Part I: KNOWLEDGE
1. Define porosity
- is the property that tells how porous a rock is. It is also defined as a measure of the
capacity of reservoir rocks to contain or store fluids. Mainly, we can categorize
porosity as effective, total, or in absolute.
2. List the controls on porosity
- Pre diagenesis porosity is affected by several factors and these are: grain size,
packing, particle shape, and the distribution of grain sizes. On the other hand, initial
porosity is affected by secondary controls such as compaction and geochemical
diagenetic processes.
3. Define permeability
- is the measure of the ability of a fluid to pass through its porous medium. It is one of
the most important properties in determining effective reservoir.
4. Define a reservoir
- a reservoir is location or feature where fluid accumulates and collects, especially in
rock strata or in the body
5. List and describe the basic hydrocarbon traps
Traps are grouped into two which is mainly stratigraphic and structural traps.
Under structural trap, are anticlinal and dome traps, and fault traps.
Anticlinal – simplest type of fault trap that is formed when a sandstone bed that is
overlain by tight shale is folded in anticline.
Dome traps – might be in form of salt dome or domes that form during sedimentation
when one area subsides more slowly than the surrounding areas.
Fault traps – the fault plane must have sealing effect so that it functions as a fluid
migration barrier for reservoir rocks.
Meanwhile, stratigraphic traps are created by any variation in the stratigraphy that is
independent of structural deformation.
6. Name the different geological mapping techniques used in petroleum exploration.
Gravity and magnetic surveys
Offshore seismic survey
Onshore seismic survey
Seismic Data Processing
7. List the two most common reservoir rock types and give some general characteristics of
each type.
Sandstone reservoir rocks- this refers to a specific grain with sizes between (62 micro
meters to 2mm).The performance of the sandstone as a reservoir rock is described by its
combination of porosity and permeability depending on the degree to which the sand
dominates its.
Carbonate reservoir rocks- carbonates are usually made of fossils which “range from the
very small single cell to the larger shelled animals.” Most carbonate rocks are deposited
at or in very close neighborhood to their site of creation.
8. What are the criteria necessary for the generation and accumulation of hydrocarbon in
subsurface?
- These are the Source rock, migration path, Reservoir rock, trapping mechanism, and
Seal rock
9. What compounds are petroleum and natural gas composed of? What are the basic
families and their molecular compositions?
- Petroleum and natural gasses is composed of hydrogen and carbon. Lighter
hydrocarbons are the gasses while heavier hydrocarbons are in solid or liquid form.
The constituents of natural liquid gasses are hydrocarbon derivatives that are from the
same family of molecules of natural gas and crude oil and are composed exclusively
of carbon and hydrogen.
10. Define Geology and how it applies to the petroleum industry.
- Geology is the study of the external and internal geologic features as well as its
history of formation, and other processes that happens within it. Geology shows the
application in petroleum industry as it pertains to the geological processes and
features which dictates when, where, and how to get or locate a particular oil
reservoir (proven)
11. Differentiate between weathering processes and erosional processes
- Weathering is the physical, mechanical, and chemical process where rocks dissolves,
worn away or broken down into smaller pieces. Once the rock has been weathered, it
is ready for erosion. Erosion happens when rocks and sediments are picked up and
moved to another place by any factor such as wind, water, ice or gravity.
12. What are the primary types of hydrocarbons?
- These are mainly alkanes, alkenes, and aromatics
13. What are sedimentary structures and how are they used to reconstruct sedimentary
environments?
- Sedimentary structures are the features that are formed at the process of deposition.
These includes, beddings, stratifications, and outcrops. Aside from creating
sedimentary structures, they create reconstruction of paleocurrent pattern from the
directional surface mainly to determine the direction of flowing water in the geologic
past. This is an invaluable tool in the reconstructin of ancient depositional
environments.
14. What are the key properties used to characterize petroleum and natural gas?
- In petroleum, the key properties are the bubble point pressure, GOR, viscosity
Density, Interfacial tension, and isothermal compressibility.
- On the other hand, gas key properties can be found by determining if it is light or
heavy hydrocarbon. Light hydrocarbons are in form of methane, ethane, propane,
butane while heavier molecules are in fluid which can be hexane and higher.
15. What are the sources of OM in petroleum? Its chemical composition? What are the steps
in petroleum generation? The thermal maturation process?
- OM are composed of organic molecules in monomeric or polymeric form derived
directly or indirectly from the organic parts of organism. Its main source is carbon
dioxide which was outgassed early in the earth’s history. The composition is mainly
carbon and hydrogen.
Step 1: Diagenesis
- ‘’Diagenesis is defined as the chemical reactions that occurred in the first few
thousand years after burial at temperatures less than 50◦C.’’ During diagenesis:
oxygen, nitrogen and sulfur are removed from the organic matter leading to an
increase in hydrogen content of the sedimentary organic matter.
Step 2: Catagenesis
- ‘’The reactions that occur between 60 and 200◦C are considered to be catagenetic in
nature.’’ During catagenesis, the organic compounds are exposed to diverse thermal
degradation reactions that include double bonds reduction by adding sulfur or
hydrogen atoms, cracking reactions and condensation reactions.
