Elements of Ocean Engineering

Offshore structures
Department of Ocean Engineering and Naval Architecture
IIT Kharagpur
Elements of Ocean Engineering
Offshore structures

Any structure experiencing wave loading:

1. Ports and harbours – closest offshore structure to land (there is no
offshore ports in India today)
2. Oil platforms (offshore structure) – subsea hydrocarbon exploration and
exploitation (Jacket, Jack-up, TLP, Semi-sub, pipelines, etc.), located from
tropic to arctic
3. Ocean renewable energy related – Wind turbines, Tidal current structure,
etc.
4. Offshore Fishery – most probably upcomming !

Note: In general, it is Structural engineering with application of

hydrodynamic related load case(s) and Geotecnical engineering
Others:
Weather monitoring towers
National Security application
Ocean thermal energy structure x
Etc…
Etc…

Farming
Survey is the first step (indirect
survey) – to determine the best
location for exploratory drilling
- a boat tows magnetometer to
record magnetic distortions of
earth’s crust, shows the presence
of granite etc.
- a Gravimeter indirectly weighs
the rock, showing porous rocks

- in Seismic survey, sound waves is sent through seafloor, measuring how long it
takes for reflect back
- Three-dimensional (3-D) seismic surveys use several lines of hydrophones in a
grid to record the signals, which can be translated into a “virtual reality,”
revealing the thicknesses and densities of the sub-surface rocks.
- 4D survey - time lapse survey - is also used to monitor reservoir.
Well fluid contains oil, water, gas, small amount of rock broken and sludge. Apart
from hydrocarbon, well fluid may contain sulphur compound, CO2, N2, traces of
metal, etc.
Formation water -> water existing with oil
Crude oil -> mix of around 500 organic chemicals, roughly contains upto C5/C6
Natural gas -> mix of lightest hydrocarbons like CH4, C2H4, etc., water, CO2, N2,
etc.

Preliminary production system (done on offshore platforms)

Well Natural gas

High pr Gas Compressor

On land facilities
fluid separator dehydration

Water Oil liquid

Water Low pr Storage at Oil

treatment separator atms pr dehydration

Water Well testing is also carried out through

offshore platform. It also supports all
Water discharge / utilities required for these processes.
reinjection
LNG (liquefied natural gas) – mainly CH4, liquefies at -160o temp,
needs Ni as steel will break at that temp, 1:620 ratio of volume
CNG (compressed natural gas) – compressed at 100 – 200 bar, high
octane number
NGL (natural gas liquefied) – part of natural gas that condense out
naturally, mainly pentane, hexane.
LPG (liquefied petroleum gas) – household cooking, mainly
propane and butane, at 10-12 bar

Phases of recovery for a field (typical life 5-30 yrs):

Primary- 25% recovery, flow occurs normally
Secondary- 35% recovery, process is called artificial lift,
by gas lift, sucker rod pump.
Tertiary lift- 50-55 % recovery, processes are water, gas, steam,
CO2 injection, in-situ combustion
Offshore structure
Some important terms:
-BOP
-Wellhead, Christmas tree
-Directional drilling
-Drilling mud
-Drill bit

Homework:
-Look through the descriptions
available in literature
-Write few sentences on
drilling, BOP, wellhead, drilling
mud
Topside structure - general
Major primary structure:
Primary modules, Pipe racks,
Flair tower, Staff quarters,
Helideck
Topside Structure
Jacket / Lattice structure

3D space frame, protects the risers as a jacket, hence the name.

Mostly used structural concept at offshore

Jacket structure

For offshore
wind turbines,
weather
monitoring
masts, etc.
Can be used for oil and gas
platforms in shallower (upto
around 400 m) waters,
Jacket structure
Development of fixed offshore structure

GA of structure consists of legs, braces, horizontal members, mudmats, skirts, and

support piles. Joints can be of various types (e.g., K, Y, X, etc.)
D/t ratio is important to select members. <19 difficult to buy, >90 can present
local buckling, typically D/t < 60 is a good start
These are pile supported on the seabed
API-RP-2A (WSD / LRFD) can be referred for designing a Jacket structure
Compliant structure

