||JAI SRI GURUDEV||

S J C INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY
DEPARTMENT OF AERONAUTICAL ENGINEERING
SUBJECT: GUIDANCE, NAVIGATION AND CONTROL
MODULE- 1 NOTES

NAVIGATION:
Definition: The determination of a strategy for estimating the position of a vehicle along the flight
path, given the outputs from specified sensors.
 A Navigation system may provide information in a variety of forms, appropriate to the needs
of the aircraft.
 In the Information is primarily for the benefit of the crew, It involves some type of display
 Other outputs however may involve steerings signals sent directly to the autopilot or digital
information sent to a central computer
 The basic output of any navigation system is position. Position can be given in geographic co-
ordinates- Geodectic Latitude(φ), Geodectic Longitude(λ) and altitude (h)
 The needs of the navigation systems have become more important in terms of aircraft for the
safe flight. Any Navigation system will take the inputs from the respective sensors present
onboard and calculates the respective/relative position
Types of Navigation
All position-determination schemes can be classified
 dead reckoning
 Position fixing.

Dead Reckoning
Dead reckoning consists of extrapolation of a ’known’ position to some future time. It involves
measurement of direction of motion and distance travelled. The actual computation is performed by
taking the last known position and the time at which it was obtained, noting average speed and
heading since then and the present time. The speed is usually resolved to get North and East
components and each is multiplied by the time elapsed since the last position to get distance travelled.
This can be added to the initial position to get the present position.
To perform all these functions the Navigation system requires the following instruments:
(1) A speed measuring device
(2) A heading sensor
(3)A timer and
(4) A computer.
Measurement of speed is usually done using an air-speed meter (which measures the aircraft’s speed
relative to the air and does not take into account the speed of the air relative to the surface of the
earth), or by measuring the ground speed using Doppler effect (this is done by transmitting three or
four beams in different directions toward the ground and measuring the aircraft’s relative velocity
along these beams . Heading can be measured using a simple magnetic compass, a gyro-magnetic
compass, or a gyrocompass.
∫

where, t is the measurement interval and (Y-Yo) and (X-Xo) are the distances travelled due north and
due east during this measurement interval

Fig 1: Dead-reckoning computations

Notice that a simple integration of unresolved ground speed 1/ would give curvilinear distance
traveled but would be of little use for determining position. Thus, one must integrate the velocity.
The above equations are extremely simplified and are given only to impart an idea of the principle on
which the dead reckoning system works. In reality the actual dead reckoning computer must also
account for cross winds, the kinematics of the aircraft, its angular orientation, the geometry of the
earth and its attendant gravitational effects, and many other factors before it can extrapolate in a
reasonably accurate manner.

Position Fixing

In contrast to dead reckoning, position fixing is the determination of the position of the craft (a
fix) without reference to any former position. There are three basic methods of fixing position :
(1) Map reading
(2) Celestial navigation and
(3) Measuring range and/or bearing to identifiable points.

Map reading involves matching what can be seen of the outside world with a map and is the
traditional method of position fixing on land and is also used by general aviation in clear weather.
Modern systems adopting this technique uses a radar to obtain a picture of the ground from the air and
a computer matches it with a map stored in the form of a digital land mass database. These system are
called terrain referenced navigation aids.

Celestial navigation has been used by mariners for centuries. The basis of celestial navigation is that
if the altitude of a celestial object (measured in terms of the angle between the line-of-sight and the
horizontal) of a celestial object is measured then the observer’s position must lie on a specific
circle(called the circle of position) on the surface of the earth centered on the point on the earth which
is directly below the object. This is shown in Fig.2. If the time of observation is noted and the
celestial object is a star then this circle can easily be found using astronomical tables and charts.
Sightings on two or more such celestial objects will give two or more such circles of position, and
their intersection will give the position of the craft. Though in the early days some aircraft did use
celestial navigation this has been abandoned nowadays in favour of better navigational aids.

Range and bearing navigational techniques are the basis of most modern position fixing systems.
They use modern electronic equipment for doing this kind of measurement. Through individual
measurements of range and bearing, a line of position a line on which the craft is presumed to be
located-is established. In principle, it is somewhat similar to celestial navigation. The line might be a
small circle, great circle, hyperbola or some other curve constituting the intersection of the surface of
the earth (or a concentric surface at the altitude of the aircraft) with a plane or a cone or a hyperboloid
etc. The common intersection of two or more nonparallel lines of position constitutes the fix. If the
lines are determined at different times, then one or more of them must be adjusted for the assumed
motion during the interval provide a running fix. Occasionally, an actual position is not needed, a line
of position being adequate to ensure safety. This is called homing. The method is not suitable when
other aircraft are in the vicinity and a means of avoiding them is not available.

Dead reckoning has been characterized as the basis of all navigation with position-fixing constituting
a method of updating it. Actually, dead reckoning and position fixing complement each other, each
providing an independent means of checking the accuracy of the other.

GUIDANCE:
Definition: The determination of a strategy for following the nominal path in the presence of off-
nominal conditions, wind disturbances, and navigational uncertainties.

CONTROL:
Definition: The determination of a strategy for maintaining the angular orientation of the vehicle
during the flight that is consistent with the guidance strategy, and the vehicle, crew, and passenger
constraints.
The boundaries between these four categories are not very sharp and they often overlap. For example,
consider the aircraft velocity and its angular orientation. These are coupled and so the guidance and
control of an aircraft must be considered together.

Air Data Information

Air Data Information is provided by the Air data Systems of Aircraft. Air data systems provide
accurate information on quantities such as pressure altitude, vertical speed, calibrated
airspeed, true airspeed, Mach number, static air temperature and air density ratio. This
information is essential for the pilot to fly the aircraft safely and is also required by a number
of key avionic sub-systems which enable the pilot to carry out the mission. It is thus one of
the key avionic systems in its own right and forms part of the essential core of avionic sub-
systems required in all modern aircraft, civil or military.
Air Data Measurement

The air data quantities pressure altitude, vertical speed, calibrated airspeed, true airspeed,
Mach number, etc., are derived from three basic measurements by sensors connected to
probes which measure:
Total (or Pitot) pressure

Static pressure

Total (or indicated) air temperature

The total pressure, PT , is measured by means of an absolute pressure sensor (or transducer)
connected to a Pitot tube facing the moving airstream. This measures the impact pressure, QC,
that is the pressure exerted to bring the moving airstream to rest relative to the Pitot tube plus
the static pressure, PS, of the free airstream,i.e., PT = QC + PS.

Fig 2: Basic Air-Data System

RADAR

The word RADAR is an acronym for Radio Detection (A)nd Ranging. A Radar is an
electromagnetic system for the detection and location of objects. It operates by transmitting a
particular type of waveform and detects the nature of the echo signal. Radars can operate in
situations like darkness, fog, rain, or when the object is located far away.

Fig 3: Basic Principle of Radar

A radar consists of three main parts:

 A transmitting antenna.
 A receiving antenna
 An energy detecting device, or a receiver

The transmitting antenna emits electromagnetic radiation, a portion of which is reflected back
by the target. The receiving antenna receives this reflected energy and delivers it to the
receiver. The receiver processes this energy to detect the presence of the target and to extract
its location, relative velocity, and other information. The energy emitted by the radar is
usually in the form of a train of narrow, rectangular-shaped pulses. This is called a radar
waveform(see Fig. 3.1) of course, there could be other kinds of radar waveforms too.

