g) Times for stations, e ngines, taxiing, c heck-in, a nd takeoff.

(h) Taxi and runup procedures.

(i) Aborts during runup or takeoff, or while in flight.

(j) Takeoff.

(k) Route and return.

(l) Route, DZ/LZ, and return (including aeromedical evacuation or diversionary routes,
if applicable).

(m) Use of CCTs/LRSU.

(n) Coordination of the crew over the DZ.

(o) Landing and taxiing procedures.

(p) Emergency procedures (other than SOP).

(4) Navigation. This includes --

(a) Airspace restrictions.

(b) Navigational aids.

(c) Emergency airfields.

(d) Coverage of DZ/LZ and salvo area(s) with photos, maps, or other aids. (This should
be covered in a separate briefing after the mission briefing.)

(e) Time hack.

(5) Weather. This includes --

(a) Existing and forecast weather at departure time, on the airfield, en route, and in the
objective area.

(b) Winds at the departure airfield, en route, and at the objective area (including drop
altitude where applicable).

(c) Weather outlook, if the operation is to take place more than 24 hours after the
general mission briefing.

(d) Time and location of the final weather briefing (if applicable).

(6) Communications. This includes --

(a) Call signs.

(b) Frequencies.

• Check-in.
• Taxi.
• Takeoff.
• En route (including special reporting procedures).
• Objective area.
• Landing.
• Emergency.
• Rescue.

(c) IFF use.

(d) Communications security, authentication, and radio silence.

(7) Flight surgeon. This includes --

(a) Health service support missions and type of units involved in the operation.

(b) Required immunizations.

(c) Use of water purification tablets.

(d) Waste disposal.

(e) Endemic and epidemic diseases in the AO.

(8) Operations (second section). This includes --

(a) Schedule for further briefings.

(b) Critique.

(c) Messing and transpor tation.

(d) Flying safety.

(e) Mission reports and other forms.

(f) Maintenance support.

(9) Commander. This includes --

(a) Special command instructions.

(b) Designation of time and place for final briefings on topics such as weather decisions.

E-6. COMMAND AND STAFF BRIEFINGS

Although special emphasis is placed on briefing soldiers in the marshaling area,

operational briefings for unit commanders and staff officers continue, regardless of the
amount and scope of briefings received earlier. Any details of the operation previously
withheld for security reasons are divulged. New intelligence and changes in plans are
promptly disseminated. Information and instructions previously issued are reviewed. A
common briefing on all battalion missions should be given to all regimental/brigade and
battalion commanders. If this is done, battalion missions can be shifted with little delay
in case of inaccurate landings. Company commanders in a battalion should be given a
common briefing so that company missions can be changed if an unexpected event
occurs after landing.
E-7. BRIEFBACKS

Briefbacks and rehearsals are not the same. Briefbacks are related to the planning
process; rehearsals are related to execution. Briefbacks to the commander of operational
concepts should be required from all subordinate commanders and leaders for missions
tasked in OPLANs, OPORDs, or FRAGOs. Briefback times and locations are normally
specified in the coordinating instructions paragraph of the OPORD/OPLAN. The scope
and detail required depends on the mission and time available. It may range from an oral
review using operational graphics to an in-depth explanation using terrain mode ls,
visual aids, and other devices. The commander should conduct at least two briefbacks
with subordinate commanders. When possible, briefbacks should be conducted
collectively at a meeting of the order group. The first briefback occurs immediately after
the OPORD has been issued to e nsure subor dinates understand their mission. The
second briefback occurs after subordinates have prepared their own concepts of the
operation. However, before subordinates issue their OPORDs, the commander may
recommend changes. In quickly developing situations, an abbreviated version may be
required. The format of the briefback is a matter of unit SOP but should include the
following information:

• Division/brigade commander's intent and mission statement.

• Intelligence overview.
• Specified, implied, and mission-essential tasks.
• Constraints and limitations.
• Unit mission statement.
• Unit commander's intent.
• Task or ganization.
• Concept of the operation (maneuver, fire support, engineering, air defense).
• Coordination.
• Combat service support.
• Command and control.
• Time schedule.
• Rules of engagement (if applicable).
• Minimum force requirements (if applicable).
• Other operational considerations (deception plan, safety guidance, and so on).

E-8. SPECIALIZED BRIEFINGS

Specialized briefings are held to present detailed instructions not required for everyone
at the mission briefing. Therefore, the mission briefing requires less time and detail.

a. Attendance. Specialized briefings can be held for the following personnel:

(1) Aircraft commanders.

(2) Navigators (for the purpose of studying DZ overlays and timing points, and for
comparing routes, checkpoints, and so on).

(3) Radio operators (to detail special communications procedures, use of IFF, strike
reports, and so on).
(4) Loadmasters/jumpmasters (including coordination of loading, unloading, or aerial
release procedures).

(5) Aeromedical (for air evacuation flights only.)

(6) Combat control team/Army assault team.

(7) Others as required.

b. S3 Air Brief to Jumpmasters. As soon as ground tactical and air movement

planning is complete and jumpmasters are selected, the S3 Air conducts a jumpmaster
briefing. This briefing should include all primary jumpmasters and can include assistant
jumpmasters, safety personnel, and leaders of airland chalks in the assault echelon. At
this briefing, the S3 Air gives out a jumpmaster packet for each aircraft. The packet and
briefing should provide the following:

(1) Mission and ground tactical plan.