Suitable for intermediate water depth

Compliant Tower (CT) structure
Compliant Lattice structure Baldpate 503 m

from buoyancy
(if any)

Pile reaction

For making a fixed jacket type

structure compliant, options
could be-
to increase leg batter angle,
batter angle
to reduce leg, pile size
to increase mass
Stiffness is function of length, mass, material to increase foundation flexibility
property, sectional properties any others method…
Compliant Tower (CT) structure
Absence of grout can make the structure more flexible as this does not transfer
any longitudinal shear
The structure can also be connected to the foundation with a hinge that will not
transfer any bending moment. Lateral stiffness will then have to be obtained
with other arrangement.
Care should be taken that the frequency of
the 2nd mode is also located properly
The other option for a flexible
structure is to design the foundation
as a hinge (i.e., don’t take any
bending moment): sometime
called as Articulated tower
Stiffness (restoring force) against
lateral forces will then have to be
obtained with other arrangement.

Note: normally hinge means a mechanism which allows relative rotation

uninterruptedly. Here the purpose of the hinge is to allow the tower to deflect as much
as it can until the restoring force is balancing the lateral forces.
Hinge can be achieved either by true hinge or by incorporating soft point deliberately
Compliant Tower (CT) structure
Restoring force (moment) against the lateral forces can be provided to a compliant
tower by buoyancy or guy wires or combination of both

Guyed tower deflected position

Clump weights lifted up

These clump weights will
fall on to the seabed

anchor

Clump weight
(in this project, they were connected like a bicycle chain)

Clump weight keeps the guy wire under tension; hence for small lateral force, the
stiffness is more. If the force is beyond certain limit, the clump weight leaves the
seabed and then the structure is more compliant.
Compliant Tower (CT) structure

Buoyancy module provides restoring

force against lateral forces.

force Note that the COG of the whole

structure should be located such that
the restoring moment by the buoyancy
is more than the moment due to the
self weight.

Articulated column

Articulated tower concepts developed when lattice (e.g., jacket) towers were
being made suitable for deeper water applications. The general principle is to
adjust the mass (total mass, entrapped mass, location of COG), foundation
stiffness (piled, hinged), and restoring forces (from buoyancy, guy wire with
clump weight)
Jack-up structure

Suitable for shallow to intermediate water depth

suitable for drilling / installing operations as it can move from one
place to another and stable, also can be used for production

DNV-RP-C104: Self elevating unit

DNV-OSS-104: Rules for classification of self elevating units
Jack-up structure

Fabrication yard: Hiroshama, Japan, 1973. Owner - ONGC

Jack-up structure

House for
lifting assembly
(jack house)

Legs (truss type or

tubular structure)

Spud can

Helideck, drill rig / derrik, cranes, etc…

Jack-up structure
Jack-up platforms
essentially having 3 or
more legs, footings and
the hull.
The topside facilities
are similar to other
structures and depends
on the facility it should
provide, e.g., drilling or
installation, etc.
As approximation, it
can be modelled as a
simple 3D portal frame

Can be self-propelled or towed by boat or carried by a

vessel
The legs can be cylindrical or truss (made of tubular
members) type
Jack-up structure
Hull is generally stiffened plate box structure (normally three deck- upper deck,
intermediate / equipment deck, and lower deck)
Hull is connected with legs through lifting mechanism, so that it can climb along
the legs

Rack and pinion type system

are typically used
Jack-up structure
Lifting mechanism – hydraulic ram pin in hole type: the hull climbs the legs step-
by-step
Movement involves four main
steps -
1. Upper pin in hole, lower
pin released, piston
retracts and hull moves.
2. Lower pin in hole, piston
moves slightly and load
taken by lower pin
3. Upper pin released and
piston moved up
4. Upper pin in hole and load
is released from lower pin
by piston movement

e.g., SIRI jack-up

Main advantage of this system is that it can absorb shock loads to some extent
Jack-up structure
The hull is provided to make it afloat so that it can be taken to the site. Typically it
has two major working modes: floating and standing

Floating – during transit phase, afloat by

the hull
Lifting the legs above affects the stability
of the hull (wind load)

Standing – for carrying out operation (drilling /

production / installation). Here, in stands on the
seabed and lifts the hull out of water.
In this mode, it is stable and can withstand storms
Jack-up structure
After preloading, hull is brought out of water to the operational height.