Fig 3.1: A typical radar waveform

This figure should be understood to mean that a pulse of electromagnetic energy is being
transmitted every t0 seconds. It also means that the frequency of transmission (that is, the
number of pulses per second) is given by
For example, if a pulse is sent every 0.1 seconds then it also means 10 pulses are being sent
every one second, and so fp=1/0.1=10. Consider a pulse of energy being sent at a given
instant in time. It travels to the target at a speed of c meters/sec, hits the target, and is
reflected back at the same speed. The reflected energy is received at the radar TR seconds
after sending the pulse (see Fig. 4).

Fig 4: Transmitted and received pulses

Then , the distance or range R to the target is given by

where, R is in meters and c is usually taken to be the speed of light and is assumed to be c = 3
× 108 m/sec In deriving the above equation we assumed that only one pulse was transmitted
and was later received after reflection from the object. But usually a number of pulses are
sent at regular intervals, as was shown in Fig.3 . In Fig. 5(a), the first pulse, after being
reflected from the target, is received by the radar before the second pulse is transmitted.
There will be no ambiguity here as the reflected pulse can be easily identified as a reflection
of the first pulse. But in Fig.5(b), we notice that the reflection of the first pulse is received
after the second pulse has been transmitted. This causes some confusion since the radar,
without any additional information, cannot determine whether the received signal is a
reflection of the first pulse or of the second pulse. This leads to an ambiguity in determining
the range. Note that this ambiguity does not arise if TR < t0, in which case the reflection of the
first pulse is always received before the second pulse is transmitted. Thus, the maximum
range or distance of the target which does not cause any ambiguity is denoted by Runamb and is
given by,

This is known as the maximum unambiguous range of the radar. If the target is beyond this
distance then the reflection of a pulse is received after the next pulse has been transmitted.
This is known as the second-time-around echoes effect.
Fig 5: (a) No ambiguity (b) ambiguity in range measurement
The Radar Equation

The radar equation relates the range of a radar to the characteristics of the transmitter,
receiver, antenna, target, and the environment in which the radar operates. The radar equation
is useful
 in determining the distance of the target from the radar
 as a tool for understanding radar operation
 in serving as a basis for radar design.

Consider a radar using a transmitting antenna which radiates power uniformly in all
directions. Such antennas are called isotropic antennas. Let Pt be the power radiated by such
an antenna. Then the power density at a distance R is given by,

This is apparent from Fig 6 given below.

Fig 6: Power density at distance R from the radar

Note that at a distance R, the power Pt is uniformly distributed over an area given by the
surface area of a sphere of radius R. Hence, we get the equation or ̂ as above.

However, it is somewhat wasteful to radiate energy in all directions. Thus, radars may
employ directive antennas to channelize, or direct, the radiated power in a particular direction
(i.e., the direction of the target). The gain in power density so achieved is denoted by G and is
a measure of the increased power radiated in the direction of the target as compared to the
power that would have been radiated from an isotropic antenna. It may also be defined as the
ratio of the maximum radiation intensity from the given antenna to the Radiation intensity
from a lossless isotropic antenna with the same power input. Here, radiation intensity is
defined as the power radiated per unit solid angle in a given direction. The factor G is also
known as the antenna gain. Thus, the power density from a directive antenna at a distance R
is given by

̂
The target, situated at a distance R, intercepts a portion of the power and reflects it in various
directions. The measure of the amount of power intercepted by the target is defined as the
radar cross-section of the target. It is denoted by σ and has the unit of area. Note that the
radar cross-section is the characteristic of a particular target and is a measure of its size as
seen by the radar. Thus, the amount of power intercepted by the target at a distance R from
the radar is

Now we assume that this power ̂ gets radiated in all directions, and therefore, using the same
argument, the power density of the reflected signal at the receiving antenna is given by

The radar antenna now captures a portion of this reflected power. How much of this power is
actually captured depends on what is known as the effective area of the receiving antenna.
This is denoted by Ae and has the unit of area. It is also known as the antenna effective
aperture. The power Pr received by the radar is,

The radar receiver must be capable of detecting the power received. Suppose the radar
receiver can detect only those signals which are greater than a value S min (known as the
minimum detectable signal ), then the maximum range of the radar can be obtained from

From which,

[ ]

This is the fundamental form of the radar equation. Note that the two important antenna
parameters used here are the antenna gain G and the effective antenna aperture Ae.

Many radars use the same antenna for both transmission and reception. In such cases, from
antenna theory, the relationship between the antenna gain and the receiving effective area of
an antenna is given as,

where, λ is the wavelength of the transmitted energy. Substituting the ‘G’ expression in the
radar range equation, we can obtain the equation in terms of G and Ae
Radar Block Diagram and Operation

Fig 7: Block diagram of a pulse radar

The block diagram given below (Fig. 7) shows the main components of pulse radar and their
operation. The transmitter may be an oscillator, such as a magnetron, which is pulsed (turned
on and off) by the modulator to generate a repetitive train of pulses of the kind shown in
Fig.3.1. The waveform generated by the transmitter travels along a transmission line to the
antenna, which is generally used for both transmitting and receiving. The duplexer consists of
two devices, one known as TR (Transmit-Receive) and the other as ATR (Anti-Transmit-
Receive). The TR protects the delicate circuits of the receiver from the high power of the
transmitter during transmission and the ATR channels the returned echo signal to the
receiver, and not to the transmitter, during reception.

The first stage of the receiver is a low-noise RF (radio frequency) amplifier. The mixer and
the local oscillator convert the RF signal to an IF (intermediate frequency) signal. This signal
is passed through an IF amplifier which is designed to maximize the signal-to-noise ratio at
its output. The pulse modulation of the echo signal is extracted by the detector and amplified
by the video amplifier to a level at which the signal can be properly displayed on a CRT
(Cathode Ray Tube). Timing signals are also supplied for range reference. Angle information
is obtained from the pointing direction of the antenna.

The most common form of the CRT display is the PPI (Plan Position Indicator), which maps
(in polar coordinates) the location of the target in azimuth and range. This is an intensity-
modulated display in which the amplitude of the receiver output modulates the electron-beam
intensity as the electron beam is made to sweep outward from the center of the tube. The
beam rotates in angle in response to the antenna position.

A B-scope display is similar to the PPI except that it utilizes rectangular, rather than polar,
coordinates and displays range vs. angle. Both the B-scope and the PPI, being intensity
modulated, have limited dynamic range.
Another form of display is the A-scope display, which plots target amplitude vs. range, for
some fixed direction. This is a deflection-modulated display. It is more suited for tracking
radar application than for surveillance radars.

The block diagram in Fig 7 is a simplified version which omits many important details like
devices which automatically compensate the receiver for changes in frequency (AFC -
Automatic Frequency Controller), gain (AGC - Automatic Gain Controller), receiver circuits
for reducing interference from other radars and from unwanted signals, rotary joints in the
transmission lines to allow movement of the antenna, circuitry for discriminating between
moving targets and unwanted stationary objects, and pulse compression for achieving the
resolution benefits of a short pulse but with the energy of a large pulse. Similarly, there are
many other devices, used according to requirement.

Radar Frequencies

Conventionally, radars are usually operated at frequencies between 220 MHz and 35 GHz, a
spread of more than 7 octaves. However, they can also be operated at other frequencies
outside this range.

Applications of Radars

 On ground : Detection, location, and tracking of aircraft and space targets.