(2) Air movement plan.

(3) Names of assistant jumpmasters and safeties; time and place to brief them (if they
are not present).

(4) Time and location for initial and final manifest call, prejump training, and uniform
and equipment inspections.

(5) Transportation arrangements for moving to the marshaling area or departure airfield.

(6) Time and place for parachute issue and the type of main parachute to be used.

(7) Time a weather decision will be made.

(8) Time and location for briefing.

(9) Aircraft tail numbers, chalk numbers, and parking spots.

(10) Loading time.

(11) Time and location for aircrew and jumpmaster briefing.

(12) Station time.

(13) Takeoff time.

(14) Flight plan (formation, route, checkpoints, direction of flight over the DZ,
emergency radio frequencies, and call signs).

(15) Drop time.

(16) Medical support plan.

(17) Landing plan with emphasis on assembly aids and procedures.

(18) Communications procedures on the DZ.

c. Jumpmaster Briefing to Assistants and Safeties. Time must be allowed for the
primary jumpmaster to brief his assistants and safety personnel before he briefs the
jumpers. He provides the information given to him in the S3 Air briefing, assigns duties
to all personnel, and gives his concept of actions in the aircraft. He reviews SOP items
and addresses possible contingencies. The following are some other items to discuss in
this briefing:

(1) Door assignments.

(2) Inspection procedures.

(3) Rigging station assignments.

(4) Exit procedures (includi ng the location in the stick where the jumpmaster exits and
the name of the person who assumes his responsibilities after he exits).

(5) Actions of jumpmaster personnel in emergency situations such as emergency

bailout, hung parachutist, and so on.

(6) Procedures for handling door bundles.

(7) Briefing duties.

(8) Abort procedures and bump plan.

d. Jumpmaster/Troop Briefing. As soon as practical after the first manifest call, the
jumpmaster briefs personnel on the details of the operation. Items discussed include the
following:

(1) The DZ and alternates.

(2) Type of aircraft.

(3) Chalk number.

(4) Type of parachute.

(5) Briefing on serials, the CDS, heavy drop, and type of aircraft, if part of a larger
airborne operation.

(6) Time a weather decision will be made.

(7) Type of individual and separate equipment that soldiers will jump with.

(8) Time and place of parachute issue.

(9) Station time.

(10) Takeoff time.

(11) Length of flight.

(12) Actions in the aircraft.

(13) In-flight emergencies.

(14) Direction of flight over the DZ.

(15) Drop altitude.

(16) Predicted wind speed and direction on the DZ.

(17) Route checkpoints.

(18) Search and rescue procedures.

(19) Landing and assembly plan.

(20) Parachute turn-in points.

(21) Time and place of final manifest call.

(22) Medical support plan.

(23) Obstacles on or near the DZ.

(24) Time and location of any aircraft-related rehearsals.

e. Aircrew and Jumpmaster Soldier Briefing. This briefing is given before or after
loading the aircraft.

(1) Preflight. Items discussed concerning preflight procedures include the following:

• Takeoff time.
• Air Force CCT or DZSO contact time (when the jumpmaster will be informed
by radio of DZ conditions).
• Drop time.

(2) In-flight. Items discussed concerning in-flight procedures include the following

• Movement in the aircraft.

• Smoking restrictions.
• Airsickness.
• Latrine.
• Lighting.
• Flight altitude.
• Formation and interval.

(3) Approach to the DZ. Items discussed concerning procedures during the approach to
the DZ include the following:

• Checkpoi nt warning.
• Time warning.
• Visual and oral signals.
• "No drop" signal.
• Jump door restrictions.
• Drop zone identification (jumpmaster must be briefed on what marking features,
or both to look for).
• Drop altitude.
• Drop speed.
• Drop heading.
• Number of passes.
• Turnoff direction.

(4) Emergency procedures. Items discussed concerning emergency procedures include

the following:

• Jettisoning of load.
• Fuselage fire.
• Abandonment of aircraft.
• Emergency bailout.
• Crash landi ng.
• Ditching.
• Rapid depressurization.
• Malfunctions.
• Towed parachutist.
• Treatment of casualties in the aircraft before the drop.

(5) Other details. The briefing official should --

(a) State which jump door affords the best view of the DZ for a safety check.

(b) Name the key people on board who must be advised of a ground abort.

(c) Inform the loadmaster who will command the soldiers on board in an emergency if
the jumpmaster is not the last parachutist.

(d) Coordinate receipt of information on the direction and velocity of DZ winds (before
the one-minute time warning).

(e) Emphasize to the aircrew the importance of receiving accurate time warnings.

(f) Ensure the loadmaster understands that the soldiers should raise and fasten seats.

f. Cross-Service Representation. Because of the close coordination required in

airborne operations, each unit should be represented at unilateral briefings given by the
other. This pertains mostly to the mission briefings that cover the entire air movement
phase. The security requirements of airborne operations dictate that such cross-service
representation be limited to supervisory staff and liaison personnel on a need-to-know
basis.

E-9. BRIEFING AIDS

Thorough briefing of each person taking part in an airborne operation is essential to the
success of the operation. The preassault briefing is conducted in detail, and ground
reconnaissance by the airborne unit is impractical. Therefore, the procurement and
preparation of briefing aids is vital. Each soldier should enter the target area with
enough knowledge to independently perform his duties.

a. All units arrange for briefing aids before entering the marshaling area. Divisional
units survey the marshaling camp to find what briefing facilities are provided. Other
facilities and aids are procured by divisional units, as needed.