During mode transfer, self weight may quickly transfer from buoyancy to leg reaction,
leading to impact load in the lifting system. This limits the allowable seastate for this
operation to Hs 1.5m.
Since a jack-up is very stable on standing mode, it is
used for carrying out motion sensitive installation
operation (e.g., installation of upper structure of an
offshor wind turbine) as well apart from drilling.

Typically, before placing the jack-up at the site, geotechnical investigation of the
site is carried out.
Gravity type structure

Suitable for shallow to intermediate water depth

massive structures which requires good soil condition
Gravity type structure

Platform which is stable by its own weight, i.e., restoring force is contributed by its
own self-weight; can be concrete or steel (mostly concrete)
Gravity type structure

Considering gravity class structures, structures are more competitive than steel.
Gravity type structure
As construction material
concrete has many
advantages compared to
steel.
Gravity base structures
require good soil bearing
capacity of the seabed in
order to support the
structure.
For example, the seabed of
the North Sea is pre-
consolidated clay as it had
large overburden pressure
during the last ice age.
Shell structure made of
can be designed to
withstand hydrostatic
pressure
Gravity type structure
Gravity type structure
Gravity type structure
Gravity type structure
Gravity type structure
Gravity type structure
Gravity type structure
Gravity type structure
Floater type compliant structure

Suitable deep water

Structures float by the hull and moored with the seabed
Floater type compliant structure
Since the major dynamic force is
mainly lateral, for the towers, the
sway natural frequency (at least first
two modes should be considered)
should be kept away from the
maximum energy region.
For further deeper water, bottom
supported structures are just not
feasible.

Stability of a floating body can be achieved either by keeping the COG below the
COB (Spar type), or by larger water plane area and considering the metacentre
as a normal ship (FPSO).
Typically, a floating structure can be either neutrally buoyant (semisubmersible,
FPSO) or with positive buoyancy (TLP).
Floaters can be categorized as mobile facility or permanent facility.
In general, novel ideas are investigated continuously generating new concepts

MODU – Mobile Offshore Drilling Unit (Jack-up, semisub, etc.)

Floater type compliant structure
Floater type compliant structure
Semi-submersible platforms
A semi-submersible concept can be
used for drilling (MODU), floating crane
vessel (SSCV), support vessel or
production platform.
Main components of a semi-submersible
configuration are pontoons (typically twin
hull), columns, diagonal and horizontal
tubular members, deck, and mooring
system.
Number of columns depends on the
design requirements.
The structure is column stabilized, i.e.,
COG is above COB, and stability is due
to the change in buoyancy contributed
by the columns.
Such platform shows small motion when
the hull is fully submerged, which makes
it suitable for motion sensitive marine
operations. But sensitive to set down
with vertical load change.
Semi-submersible platforms
During transit mode, it can float up the pontoon and
either towed to the site or self-propelled or carried on
a boat / barge.
During operational phase, the pontoons are lowered
down by ballasting; this helps to reduce the motions
as the water plane area is considerably less at this
stage, hence the varying buoyancy force is less.
Like any other hull design, it should be able to resist
the hydrostatic pressure

Considering the transverse section, the vertical

loads tries to have a sagging effect, leading to large
force on the horizontal and the diagonal members.
Semi-submersible platforms
Semisubmersible concepts has also been used for floating offshore wind turbine.
One prototype has been installed in offshore Portugal.

Proposed offshore semisub

fishery
Tension Leg platforms (TLP)
Tension Leg platforms (TLP)
Structurally, a tension leg platform is similar to a
semi-submersible, with addition of tendons (also
called tethers) which are connected between the
hull and foundation (piles) on the seabed.
Owing to the tension in the tethers, the rigid body
motion in heave and pitch (and roll) are eliminated.
This also makes the
structure positively
buoyant, i.e., total
weight + tension in
tethers (and weight if
not neutrally buoyant)
+ tension in risers (if
any) to be taken by
buoyancy

