Construction and Building Materials 44 (2013) 575–584

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Construction and Building Materials

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Cellular concrete properties and the effect of synthetic and protein

foaming agents
D.K. Panesar ⇑
Department of Civil Engineering, University of Toronto, 35 St. George St., Toronto, Ont., Canada M5S 1A4

h i g h l i g h t s

Thirteen mix designs of cellular concrete (6–35% air) were prepared and tested.
The type of foam used in cellular concrete influences sorptivity coefficient.
Protein foam resulted in smaller isolated spherical air bubbles compared to air voids produced with synthetic foam.
Concrete thermal conductivity was less sensitive to change in air content produced by synthetic foam compared to protein foam.

a r t i c l e i n f o a b s t r a c t

Article history: Cellular concrete consists of cement, water, aggregate and air voids. Cellular concrete can have between
Received 16 August 2012 10% and 70% air, which results in a material that is lightweight but may compromise the compressive
Received in revised form 11 February 2013 strength and durability properties. Although it has been shown in the literature that less connected air
Accepted 2 March 2013
voids yield a lower reduction in compressive strength, few studies have reported a detailed characteriza-
Available online 16 April 2013
tion of the microstructure of cellular concrete. It is critical to understand the impact of the microstructure
and its implications on the development of strength, elastic modulus and transport properties in order to
Keywords:
fully benefit from the lightweight properties, and this is the focus of this paper. Thirteen batches of cellular
Foam
Concrete
concrete were designed, prepared and tested. The air content varied, ranging from 6% to 35%. Three differ-
Protein ent foaming agents were used, one of which was protein-based and the other two were synthetic. Fresh
Synthetic properties such as slump, plastic air content and plastic density were measure for each batch of concrete
Compressive strength as well as other properties, including hardened density, compressive strength, static elastic modulus, sorp-
Sorptivity tivity, hardened air void distribution and thermal resistance. Key outcomes revealed that cellular concrete
Thermal resistance has good potential to be used for lightweight structural applications owing to its evolution of mechanical
Elastic modulus properties, transport properties and thermal resistance, but it is very sensitive to the type of foaming agent
that is used. Outcomes showed that the foaming agent type had a noticeable effect on the thermal resis-
tance and sorptivity coefficient but less of an effect on the mechanical properties. This is significant because
the type of foaming agent used will directly influence the applications for which cellular concrete can be
used. For example, cellular concrete designed with foaming agent B, which yields the greatest capillary pore
volume is least suited for outdoor applications where the concrete may be exposed to moisture and or ions.
Ó 2013 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

1. Introduction and background ties, hindering its structural implementation and broader usage
[3,4]. Few studies have reported a detailed characterization of
Cellular concrete consists of cement, water, aggregate and air the microstructure of cellular concrete. Examination of the impact
voids where foam is mixed into the mortar or concrete [1,2]. The of the microstructure and its implications on the development of
entrapment of air to create air voids has been normally obtained strength, elastic modulus and transport properties is necessary in
by introducing protein-based or synthetic-based foaming agents, order to fully benefit from the lightweight properties. This knowl-
generating voids created by the mechanical or chemical reaction edge will form the basis for the development of new lightweight
of the components. Cellular concrete can have between 10% and concrete applications.
70% air voids, which results in a material that is lightweight but
may compromise the compressive strength and durability proper-
1.1. Background

⇑ Tel.: +1 416 946 5712; fax: +1 416 978 6813. In the 1930s, the Soviet Union started extensive manufacturing
E-mail address: [Link]@[Link] of cellular concrete blocks, wall boards, and floor slab for commer-

0950-0618/$ - see front matter Ó 2013 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
[Link]
576 D.K. Panesar / Construction and Building Materials 44 (2013) 575–584

