Chap 1 Introduction Dichloromethane CH3Cl2, Water H2O, Acetone CH3-C(=O)-CH3) are best for dissolving
Surface engineering definition: multi-disciplinary activity intended to tailor the properties of polar reactants.
the surfaces of engineering components to improve function, serviceability, performance, [Link] (Soap) Cleaning: In detergent cleaning, the detergent surrounds particles,
durability taking them into suspension without actually dissolving the material. This action is
Overlay process adds material to the surface and covers the substrate assisted by wetting agents and surfactants (surface active agent) that loosen the
Thin film (1 nm to 10 m) and coating (50 m to 10 mm) particles from the surface. Its a mild technique.
Surface modification: changes the properties of the surface (metallurgically or chemically) [Link] Plasma Cleaning: reactive species in the plasma react with the surface to
objectives: improve functional performance (higher temperatures), improve component life form a volatile species which leaves the surface at relatively low temperatures. Plasma
(reduce wear due to abrasion, erosion, corrosion), extend component life (rebuild worn
cleans and increases the activation energy. can be done in a separate chamber or in
part to original dimensions), reduce component cost (improve function of low cost material
atmospheric plasma. Oxygen, Hydrogen, Fluorine are most widely used reactive gases.(
with expensive coating)
Oxygen (or air) plasmas are very effective in removing hydrocarbons and absorbed
Properties that rely on the surface: wear, friction, corrosion, fatigue, reflectivity, emissivity,
colour, thermal conductivity, electrical resistivity, bio-compatibility,
water vapor from surfaces.)
Methods of Surface Modification
e. Other external cleaning Methods: Immersion, Spraying(jet <0.5 to 5>Mpa, Vapour
Type Example
condensation, Ultrasinic Cleaning( 25-170 Khz), Rinsing.
Energy Beam Processes Laser/electron/ion beam
In-situ Cleaning: modifies the surface (@atomic level) & remove the small amount of
Plasma Processes Carburization, polymerisation, nitriding contamination that has developed after the external cleaning. done for coating prc:
Thermochemical Diffusion Aluminising, boronising, carbonitriding, chromising, nitriding (1) Sputter Cleaning: uses sputtering to remove the surface layer, which includes the
Thermal Surface Hardening Flame/induction/case hardening contaminants.
Mechanical Surface Shot peening, deep rolling (2) Ion Scrubbing: occurs due to the contact of surface with an inert gas plasma. The ion
Treatment energy aid in desorption of the adsorbed surface contaminants.
Coating Bond strength depends /controlled: 1) materials combination, 2) type of interface zone, (3) Reactive Plasma Cleaning: When there is a reactive gas such as oxygen or hydrogen
3) microstructure and process conditions, 4) substrate type and pre-treatment in the plasma, ion scrubbing can cause chemical reactions that create a volatile
Process selection most important points: 1) bulk material must withstand processing steps compound of the contaminant.
required to modify the surface, 2) coating should not impair the other properties of the bulk The factors to be considered during the selection of surface preparation method:
material, 3) some changes in material specifications may be necessary to accommodate the nature of contaminant/substrate, required surface condition, degree of
surface modification, 4) SE process must be capable of covering the component (size and cleanliness/modification, existing capabilities, environmental impact, area to be
shape), 5) method should be cost effective (but include reduced down-time, longer service cleaned, costs. Very few of these factors accurately quantifiy result in subjective
life, product quality, environment) analysis ,several sequences can be used in order to get desired output, all of which can
Benefits [Link]: better and lower component cost, improve wear/oxidation/corrosion be done even with limited budgets .It all comes down to the degree of cleanliness/
resistance(performance), improve mechanical properties(fatigue and toughness), improve modification required.
electrical conductivity, improve thermal insulation, reduce maintenance(reliability and Chap 3 Localized Surface Hardening (phase change)
cost), reduce emissions/environmental waste, extend product life(durability)
heat and surface treatment (improve properties)
Corrosion: deterioration of an engineered material or its properties because of a reaction
Definition: controlled heating and cooling of metals for the purpose of altering their
with its environment//corrosion of metal is electrochemical
surface properties. Steels with a 0.25 to 0.65% C content are commonly used
-Electrochemical cell must have: Anode, Cathode, Electrolyte, Electrical Path.