 In the air : Detection of other aircraft,ships, or land vehicles; mapping of land; storm
avoidance, terrain avoidance, and navigation.
 On the sea : Navigation aid and safety device to locate buoys, shore lines, other
ships, and for observation of aircraft.
 In space : Guidance of spacecraft; remote sensing of land and sea.
 Air traffic control : Controlling of air traffic in the vicinity of airports; and also for
automated landing.
 Aircraft navigation : Weather avoidance to indicate regions of severe precipitation;
terrain following/terrain avoidance (TF/TA); radio altimeter and doppler navigator are
also radars.
 Ship safety : Collision avoidance; detection of navigation buoys.
 Space: Rendezvous and docking; landing on the moon and other planets; detection
and tracking of satellites.
 Remote sensing: Sensing of geophysical object, or the ”environment” like weather,
cloud cover, earth resources, water resources, agriculture, forests, geological
formation, etc. This is usually done from aircraft or satellites.
 Law enforcement : To monitor speed of vehicles in traffic
 Military : Surveillance and navigation; control and guidance of weapons. The largest
use of radars occurs here.
THE DOPPLER EFFECT

A radar detects the presence of objects and locates their position in space by transmitting
electromagnetic energy and observing the returned echo. A pulse radar transmits a relatively
short burst of electromagnetic energy, after which the receiver is turned on to listen for the
echo. The echo not only indicates that a target is present, but the time that elapses between
the transmission of the pulse and the reception of its echo is a measure of the distance to the
target. Separation of the echo signal from the transmitted signal is made on the basis of
differences in time.

The radar transmitter may be operated continuously rather than pulsed if it is possible to
separate the strong transmitted signal from the weak echo. The received echo-signal power is
considerably smaller than the transmitter power (as low as 10−18 times the transmitter power
- or sometimes even less). Separate antennas for transmission and reception help isolate the
weak echo from the strong leakage signal, but this isolation is usually not sufficient. A
feasible technique for separating the received signal from the transmitted signal, when there
is relative motion between radar and target, is based on recognizing the change in the echo-
signal frequency caused by what is known as the doppler effect.

It is well known in the field of optics and acoustics that if there is relative motion between the
source of a signal and the observer of the signal, along the line joining the two, then an
apparent shift in frequency will result. This is the doppler effect and is the basis of CW
(Continuous Wave) radars.

Fig 8: The doppler effect

Consider Fig.3.1 above in which a CW radar and a target are placed at a distance of R from
each other. The target is moving with a speed Vr relative to the radar and along the line
joining the radar and the target (also known as the line-of-sight - LOS). Note that the
transmitted signal is not in the form of a train of pulses, but a continuous wave with
frequency fo. Let the total number of wavelengths (given by λ) contained in the to-and
-fro path between the radar and the target be denoted by n. Then,
One wavelength corresponds to an angular excursion of 2π radians.Thus, the total angular
excursion φ made by the electromagnetic wave during its transit to the target and back to the
radar is

When the target is in motion, both R and φ are changing. Now a change in φ with respect to
time is equal to an angular frequency. This, in fact, is the doppler angular frequency Wd,

From which we get

Where,
fd = doppler frequency shift, in Hz
c = velocity of propagation = 3 × 108m/s
Vr = relative velocity of the target with respect to the radar along the line-of-sight.

For a stationary radar and a moving target the relative velocity may be written as

Where, V is the target speed and θ is the angle made by the target velocity vector with the
LOS. When θ = 0, the doppler frequency is a maximum. The doppler frequency is zero when
the trajectory is perpendicular to the radar-target line-of-sight (that is, θ = π/2 = 90o). Also
note that the Doppler frequency shift positive for an approaching target (that is, Vr is
considered to be positive) and negative for a receding target (that is, Vr is considered to be
negative).

EXAMPLE: Positions of the two aircraft, A and B, are as shown in the figure below. Aircraft
A has a speed of 600 m/sec and carries a CW radar transmitting at 300 MHz frequency and
tracking aircraft B which has a speed of 800 m/sec.

(a) What is the doppler frequency shift recorded by the radar in aircraft A?
(b) Is this shift positive or negative?
(c) What should be the flight direction of aircraft B for the doppler frequency shift to be zero?
ANSWER

(a) The transmitted frequency = f0 = 300MHz = 300 × 106Hz.

The relative velocity of aircraft A with respect to aircraft B along the LOS is given by,

The doppler frequency shift

(b) Note that aircraft B is actually moving towards aircraft A in a relative sense and hence it
is an approaching target, that is, the LOS between A and B is shrinking with time. Thus, the
doppler shift is positive, which means that the frequency of the received signal is more than
the frequency of the transmitted signal.

(c) The doppler frequency shift will be zero when the relative velocity vr is zero. This can
happen when

From which we get

This is shown in the figure given below.

Thus, the change in frequency between the transmitted signal and the received signal allows
the received signal to be separated from the trans-mitted signal. Apart from this, the CW
radar also provides a measurement of relative velocity which may be used to distinguish
moving targets from stationary objects and clutter.

THE CW RADAR

In Fig. 9 we give the block diagram of a simple CW radar.

The transmitter generates a continuous (unmodulated) oscillation of frequency f0, which is

radiated by the antenna. A portion of the radiated energy is intercepted by the target and is
scattered. some of it in the direction of the radar, where it is collected by the receiving
antenna. If the target is in motion with a velocity Vr relative to the radar, the received signal
frequency will be shifted from the transmitted signal frequency f0 by an amount ±fd.
The plus sign applies if the distance between the radar and the target is decreasing (that is, an
approaching target) and the minus sign applies when this distance is increasing (that is, a
receding target). The received echo signal at a frequency f0 ± fd enters the radar via the
antenna and is hetero-dyned in the detector (mixer) with a portion of the transmitted signal f0
to produce a doppler beat note of frequency fd. However, the sign of fd is lost in this process.

Fig 9: A simple CW radar block diagram

The purpose of the Doppler amplifier (beat frequency amplifier) is to eliminate echoes from
stationary targets and to amplify the Doppler echo signal to a level where it can operate and
indicating device. Its frequency response characteristics are as shown in Fig. 9. The low-
frequency cut-off must be high enough to reject the d-c component caused by stationary
targets, and yet it must be low enough to pass the smallest Doppler frequency expected.
Sometimes both conditions cannot be met simultaneously and a compromise is necessary.
The Doppler cut-off frequency (on the higher side) is usually selected to pass the highest
Doppler frequency expected.
The indicator could be a pair of earphones or a frequency meter. Earphones are used when an
exact knowledge of the doppler frequency is not required. The ear then acts as a selective
(narrow) bandpass filter with a passband of the order of 50 Hz centered about the signal
frequency. This is of use for subsonic aircraft targets when the transmitter frequency falls in
the middle range of the microwave frequency region.

If audio detection is desired for those combination of target velocity and transmitter
frequency which do not result in audible doppler frequencies, the doppler signal could be
heterodyned to the audible range. The doppler frequency can be detected and measured by
conventional frequency meters, usually one that counts cycles.

APPLICATIONS OF CW RADARS

The chief use of the simple unmodulated CW radar is for the measurement of the relative
velocity of a moving target.

The principal advantage of a CW doppler radar over other non-radar methods of

measurement of speed is that there need not be any physical contact between the measuring
device and the object whose speed is being measured. Another advantage is that the CW
radar, when used for short or moderate ranges, is characterized by simpler equipment than a
pulse radar.

Among its disadvantages is the fact that the amplitude of the signal that can be transmitted by
a CW radar is dependent on the isolation that can be achieved between the transmitter and the
receiver since the transmitter noise that finds its way into the receiver limits the receiver
sensitivity. This limits the maximum range of the radar. The pulse radar has no similar
limitations to its maximum range because the transmitter is not operative when the receiver is
turned on.

One of the greatest shortcomings of the simple CW radar is its inability to obtain a
measurement of range. This limitation can be overcome by modulating the CW carrier, as in
the frequency-modulated radar

FREQUENCY MODULATED CW RADAR (FM-CW)

In FM-CW, the transmitted signal frequency is varied as a function of time. Suppose it

increases linearly with time, then we will have a variation as shown in Fig 10.