cial and residential structures. In the mid 1940 and 1950s, equip- 1.2. Foaming agents
ment and standards were developed, some of which are still used
today [5]. By the late 1970s, cellular concrete was successfully ap- The role of foaming agents in cellular concrete is to create small
plied to oil-well cementing projects and as backfill material for and enclosed air bubbles by reducing the surface tension of a solu-
excavation projects. Presently, cellular concrete is used for sound tion and increasing the stability of air bubbles. Typically, surfactant
and heat insulation, building panels, fire protection wall, energy- or synthetic and protein foaming agents are used in cellular con-
absorbing pads in roads, road sub-base, structural fill, foundations, crete [16]. Both types of agents reduce the surface tension of the
geotechnical and mine fill applications [4,6,7]. Some case studies solution, which facilitates the formation of stable air bubbles. Syn-
are described below. thetic foaming agents are an amphiprotic substance that are
Road sub-base: Cellular concrete is an attractive material for strongly hydrophilic and easily dissolve in water yielding air bub-
road sub-base in areas with weak plastic soils that are susceptible bles. However, when introducing synthetic agents into concrete,
to freeze and thaw. While the plastic soil suffered from frost action which is a complex chemical environment, the compatibility of
gets saturated during the thawing cycle and loses its strength and surfactant and cement particles is critical to effectively entrain
stiffness, cellular concrete provides a firm sub-base. The applica- the desired air content and concrete microstructure [16]. The air
tion of cellular concrete as a sub-base in Canadian roads began in entraining mechanism of protein-forming agents differs from that
2000 in Calgary and was launched for the first time in Ontario in of the synthetic agent. The former creates air bubbles as a result of
2009 at Dixie Road [8]. the degradation of proteins. As the peptide linkage of large protein
Airport stopping pads: Following the 1994 accident of an molecules breaks, more hydrophobic small molecules are formed.
aircraft overshooting a 152 m (500-foot) safety area, the federal This process not only reduces the surface tension of the solution
aviation administration in New York, US introduced a new regula- and creates an interface for air bubbles, but the hydrogen bonds
tion for airports to maintain a 305 m (1000-foot) safety area. How- between molecular groups help develop stable air bubbles. The
ever, acquiring the extra area was a great challenge to many effectiveness of protein-foaming agents are, however, influenced
airports. A cellular concrete stopping pad was developed as an by temperature and pH [16].
alternative for the first time in John F. Kennedy International Air- The literature reveals that both protein and synthetic foaming
port. The technique is also gaining popularity in other airports [9]. agents are available and have been used around the world. Re-
Heavy metal removal from industrial waste water: The residual search in China conducted by Bing et al. [13] used a protein based
concentration of heavy metals in the waste water generated from agent in a 1:40 by volume ratio then aerated the foam to a density
electrolysis plants needs to be removed from water before dis- of 70 mg/m3. Benazzouk et al. [15] conducted research in France
charging it in natural water sources. Chemical precipitation, the and used a protein air entraining agent called Vepro 95 in a powder
commonly adopted method to trap these metal ions, is not form. This consisted of atomized thermally stabilized bovine
sufficient to bring the concentration down to a permissible hemoglobin manufactured by Vapran company. Recently, Jitchai-
level. Physio-chemical techniques are generally expensive for thor- yaphun et al. [12] used a hydrolyzed protein foam manufactured
ough cleaning. Cellular concrete was studied as an economical in Thailand. The foam was diluted 1:40 by weight and aerated to
alternative to absorb the heavy metals. Utilizing the high porosity a density of 45 kg/m3. Research conducted in South Africa by
and by mixing iron-dust-containing industrial waste, cellular Kearsley et al. [17] used a locally manufactured protein agent
concrete serves as an effective material to adsorb heavy metal ions ‘Foamtech’ which consisted of hydrolyzed proteins. The foaming
[10]. agent was diluted with water to a ratio of 1:40 and then aerated
Wall panels and composite panels: Autoclave aerated concrete to 70 kg/m3 density.
(AAC) has been used as wall and floor panels as it is lighter and of- The two most common methods of mixing cellular concrete are
fers good insulation properties. The air bubbles in AAC are created high-speed mixing (or in-mixed foaming) and the compressed air
by adding an air forming agent such as aluminum powder or (or pre-foamed) method. High-speed mixing entails adding a
hydrogen peroxide, which chemically reacts during the mixing foaming agent to a mixer to create air bubbles by mixing it at a
process [1,11]. Generally, AAC is used for wall panel construction high speed, and then adding the other ingredients into the same
but the use of foam concrete is also gaining popularity. The thermal mixer. In general, this method is simple to conduct, standardized
conductivity of foam concrete with a density of 1000 kg/m3 is re- and widely used [18,19]. The pre-foamed method requires the
ported to be one-sixth the value of typical cement–sand mortar use of a compressed air machine to create pre-formed air bubbles
[3]. The low strength of cellular concrete is a challenge for its struc- that are added to freshly mixed concrete to create a cellular struc-
tural applications. A hybrid structure of fiber-reinforced polymer ture. Pre-foaming can use wet foam or dry foam. Wet foam entails
laminate with a sandwiched core of AAC has been studied recently spraying a solution of foaming agent over a 2–5 mm fine mesh and
by Uddin et al. [4] for application in wall panel. As it is lightweight is relatively less stable then dry foam. Dry foam is produced by
in nature, this combination has the potential to be used for speedy forcing foaming agent solution through a series of high density
panelized construction, disaster mitigation, and to prevent labor- restrictions and forcing compressed air into a mixing chamber.
intensive construction. Dry foam is typically considered to be more stable than wet foam
Beyond the applications for cellular concrete, current research which makes it easier for blending [19,20]. The pre-foaming ap-
is aimed at developing an economically and environmentally via- proach is more costly than high-speed mixing but it creates better
ble product while improving the structural properties. For exam- foaming efficiency without compromising the quality of the air
ple, recently, cellular concrete has been designed utilizing (i) fly bubbles. It has been reported that the high-speed mixing process
ash as sand or filler aimed to achieve uniform distribution of the can yield a higher volume of damaged air bubbles, which decreases
air bubbles [12], (ii) polypropylene fibers were used to improve the air content compared to the pre-formed foam approach [18].
the compressive strength, tensile strength and increase the drying
shrinkage resistance [13], (iii) polyethylene terephthalate aggre- 1.3. Cellular concrete properties
gate was used in cellular concrete as an innovative approach to re-
cycle waste plastic bottles [14], and (iv) shredded rubber was also Similar to self consolidating concrete, cellular concrete is de-
used in cellular concrete and was intended to increase the ductil- signed to achieve a desired flowability and compactability which
ity, toughness and impact resistance [15]. are partly influenced by the water content, and the amount of foam
D.K. Panesar / Construction and Building Materials 44 (2013) 575–584 577