(1) Briefing aids (such as maps, air photos, slide projectors, kits for making terrain
models, movie projectors, and screens) can be obtained from higher headquarters.

(2) Briefing aids such as charts, sketches, diagrams, terrain models, and sand tables are
made.

(3) Low-altitude air photos of the landing area (from intelligence channels), on which
photo interpreters mark terrain features and the size and shape of the landing area, are
also useful.

(4) Large-scale maps with antiairborne obstacles and defenses overprinted on them are
very useful. Accurate sand table models and terrain models can be made from these
maps.

b. Requirements for briefing aids vary with the operation, the construction facilities
available, and supply of materials and equipment. No standard set of briefings aids is
prescribed.

Section II. INSPECTIONS

Unit commanders, leaders, and other selected personnel (jumpmasters, riggers, and so
on) conduct inspections to prepare the unit for operations. Several types of inspections
are conducted during the marshaling process.

E-10. INITIAL INSPECTION

The initial inspection is performed after the first manifest call. Each parachutist is
checked for proper uniform (including ID card and tags), for the condition of his
parachutist helmet and air items, and for properly rigged equipment.

E-11. DEPARTURE AIRFIELD LAYOUT INSPECTION

Rigged equipment is checked at the departure airfield to ensure that items such as
rucksacks, weapons, and bundles are properly rigged. This can save the time it would
take a parachutist to rerig his equipment. The equipment is quickly checked during
parachute issue.

E-12. JUMPMASTER PERSONNEL INSPECTION

The jumpmaster personnel inspection is held while parachutists rig. Because individual
rigging is completed at different times, care must be taken to maintain the exit sequence.
If this is not done, cross loading and unit assembly plans might be affected. (See FM
57-220 for more detailed information.)

E-13. JUMPMASTER INSPECTION OF THE AIRCRAFT

The jumpmaster, accompanied by the USAF loadmaster, inspects the aircraft and
coordinates any activities peculiar to the airborne operation. He checks the inside and
outside of the aircraft. (See FM 57-220 for more detailed information.)

a. In parachute aircraft, airborne representatives check --

• Coverings on protruding objects that might be dangerous to parachutists.

• Aerial delivery system, i ncludi ng the release mechanism.
• Anchor line cable.
• Static line retrieval system.
• Parachute doors.
• Air deflector/air spoiler.
• Jump platforms.
• Warning and jump signals.
• Seats and safety belts.
• Locations and number of auxiliary exits, first-aid kits, air sickness bags, and ear
plugs.
• Stowage of loose equipment in the cargo compartment.
• Ditching equipment and e mergency bell.
• Location and condition of latrines.

b. In airlanding aircraft, airborne soldiers check items listed for parachute aircraft and
inspect-

• The cargo tie-down system.

• Floors for strength, load spreaders, and treadways.
• Loading ramps.
• Cargo doors for their locations, size, and operation.

c. The pilot and the airborne representative jointly inspect after the equipment and
supplies are loaded. The aerial delivery system on parachute aircraft is checked for
proper rigging. Weight and balance figures are rechecked for safety. The cargo tie-down
system and the ACL are also checked.

d. Just before the soldiers enplane, a final joint check is made to ensure that the aircraft
is properly loaded and ready for takeoff.
E-14. INSPECTION OF EQUIPMENT AND AIRDROP LOADS

The marshaling plan should call for detailed inspections of equipment aided by
maintenance personnel from the supporting MACG. This ensures that all items of
equipment are in the best possible condition before rigging or loading. All rigged loads,
low velocity or LAPES, must be inspected to e nsure that they, a nd the equipment used
on them, are assembled and installed to meet the criteria outlined in the rigging
manuals. The types of inspections are discussed herein.

a. First Inspection. This type of inspection must be performed on a rigged load before
it leaves the rigging site. It must be conducted by a qualified parachute rigger supervisor
other than the one supervising the installation of parachutes and extraction systems.

b. Before-Loading Inspection. This type of inspection must be performed on a rigged

load before it is loaded into the aircraft. It must be held jointly by school-certified
inspectors from the unit suppl ying the equipment to be dropped, the aerial port loading
the equipment, and the aircrew loadmaster dropping the equipment.

NOTES: 1. School-certified inspectors must have successfully

completed the Airdrop Load Inspector Certification Course of the US
Army Quartermaster School.

2. DD Forms 1748 or 1748-1 is used to perform and record the before-

and after-loading inspections according to AR 59-4/AFR 55-
40/OPNAVIST 4630.24B/MCO 13480.1B.

c. After-Load ing Inspection. This type of inspection must be performed on a load after
it has been loaded and rigged in the aircraft. It must be held jointly by school-certified
inspectors from the unit supplying the equipment being dropped, the aerial port loading
the equipment, a nd the aircrew loadmaster dropping the equipment. This inspection is
not done by inspectors that performed the before-loading inspection.

Section III. SPECIAL TRAINING AND REHEARSALS

Rehearsals are always conducted and are vital to mission accomplishment. Specialized
training of ground forces and aircrews is required for some missions.