Fig 10: Linear frequency modulation in FM-CW radars

Here, fb is the beat frequency which is defined as the difference between the transmitted and
received frequency. Since the beat (or difference frequency) is caused only by the target’s
range (as the target is stationary) it is also denoted by fr. Consider the transmitter CW signal
at time tA, having frequency fa. This signal hits the stationary target and comes back to the
radar at time tB when the frequency of the transmitted signal would have increased to fc.
Hence, the increase in the transmitted frequency during the to-and-fro transit time T of a
signal is (fc − fa) and is the beat frequency. Thus, at any given instant in time the difference
between the currently trans-mitted signal frequency and the currently received signal is a
measure of the to-and-fro transit time of the transmitted signal.

Fig11: Block diagram of a FM-CW radar

A simplified block diagram of the FM-CW radar is given in Fig.11

Chapter 4

MTI AND PULSE DOPPLER

RADARS

Keywords. MTI, Pulse Doppler radar, Blind speed

4.1 INTRODUCTION

In the previous chapter we studied how doppler frequency shift can be used
in continuous wave radars to determine relative velocity of a moving target or
distinguish moving targets from stationary targets. In this chapter we shall
show that the doppler frequency shift produced by a moving target may also
be used in a pulse radar to determine the relative velocity of a target or
to separate desired signals from moving targets and undesired signals from
stationary objects (clutter).

Though the doppler frequency shift is sometimes used to measure relative

velocity of a target using a pulse radar, its most interesting and widespread
use has been in identifying small moving targets in the presence of large
clutter. Such pulse radars which use the doppler frequency shift to distinguish
(or discriminate) between moving and fixed targets are called MTI (Moving

57
Target Indicators) and Pulse Doppler Radars. The physical principle of
both these radars are the same but they differ in their mode of operation.
For instance the MTI radar operates on low pulse repetition frequencies thus
causing ambiguous Doppler measurements (blind speeds) but unambiguous
range measurements (no second-time-around echoes). On the other hand the
pulse doppler radar operates on high pulse repetition. frequency thus causing
unambiguous doppler measurements (no blind speeds) but ambiguous range
measurements (second-time-around echoes). The meaning of these terms will
become clear later when we describe the actual operational principles of these
radars.

Most of the discussion in this chapter will be restricted to MTI radars.

These are high-quality air surveillance radars that operate in the presence of
clutter.

4.2 DESCRIPTION OF OPERATION

In principle the CW radar can be converted to a pulse radar by providing

a pulse modulator which turns on and off the amplifier to generate pulses.
The output of this operation is shown in Fig.4.2.

The block diagram is almost self-explanatory. We need to note that there

is no local oscillator here since the reference signal is supplied directly from
the CW oscillator. Apart from this function the CW oscillator also supplies a
coherent reference needed to detect the doppler frequency shift. By coherent
we mean that the phase of the transmitted signal is preserved in the reference
signal. This kind of reference signal is the distinguishing feature of a coherent
MTI radar.

Let the CW oscillator voltage be

58
Vosc = A1 sin(2πft t)

The reference signal is

Vref = A2 sin(2πft t)

The doppler-shifted echo-signal voltage is

4πft R0

Vecho = A3 sin 2π(ft ± fd )t − c

where,

A1 = amplitude of oscillator voltage

A2 = amplitude of reference signal

A3 = amplitude of echo signal

R0 = range (distance between radar and target)

fd = doppler frequency shift

ft = frequency of the transmitted carrier signal

t = time

c = velocity of propagation.

The reference signal and the target echo signal are heterodyned in the
mixer stage. The difference frequency component is

4πft R0
Vdif f = A4 sin 2πfd t − (4.1)
c

59
For stationary targets the doppler frequency shift fd will be zero; hence
Vdif f will not vary with time and may take on any constant value from +A4
to −A4 , including zero. But when the target is in motion relative to the
radar,fd has a value other than zero and the voltage corresponding to the
difference frequency from the mixer will vary with time. Note that all these
frequencies are with reference to the carrier waveform and has nothing to do
with the pulse repetition frequency.

Fig.4.3(a) shows the reflected signal from the target. The frequency of
this signal may have been changed due to the motion of the target. In
Fig.4.3(b) the difference signal is shown in the presence of a moving target
for the case when the resultant doppler frequency is such that fd > 1/t, and
in Fig. 4.3(c) for the case when fd < 1/τ, where τ is the width of one pulse.
When fd > 1/τ, fd can be easily found from the information contained in one
pulse. whereas, when fd < 1/τ many pulses will be required to extract fd .
The difference signal is the output of the mixer and is also called the video
output. If this video output is now displayed on an A-scope (amplitude vs.
time or range) in successive sweeps. Note that the amplitude of the signals
from stationary targets do not change with the number of sweeps. But the
echo signals from moving targets will change in amplitude over successive
sweeps according to Equation (4.4). When these sweeps are superposed over
each other (Fig.4.4(f)), due to the effect of persistence of vision, the moving
targets will produce signals which on the A-scope display will look like a
butterfly opening and closing its wings. This kind of signal is not good enough
for a PPI since the screen display will show bright patches for all stationary
targets and spots of fluctuating brightness for moving targets. But what we
actually require is doppler information regarding moving targets only. one
method to extract this information is to employ delay-line cancelers. In this
the current signal is delayed by one pulse time period (reciprocal of the pulse
repetition frequency) and subtracted from the signal coming next. The effect
is shown in Fig.4.5 below. Only the fluctuating signal from the moving target

60
remains and the signals from the stationary targets are cancelled out. In the
PPI, the positions of stationary targets will show dark patches and moving
targets will show spots which periodically fluctuate in brightness. However,
use of delay line cancellers cause problems of blind speeds. Note that the
signal is delayed by one pulse time period and then subtracted. Suppose the
signal from the moving target fluctuates in such a way that the signal after
this time delay is the same as the signal before this time delay. This will
happen whenever fd is a multiple of fp (the pulse repetition frequency), that
is,

fd = nfp , n = 1, 2, . . .

When this happens the resultant signal after subtraction is Zero. Thus the
radar fails to detect, or is blind to, the presence of such a moving target.
Doppler frequency shifts fd which cause this phenomenon are themselves
caused by certain specific target velocities. Substituting the expression for
doppler frequency in (4.5), we get,

fd = nfp = 2vr /λ (4.2)

From which we get

nλfp nλ
vr = = , n = 1, 2, . . . (4.3)
2 2T
where, T is the pulse time period.

For a specific n this is called the n-th blind speed. Whenever the target
relative velocity with respect to the radar along the line of sight matches
with these speeds, an MTI radar fails to detect the moving target. Thus to
avoid doppler ambiguities (due to blind speeds) the first blind speed must
be larger than the maximum expected relative velocity of the target. This

61
can be achieved by either making fp large or by making λ large. So MTI
radars should operate at long wavelengths (low carrier frequencies) or high
pulse repetition frequencies, or both. But, unfortunately other constraint
prevent this kind of choice. Too low radar frequencies make the beam-width
wider and cause deterioration in angular resolution. Too high pulse repetition
frequencies cause ambiguous range measurements.

As mentioned at the beginning of this chapter, MTI radars operate on

low pulse repetition frequencies and thus are prone to blind speeds, but
they do not have the problems of range ambiguities. On the other hand,
pulse doppler radars operate at high pulse repetition frequencies and thus
are affected by ambiguous range measurements. But they do not have the
problem of blind speeds. MTI radars are usually used as high-resolution
surveillance radars in airports. Pulse doppler radars are used for detection
of high-speed extraterrestrial objects like satellites and astronomical bodies.