used. A relatively stiff concrete mix may result in the collapse of the air voids are disconnected [4,7,25,26]. However, few studies
the air bubbles, whereas a higher consistency mix or a slurry-type have closely examined the air void structure and transport proper-
material may not be capable of holding the bubbles, which can re- ties of cellular concrete.
sult in segregation. Therefore, the density ratio (i.e., the ratio of the The purpose of this work is to evaluate the material properties
density at fresh state and at hardened state) should be close to 1:1 that are important for exploring new lightweight and durable
to achieve the stability [3]. building infrastructure applications of cellular concrete. The scope
Several authors have examined the compressive strength and of the research pertains to cellular concrete, which consists of ce-
density of cellular concrete [7,21]. Kearsley and Wainwright [22] ment, water, aggregates and up to 35% air voids. This research will
showed that compressive strength is a function of dry density evaluate the effect of various air contents in thirteen different mix
and decreases sharply with a decrease in density. However, Wee designs using protein- and synthetic-based foaming agents on the
et al. [23] examined the interplay between air content, compres- plastic properties (slump and plastic density), mechanical proper-
sive strength and density, and revealed that increasing the air con- ties (density, compressive strength, and static elastic modulus),
tent does not increase the size of the void but increases the number transport properties (sorptivity), microscopic analysis and thermal
of voids per unit volume, and thus density decreases without a resistance. In particular, this study will characterize cellular con-
substantial loss in compressive strength. Their work proposed that crete properties and will examine the effect of using protein versus
once the optimum air content is exceeded, air voids begin to coa- synthetic foaming agents on the cellular structure and its impact
lesce and the size of void increases, which in turn reduces the on the material properties.
strength. For a foam concrete containing blended cement of 50%
ordinary Portland cement and 50% ground granulated blast furnace
2. Experimental program
slag, and a water-to-binder-ratio of 0.3, they found the optimum
air content to equal 42%. They further found that the inclusion of This study investigates thirteen cellular concrete mixtures. The two
air voids in foamed concrete has a greater effect on compressive primary experiment variables are the type of foaming agent and the foaming agent
strength than on elastic modulus. dose to achieve a range of air contents. Each cellular concrete mix is examined
and the plastic properties, hardened properties and thermal properties are
More complex than the strength–density relationship of cellular
measured.
concrete is the understanding of its heat of hydration because heat
evolution in cellular concrete is affected by more parameters than
in normal-weight concretes [24]. Heat capacity per unit volume is 2.1. Materials, mix design and curing