Restoring force in sway is obtained from the tether tension. As it moves laterally,
the columns are submerged to some extent as the tethers have high axial stiffness.
This submergence is called set down. A TLP designed for shallow water may not
be suitable for deeper water (home work).
Tension Leg platforms (TLP)
TLPs are mainly production units, can be
fitted with drilling facilities. These are
permanent facilities.
The column height should be such that
the largest wave do not hit the deck
bottom
The tension in the tendons (pretension)
should be designed to include effect of
variation in buoyancy due to tidal
variation, storm surge, extreme wave
height, and set down.
The offset from the mean position is due
to current, wind, drift force (static) and
due to first order wave (dynamic)

API-RP-2T can be referred for design issues of a TLP.

Note: the tendons should never go slack to avoid any snatch load
Spar platforms
Spar platforms
COB must be above COG for stability

Basic components are:

Topside
Hard tank – provides buoyancy to
support the structure
Mid section – hull or truss with
intermediate plates
Soft tank – required for floating stability
Spar platforms

Hydrodynamic force is less when truss used in the midsection

The location of the keel level far below the free surface reduces the heave excitation
force
Spar platforms
The pitch stiffness between the three
floaters obtained differently.
Semisubmersible is column stabilized,
TLP is stable with tether tension, Spar is
stable because COG is lower the COB.
The active mooring system allows to
position properly for drilling without
active seafloor guidance (ROV required)
Construction and transportation issues
should be considered before the sizing
Typically the hard tank has 5-6 levels
between the deck and the bottom of the hard
tank, each separated by watertight deck
Each level is divided into 4 compartments by
radial bulkhead
In general, only the bottom tank is used for
variable ballast
Spar platforms

Fabrication of the hull is done as separate

pieces, depending the facilities available
in the yard.
Once fabricated, either it can be afloat and
towed to the site, or taken on a vessel
At the site, ballast water is used to upend
the structure
Once upended and moored, topside can
be placed.
Spar platforms
Spar concept has been used in the Hywind concept

Split in mooring line

against yaw motion
Floating Production Storage Offloading (FPSO) platforms

Western Isles project.

Floating Production Storage Offloading (FPSO) platforms
Typical ship like floater, design to have proper metacentric
height for stability
The design can be carried out with “ABS Guide for building
and classing mobile offshore units”
ABS requirement, A+B > 1.4 (B+C)
This 40% excess is a safety margin, for
semisubmersible, the excess requirement is 30%
The hull should be compartmentalised sufficiently
to avoid flooding the main compartment in a
damaged case
In damaged case, the vessel should be able to
withstand 50 knot wind (ABS guideline)
Dynamic stability curve of a 30,000 Te Consider the effect of partly filled tanks on the
cargo vessel stability

FPSO can be spread moored to face one direction only, or it can be weathervening
type which changes orientation to face the better heading and reduce motion.
Floating Production Storage Offloading (FPSO) platforms
Production is done with flexible risers or riser tower with flexible jumpers. Motion of
FPSO generally prohibit using steel catenary riser or rigid vertical risers.
Floating Production Storage Offloading (FPSO) platforms
Resistance is not an issue as the purpose of the vessel is to stay permanently
Four major principals driving the hull design
- provision of oil storage capacity compatible to production and offloading capability
- provision of safe layout for production facilities, accommodation and utilities
- provision of displacement and ballast capacity to reduce the effects of motions
- provision of space for turret (if required) and loss of space due to that (for
conversions)
Subsea structures
Subsea Structures
Any structure underwater and resting on seafloor.
For oil and gas industry, subsea structures can be either static (template
structures) or dynamic (risers)

A typical subsea oil field layout

Subsea Structures
The purpose of various subsea structures is to support all equipment, valves, etc.,
which are required to carry the well fluid or to inject water / chemical / gas.
A Manifold can be compared with a junction box where various lines terminates or
originates. Typically, a template structure is having a foundation structure, the
template itself, and a protection cover structure (normally made of GRP).
It is obvious that first the foundation is installed, on top of that the Manifold is
installed, and finally the cover structure. The whole system is the template.