EXAMPLE 4.1: In a MTI radar the pulse repetition frequency is 200 Hz

and the carrier transmission frequency is 100 MHz. Find its first, second and
third blind speeds.

ANSWER:

The pulse repetition frequency, fp = 200 Hz

The carrier transmission frequency, ft = 100 MHz.

The carrier wavelength,

c 3 × 108
= = = 3m (4.4)
ft (100 × 106 )

The n-th blind speed,

nλf p
vrn = (4.5)
2
62
So, the first blind speed =
1 × 3 × 200
= 300m/sec (4.6)
2
The second blind speed =
2 × 3 × 200
= 600m/sec (4.7)
2
The third blind speed =
3 × 3 × 200
= 900m/sec (4.8)
2

63
Figure 4.1: Block Diagram of (a) Simple CW Radar and (b) pulse radar
using doppler information

64
Figure 4.2: Pulse train generated from a continuous signal

65
Figure 4.3: (a) Reflected signal (b) Difference signal when fd > 1/τ (c)
Difference signal when fd < 1/τ

66
Figure 4.4: (a-e) Successive sweeps of an MTI Radar on an A-scope display
and (f) supersposition of these signals (arrows indicate moving targets)

67
Figure 4.5: (a)Basic delay line canceller block diagram (b) Effect of delay
line canceller on the signal

68
Figure 4.6: Effect of Blind speeds

69
Chapter 11 Target Tracking

Part I: Single Target Tracking

Tracking radar systems are used to measure the target’s relative position in
range, azimuth angle, elevation angle, and velocity. Then, by using and keep-
ing track of these measured parameters the radar can predict their future val-
ues. Target tracking is important to military radars as well as to most civilian
radars. In military radars, tracking is responsible for fire control and missile
guidance; in fact, missile guidance is almost impossible without proper target
tracking. Commercial radar systems, such as civilian airport traffic control
radars, may utilize tracking as a means of controlling incoming and departing
airplanes.
Tracking techniques can be divided into range/velocity tracking and angle
tracking. It is also customary to distinguish between continuous single-target
tracking radars and multi-target track-while-scan (TWS) radars. Tracking
radars utilize pencil beam (very narrow) antenna patterns. It is for this reason
that a separate search radar is needed to facilitate target acquisition by the
tracker. Still, the tracking radar has to search the volume where the target’s
presence is suspected. For this purpose, tracking radars use special search pat-
terns, such as helical, T.V. raster, cluster, and spiral patterns, to name a few.

11.1. Angle Tracking

Angle tracking is concerned with generating continuous measurements of
the target’s angular position in the azimuth and elevation coordinates. The
accuracy of early generation angle tracking radars depended heavily on the
size of the pencil beam employed. Most modern radar systems achieve very
fine angular measurements by utilizing monopulse tracking techniques.

© 2000 by Chapman & Hall/CRC

Tracking radars use the angular deviation from the antenna main axis of the
target within the beam to generate an error signal. This deviation is normally
measured from the antenna’s main axis. The resultant error signal describes
how much the target has deviated from the beam main axis. Then, the beam
position is continuously changed in an attempt to produce a zero error signal. If
the radar beam is normal to the target (maximum gain), then the target angular
position would be the same as that of the beam. In practice, this is rarely the
case.
In order to be able to quickly achieve changing the beam position, the error
signal needs to be a linear function of the deviation angle. It can be shown that
this condition requires the beam’s axis to be squinted by some angle (squint
angle) off the antenna’s main axis.

11.1.1. Sequential Lobing

Sequential lobing is one of the first tracking techniques that was utilized by
the early generation of radar systems. Sequential lobing is often referred to as
lobe switching or sequential switching. It has a tracking accuracy that is lim-
ited by the pencil beam width used and by the noise caused by either mechani-
cal or electronic switching mechanisms. However, it is very simple to
implement. The pencil beam used in sequential lobing must be symmetrical
(equal azimuth and elevation beam widths).
Tracking is achieved (in one coordinate) by continuously switching the pen-
cil beam between two pre-determined symmetrical positions around the
antenna’s Line of Sight (LOS) axis. Hence, the name sequential lobing is
adopted. The LOS is called the radar tracking axis, as illustrated in Fig. 11.1.
As the beam is switched between the two positions, the radar measures the
returned signal levels. The difference between the two measured signal levels
is used to compute the angular error signal. For example, when the target is
tracked on the tracking axis, as the case in Fig. 11.1a, the voltage difference is
zero and, hence, is also the error signal. However, when the target is off the
tracking axis, as in Fig. 11.1b, a nonzero error signal is produced. The sign of
the voltage difference determines the direction in which the antenna must be
moved. Keep in mind, the goal here is to make the voltage difference be equal
to zero.
In order to obtain the angular error in the orthogonal coordinate, two more
switching positions are required for that coordinate. Thus, tracking in two
coordinates can be accomplished by using a cluster of four antennas (two for
each coordinate) or by a cluster of five antennas. In the latter case, the middle
antenna is used to transmit, while the other four are used to receive.

© 2000 by Chapman & Hall/CRC

s
axi
m
nA bea axis
io ing
sit c k
po tr a
am
be beam A beam B
return return

on B
p ositi
beam

(a)

is
nA ing ax
k
si tio trac
po
am
be beam A
return beam B
return
io n B
p o s it
beam

(b)

Figure 11.1. Sequential lobing. (a) Target is located on track axis.

(b) Target is off track axis.

11.1.2. Conical Scan

Conical scan is a logical extension of sequential lobing where, in this case,
the antenna is continuously rotated at an offset angle, or has a feed that is
rotated about the antenna’s main axis. Fig. 11.2 shows a typical conical scan
beam. The beam scan frequency, in radians per second, is denoted as ω s . The
angle between the antenna’s LOS and the rotation axis is the squint angle ϕ .
The antenna’s beam position is continuously changed so that the target will
always be on the tracking axis.
Fig. 11.3 shows a simplified conical scan radar system. The envelope detec-
tor is used to extract the return signal amplitude and the Automatic Gain Con-
trol (AGC) tries to hold the receiver output to a constant value. Since the AGC
operates on large time constants, it can hold the average signal level constant
and still preserve the signal rapid scan variation. It follows that the tracking

© 2000 by Chapman & Hall/CRC

error signals (azimuth and elevation) are functions of the target’s RCS; they are
functions of its angular position with the main beam axis.
In order to illustrate how conical scan tracking is achieved, we will first con-
sider the case shown in Fig. 11.4. In this case, as the antenna rotates around the
tracking axis all target returns have the same amplitude (zero error signal).
Thus, no further action is required.

e
axi
s ngl
m ui nt a
bea ϕ sq

g axis
kin
trac

ωs

rotating
feed

Figure 11.2. Conical scan beam.

Az & El
servo m otor
servo A m p drive

elevation transm itter duplexer

error
detector
envelope m ixer &
detector IF A m p.

AGC
azim uth scan m otor &
error scan reference
detector

Figure 11.3. Simplified conical scan radar system.

© 2000 by Chapman & Hall/CRC

xis
a ma
nA b e
itio axis
pos racking
m t
bea

on B
positi
beam
E(t)

E0

tim e
Figure 11.4. Error signal produced when the target is on the tracking
axis for conical scan.