largely influenced by density and the type and amount of aggre- The materials used in this study are general use (GU) cement, natural sand, and
gate, with the latter having a wider variation in cellular concrete crushed limestone. The foaming agents used were supplied by Unifoam Company
compared to conventional concrete [6]. Due to the relatively high Limited, Ontario, Canada. The foam types used were type CF 200, CF 500 and CF
volume of air in cellular concrete, the heat of hydration cannot dis- 700. Foam type CF 200 is designated as Foam A and is a protein based agent. The
synthetic foaming agents are CF 500 and CF 700, and are labeled as foams B and
sipate easily, creating high temperature inside the concrete. This
C, respectively, in the mix IDs. Three different foaming agents were used and their
effect is inversely proportional to the density. Further research is properties (foaming density, expansion ratio and wet density) are reported in Ta-
required to examine if currently used hydration models are appli- ble 1. The pre-foamed method was employed using a CFM Stable AirÒ Aerator Ma-
cable to cellular concrete, owing to their unique thermal character- chine supplied by Cellular Concrete Technologies LLC – Stable Air.
istics and density, which may have a significant effect on hydration All mixtures were designed with a water–cement ratio of 0.29. The aggregate
blend used in concrete mixes consisted of 50% sand, 30% fine aggregate (13 mm)
processes [6]. and 20% coarse aggregate (19 mm) by mass. The mix design variables are foaming
Fire endurance is enhanced as the density is reduced. At high agent type (A, B and C) and dosage, with a desired range of 6–35%. Mix proportions
temperatures, the heat transfer through porous materials is influ- are presented in Table 2. All mixtures were prepared in accordance with CSA A23.2-
enced by radiation, which is an inverse function of the number of 2C-09 [27] and CSA A23.2-3C-09 [28].
Concrete cylinders (100 mm diameter 200 mm high) and concrete slabs
air–solid interfaces traversed. Hence, along with its lower thermal
(305 mm 305 mm 70 mm) were cast to test mechanical, transport and thermal
conductivity and diffusivity, foam concrete may result in better fire properties. The specimens were demolded after 1 day and then moist cured until
resistance. For lower densities of foam concrete, the proportional tested.
strength loss at high temperature exposure is less than that of nor-
mal concrete [3].
2.2. Test methods

2.2.1. Plastic properties

1.4. Research scope and objective The slump was measured using the slump test in accordance with CSA A23.2-5C
[29]. The plastic air content was measured in accordance with MTO LS-436 [30]
based on the pressure method. The fresh density of the concrete was measured in
Air can occupy from 10% to 70% of the volume of cellular con- accordance with CSA A23.2-6C [31]. For this measurement, a container with a vol-
crete, and the relatively large volume of air voids in cellular con- ume of 7 L was filled in three layers of equal volume. Each layer was rodded 25
crete makes it lightweight. The low density and porous structure times with a 16 mm diameter rod that has a hemispherical end. The hardened den-
of cellular concrete have been shown to enhance some of its phys- sity (q, kg/m3) of the concrete was calculated based on the mass of the concrete cyl-
inder in air (Ma) and the apparent mass of the cylinder in room-temperature water
ical properties, such as thermal and sound insulation, and provide
(Mw) using
higher fire resistance when compared to conventional concrete
material. Despite possessing many attractive properties, the low Ma
q ¼ 997:5 ð1Þ
strength of cellular concrete often limits its structural implementa- Ma M w
tions. In order to fully benefit from the lightweight properties of
cellular concrete, it is critical to understand the effect of various
Table 1
air contents and foaming agent types on concrete’s developing Foam properties.
properties. For example, a close examination of the cellular matrix
and its implications on the hardened material properties is war- CF 200 (type A) CF 500 (type B) CF 700 (type C)

ranted in order to gain from the beneficial aspects of low density Foam type Protein-based Synthetic Synthetic
materials and minimize the loss of mechanical properties and Foaming densities (kg/m3) 65 45–65 50–60
Expansion ratio 15 22–15 20–16
durability performance. Many researchers have shown that the
Wet densities (kg/m3) >750 >500 >900
presence of air yields less reduction in compressive strength if
578 D.K. Panesar / Construction and Building Materials 44 (2013) 575–584

Table 2
Concrete mix proportions.

Mix ID GU cement Water (kg/m3) 19 mm Stone 13 mm Stone Sand (kg/m3) Foam (kg/m3)
(kg/m3) (kg/m3) (kg/m3)
A-6 522 151 335 503 845 5
A-9.5 566 164 302 453 761 8
A-14 478 139 307 460 773 11
A-14.5 611 177 260 391 656 12
A-27 521 151 222 333 560 22
A-32 425 123 227 341 572 26
B-19 579 168 247 370 621 12
B-25 469 136 250 376 631 16
B-30 438 127 234 351 589 19
B-35 361 105 232 348 584 22
C-12.5 483 140 310 466 782 8
C-19 506 147 271 406 681 11
C-26 529 153 225 338 568 15