E-15. P REMISSION TRAINING

As soon as an airborne unit receives a planning directive for an assault landing, all unit
training is aimed at preparing the soldiers for that operation.

a. Analysis of Mission, Enemy, and Terrain. An analysis of the unit mission, the
enemy situation, and the terrain in the objective area reveal the problems that will
confront the unit after it lands.

b. Review of Training Program. A review of the training program will show what
specific operational training the unit needs to improve its combat efficiency for the
operation. To add realism, training areas are selected that resemble the objective area.
Mock-ups are made of the installations, obstacles, landmarks, a nd e nemy de fenses in
the objective area.

c. Specialized Training. All units, including platoons and squads, receive specialized
combat training for the type of fighting and equipment their mission requires, and
training on enemy ve hicles and equipment, For example, when the unit must capture a
town or village, it receives intensive training in house-to-house and street fighting for a
night operation, the unit receives night training. Techniques of air movement, landing
and reorganization are also trained after landing. As the detailed plan develops,
however, specialized or refresher training is given on the methods or techniques to be
used in the coming ope ration. This training includes the following:

(1) Packing of equipment containers.

(2) Loading of personnel and equipment into aircraft, especially when previous training
has not included that type of aircraft.

(3) Parachute drops and assault transport landings under the expected combat
conditions.

(4) Use of assembly aids.

(5) Prejump training for parachutists.

E-16. SPECIAL TRAINING IN USE OF AIRCRAFT

Before marshaling, units are trained to use the aircraft that will transport them,
includi ng loading and di tching techniques and flight safety rules. If training in loading
and air movement techniques has not been completed, units will receive more training
during marshaling. Sometimes, an unfamiliar type of aircraft will be used, or a known
type of airlift aircraft will have new or modified equipment. This could include tie-
down devices, loading ramps, cargo doors, light and bell signals, ditching gear, or aerial
delivery systems. Units may have to marshal for an airbor ne assault without recent
training in airborne techniques. When airborne soldiers need special training in loading
and air movement, the airborne and airlift commanders at the departure airfield prepare
a training program together.

E-17. MISSION REHEARSALS

Because speed and precision are important in airborne operations, every detail of the
OPLAN should be rehearsed, especially for night operations. Lack of equipment or
training can limit the scale of the rehearsal or create artificial conditions. Rehearsals
should be like the operation. They are held from squad to the highest level allowed by
time and facilities. Because rehearsals may cause a breach of security, division and
higher commanders control the conditions under which they are held.

a. The complex nature of airborne operations requires cooperation, coordination, and

rehearsals between the participating services. Early planning ensures that the following
are available:
• Airlift aircraft.
• Suitable training areas.
• Critical items of equipment to replace those damaged or lost.
• Replacements for casualties sustained during rehearsals.

b. Problems (inherent to airborne operations) that can be rehearsed are listed by priority,
not by sequence. During these rehearsals, airborne forces should combine into combat
teams exactly as they will in the ground operation. These rehearsals can include the
following

(1) Execution of the tactical plan.

(2) Communications procedures for the ground attack and en route.

(3) Assembly and reorganization after landing. (This can be rehearsed by "tailgating"
ground transportation.)

(4) Loading of aircraft IAW Air Force balancing procedures and requirements.

(5) Landing and unloading procedures for airland assault aircraft, including actions of
the AACG.

(6) Suppl y and casualty evacuation after landing.

(7) Marshaling procedures.

c. If it is not possible to stage operational rehearsals, a thorough CPX should be held

under field conditions similar to those in the projected combat area. Few, if any,
restrictions apply for the holding of a CPX on the highest level. Command post
exercises should be conducted for all echelons, including airlift forces.

d. A joint critique should be held after battalion and larger-scale airborne rehearsals.
Lower echelons should be rated even if time prohibits the joint critique.

E-18. REHEARSAL OF AIRLIFT FORCES

The following are included in rehearsals of airlift forces.

• Inspection, maintenance, and servicing of all aircraft.

• Takeoff and assembly procedures.
• Close formation and low-level flying in both daylight and da rkness.
• Use of instruments and navigational aids, including ways to e mploy the JAAP.
• Assembly of aircraft at departure bases IAW the aircraft parking plan.
APPENDIX F
INTELLIGENCE PREPARATION OF THE
BATTLEFIELD
The IPB process is that portion of the intelligence cycle that integrates enemy
doctrine with the weather and terrain and relates these factors to the mission and
specific battlefield situation. It provides a basis for determining and evaluating
enemy capabilities, vulnerabilities, and probable courses of action. It also serves as
the planning bas is for the formulat ion of the unit's concept of the operation and
for the allocation of combat power as reflected in the unit's organization for
combat. The process is especially critical to the commander, the intelligence
officer, the operations officer, the battlefield deception element, and the field
artillery intelligence officer. The brigade or battalion S2 relies on the higher staff
headquarters to prov ide detailed information to conduct the informal IPB at their
level. The formal IPB process is performe d at division, corps, and higher levels.

F-1. THE PROCESS

As with the intelligence cycle, the IPB process is cyclic in nature. All IPB functions are
performed continuously and concurrently. (Figure F-1.) The IPB provides situation and
target infor mation with which to compare friendl y and e nemy courses of action. This
information is used to predict target activity and to produce event-related forecasts of
battlefield operations.

a. Infor mation required to develop the IPB is received from all available sources. These
include current intelligence holdings, infor mation from higher headquarters, and
information from national intelligence agencies.

b. Airborne IPB must combine both ground IPB and air IPB. Airborne operations are
offensive in nature and require certain aspects of terrain to be analyzed for success.
Landing, drop, and extraction zones are crucial for delivery of the airborne force to the
objective area. Requirements for airfields for follow-on forces compel consideration of
the MOUT aspects of terrain since airfields are usually located near built-up areas.