Next, consider the case depicted by Fig. 11.5. Here, when the beam is at
position B, returns from the target will have maximum amplitude. And when
the antenna is at position A, returns from the target have minimum amplitude.
Between those two positions, the amplitude of the target returns will vary
between the maximum value at position B, and the minimum value at position
A. In other words, Amplitude Modulation (AM) exists on top of the returned
signal. This AM envelope corresponds to the relative position of the target
within the beam. Thus, the extracted AM envelope can be used to derive a
servo-control system in order to position the target on the tracking axis.
Now, let us derive the error signal expression that is used to drive the servo-
control system. Consider the top view of the beam axis location shown in Fig.
11.6. Assume that t = 0 is the starting beam position. The locations for maxi-
mum and minimum target returns are also identified. The quantity ε defines
the distance between the target location and the antenna’s tracking axis. It fol-
lows that the azimuth and elevation errors are, respectively, given by

ε a = ε sin ϕ (11.1)

ε e = ε cos ϕ (11.2)

These are the error signals that the radar uses to align the tracking axis on the
target.

© 2000 by Chapman & Hall/CRC

s
axi
am
nA be axis
io ing
sit k
po tra c
m
bea

B
po s itio n
beam

E(t)

E0

tim e

Figure 11.5. Error signal produced when the target is off the
tracking axis for conical scan.

maximum target
return
target
ε
tracking εa
axis ϕ
εe beam axis at t = 0

minimum target
return

Figure 11.6. Top view of beam axis for a complete scan.

© 2000 by Chapman & Hall/CRC

The AM signal E ( t ) can then be written as

E ( t ) = E 0 cos ( ω s t – ϕ ) = E 0 ε e cos ω s t + E 0 ε a sin ω s t (11.3)

where E 0 is a constant called the error slope, ω s is the scan frequency in radi-
ans per seconds, and ϕ is the angle already defined. The scan reference is the
signal that the radar generates to keep track of the antenna’s position around a
complete path (scan). The elevation error signal is obtained by mixing the sig-
nal E ( t ) with cos ω s t (the reference signal) followed by low pass filtering.
More precisely,

1 1
E e ( t ) = E 0 cos ( ω s t – ϕ ) cos ω s t = – --- E 0 cos ϕ + --- cos ( 2ω s t – ϕ ) (11.4)
2 2
and after low pass filtering we get
1
E e ( t ) = – --- E 0 cos ϕ (11.5)
2
Negative elevation error drives the antenna beam downward, while positive
elevation error drives the antenna beam upward. Similarly, the azimuth error
signal is obtained by multiplying E ( t ) by sin ω s t followed by low pass filter-
ing. It follows that
1
E a ( t ) = --- E 0 sin ϕ (11.6)
2
The antenna scan rate is limited by the scanning mechanism (mechanical or
electronic), where electronic scanning is much faster and more accurate than
mechanical scan. In either case, the radar needs at least four target returns to be
able to determine the target azimuth and elevation coordinates (two returns per
coordinate). Therefore, the maximum conical scan rate is equal to one fourth of
the PRF. Rates as high as 30 scans per seconds are commonly used.
The conical scan squint angle needs to be large enough so that a good error
signal can be measured. However, due to the squint angle, the antenna gain in
the direction of the tracking axis is less than maximum. Thus, when the target
is in track (located on the tracking axis), the SNR suffers a loss equal to the
drop in the antenna gain. This loss is known as the squint or crossover loss.
The squint angle is normally chosen such that the two-way (transmit and
receive) crossover loss is less than a few decibels.

11.2. Amplitude Comparison Monopulse

Amplitude comparison monopulse tracking is similar to lobing in the sense
that four squinted beams are required to measure the target’s angular position.
The difference is that the four beams are generated simultaneously rather than

© 2000 by Chapman & Hall/CRC

sequentially. For this purpose, a special antenna feed is utilized such that the
four beams are produced using a single pulse, hence the name “monopulse.”
Additionally, monopulse tracking is more accurate and is not susceptible to
lobing anomalies, such as AM jamming and gain inversion ECM. Finally, in
sequential and conical lobing variations in the radar echoes degrade the track-
ing accuracy; however, this is not a problem for monopulse techniques since a
single pulse is used to produce the error signals. Monopulse tracking radars can
employ both antenna reflectors as well as phased array antennas.
Fig. 11.7 show a typical monopulse antenna pattern. The four beams A, B, C,
and D represent the four conical scan beam positions. Four feeds, mainly
horns, are used to produce the monopulse antenna pattern. Amplitude
monopulse processing requires that the four signals have the same phase and
different amplitudes.

D
B
C

Figure 11.7. Monopulse antenna pattern.

A good way to explain the concept of amplitude monopulse technique is to

represent the target echo signal by a circle centered at the antenna’s tracking
axis, as illustrated by Fig. 11.8a, where the four quadrants represent the four
beams. In this case, the four horns receive an equal amount of energy, which
indicates that the target is located on the antenna’s tracking axis. However,
when the target is off the tracking axis (Figs. 11.8b-d), an unbalance of energy
occurs in the different beams. This unbalance of energy is used to generate an
error signal that drives the servo-control system. Monopulse processing con-
sists of computing a sum Σ and two difference ∆ (azimuth and elevation)
antenna patterns. Then by dividing a ∆ channel voltage by the Σ channel volt-
age, the angle of the signal can be determined.
The radar continuously compares the amplitudes and phases of all beam
returns to sense the amount of target displacement off the tracking axis. It is
critical that the phases of the four signals be constant in both transmit and
receive modes. For this purpose, either digital networks or microwave compar-
ator circuitry are utilized. Fig. 11.9 shows a block diagram for a typical micro-
wave comparator, where the three receiver channels are declared as the sum
channel, elevation angle difference channel, and azimuth angle difference
channel.

© 2000 by Chapman & Hall/CRC

A B A B A B A B

D C D C D C D C
(a) (b) (c) (d)

Figure 11.8. Illustration of monopulse concept. (a) Target is on the

tracking axis. (b) - (d) Target is off the tracking axis.

(A+C)-(B+D)

A
)
∆ el (A+B)-(D+C)
-D elevation error
(A
(A+D)
∆ az (A+D)-(B+C) azimuth error
D
B
(B
-C
)
Σ (A+D)+(B+C)
sum channel

(B+C)

C
Figure 11.9. Monopulse comparator.

To generate the elevation difference beam, one can use the beam difference
- -
(A D) or (B C). However, by first forming the sum patterns (A+B) and (D+C)
-
and then computing the difference (A+B) (D+C), we achieve a stronger eleva-
tion difference signal, ∆ el . Similarly, by first forming the sum patterns (A+D)
and (B+C) and then computing the difference (A+D) (B+C), a stronger azi- -
muth difference signal, ∆ az , is produced.
A simplified monopulse radar block diagram is shown in Fig. 11.10. The
sum channel is used for both transmit and receive. In the receiving mode the
sum channel provides the phase reference for the other two difference chan-
nels. Range measurements can also be obtained from the sum channel. In order
to illustrate how the sum and difference antenna patterns are formed, we will
assume a sin ϕ ⁄ ϕ single element antenna pattern and squint angle ϕ 0 . The
sum signal in one coordinate (azimuth or elevation) is then given by

sin ( ϕ – ϕ 0 ) sin ( ϕ + ϕ 0 )
Σ ( ϕ ) = ---------------------------
- + ---------------------------- (11.7)
( ϕ – ϕ0 ) ( ϕ + ϕ0 )

© 2000 by Chapman & Hall/CRC

transmitter
to range
IF amplitude measurement
duplexer mixer
AMP detector

AGC
hybrid azimuth
beam
forming IF phase angle error
networks mixer
AMP detector

elevation
IF phase angle error
mixer
AMP detector

LO

Figure 11.10. Simplified amplitude comparison monopulse radar block diagram.