Weight of the structures may vary from 50-200 Te

Subsea Structures

Template structure
Foundation structure
A subsea template is a steel structure which is
used as a base for various subsea structures,
such as, wells and subsea trees, and
manifolds. The image above shows a number
of wellheads on a subsea template: The
wellheads can be seen with their guidebases (4
x white rods) pertruding from each corner,
which are used to locate other equipment, i.e.
trees.
Manifold structure
Subsea Structures
A subsea manifold is a large metal piece of equipment, made up of pipes and
valves and designed to transfer oil / gas from wellheads into a pipeline. Manifolds
are usually mounted on a template and often have a protective structure covering
them.
Subsea Structures
As the oil & gas field development moves further away from existing
infrastructures, it often requires a subsea tie-in of the export system with the
existing pipeline system.
A PLEM is a subsea structure used to connect rigid pipeline with other subsea
structure such as a manifold or a tree, through a jumper. The PLEM has facilities
for pig launching and/or receiving. The header is equipped with a ball valve, to
isolate the line, allowing recovery of the Pig Launcher / Receiver (PLR).

A pipeline end termination (PLET) is

used for joining one pipeline valve
and one vertical connector.

Both PLEM’s and PLET’s are

usually mounted on a flat platform
called a sled that is configured
specifically for the PLEM/PLET to
which it is attached.

PLEM structure
Subsea Structures
A PLET is used on one, or both ends of pipelines to provide connection point from
the pipeline to existing subsea structures in place.
The existing structure may be a subsea tree, another PLET or a manifold and are
connected by a jumper.
The PLETs and other subsea structures have upward looking connectors while the
jumpers have downward looking connectors. This configuration allows the jumpers
to be installed using Remotely Operated Vehicles (ROVs).
Subsea Structures
Subsea Structures
Subsea Structures
Among various others, “wellhead” structure lies at the top of the wells

Spools are pipelines connecting between various structures (e.g., a PLET and a
wellhead), normally a steel pipe
Subsea Structures
Foundation structure supports the template and the cover. The foundation is
typically suction piles or mudmat.
The structural arrangement will depend
on the type of structure it is going to
support. In the example, the major
components are the 3 off suction piles,
I-beams, guide funnels, guide posts for
installing the upper structures, etc.
Similarly, the manifold / template is the
structural frame with various
connectors, valves, etc.
Subsea Structures
The protection / cover structure, in most cases, made of GRP, i.e., the GRP panels
(roof hatch and tie-in panels) are placed over a steel frame.

Smaller structures can also be integrated

together and installed as a single piece
Spools are steel pipes connecting two points
(two connectors on two manifolds, at different
elevation, etc). Typically, their shape is
determined by the connection requirement.
They are also designed to reduce the thermal
stress which would have been large if they were
designed as straight pipe.
Subsea Structures
The purpose of protection covers are to protect the structures (and supporting
equipment) from dropped objects, and from trawler loads

Concrete matresses

GRP covers
Trawler load
Subsea Structures
Example below of a jumper spool. A jumper can also be flexible jumper.

PLET –
Pipeline End
Termination
Subsea Structures
Example below of a jumper spool. A jumper can also be flexible jumper.
Subsea Structures
Example below of a jumper spool. A jumper can also be flexible jumper.
Subsea Structures
Example below of a jumper spool. A jumper can also be flexible jumper.
Subsea Structures
Example below of a jumper spool. A jumper can also be flexible jumper.

Gooseneck connector

Typical underwater
electric connection
Subsea Structures
Pipelines can be broadly grouped as rigid or flexible pipe.

Rilsan plastic liner

Rigid pipe

Temperature of the fluid to be maintained to

avoid hydrate formation, i.e., insulation required.
In some cases, heating coil may be added if
required
FBE – Fusion Bonded Epoxy, SOLID-
polypropylene (PP)/polyethylene, FOAM- PP
foam, SHIELD- solid PP outer layer
The outer most layer is mainly for protection
during handling, and anti-buoyancy (if required)
Subsea Structures
“rigid” pipe is not truly rigid, it can
be reeled around a drum, but the
minimum bending radius (MBR)
should be considered.
Similarly, during installation of the
pipes on the seabed, the MBR is
one of the most important criteria.
Rigid pipes have higher MBR
compared to the flexible pipes
Subsea Structures
Subsea cryogenic pipeline
Suitable for LNG transportation