Corrosion classification: [Link] and dry, [Link] temp and high temp, [Link] of corrosion: Process: heat to austenite region and then quench
uniform, galvanic, erosion, pitting, corrosion fatigue. Direct losses/indirect losses Quenching factors: part size/geometry, austenitizing operation(surface or through
Methods of corrosion protection(protect steel): - Altering the metal by alloying, use of hardening), heating method(single shot or scanning),
highly alloyed & expensive stainless steel - Changing the environment by desiccation or the hardenability/brittleness/toughness of steel, quenchant type/rate
use of inhibitors - Controlling the electrochemical potential, use for example cathodic Objective:to produce a martensitic microstructure that is free of cracking and has
protection - Applying organic, metallic, or inorganic (glasses & ceramics) coatings. reduced distortion.
Wear: damage caused by removal/displacement of material by mechanical action of a Improve hardness, strength, wear, fatigue, lubrication while maintaining the same
contacting solid/fluid (abrasion, erosion, adhesion, surface fatigue) toughness and ductility in the bulk material
Chap 2 Surface Preparation Methods:Gas flame hardening, induction heat, laser beam, electron beam, plasma
Definition: process that includes surface cleaning, treatments, and modifications of arc
the surface How the hardened surface is obtained by each process?
Objectives: reduce surface contamination (to accepted level), change surface (a)Gas-Flame Hardening
properties (in desirable way), produce homogenous surface, reduce costs by indirect In gas flame hardening the used source of heat is a gas burner that is heating the target
savings (enhance life) surface to austenitizing temperature. Several different fuel gases are used in this flame
Why Surface Preparation required: 1. Process of surface modification/coating hardening eg. Acetylene, Methylacetyle nepropadiene (MAPP), Propane , Methane etc .
deposition, 2. Desirable quality of the product. The ratio of oxygen to fuel is very important in obtaining maximum heating efficiency
External surface preparation: 1. Surface modification 2. cleaning from the fuel.
What is 1. Surface modification: chemical and (micro-)structural changes to the The hardening can be done using 4 methods: namely spot or stationary, progressive,
surface by removing, adding, or activating the material to enhance the Surface spinning and combination progressive spinning. The selection of the appropriate
engineering process. Surface Modification include: roughening/smoothing the method depends on the shape, size, and composition of the work-piece; the area to be
surface, hardening by plasma or laser, Activating the surface (polymer) by plasma hardened; the depth of case required and the number of pieces to be hardened.
treatment, Etching(removing material by chemical, electrochemical, ion) After heating the target body is quenched using: immersion or spray quenching
Cleaning: includes all operations necessary for the removal of contaminants. The goal is techniques (1. Spray integrated in flame head, 2. Separate spray), where the alloy
to ensure that the desirable processing as well as the quality and the properties of content of the steel determines the type of quenching that should be used. The
treated surface can be obtained. These include external cleaning (gross & specific) and quanchants can be water, a brine solution, a glycol based polymer quench, forced air or
in-situ cleaning oil (especially in the case of immersion quench). Quenching distance (in case of Spray
External cleaning: quenching) is an important parameter. It is important for the quanchant to strike the
[Link] Cleaning: Removing the gross contamination ( by stripping, abrasive, wet heated area while it still is at the critical temperature to avoid the formation of
chemical) undesirable microstructure.