© 2000 by Chapman & Hall/CRC

and a difference signal in the same coordinate is

sin ( ϕ – ϕ 0 ) sin ( ϕ + ϕ 0 )
∆ ( ϕ ) = ---------------------------
- – ---------------------------- (11.8)
( ϕ – ϕ0 ) ( ϕ + ϕ0 )

MATLAB Function “mono_pulse.m”

The function “mono_pulse.m” implements Eqs. (11.7) and (11.8). Its output
includes plots of the sum and difference antenna patterns as well as the differ-
ence-to-sum ratio. It is given in Listing 11.1 in Section 11.10. The syntax is as
follows:
mono_pulse (phi0)
where phi0 is the squint angle in radians.
Fig. 11.11 (a-c) shows the corresponding plots for the sum and difference
patterns for ϕ 0 = 0.15 radians. Fig. 11.12 (a-c) is similar to Fig. 11.11, except
in this case ϕ 0 = 0.75 radians. Clearly, the sum and difference patterns
depend heavily on the squint angle. Using a relatively small squint angle pro-
duces a better sum pattern than that resulting from a larger angle. Additionally,
the difference pattern slope is steeper for the small squint angle.

0 .8

0 .6
S q u in t e d p a t t e rn s

0 .4

0 .2

-0 . 2

-0 . 4
-4 -3 -2 -1 0 1 2 3 4
A n g le - ra d ia n s

Figure 11.11a. Two squinted patterns. Squint angle is ϕ 0 = 0.15 radians.

© 2000 by Chapman & Hall/CRC

2

1.5

1
S u m p a t t e rn

0.5

-0 . 5
-4 -3 -2 -1 0 1 2 3 4
A n g le - ra d ia n s

Figure 11.11b. Sum pattern corresponding to Fig. 11.11a.

0.5

0.4

0.3

0.2
D iffe re n c e p a t t e rn

0.1

-0 . 1

-0 . 2

-0 . 3

-0 . 4

-0 . 5
-4 -3 -2 -1 0 1 2 3 4
A n g le - ra d ia n s

Figure 11.11c. Difference pattern corresponding to Fig. 11.11a.

© 2000 by Chapman & Hall/CRC

1

0 .8

0 .6
S q u in t e d p a t t e rn s

0 .4

0 .2

-0 . 2

-0 . 4
-4 -3 -2 -1 0 1 2 3 4
A n g le - ra d ia n s

Figure 11.12a. Two squinted patterns. Squint angle is ϕ 0 = 0.75 radians.

0 .8

0 .6
S u m p at te rn

0 .4

0 .2

-0 .2

-0 .4
-4 -3 -2 -1 0 1 2 3 4
A n gle - rad ia ns

Figure 11.12b. Sum pattern corresponding to Fig. 11.12a.

© 2000 by Chapman & Hall/CRC

1 .5

1
D i ffe re n c e p a t t e rn

0 .5

-0 . 5

-1

-1 . 5
-4 -3 -2 -1 0 1 2 3 4
A n g le - ra d ia n s

Figure 11.12c. Difference pattern corresponding to Fig. 11.12a.

The difference channels give us an indication of whether the target is on or

off the tracking axis. However, this signal amplitude depends not only on the
target angular position, but also on the target’s range and RCS. For this reason
the ratio ∆ ⁄ Σ (delta over sum) can be used to accurately estimate the error
angle that only depends on the target’s angular position.
Let us now address how the error signals are computed. First, consider the
azimuth error signal. Define the signals S 1 and S 2 as

S1 = A + D (11.9)

S2 = B + C (11.10)

The sum signal is Σ = S 1 + S 2 , and the azimuth difference signal is

∆ az = S 1 – S 2 . If S 1 ≥ S 2 , then both channels have the same phase 0° (since
the sum channel is used for phase reference). Alternatively, if S 1 < S 2 , then the
two channels are 180° out of phase. Similar analysis can be done for the ele-
vation channel, where in this case S 1 = A + B and S 2 = D + C . Thus, the
error signal output is

∆
ε ϕ = ------ cos ξ (11.11)
Σ

© 2000 by Chapman & Hall/CRC

where ξ is the phase angle between the sum and difference channels and it is
equal to 0° or 180° . More precisely, if ξ = 0 , then the target is on the track-
ing axis; otherwise it is off the tracking axis. Fig. 11.13 (a,b) shows a plot for
the ratio ∆ ⁄ Σ for the monopulse radar whose sum and difference patterns are
in Figs. 11.11 and 11.12.

0 .8

0 .6

0 .4

0 .2
vo l t a g e g a i n

-0 . 2

-0 . 4

-0 . 6

-0 . 8
-0 . 8 -0 . 6 -0 . 4 -0 . 2 0 0 .2 0 .4 0 .6 0 .8
A n g l e - ra d i a n s

Figure 11.13a. Difference-to-sum ratio corresponding to Fig. 11.11a.

1 .5

0 .5
vo l t a g e g a in

-0 . 5

-1

-1 . 5

-2
-0 . 8 -0 . 6 -0 . 4 -0 . 2 0 0 .2 0 .4 0 .6 0 .8
A n g le - r a d i a n s

Figure 11.13b. Difference-to-sum ratio corresponding to Fig. 11.12a.

© 2000 by Chapman & Hall/CRC

11.3. Phase Comparison Monopulse
Phase comparison monopulse is similar to amplitude comparison monopulse
in the sense that the target angular coordinates are extracted from one sum and
two difference channels. The main difference is that the four signals produced
in amplitude comparison monopulse will have similar phases but different
amplitudes; however, in phase comparison monopulse the signals have the
same amplitude and different phases. Phase comparison monopulse tracking
radars use a minimum of a two-element array antenna for each coordinate (azi-
muth and elevation), as illustrated in Fig. 11.14. A phase error signal (for each
coordinate) is computed from the phase difference between the signals gener-
ated in the antenna elements.

antenna target
axis

R1 R2
R
ϕ
α

Figure 11.14. Single coordinate phase comparison monopulse antenna.

Consider Fig. 11.14; since the angle α is equal to ϕ + π ⁄ 2 , it follows that

d 2 π
R 1 = R +  --- – 2 --- R cos  ϕ + ---
2 2 d
(11.12)
2 2 2
2
2 d
= R + --- – dR sin ϕ
4
and since d « R we can use the binomial series expansion to get

© 2000 by Chapman & Hall/CRC

R 1 ≈ R  1 + ------- sin ϕ
d
(11.13)
2R
Similarly,

R 2 ≈ R  1 – ------- sin ϕ

d
(11.14)
2R

The phase difference between the two elements is then given by

2π 2π
φ = ------ ( R 1 – R 2 ) = ------ d sin ϕ (11.15)
λ λ
where λ is the wavelength. The phase difference φ is used to determine the
angular target location. Note that if φ = 0 , then the target would be on the
antenna’s main axis. The problem with this phase comparison monopulse tech-
nique is that it is quite difficult to maintain a stable measurement of the off
boresight angle ϕ , which causes serious performance degradation. This prob-
lem can be overcome by implementing a phase comparison monopulse system
as illustrated in Fig. 11.15.
The (single coordinate) sum and difference signals are, respectively, given
by

Σ ( ϕ ) = S1 + S2 (11.16)

∆ ( ϕ ) = S 1 – S2 (11.17)

where the S 1 and S 2 are the signals in the two elements. Now, since S 1 and
S 2 have similar amplitude and are different in phase by φ , we can write

– jφ
S 1 = S2 e (11.18)

S1
∆
ϕ
d
Σ
S2

Figure 11.15. Single coordinate phase monopulse antenna,

with sum and difference channels.