F-2. BATTLEFIELD AREA EVALUATION

Battlefield area evaluation involves assessing the battle area with regard to the overall
nature of the friendly and e nemy forces and the ope rating environment. The terrain and
weather are evaluated to determine how they affect operations. Enemy forces
(including, ground, air, and when appropriate, naval forces), which are expected to
operate within the battle area, are evaluated to determine their capabilities in relation to
the weather, terrain, and friendly mission. Battlefield evaluation should call attention to
significant areas and features that must be considered during the IPB effort. (Figure F-
2.)

a. The battlefield consists of the following:

(1) The area of operations is the geographical area where the commander has been
assigned the respo nsibility and a uthority to conduct military ope rations. The assigned
AO is based on METT-T factors and planning considerations beyond the FLOT.

(2) The air area of operation is similar to the ground AO in that air bases, refueling
points, LZs, DZs, and air defense weapons and radars operate within the commander's
boundaries. The major difference between air and ground operations is the height or
ope rating ceiling within which fixed-and rotary-wing aircraft operate and air defense
weapons can fire.

(3) The area of interest is based on METT-T and the commander's concept of the
operation. It includes all enemy activities which might affect the friendly force during
the operation. The G2 or S2 recommends the AI to the commander based on IPB. The
commander approves the AI, a nd it is forwarded to the next higher echelon by the
intelligence officer where it serves as a base for supporting intelligence requirements.

(4) The air AI is nor mally much larger than the ground AI because of the vast distances
they can cover and the speed with which they can influence ope rations. The air AI
extends upward to the maximum ceiling of enemy aircraft and to the maximum
effective altitudes of friendly and enemy air defense systems. (Figure F-2 shows the
relationship between these elements.)

b. The intelligence officer must fully understand these relationships to assist the
commander in planning a successful airborne operation. (See FM 34-130 for a complete
and detailed discussion of all aspects of the preparation and use of the IPB.)
APPENDIX G
N-HOUR DEPLOYMENT SEQUENCE
The N-hour deploy ment sequence is deve loped and followed to e nsure all reports,
actions, and outload processes are accomplished at the proper time during
marshaling.

G-1. PREDEPLOYMENT PLANNING AND PREPARATION

Units must prepare internal deployment standing operating procedures and continually
update and rehearse them. These SOPs should include actions that are common to all
deployments, to include airland as well as parachute assault.

• Conduct no-notice emergency deployment readiness exercise.

• Prepare personnel for overseas deployment.
• Update and review all vehicle load plans.
• Validate and upda te move ment plans with next higher headquarters.
• Update access and recall rosters.
• Review family support group rosters and rear detachment responsibilities.
• Ensure special team personnel are identified and trained (air
movement/planning, NBC, outload, ammunition handling, and so on).