[Link]: Removing deposited film material from engineered-parts, Reprocessing The principal operating variables are:
parts with defective coatings. Stripping is done by mechanical abrasion or by chemical distance from inner core of oxy fuel gas flames to work surface , the flame velocities &
etching. oxygen to fuel ratios. These variables must be closely controlled to ensure the
[Link] Cleaning: Uses Abrasive surfaces , abrasive powders in paste or fluid carrier duplication of desired surface hardness and depth of hardness
and impacting particles entrained in a high-velocity gas or liquid stream etc (b)Induction Heat
[Link] chemical Etching : Immersion in one or various chemical solution, It is used to The basic component of an induction heating system are an induction coil, AC power
remove surface material (such oxide layer) along with the contaminants. Its controllable supply and work piece itself. Alternating current that flows in a solenoid coil generates
parameters are time ,concentration ,temperature & type of soln and method of etching an alternating magnetic field. The varying magnetic field induces an electric potential
[Link] Cleaning: according to Faradays law. The induced voltage creates electrical eddy currents, (same
For liquid cleaning it follows the given applications of Immersion , spraying, vapour frequency but opposite direction) thus heating the target body and then quenching
condensation , ultra sonic and rinsing . For ultrasonic Mechanical agitation of cleaning using spray quench rings and immersion techniques .Process can be used for: melting,
fluid by high frequency vibrations (25 - 170 kHz) to cause cavitation. It Combines normalizing, stress reliving. Water or water-based polymers are the most popular
chemical cleaning & mechanical agitation of the cleaning fluid. quenchant used in induction hardening app .Jominy test for hardns measure
[Link] cleaning : Uses an alkali (base) to remove oils, grease, wax, and various types Principles of Induction Heating: The heating rate is affected by several variables, such
of particles (metal chips, silica) from a metallic surface. Alkaline solutions used Hot with as: Magnetic field strength (expressed in units of ampere-turns of the work coil), Freq of
pH abt 11-12 of sodium hydroxide (NaOH) and potassium hydroxide (KOH), sodium the magnetic field, Proximity of the work piece to the coil conductors and its geometry,
carbonate (Na2CO3), borax (Na2B4O7). Used widely in industry. Electrical and magnetic properties of the material
[Link] Cleaning : Some contaminants can be removed from surfaces by solvents that Heating rates are typically controlled by the coil voltage/current, because the field
dissolve (take into solution) the contaminant. Non-polar solvents (e.g. Chloroform strength is proportional to coil voltage/current. The adjustable parameter is the
CHCl3, Benzene C6H6) are best for dissolving nonpolar reactants & Polar solvents (e.g. frequency: low frequencies are used for through hardening, high frequencies are used
for surface hardening. Variety of induction-hardening patterns (Parameters) obtained
by using variations in frequency(60-450Khz), heat time for Austenitization, and power Objective- Plastic deformation: performance (cold work harden, compressive residual
density, Quenching rate & Method. stresses, microstructure transformation) and appearance (change roughness, surface
(c)Laser Beam: Co2(10600nm)+Neodymium, Yitrium-Al-Garnet (1060 nm) Laser also finish)
Direct Diode Laser(808-940 nm) used. [Link] are the different methods of mechanical treatments?
Laser Beam impinges on a surface, and its energy is absorbed as heat. Heat generated Ans:1) rolling &Burnishing: The work piece or the tool turns at a specified speed, then
at the surface will increase rapidly. The surface layer reach Austenitizing temp. & the the rollers go forward on the work pieces surface by rotation with a certain force
interior of the work piece is still cool. makes the surface finish smooth and hard. Smooth surface reduces crack initiation sites.
LHT uses both intense heating (10^3 10^5 W/cm2) and a rapid self-cooling cycle Compressive residual stresses increase fatigue life.
(>10^3 C/s ). It is subsequently cooled rapidly by heat conduction to the interior. By Parameters: specific speed, pressure.
selecting the correct power density & speed of the LB spot, the material will harden to Roiling & Burnishing: tool plastically deforms the surface by rubbing against it (Ball
the desired depth. Finishing). Process Induces: cold work & compressive residual stress.