Typical flexible pipe

Flexible pipe in carousel

Subsea Structures
Flexible pipes are those having several layers, each acting for different forces (API-
RP-2RD can be referred)
1. Interlocked steel carcass
2. Thermoplastic sheath (extruded
polymar layer)
3. Zeta spiral (pressure armour)
4. Tensile armour (double cross wound
armours)
5. Outer thermoplastic sheath

Interlocked carcass designed for external

hydrostatic pressure

The pressure armour acts against hoop stress. On

the outside of this layer, a flat steel spiral can be
used to reinforce it (back-up pressure armour).
Tensile armour is flat rectangular cross section, almost always in pair and cross
wound. This layer carry axial tension and torsion.
Outer thermoplastic layer is used to protect the inner layers from corrosion,
abrasion, and to bind the outer layers.
Subsea Structures
Generally, there are two types of flexible pipes are available, bonded and unbonded.
In unbonded flexible pipe, the
layers are free to undergo small
relative movement.
Anti-wear layers normally
provided between other layers

In bonded pipes, the layers are all

integrated and bonded to a
vulcanized elastomeric material so
the layers cannot slide relative to
each other. Such pipes are
typically used for small length as
jumpers.
For installation or in-place analysis, the minimum bending radius is used as an
acceptance criteria. This is typically larger than the storing radius.
Subsea Structures
Subsea Structures
Classification based on operation:
Drilling risers – mainly used for drilling and well control, to contain all fluids from the
environment (typically top tensioned risers)
Production risers (Flexible risers, Steel catenary risers – SCR, Hybrid riser towers,
Single Hybrid Risers – SLOR, Grouped SLOR)
Export risers (Similar to production risers)
Water/Gas Injection risers (similar to production risers)
Classification based on arrangement:
Top tensioned risers (TTR) - a riser connected at the sea floor by a tie-back
connector and stress joint, and held with constant tension at the top.
Tension induces positive geometric stiffness, thus helps to reduce the motion /
deflection of the riser due to current, wave.
The top tension can be provided by
buoyancy module, or by a hydraulic system
on the vessel with heave compensation
capability.
Subsea Structures

TTR Steel Catenary Riser (SCR)

Subsea Structures
Flexible risers (85% of all dynamic risers are flexibles)
Note:
The purpose of providing
intermediate support is to
reduce the top tension of the
riser (tension at the top)
using distributed buoyancy is
easier and cheaper
compered to using
component like mid-water
arch.
Subsea Structures

Free standing tower risers Single Line Offset Riser (SLOR)

The list is not exhaustive, there are various other concepts available in the industry,
and new concepts emerge continuously.
Subsea Structures
Installation methods of pipe lines (continuous)

S-lay Reel-lay
J-lay

The criteria for selecting the

method mainly governed by
the facility of the installation
vessel.
The analysis shows if the
Tow-in method operation can be done by
checking the bending radius at
the touch down point (TDP)
with a certain forward speed.
Subsea Structures
Installation methods of pipe lines (continuous)
Subsea Structures
Pipes are terminated at the End fitting
End-fitting on the vessel carry mainly the
tensile load (from self weight, and
environmental loads).
For rigid pipe, this joint is simpler. For
flexible pipe, the layer carrying tensile
force should be properly connected with
the end-fitting (relatively complicated)
Intermediate connection or connection at
the subsea structure is also done in the
same way

The joint of the armour layer of the flexible pipe

can be done with epoxy Rigid pipe joint with end fitting
Subsea Structures
Bend stiffener and bend restrictor
The flexible pipes are sometime fitted with bend stiffener (mainly at the topside)
Bend restrictors ensures that the bend radius of the pipe should not fall below the
designed value.

Bend stiffener

Bend restrictor
Subsea Structures
Subsea Structures
Umbilical
Pipes / tubes carrying hydraulic line, various chemical lines, power and signal cables,
etc., inside.

Umbilicals are different from flexible pipes, but

the analysis is similar to some extent. The
allowable bending radius for umbilical is
typically smaller than the flexible pipe.
Fibre optic cables can be included inside an
umbilical