G-2. EXAMPLE OF N-HOUR SEQUENCE

The following example N-hour sequence aids a unit in developi ng their own
deployment schedule based on their needs. (Table G-1.) It is flexible to allow for
modifications based on the mission and the unit commander's concept of the operation.
GLOSSARY
AA assembly area
AAA air avenues of approach
AACG arrival airfield control group
AALPS automated air loading planning system
AATCC Army air traffic control center
AB air base
ABCCC airborne battlefield command and control center
abn airborne
ACC air control center
ACL allowable cargo load
ACP assembly control post
ADA air defense artillery
ADACG arrival/departure airfield control group
ADP automatic data processing
ADSO assistant division signal officer
AECC aeromedical evacuation control center
AF Air Force
AFB Air Force base
AFM Air Force manual
AFR Air Force regulation
AFSOB Air Force special operations base
AFSOP Air Force standing operating procedure
AG Adjutant General
AGL above ground level
AH attack helicopter
AI air interdiction
A/L air land
ALACC aircraft landing area control center
ALCC airlift control center
ALCE airlift control element
ALFT airlift
ALO air liaison officer
ALPS automated load planning system
AM amplitude modulation
AMB air mission brief
AMC air mission commander
ammo ammunition
AMO air movement officer
ANGLICO air and naval gunfire liaison company
AO area of operations
APO Army Post Office
AR Army regulation
ARFOR Army forces
ARNG Army National Guard
ASAP as soon as possible
asbly assembly
ASCC Army Standardization Coordinating Committee
ASL authorized s tockage list
ASOC air support operations center
ASP ammunition supply point
AT antitank
ATC air traffic control
atch attachment
ATO aircraft transfer order
ATT air transportability training
A2C2 Army airspace command and control
avg average
AWACS airborne warning and control system
AWADS adverse weather aerial delivery system
BAI battlefield air interdiction
BCC battlefield coordination center
bde brigade
bn battalion
BOS battlefield operating systems
BSA brigade support area
C2 command a nd control
C3 command, control, and communications
camo camouflage
CARP computed air release point
CAS close air support
cbt combat
CCT combat control team
cdr commander
CDS container delivery system
CESO communications-electronics staff officer
cfm cubic feet per minute
che mlite chemical light
che mo chemical officer
CI counterintelligence
CIF Central Issue Facility
CINC Commander in Chief
CLACC central loading area control center
clas classified
cmd command
CO commanding officer
COMALF Commander of Airlift Forces
COMDTINST commandant's instruction
comf comfort
commex communications exercise
commo communications
COMSEC communications security
CONPLAN contingency plan
const construction
CONUS continental United States
coord coordinate; coordination
COSCOM Corps Support Command
CP command post
CPX command post exercise
CRC command and reporting center
CRP control and reporting post
CS combat support
CSF casualty staging facility
CSS combat service support
CTA common table of allowances
CUCV commercial utility cargo vehicles
CWIE container, weapon, and individual equipment
DA Department of the Army
DACG departure airfield control group
DACO departure airfield control officer
DCA Defense Communi cations Agency
DCC DISCOM control center
DCS Defense Communications System
DF direction finding
DISCOM Division Support Command
div division
DLIC detachment left in contact
DMCC division movement control center
DMDG digital message device group
DMJP Dragon missile jump pack
DMMC division materiel management center
DOD Department of Defense
DRB division ready brigade
DRF division ready force
DS direct support
DSA division support area
DSC division support communications
DST decision support templating
DTO division transportation officer
DZ drop zone
DZST drop zone support team
DZSTL drop zone support team leader
EAC echelon above corps
E&E escape and evasion
ech echelon
ECM electronic countermeasures
EDRE emergency deployment readiness exercise
EEFI essential elements of friendly information
e.g. for example
elev elevation
enl enlisted
EOC Emergency Operations Center
EPW enemy prisoner of war
equip equipment
ESIP equipment suppl y issue poi nt
ESM electronic warfare support measures
etc. et cetera
EW electronic warfare
EZ extraction zones
F Fahrenheit
FA field artillery
FAAR forward area alerting radar
FAC forward air controller
FACE forward aviation combat engineering
FACP forward air control post
FARP forward area resupply point
FASCAM family of scatterable mines
FASCO forward area support coordinator
FAST forward area support team
fax fascimille
FCT firepower control teams
FDC fire direction center
FEBA forward edge of the battle area
1SG first sergeant
FIST fire support team
fl flight
fld field
FLOT forward line of own troops
FLS field landing site
FM field manual; frequency mod ulated
FMSC Federal Manual for Supply Cataloging
FO forward observer
FOB forward operating base
FORSCOM United States Army Forces Command
frag fragmentary
FRAGO fragmentary order
FSA fire support area
FSB forward support base
FSE fire support element
FSMC forward support medical company
FSO fire support officer
FSS fire support station
ft foot
G1 Assistant Chief of Staff (Personnel)
G2 Assistant Chief of Staff (Intelligence)
G3 Assistant Chief of Staff (Operations and Plans)
G4 Assistant Chief of Staff (Logistics)
G5 Assistant Chief of Staff (Civil Affairs)
gal gallon
GAR-I ground to air responder- interrogator
GLO ground liaison officer
GMRS ground marked relief system
gren grenade
GRREG graves registration
GS general suppor t
GSR ground surveillance radar
GTP ground tactical plan
HAHO high altitude, high opening
HALO high altitude, low opening
HD heavy drop
HDRS heavy drop rigging site
HE heavy equipment
HEPI heavy equipment point of impact
HF high frequency
HHC headquarters and headquarters command
HMMWV high-mobility, multipurpose wheeled vehicle
HQ headquarters
hr hour
HUMINT human intelligence
hwy highway
IAW in accordance with
ID identification
IEW intelligence and electronic warfare
IFF identification, friend or foe (radar)
IHF improved high frequency
IMC instrument meteorological conditions
inc included
IOM install, operate, and maintain
IP initial point
IPB intelligence preparation of the battlefield
IPW prisoner of war interrogation
IR infrared
IRC initial ready company
ISB intermediate staging base
JA joint airborne