2.2.2. Mechanical properties Heat flow through an object follows the model in Eq. (2a), where Q is the total
The compressive strength of concrete samples was measured in accordance heat flow (J), A is the area perpendicular to the heat flow (m2), R is the thermal resis-
with ASTM C39-05 [32]. Three 100 mm 200 mm cylinders were tested for each tance of the section (m2 K/W), Dt is the temperature drop across the object (K), and
mix at ages 7 and 28 days. The static elastic modulus of the concrete samples T is the elapsed time (s). If the test is conducted with a constant energy input then
was measured in accordance with ASTM C469-02 [33]. Two 100 mm 200 mm cyl- Eq. (2b) can be used where, q is the heat flux (W).
inders were tested at 28 days.
A
Q¼ DtT ð2aÞ
R
2.2.3. Microstructure
Sorptivity was measured on four samples taken from two cylinders per concrete
A
mix in accordance with ASTM C1585-04 [34], and both initial and secondary sorp- q¼ Dt ð2bÞ
R
tivity coefficients were measured. In order to avoid capturing surface properties, the
cut surfaces of samples were tested for sorptivity. Each cylinder was cut into two In the apparatus used, the energy input from the light bulb was distributed
cylinders of 100 mm diameter and 75 mm high. This was done to examine the influ- among the six sides of the box such that q = q1 + q2 + q3 + q4 + q5 + q6. Substituting
ence of foaming agent type and amount of air on the capillary pore structure. into Eq. (2-b) and rearranging reduces to Eq. (3), where the subscripts c and E refer
Air void analysis was conducted in accordance with ASTM C457 [35]. The to the concrete and expanded polystyrene box, respectively.
scanned surface for all specimens was 100 mm in width and 70 mm in height. 1
The samples were cut from 200 100 mm cylinders. After cutting, the scanning AE
Rc ¼ Ac Dtc q DtE ð3Þ
surface was polished, painted black, then when the surfaced was dry, calcium sili- RE
cate powder was used to fill the voids. The voids in the aggregates were then
painted black to prevent any errors in the paste air content calculations. The images Since the R-value is a section property, it is usually more useful to report the
were 8 bits grayscale acquired at a resolution of 3175 dpi. The average size of thermal conductivity (k-value), which is a material property. The two properties
scanned images was 8800 12,600 pixels. The analysis of the images utilized a are related by the equation R = l/k, where l is the length (m) of the heat flow path.
bubble counter script in Photoshop according to ASTM C457 [35].
Fluorescent impregnated thin sections were prepared according to NORDTEST
3. Results and discussion
method Build 361 [36] from each cellular concrete mixture. Samples were cut into
10.5 mm slices using diamond cutter (DBT, Diamond Roller Grinder/86). After cut-
ting and removing the curve edges, the specimens (40 20 10.5 mm) were glued 3.1. Plastic properties
to working glass using epoxy. The specimens were then fixed on the grinding ma-
chine using a vacuum-base attached to the grinding machine and were ground in Table 3 presents the slump, air content and density of concrete
three stages with three passes over the grinder in each stage. The first stage used
a grinder roller No. 1 (diamond size of 64 lm) to grind the thin section from
for all mix designs. The air content in the thirteen concrete mix de-
10.5 mm to 10.0 mm. The second stage used a grinder roller No. 2 (diamond size signs ranges from 6% to 35% and the associated slump ranges from
of 46 lm) to grind the thin section from 10.0 mm to 9.95 mm. The third stage used 15 mm to 225 mm. Fig. 1 indicates that slump increases with
a grinder roller No. 3 (diamond size of 16 lm) to grind the thin section from increasing plastic air content irrespective of the foam type used.
9.95 mm to 9.90 mm. After grinding, the specimens where kept in an oven for
This is supported by literature that reports that increasing air con-
16 h at 40 °C to remove moisture and to prevent carbonation. The specimens were
then impregnated with epoxy dye and placed in a metal container in a vacuum tent is correlated with a decrease in plastic viscosity which is pos-
chamber and kept under vacuum for 30 min. The fluorescent epoxy dye (Solvent itively correlated with an increase in slump [38]. Once the air
Yellow 43 mixed at 1% of the resin epoxy) was then added to the container under content exceeds 25%, less change in slump is observed. Fig. 2 shows
vacuum suction and left to rest for 10 min. Before the epoxy dye dried, the vacuum a strong linear relationship between the plastic density of concrete
pressure was removed and the specimens were removed from the chamber and
pressed face-down against object glass and left to dry. The working glass was re-
moved using grinding to achieve a concrete thickness between 200 and 300 lm.
Table 3
The thickness of the thin sections was monitored using birefringence color change
Concrete plastic properties.
of quartz which is expected to be gray in 20–30 lm thickness. The samples were
prepared for the microscope by cleaning both sides with alcohol followed by apply- Mix ID Slump (mm) Air content (%) Density (kg/m3)
ing two drops of oil and glass cover slip to provide sharper image.
A-6 15 6.0 2362
A-9.5 85 9.5 2230
2.2.4. Thermal resistance A-14 125 14.0 2128
Thermal resistance is measured using an adaptation of the apparatus and pro- A-14.5 180 14.5 2072
cedure described in ASTM C177-10 [37]. The test apparatus in this study is referred A-27 210 27.0 1736
to as a guarded hot plate apparatus and it is used in order to measure steady-state A-32 230 32.0 1648
heat flux through materials. Louvers are used to shield the specimen and interior B-19 170 19.0 1981
thermocouples from direct radiation from the light bulb. B-25 210 25.0 1838
The test was conducted by placing a 305 mm 305 mm 70 mm concrete slab B-30 210 30.0 1747
in the apparatus’s opening. After sealing the edges with tape to prevent air leakage, B-35 225 35.0 1581
the entire assembly was placed in a refrigerator for approximately 24 h. The test C-12.5 15 12.5 2188
duration was approximately 14 h, which is the time to reach thermal equilibrium. C-19 60 19.0 1983
Duplicate temperature measurements were taken every 30 s on the inside and out- C-26 180 26.0 1847
side surfaces of the concrete and the foam box.
D.K. Panesar / Construction and Building Materials 44 (2013) 575–584 579