Hardening area: Depth of case will depend on the hardening response of the material, 2) Tribofinishing & polishing: Vibrator tank has mixed parts with abrasives and different
rately <= 2.5 mm, Due to very high heating and cooling rate hardness obtainable by the additives according to the desired finish & to smoothen rough edged, provides gloss
LB process can be slightly higher than that obtained by conventional methods. finish. Polishing: is a finishing process of all types of material (metal, plastic, wood) with
In LHT, the cooling rate has a significant effect on achieving the desired microstructure the objective of obtaining a beautiful aspect (high quality surface finish), mechanism- it
and specified mechanical properties. The rates of heating and cooling are mainly smoothen and shines the surface by abrasion. Surface quality Characterised: Smooth
determined by the laser power density, interaction time, and material composition. roughness, shine and sparkle.
(d)Electron Beam: Het treatment process: 1. Heat to the Austenitization Temp(TA), 2. 3) Shot peening (mechanical pre-stressing): Cold working in which compressive stresses
Held at (TA) for a short period of time and 3. Quench (rapid cooling). EBH and LHT are are induced on the surface by the impingement of shots.
called short-cycle heat treatments as they operate at high Austenitizing temp, have High Dual peening: re-peening with smaller, lower intensity shot for 100% coverage (left by
Heating & Cooling rates, Short Austenitization time (0.1 to 5 s) and are self-Quenching. big). Strain peening: preload part in tension within the elastic limit. Can obtain this
The thickness of the energy absorption layer is given by the electron range, S graph with strain gauges and x-ray/neutron diffraction.
(micrometer), at 60 to 150 kV => S ~ 8 to 36 mm (ferrous metals). Parameters: shot type/grade/hardness/size, impact angle, intensity, velocity, nozzle
The spot size used for heating the target is usually 0.1-0.4mm (focused EB) up to 5mm diameter, time. Machine: Wheel Type / Air Blast Type.
(defocused EB) without using any deflectors. But can be increases to EB interaction area Media Control: Round, uniform shape Fe, SS, Glass beads; coverage: must be100%.
200x200 mm^2 using deflectors. Vacuum is required to carry out EBH! Coverage measurement: Visual; PeenScan method: dye before peening then check
(e)Plasma Arc technique: A surface Hardening technique that uses of plasma arc as removal in UV, Almen strip method: measure /calibrate peening impact. (Intensity)
source for heating to austenitizing temperature and then self-quenches by interior heat change in arc height of <10% after doubling the exposure time indicates saturation
conduction. peening.
Has torch diameter of 1-5mm, Used currents: 30 A-100 A with a Scanning velocities: 0.1- Process Variables: Size of shot: inc in shot size Depth-Inc/Covrge-Dec, Hardness of shot,
0.5 m/s. Velocity od shot, Breakdown of shot, Angle of impingement 90.
Tungsten electrode is negative, work-piece is positive. Depth of residual stress: Compressive layer influenced by: 1. Peening Parameter, 2.
Advantages Disadvantages Material Hardiness.
-large components -inexact temperature 4) Laser Impulse hardening/shock peening: Utilizes shock wave induced residual
-Selectively harden surface -Difficult to standardize compressive stress. Specimen is painted black, paint absorbs heat form plasma,
Gas-flame hardening
-faster and larger depth than -difficult to control case depth water/glass arrests the plasma and keep it localised. Laser generates pressure pulses
nitriding/carburizing -explosive gases (~1 million psi) that send shock waves through the part.
-use wide selection of steels -distortion cracking Benefits: deep compressive layer, lower thermal relaxation of the residual stresses in a
-cheap -poor reproducibility LSP surface than shot peened one (less heat is introduced), no contamination
-flexible -quenchant required Drawback: poor surface uniformity.
-part distortion 3. How LSP induce compressive stress in the treated work piece?