JAAP joint airborne advance party
JACC joint airborne communication center
JAG Judge Advocate General
JCS Joint Chiefs of Staff
JCSE joint communications support element
JFC joint force commander
JM jumpmaster
JOC joint operation center
JRCC joint rescue coordination center
JSEAD joint suppression of enemy air defenses
JSOF joint special operation force
JTF joint task force
KIA killed in action
KIAS knots indicated air speed
KTAS knots true air speed
LACC loading area control center
LAPES low-altitude parachute extraction system
LAW light antitank weapon
LBE load-bearing equipment
lbs pounds
LC line of contact
LD line of departure
ldr leader
LIC low-intensity conflict
LMF Light Marine Force
LO liaison officer
LOB line of bearing
LOC lines of communication
LOI letter of instruction
LOS line of sight
LRS long-range surveillance
LRSU long-range surveillance unit
LSA logistics support area
LSI largest single item
LZ landi ng zone
m meters
MAC Military Airlift Command
MACG marshaling area control group
MACR Military Airlift Command regulation
maint maintenance
MASF mobile aeromedical staging facility
max maximum
MBA main battle area
MC mobility corridors
MCO movement control officer
mech mechanized
me d medical
MEDEVAC medical evacuation
METT-T mission, enemy, terrain, troops and time available
MHE materiels-handling equipment
MHz megahertz
mi miles
MI military intelligence
mil military
min minute
mm millimeter
MMC Materiel Management Center
MMEE minimum mission-essential equipment
MOC2 mission-oriented command and control
MOG maximum-on-ground
MOPP mission-oriented protective posture
mort mortar
MOS military occupational speciality
MOUT military operations on urbanized terrain
MP military police
mph miles per hour
MRE meal-ready to eat
MRO materiel release order
msn mission
MTP mission training plan
MVR maneuver
NAF Naval Air Forces
NAI named areas of interest
NATO North Atlantic Treaty Organization
NAVAIDS navigational aids
NBC nuclear, biological, chemical
NCO noncommissioned officer
NCOIC noncommissioned o fficer in charge
NCS net control station
NEO noncombatant evacuation operation
NGF naval gunfire
NM nautical miles
No. number
NOD night observation device
NWP Naval Warfare publication
obj objective
OEG operational exposure guide
off officer
OIC officer in charge
OP observation post
OPCON operational control
OPLAN operation plan
OPNAVINST operational naval instruction
opns operations
OPORD operation order
OPSEC operations security
opt optional
ORF operational readiness float
OVM on-vehicle materiel
PA physician's assistant; public address (system)
PAM pa mphlet
PAO Public Affairs Office(r)
pax passenger(s)
PDF Panamanian Defense Force
PE priority equipment
PERSTAT personnel status
PHA personnel holding area
PI point of impact
PIBAL pilot balloon (observation)
PIR priority intelligence requirements
PLL prescribed load list
plt platoon
POL petroleum, oil, and lubricants
POM preparation of oversea movement of units
POR preparation of replacement for overseas movement
POV privately owned vehicle(s)
PP passage point
PPI personnel point of impact
prep prepare; preparation
PRVEP prerigged vehicles/equipment package
PSC personnel service company
PSG platoon sergeant
psi pounds per square inch
PSYOP psychological operation
PT (aircraft)
PVL priority vehicle list
PW prisoner of war
R&S reconnaissance and surveillance
RATELO radiotelephone operator
RATT radio teletypewriter
RB radar beacon
RCT regimental combat team
recon reconnaissance; reconnoiter
ref reference(s)
REMAB remote marshaling base
REMBASS remotely monitored battlefield sensor system
rep representative
reqd required
retrans retransmission
ROE rules of engagement
RP release point
RSL remote spring launch
RSTA reconnaissance, surveillance, and target acquisition
RTFT round-trip flying time
Rv radius of vulnerability
S1 Adjutant
S2 Intelligence Officer
S3 Operations and Training Officer
S4 Suppl y Officer
S5 Civil Affairs Officer
SACR Strategic Air Command regulation
SALT supporting arms liaison team
S&T supply and transport (unit)
SAR search and rescue
SATCOM satellite communication(s)
scty security
SD special duty
SDO staff duty officer
SEAD suppression of enemy air defense
SECOMP secure en route communications package
SERE survival, evasion, resistance and escape
SCM sergeant major
SGT sergeant
SHF super high frequency
SHORAD shor t-range air defense
SIGINT signal intelligence
SIGO signal officer
SKE station keepi ng equipment
SKE/ZM station keeping equipment/zone marker
SO safety officer
SOCCE special operations command and control element
SOF special operations force
SOI signal ope ration instructions
SOP standing operating procedure
spt support
sq square
SSAN Social Security Account number
SSB single side band
sta station
STANAG Standardization Agreement
STOL short takeoff and landing
STU III (a secure telephone)
syn synthetic
sys system
t ton
TAACOM Theater Army Area Command
TAC Tactical Air Command
TACAIR tactical air
TACC tactical airlift control center
TACP tactical air control party
TACS tactical air control system
TACSAT tactical satellite
TAES tactical aeromedical evacuation system
TAF Tactical Air Force
TAI target areas of interest
TALO tactical air liaison officer
TAW tactical air wing
TB technical bulletin
TBP to be published
T/D/AC tons per day per aircraft
TDAR tactical defense alert radar
tech technician
TEMIG tactical electronic magnetic ignition generator
TF task force
tgt target
TGT total ground time
TLP troop-leading procedure
tm team
TM technical manual
TO takeoff
TOC tactical operations center
TOE table(s) of organization and equipment
TOT time over target
TOW tube-launched, optically tracked, wire-guided (missile)
TPL time phase line
TRADOC Training and Doctrine Command
trns trains
TSR tactical surveillance and reconnaissance
TT/D total tons per day
UAV unmanned aerial vehicle
UHF ultra high frequency
ULACC unit loading area control center
US United States
USAF United States Air Force
USAR United States Army Reserve
USMC United States Marine Corp
USNG United States National Guard
UTE utilization time
UTM universal transverse mercator (grid)
ve h vehicle
vert vertical
VFR visual flight rules
VHF very high frequency
VIRS verbally initiated release system
VMC visual meteorological conditions
VTOL vertical take-off/landing
w with
w/o without
WO warning order
WOC wing operations center
wpns weapons
wt weight
xmtr transmitter
XO executive officer
yds yards
REFERENCES
DOCUMENTS NEEDED