250 40
7 day
28 day

Static Elastic Modulus (GPa)

35
200

30
Slump (mm)

150
25

100 20

15
50
Foam A (Protein)
Foam B (Synthetic) 10
Foam C (Synthetic) 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18 20
0
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 Plastic Air Content (%)
Plastic Air Content (%) Fig. 4. Influence of air content on static elastic modulus.

Fig. 1. Influence of foam type on slump–plastic air content correlation.

50
2300

2200 40 R2=0.86

Static Elastic Modulus (GPa)

Plastic Density (kg/m3 )

2100
30
2000

1900
20
1800
R2 =0.98
1700 10

Foam A (Protein)
1600 Foam B (Synthetic)
Foam C (Synthetic) 0
1500 0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70
5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 Compressive Strength (MPa)
Plastic Air Content (%)
Fig. 5. Static modulus–compressive strength correlation.
Fig. 2. Influence of foam type on density–plastic air content correlation.

70 500
7 day Initial Sorptivity
28 day Secondary Sorptivity
Compressive Strength (MPa)

60
400
Sorptivity (x10 mm/sec 2)
/

R2=0.97
1

50
300
40 R2=0.95
-4

30 200

20
100
10

0 0
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40
Plastic Air Content (%) Plastic Air Content (%)

Fig. 3. Compressive strength evolution from days 7 to 28. Fig. 6. Initial and secondary sorptivity coefficient.

and the air content. The type of foam used does not have any between the compressive strength and fresh air content. Compres-
apparent effect on the density. sive strength corresponding to 7-day concrete specimens ranges
from 0.9 MPa to 47.1 MPa for concrete with air content ranging
3.2. Mechanical properties from 6% to 35%. By 28 days, the compressive strength increased,
ranging from 1.1 MPa to 57.6 MPa. Fig. 3 also reveals that the rate
Compressive strength was measured on three standard cylin- of increase in compressive strength increases with decreasing air
ders per mix at 7 and 28 days. Fig. 3 shows a quadratic relationship contents. The type of foaming agent used does not appear to influ-
580 D.K. Panesar / Construction and Building Materials 44 (2013) 575–584

500
Initial Sorptivity (a)
Secondary Sorptivity
Foam A Foam B Foam C
400
Sorptivity (x10 mm/sec 2)

(Protein) (Synthetic) (Synthetic)

/
1

300
-4

200

100

0
A-6 A-9.5 A-14 A-14.5 A-27 A-32 B-19 B-25 B-30 B-35 C-12.5 C-19 C-26
Mix ID
(b)
Fig. 7. Influence of foam type and air content on initial and secondary sorptivity
coefficient.

120
Initial Sorptivity (x10 mm/sec 2)
/

100
1

80
-4

60

40

20 (c)
Foam B Foam A Foam C

0
400 500 600 700 800 900 1000
3
Foam Wet Density (kg/m )

Fig. 8. Foam wet density versus mean initial sorptivity (±1 standard deviation) of
mixes A-27, B-25 and C-26.

1000
Initial Sorptivity (x10-4 mm/sec /2)
1

R2 =0.84

100
Fig. 10. Surface scan for mix A-14 (a) sample 1, (b) sample 2, and (c) sample 3.

The static elastic modulus was measured on two cylinders per

mix at 7 and 28 days for each specimen. In general, Fig. 4 shows
10
that, with increasing age and decreasing air content, the elastic
modulus increases, but not linearly. However, the relationship be-
tween static modulus and compressive strength for the cellular
concrete, as shown in Fig. 5, is fit with linear regression with an
1 R2 of 0.86. This differs from conventional concrete, where the static
0.1 1 10 100 modulus is related to the square root of the compressive strength
28-day Compressive Strength (MPa) which may be associated with the limited range of strength and/
Fig. 9. Compressive strength–initial sorptivity coefficient correlation. or density specified for the empirical equations such as ACI 318
[39] and Eurocode2 [40].