-environmental concerns Ans: In Laser Shock Peening (LSP), the laser is fired at the surface of a metal part to
-higher heating rate -quenchant required generate pressure pulses of one million pounds per square inch, which send shock
-selective heating -part distortion waves through the part. These shock waves induce residual compressive stress. the
Induction surface
-energy efficient -electromagnetic forces may specimen is coated with a black paint which is opaque to laser beam. It acts as sacrificial
-small size disturb surface conditions material and is converted to high pressure plasma as it absorbs energy from a high
intensity laser (1-10GW/cm2) for very short time durations (<50ns). Generally the
hardening
-fast
-Deep case depth specimen is submerged in a transparent media like water or glass so that rapidly
-lower capital cost expanding plasma cannot escape and the resulting shockwave is transmitted into the
-high coverage area specimen subsurface. Shock waves thus produced can be much larger than the dynamic
-can harden steels not normally -high capital cost (optical- yield strength of the material (>1GPa) and cause plastic deformation to the surface and
hardenable mechanical system) compressive residual stresses.
-minimal distortion -multiple passes give local 4. What are the mains benefits of the peening process ?
Ans: Large Variety of Peenable Materials, Enhances fatigue strength, Prevents Fretting
Laser heat
treatment
-selective localized hardening tempering
-quenchant-free failure(due to compressive layer), Prevents Stress Corrosion Cracking (SCC), Prevents
-control case depth Corrosion Fatigue, Obtain Peen Forming, Obtain Work Hardening, Obtain good Surface
-limited postmachining Finish & Porosity Sealing effect. Prevents inter-granular corrosion by breaking down
-lower voltage than laser beam -vacuum required Grain boundary.
-precise case depth control -longer cooling rate because of SCC: due to tensile stress, susceptible mat. Corrosive environment. Peeing Removes
-high process reproducibility the vacuum Tensile Stress.
(programmable) -more expensive than laser 5. What are the advantages & limitations of mechanical treatments as Surface
Electron beam
-no surface oxidation beam hardening engineering techniques?
Advantages limitations
hardening
-high energy efficiency (75%
electron energy converted to heat) -Applied to large variety of metallic engineered -Size of the workpiece
-selective localized hardening [Link]/CarburisedS,Cast Iron,Al (Size of peening
Alloy,Titanium Alloy,Magension AlloyPEENING cabinet)
-cheaper than LB (no optical- -overlap problems -Hardening the surface of the components -Shape of workpiece
mechanical system) and EB (no -Enhances fatigue strength by deep compressive -Limited hardened
residual stress. depth
Plasma arc
vacuum)
hardening
-Increase service life -Peened surface
-Prevents cracking due to wear, hydrogen uniformity
embrittlement, corrosion and fretting.
-Control and Enhance surface finish
What materials can be hardened by Localized hardening technique?
-Surface porosity sealing
Ans: Iron, steel, & cast iron. Steels with a 0.25 to 0.65% C content are commonly used.
Martensitic stainless steels (AISI 416, 420, and 440C) as well as some iron castings also
can be induction hardened. Induction Heating is done with various metals and alloys
mainly steels & cast irons, although other materials, including light metals, aerospace. 6. Almen strips method is used to measure & calibrate the peening process, explain
Chap 4 Mechanical Treatments (induce stresses) this analytical quality control technique. ?
1. Explain the surface modification principal induced by the mechanical treatments? Ans: An Almen test measures intensity. Intensity is the measure of the energy of the
Ans: The surface is subjected to mechanical treatment load designed to produce plastic shot stream, and the energy of the shot stream is directly related to the compressive
deformation of the surface layers. dont change surface chem, enhance the properties stress that is peened into a part. This is one of the essential means of ensuring process
such as ultimate strength and fatigue strength as well as surface finish quality of the repeatability. During a shot peening cycle, Almen test strip are blasted by high velocity
engineered component. shot. This compresses the surface of the Almen strip and causes it to stretch thereby
bending the Almen strip into an arc. The height of the arc is directly related to the Intergranular oxidation. The process offers also a reduced cycle time & Parts after heat
intensity of the shot stream. The arc height is measured by Almen gage. Intensity is treatment are clean. The disadvantages of vacuum carburizing are predominantly
expressed as the arc height of an Almen test strip at saturation coverage or at more related to equipment costs and the somewhat limited quench intensity of HPGQ. The
than saturation coverage. This way we know correct parameters are set for the shot carbon mass transfer into the material is a function of steel grade, process temperature,
peening to be done on a component. and the number, length, and timing of the carburizing pulses.