Step 3: Metagenesis
- ‘’Metagenesis takes place at temperatures over 200◦C and is considered to be a type
of very low-grade metamorphism.
In thermal maturation, the maturity is determined by Vitrinite reflectance and thermal
alteration index.
Part II: COMPREHENSION
1. Explain the origin of hydrocarbons.
Petroleum is composed of hydrogen and carbon
Hydrocarbons are theoretically known to be produced which is supported by the organic
theory which states that oil and gas is produced from organic matter that decayed and
processed under severe temperature and pressure. The oil is generated from the source
rock and then travels to the reservoir rock until it is trapped under the cap rock.
2. How does transport energy relate to the grain size of deposits? (ex. Would you find
boulders in the deep ocean?)
- The transport of energy determines the grain size of deposits. If the deposits are fine,
small, or round rocks, then the transport of energy is low. If the deposits are larger
clast or angular rocks, then the transport energy needed to deliver the rock in the
place is high. The presence of large clast of rocks or boulders in deep ocean maybe
due to the waves that indicate high transport energy.
3. Explain fluid distribution in a petroleum reservoir.
- The fluid distribution is based in its density. With high density, water is under the oil
and next to oil is gas which has the lowest density of the three mediums. That is the
reason why gas is trapped in the top of the reservoir. But in some cases, gas can be
dissolved in oil.
4. Explain the difference between surface and subsurface exploration.
- Surface exploration focuses on the main surface of the earth which professionals
measure the physical characteristics and properties of subsurface. On the other hand,
subsurface exploration is the investigation of the underground conditions at a site for
the economical design of the substructure elements. Its purpose is to obtain
information that will aid the geotechnical engineer.
5. Explain the basic concepts of well log analysis.
- Well log analysis provides insight into the formations and conditions in the
subsurface, aimed primarily at detection and evaluation of possibky productive
horizons.
6. Explain the three basic principles of relative age dating
- Law of superposition- means that the oldest rocks are located on the bottom of
undisturbed rock layers
- Law of cross cutting relationship- means that anything that cuts across rock layers is
younger than the rock layers it cuts through
- Law of Original Horizontality- means that Sedimentary rock layers always begin in a
horizontal position Horizon = parallel to the ground
7. Explain the relationship between formation resistivity and porosity.
- Several resistivities have a tendency to decrease with increasing porosity. It can be
understood that the resistivity of rock mass decreases as fracturing and weathering
increase.
8. How do the study of sedimentology and stratigraphy relate to petroleum geology?
- The study of both branch gives the mechanistic understanding of sediment formation,
deposition, and lithification. It also includes the analysis of terrestrial
paleoenvironmental records to document and constrain the evolution of earth’s
ancient climates and landscapes.
9. How do sediments accumulate over time?
- It first starts with weathering of geologic features followed by erosion. The factors
that may be considered are the gravity, water, air, and chemicals These eroded
deposits accumulate in due time as layers of layers of other sediments overburden.
10. How is petroleum generated? What are the geologic conditions necessary?
-Fossil fuels are the main contributors in generating petroleum. Fossils or biomass that
has been overburden thousands of years could generate petroleum as long as they meet
the conditions which are the severe temperature and pressure, and other chemical
inhibitions. These fossils will produce hydrocarbon as it is squeezed within the temp. and
pressure criteria.
11. Discuss the global carbon cycle in the context of petroleum geology.
- The carbon cycle is most easily studied as two interconnected subcycles: one dealing
with rapid carbon exchange among living organisms and one dealing with long-term
cycling of carbon through geologic processes. Although we will look at them
separately, it's important to realize these cycles. Photosynthesis by land plants,
bacteria, and algae converts carbon dioxide or bicarbonate into organic molecules.
Organic molecules made by photosynthesizers are passed through food chains,
and cellular respiration converts the organic carbon back into carbon dioxide gas.
Long term storage of organic carbon occurs when matter from living organisms is
buried deep underground or sinks to the bottom of the ocean and forms sedimentary
rock. Volcanic activity and, more recently, human burning of fossil fuels bring this
stored carbon back into the carbon cycle. Although the formation of fossil fuels
happens on a slow, geologic timescale, human release of the carbon they contain is on
a very fast timescale. Petroleum may be transferred from one reservoir to another
such as fixation of atmospheric CO2 into sugar through photosynthesis or over
millennia such as the accumulation of fossil carbon including coal, oil, gas through
deposition and diagenesis of organic matter.
12. Porosity is not dependent on the grain size; permeability does! Explain further this
phrase.
- Unlike porosity, permeability is hugely dependent on the size and shape of the pores
in the substance and it bases in the granule size and packing arrangements. Since
permeability is defined as the tramission of fluid to the surface walls, the size of rocks
or grains must be determined. Meanwhile, porosity is only dependent to the method
of grain packing.
13. How proper timing does affect hydrocarbon accumulation?
- in drilling oil well, petroleum engineers determine the date of geologic feature by
using foramineferas that is useful for biostratigraphy, paleocology, and oil
exploration. It is an important factor to consider understanding the date of rocks and
identifying if these are ready for oil accumulation because oil can be only generated
within thousands of years and these forams indicate the dates of geologic structures.
Proper timing indicates the possible of accumulating proven reserves based on the
data gathered during appraisal.