ence the compressive strength–air correlation. For mixes with less

than 30% air, the coefficient of variations corresponding the mean 3.3. Transport properties and microstructure
compressive strengths were all less than 8% irrespective of the mix
design. However, for mixes with greater than 30% air, the coeffi- Fig. 6 illustrates the initial and secondary sorptivity plotted
cient of variations were markedly greater, particularly for mix A- against the plastic air content for all concrete mixes. Fig. 6 reveals
32 and B-35 which were 12% and 23%, respectively. that generally, an increase in air content increases the initial sorp-
D.K. Panesar / Construction and Building Materials 44 (2013) 575–584 581

(a)

(b)

(c)

Fig. 12. Scanned image of thin section – A-14.

foaming agent B, for which the mixtures containing 19%, 30% and
35% air content have similar secondary sorptivities to each other,
and mixture B-25 with 25% air has a relatively greater secondary
sorptivity compared to B-19, B-30 and B-35.
Fig. 11. Surface scan for mix C-12.5 (a) sample 1, (b) sample 2, and (c) sample 3.
To further examine the influence of foam type on sorptivity,
mixtures containing relatively similar plastic air contents using
different foaming agents were compared, namely, mixtures B-19
tivity, particularly at air contents greater than 25%. The secondary and C-19 and mixtures B-25 and C-26. Compared to the foam C
sorptivity can be described as being in two clusters: lower second- concrete, concrete made with synthetic foam B resulted in a mark-
ary sorptivity coefficients were observed with the 5–20% air con- edly higher sorptivity, particularly the initial sorptivity for both the
crete than the 25–35% air concrete. However, there are a couple 19% and the 25% air mixtures. This suggests that the use of foaming
of counterintuitive results. Firstly, the concrete mix with 12.5% agent B yields a more connected pore structure compared to syn-
air content illustrates significantly lower initial sorptivity than thetic foam C for the same air content. Another comparison is
the mix with 9.5% air content. Secondly, there are two mixes with made between mixtures with 25–27% air, namely, mixes A-27, B-
identical air content (19%) that revealed noticeably different initial 25 and C-26. Comparing these three mixtures, foam B resulted in
sorptivities. One possible explanation may be related to the type of the highest sorptivity, indicating a microstructure is comprised of
foaming agent used. either a larger volume of capillary pores or a more connected net-
Fig. 7 provides a closer examination of the influence of foaming work, or both. Mixture C-26 resulted in 57% lower initial sorptivity
agent (type A, B and C) on the sorptivity coefficients. A general than B-25, which suggests that even though a synthetic foaming
observation is that for each foaming agent type, as the air content agent is used in both mixes, a microstructure with a much lower
increases, the initial sorptivity also increases. For foaming agent volume of capillary pores can be achieved with foaming agent C.
types A and C, the secondary sorptivity coefficient also increases Based on the known characteristics of the foam as described in
with increasing air content. A different result was observed for Table 1, Fig. 8 presents the initial sorptivity plotted against the
582 D.K. Panesar / Construction and Building Materials 44 (2013) 575–584

Fig. 14. Scanned image of thin section – A-27.

in size at higher densities for foaming agent A (A-14) compared

Fig. 13. Scanned image of thin section – C-12.5.
to foaming agents B and C. Concrete with foam type A showed a
majority of air voids that were spherical and more discrete com-
foam wet density and shows that the sorptivity increases as the pared to the more connected air network formed in the concrete
foaming agent’s wet density decreases for mixes A-27, B-25, and made with synthetic foam B. The air void analysis based on ASTM
C-26. This implies that the interaction between the properties of C457 revealed that for all specimens, the hardened air void analysis
cellular concrete is controlled not only by the foaming agent dos- revealed a higher air content compared to the plastic air content.
age but also by its physical properties. However, the difference was within ±0.9% and ±1.9% air content
The implications of the cellular matrix on the compressive for the concrete containing protein and synthetic foaming agent,
strength is apparent in Fig. 9 which shows a linear correlation be- respectively.
tween the initial sorptivity and the compressive strength when Further examination of the distribution of the air voids was con-
both properties are plotted on a logarithmic scale. Examination ducted using fluorescent impregnated thin section. The thin sec-
of the sorptivity and compressive strength correlation is possible tions were scanned using a flatbed scanner to provide images of
because the sorptivity coefficients were measured on the cut sur- the rims around the aggregate. Figs. 12 and 13 illustrate the
face face of the specimen, which reflects the core properties and scanned images of the thin sections for mix A-14 and C-12.5,
not the surface properties. It is observed that the change in sorptiv- respectively and show that the air voids are reasonably well dis-
ity for concrete mixes with a compressive strength of less than tributed throughout the paste and around the coarse aggregates.
10 MPa is greater than that for concrete with compressive However, in contrast, the images shown in Figs. 14 and 15
strengths greater than 10 MPa. In other words, the initial sorptivity respectively for mixes A-27 and B-19, reveal an accumulation of
of the interior surface of foam concrete is strongly logarithmically air voids in the paste and relatively fewer voids surrounding the
correlated to a compressive strength below 10 MPa. For mixtures coarse aggregate. In Figs. 12–15, the green1 color represents, air
greater than 10 MPa, there is visually more scatter around the best voids, yellow is the cement paste, and all other colors represent
fit regression line. aggregates.
To further examine the microstructure, an air void image anal-
ysis was conducted. Figs. 10 and 11 illustrate a flat bed scanner im-
age of mix designs A-14 and C-12.5. Based on the digital images air
void analysis for all of the specimens, the key observations were 1
For interpretation of color in ‘Figs. 12–15’, the reader is referred to the web
that the air voids were observed to be smaller and more uniform version of this article.
D.K. Panesar / Construction and Building Materials 44 (2013) 575–584 583