These documents must be available to the intended users of this publication.

*CTA 50-909. Field and Garrison Furnishings and Equipment. 1989.

*FM 1-100. Doctrinal Principles for Army Aviation in Combat Operations. 28 February
1989.

*FM 57-220. Basic Parachuting Techniques and Training. 31 December 1984.

*FM 57-230. Advanced Parachuting Techniques and Training. 13 September 1989.

*FM 100-27. US Army/US Air Force Doctrine for Joint Airborne and Tactical Airlift
Operations (AFM 2-50). 31 January 1985.

*FM 100-28. Doctrine and Procedures for Airspace Control in the Combat Zone (AF
Manual 1-3; NWP 17, LMF 04). 1 December 1975.

*FM 100-42. US Air Force/US Army Airspace Management in an Area of Operations.

1 November 1976.

*FM 100-103. Army Airspace Command and Control in a Combat Zone. 7 October
1987.

*TM 38-250. Packaging of Materials Handling: Preparing of Hazardous Material for

Military Air Shipments. 15 January 1988.

READINGS RECOMMENDED

These readings contain relevant supplemental information.

AR 59-4. Joint Airdrop Inspection Records, Malfunction Investigation and Activity

Reporting (AFR 55-40; OPNAVINST 4630.24B; MCO 13480.1B). 27 November 1984.

AR 210-1. Private Organizations on Department of the Army Installations. 15 July

1981.

AR 210-10. Administration. 12 September 1977.

AR 220-10. Preparation of Oversea Movement of Units (POM). 15 June 1973.

AR 350-30. Code of Conduct/Survival, Evasion, Resistance and Escape (SERE)

Training.
10 December 1985.
AR 750-1. Army Materiel Maintenance Policy and Retail Maintenance Operations. 31
October 1989.

FM 3-5. NBC Decontamination. 24 June 1985.

FM 5-101. Mobility. 23 January 1985.

FM 6-20-30. Tactics, Techniques, and Procedures for Fire Support for Corps and
Division Operations. 18 October 1989.

FM 7-8 (HTF). The Infantry Platoon and Squad (Infantry, Airborne, Air Assault,
Ranger), How to Fight. 31 December 1980.

FM 7-20. The Infantry Battalion (Infantry, Airborne and Air Assault). 28 December
1984.

FM 7-30 (HTF). Infantry, Airborne and Air Assault Brigade Operations, How to Fight.
24 April 1981.

FM 7-85. Ranger Unit Operations. 9 June 1987.

FM 8-55. Planning for Health Service Support. 15 February 1985.

FM 10-20. Organizational Maintenance of Military Petroleum Pipelines, Tanks and

Related Equipment. 20 February 1984.

FM 10-30. Central Issue Facility. 14 November 1985.

FM 10-400. Quartermaster Airdrop and Airdrop Equipment Support Units. 2 November

1984.

FM 12-6. Personnel Doctrine. 23 August 1989.

FM 14-7. Finance Operations. 9 October 1989.

FM 16-1. Religious Support Doctrine: The Chaplain and Chaplain Assistant, 27

November 1989.

FM 20-150. National Search and Rescue Manual. (NWP-19; AFM 64-2; COMDTINST
M16130.2). 1 November 1986.

FM 21-76. Survival. 26 March 1988.

FM 22-100. Military Leadership. 31 October 1983.

FM 24-1. Combat Communications. 11 September 1985.

FM 25-100. Leadership Counseling. 3 June 1985.

FM 25-101. Battle Focused Training: Battalion Level and Lower. TBP.

FM 34-25. Corps Intelligence and Electronic Warfare Operations. 30 September 1987.

FM 34-60. Counterintelligence. 14 August 1985.

FM 34-80. Brigade and Battalion Intelligence and Electronic Warfare Operations. 15

April 1986.

FM 34-130. Intelligence Preparation of the Battlefield. 23 May 1989.

FM 41-10. Civil Affairs Operations. 17 December 1985.

FM 43-5. Unit Maintenance Operations. 28 September 1985.

FM 55-9. Unit Air Movement Planning. 31 August 1981.

FM 63-20. Forward Support Battalion. 17 May 1985.

FM 90-10-1 (HTF). An Infantryman's Guide to Urban Combat (How to Fight). 30

September 1982.

FM 100-10. Combat Service Support. 15 February 1988.

FM 101-5. Staff Organization and Operations. 25 May 1984.

FM 101-5-1. Operational Terms and Symbols. 21 October 1985

FM 101-10-1/2. Staff Officers Field Manual--Organizational Technical, and Logistical

Data, Planning Factors (Volume 2). 7 October 1987.

MAC Regulation 3-3. Combat Control Team Operations and Procedures. 12 April 1983.

MAC Regulation 55-130. Loadmaster Abbreviated Checklist. October 1987.

STANAG 3466/ASCC 44/18C. Responsibilities of Air Transport Units and User Units
in the Loading and Unloading of Transport Aircraft in Tactical Air Transport
Operations, Edition 2.
5 June 1975.

STANAG 3570/ASCC 44/13G. Drop Zones and Extraction Zones--Criteria and

Markings,
Edition 3. 26 March 1975.

TAC Regulation 55-130. EC-130 Aircrew Operational Procedures. September 1988.

TM 5-330. Planning and Design of Roads, Airbases, and Heliports in the Theater of
Operations.
6 September 1968.

TM 5-337. Paving and Surfacing Operations. 21 February 1966.

TRADOC Pam 34-4. AWACS--Army Contingency Voice Operating Procedures:
(ATDO).
4 March 1986.

*This source was also used to develop this publication.