© 2000 by Chapman & Hall/CRC

It follows that

– jφ
∆ ( ϕ ) = S2 ( 1 – e ) (11.19)

– jφ
Σ ( ϕ ) = S2 ( 1 + e ) (11.20)

The phase error signal is computed from the ratio ∆ ⁄ Σ . More precisely,

– jφ
∆ φ
- = j tan  ---
1–e
--- = ----------------- (11.21)
Σ 1+e
– jφ  2

which is purely imaginary. The modulus of the error signal is then given by

∆ φ
------ = tan  --- (11.22)
Σ  2

This kind of phase comparison monopulse tracker is often called the half-angle
tracker.

11.4. Range Tracking

Target range is measured by estimating the round-trip delay of the transmit-
ted pulses. The process of continuously estimating the range of a moving target
is known as range tracking. Since the range to a moving target is changing with
time, the range tracker must be constantly adjusted to keep the target locked in
range. This can be accomplished using a split gate system, where two range
gates (early and late) are utilized. The concept of split gate tracking is illus-
trated in Fig. 11.16, where a sketch of a typical pulsed radar echo is shown in
the figure. The early gate opens at the anticipated starting time of the radar
echo and lasts for half its duration. The late gate opens at the center and closes
at the end of the echo signal. For this purpose, good estimates of the echo dura-
tion and the pulse centertime must be reported to the range tracker so that the
early and late gates can be placed properly at the start and center times of the
expected echo. This reporting process is widely known as the “designation pro-
cess.”
The early gate produces positive voltage output while the late gate produces
negative voltage output. The outputs of the early and late gates are subtracted,
and the difference signal is fed into an integrator to generate an error signal. If
both gates are placed properly in time, the integrator output will be equal to
zero. Alternatively, when the gates are not timed properly, the integrator output
is not zero, which gives an indication that the gates must be moved in time, left
or right depending on the sign of the integrator output.

© 2000 by Chapman & Hall/CRC

radar echo

early gate

late gate

early gate response

late gate response

Figure 11.16. Illustration of split-range gate.

© 2000 by Chapman & Hall/CRC

Part II: Multiple Target Tracking
Track-while-scan radar systems sample each target once per scan interval,
and use sophisticated smoothing and prediction filters to estimate the target
parameters between scans. To this end, the Kalman filter and the Alpha-Beta-
Gamma ( αβγ ) filter are commonly used. Once a particular target is detected,
the radar may transmit up to a few pulses to verify the target parameters, before
it establishes a track file for that target. Target position, velocity, and accelera-
tion comprise the major components of the data maintained by a track file.
The principles of recursive tracking and prediction filters are presented in
this part. First, an overview of state representation for Linear Time Invariant
(LTI) systems is discussed. Then, second and third order one-dimensional
fixed gain polynomial filter trackers are developed. These filters are, respec-
tively, known as the αβ and αβγ filters (also known as the g-h and g-h-k fil-
ters). Finally, the equations for an n-dimensional multi-state Kalman filter is
introduced and analyzed. As a matter of notation, small case letters, with an
underneath bar, are used.

11.5. Track-While-Scan (TWS)

Modern radar systems are designed to perform multi-function operations,
such as detection, tracking, and discrimination. With the aid of sophisticated
computer systems, multi-function radars are capable of simultaneously track-
ing many targets. In this case, each target is sampled once (mainly range and
angular position) during a dwell interval (scan). Then, by using smoothing and
prediction techniques future samples can be estimated. Radar systems that can
perform multi-tasking and multi-target tracking are known as Track-While-
Scan (TWS) radars.
Once a TWS radar detects a new target it initiates a separate track file for
that detection; this ensures that sequential detections from that target are pro-
cessed together to estimate the target’s future parameters. Position, velocity,
and acceleration comprise the main components of the track file. Typically, at
least one other confirmation detection (verify detection) is required before the
track file is established.
Unlike single target tracking systems, TWS radars must decide whether each
detection (observation) belongs to a new target or belongs to a target that has
been detected in earlier scans. And in order to accomplish this task, TWS radar
systems utilize correlation and association algorithms. In the correlation pro-
cess each new detection is correlated with all previous detections in order to
avoid establishing redundant tracks. If a certain detection correlates with more
than one track, then a pre-determined set of association rules are exercised so

© 2000 by Chapman & Hall/CRC

that the detection is assigned to the proper track. A simplified TWS data pro-
cessing block diagram is shown in Fig. 11.17.
Choosing a suitable tracking coordinate system is the first problem a TWS
radar has to confront. It is desirable that a fixed reference of an inertial coordi-
nate system be adopted. The radar measurements consist of target range, veloc-
ity, azimuth angle, and elevation angle. The TWS system places a gate around
the target position and attempts to track the signal within this gate. The gate
dimensions are normally azimuth, elevation, and range. Because of the uncer-
tainty associated with the exact target position during the initial detections, a
gate has to be large enough so that targets do not move appreciably from scan
to scan; more precisely, targets must stay within the gate boundary during suc-
cessive scans. After the target has been observed for several scans the size of
the gate is reduced considerably.

esta b lish tim e sm oo thing d ele tin g file s

p re -p ro ce ssin g
an d ra d ar & p re d ictio n o f lo st targ ets
co o rd ina tes g a tin g

c o rrela tio n /
a sso cia tio n

ra da r esta b lish
m ea su re m en ts tra ck file s

Figure. 11.17. Simplified block diagram of TWS data processing.

Gating is used to decide whether an observation is assigned to an existing

track file, or to a new track file (new detection). Gating algorithms are nor-
mally based on computing a statistical error distance between a measured and
an estimated radar observation. For each track file, an upper bound for this
error distance is normally set. If the computed difference for a certain radar
observation is less than the maximum error distance of a given track file, then
the observation is assigned to that track.
All observations that have an error distance less than the maximum distance
of a given track are said to correlate with that track. For each observation that
does not correlate with any existing tracks, a new track file is established
accordingly. Since new detections (measurements) are compared to all existing
track files, a track file may then correlate with no observations or with one or
more observations. The correlation between observations and all existing track
files is identified using a correlation matrix. Rows of the correlation matrix

© 2000 by Chapman & Hall/CRC

represent radar observations, while columns represent track files. In cases
where several observations correlate with more than one track file, a set of pre-
determined association rules can be utilized so that a single observation is
assigned to a single track file.

11.6. State Variable Representation of an LTI System

Linear time invariant system (continuous or discrete) can be describe mathe-
matically using three variables. They are the input, output, and the state vari-
ables. In this representation, any LTI system has observable or measurable
objects (abstracts). For example, in the case of a radar system, range may be an
object measured or observed by the radar tracking filter. States can be derived
in many different ways. For the scope of this book, states of an object or an
abstract are the components of the vector that contains the object and its time
derivatives. For example, a third-order one-dimensional (in this case range)
state vector representing range can be given by

R
x = R· (11.23)
··
R
· ··
where R , R , and R are, respectively, the range measurement, range rate
(velocity), and acceleration. The state vector defined in Eq. (11.23) can be rep-
resentative of continuous or discrete states. In this book, the emphasis is on
discrete time representation, since most radar signal processing is executed
using digital computers. For this purpose, an n-dimensional state vector has the
following form:

t
x = x x· 1 … x x· 2 … x x· n … (11.24)
1 2 n

where the superscript indicates the transpose operation.

The LTI system of interest can be represented using the following state equa-
tions:

·
x ( t ) = A x ( t ) + Bw ( t ) (11.25)

y ( t ) = C x ( t ) + Dw ( t ) (11.26)
·
where: x is the value of the n × 1 state vector; y is the value of the p × 1 out-
put vector; w is the value of the m × 1 input vector; A is an n × n matrix; B
is an n × m matrix; C is p × n matrix; and D is an p × m matrix. The

© 2000 by Chapman & Hall/CRC