foaming agent types B and C (synthetic) are used, whereas this

relationship is considerably different for mixes with foaming agent
A (protein). The relationship in all cases is linear, but with foams B
and C the rate of increase in k-value with an increase in plastic
density is similar and lower than the rate of increase in k-value
with plastic density when foam A is used. Such results suggest that
thermal conductivity associated with concrete produced using
synthetic foam is less sensitive to a change in density than concrete
made with a protein-based foam. Cellular concrete produced using
foaming agents with synthetic formulations possesses lower ther-
mal conductivity and therefore higher thermal resistance than
mixes produced using protein-based foaming agents.

4. Outcomes and concluding remarks

Thirteen mix designs of cellular concrete were prepared and

tested. The air content varied from 6% to 35% and three different
foaming agents were used, one was protein-based (A) and two
were synthetic-based (B and C). Fresh properties (slump, plastic
air content and plastic density), hardened density, compressive
strength, static elastic modulus, sorptivity, hardened air void dis-
tribution and thermal resistance were measured for each concrete
mix design.

At both days 7 and 28 the compressive strength, and elastic

modulus decreased with an increase in air content however,
the rate of decrease of compressive is greater than that of the
static elastic modulus with increasing air content. The compres-
sive strength is influenced by the type of foaming agent used.
Mixtures with 25–27% air achieved a compressive strength of
approximately 9, 10 and 5 MPa with foam agents A, C, and B,
respectively. For the same amount of air, twice the compressive
strength can be achieved when foam agents A and C are used
Fig. 15. Scanned image of thin section – B-19. rather than B.
The type of foam used in cellular concrete influences sorptivity
coefficient. Use of foaming agent C in cellular concrete yields a
relatively more refined microstructure in comparison to con-
1.2
Foam A (Protein) crete cast using foaming agents A and B. Foaming agent B
Foam B (Synthetic)
Foam A resulted in a more connected pore structure compared to foams
Foam C (Synthetic)
1.1 A and C based on digital images and sorptivity results. The air
void analysis results indicated that the protein-based foaming
agent resulted in smaller isolated spherical air bubbles com-
k-Value (W/m·K)

1.0 Foam C
pared to air voids produced by synthetic foaming agents.
Although foaming agents with a greater wet density was gener-
Foam B
ally found to be correlated with a reduced the initial sorptivity
0.9
for mixtures with the similar air content. Thermal conductivity
decreases with an increase in density, which is directly related
0.8 to air content for mixtures examined in this study. Conductivity
associated with cellular concrete produced by a synthetic foam-
ing agent was less sensitive to change in air content than con-
0.7 crete produced using a protein-based foaming agent.
1400 1600 1800 2000 2200 2400 2600
Cellular concrete has good potential to be used for lightweight
Plastic Density (kg/m3) structural applications owing to its evolution of mechanical
properties, transport properties and thermal resistance, but
Fig. 16. Influence of foaming agent on thermal conductivity.
the transport properties and microstructure are sensitive to
the type of foaming agent used.
3.4. Thermal resistance

Fig. 16 illustrates a linear relationship between the plastic den-

sity of cellular concrete and its thermal conductivity for cellular Acknowledgements
concrete made with foaming agents A, B and C. It is apparent that
with an increase of plastic density, which is due to a decrease in air Funding and support from the National Research Science and
content, thermal conductivity increases and consequently results Engineering Research Council of Canada (NSERC) Engage Grant
in lower thermal resistance. The two parallel regression lines in and Cematrix are appreciated. Cellular Concrete Solutions – Stable
Fig. 16 indicate that a similar relationship exists between the plas- Air and Mr. G. Vestergom (Unifoam Company Limited) are
tic density of cellular concrete and thermal conductivity when acknowledged for supplying the Aerator foaming equipment and
584 D.K. Panesar / Construction and Building Materials 44 (2013) 575–584

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