Chap 5 Thermochemical Diffusion Treatment [Link] carburizing: vacuum process making use of high voltage electrical field applied
[Link] is the main mechanism of Thermochemical Diffusion Treatments? between component and furnace wall. This process is effective in increasing
Ans: TDT is a Process that employs thermal diffusion to incorporate non-metal or metal carburization rates because the process bypasses several dissociation steps that
atoms into a part surface to modify its chemistry & microstructure. It is a diffusion produce active soluble carbon. High temperatures can be used in plasma carburizing
process aimed at improving the superficial layer of the materials. The process is carried because the process takes place in an oxygen-free vacuum, thus producing a greater
in solid, liquid or gas media with one or more active chemical elements. Mechanism carburized case depth than both atmospheric gas and vacuum carburizing. The CH3+ &
includes: 1) decomposition of solid/liquid/gas species 2) splitting of gas molecules to CH4+ ions are accelerated to the cathode due to the voltage of the discharge. The ions
form nascent atoms 3) absorption of atoms 4) diffusion into a metallic lattice 5) are adsorbed from the surface of the batch (cathode), crack in atomic carbon and
reactions in substrate to modify existing or form new phases. hydrogen, and diffuse into the steel. II. Carbonitriding: diffusion of atomic nitrogen
[Link] are the benefits of TDT Surface Engineering technique? during carburization.
Ans: The benefit of TDT SE techniques is the knowledge of capabilities of each III. Nitriding: Nitriding is the process similar to carburizing process in which nitrogen is
technology for a particular substrate material under specific service conditions and its diffussed into the surface of ferrous product to obtain hardened case. Unlike carburizing
implementation at the stage of a component design. nitrogen is introduced between 400 and 600oC which is below austenite formation
[Link] are the different Processes of thermochemical diffusion treatment? temperature for ferrous steel and quenching is not required. As a result of not
Ans : Carburizing, Carbonitriding, Nitriding, Nitrocarburizing, Boriding (Boronizing), Pack austenizing and quenching to form martensite, nitriding results in minimum distortion
Cementation (Aluminizing, Siliconizing, Chromizing) and excellent control. Case depth (200-300 m). Reasons: obtain high surface hardness,
[Link]: the process of intentionally increasing the carbon content of a steel wear/abrasion resistant surface, increase tensile strength and yield point, improve
surface so that a hardened case can be produced. Hardening is accomplished when the fatigue life(compressive stress), corrosion resis No additioanl Heat Teatment
high carbon surface layer is quenched to form martensite so that a high carbon [Link]: It is carried out at temp. of 550-580oC in a box furnace or fluidized bed
martensite case is superimposed on tough, low carbon steel core. high strength and in an atmosphere filled with partially dissociated ammonia.
wear/fatigue resistance of HCS @surface; Toughness, ductility of LCS in cm. Steel with [Link] Salt Nitriding:conducted in fused bath with CYANIDE/CYNATE/ Molten salts in
base C 0.2% and carburized layer 0.8-1%. Factors: 1. C absorption reaction @ surface; 2. baths should be aged (held at 565 to 595 C for 12h), Nitriding should not be conducted
diffusion of C in metal. Carried around 850-950, furnace life decreases above 950. until the cyanate [CN] content has reached the minimum operating level recommended
In a carburized component, the higher carbon content at the surface decreases the for the bath. A typical bath is composed of a mixture of 60-70% sodium salts {96.5%
Martensite start temperature. NaCN, 2.5% Na2CO3, 0.5% NaCNO} (+) 30-40% potassium salts {96%KCN, 0.6%K2CO3,
During quenching, the surface begins cooling, but because of the lower Ms 0.75% KCNO, 0.5% KCl} Three types: a) Liquid pressure nitriding (bath is pressurized) b)
temperature, the surface does not begin to transform immediately. As heat flows out of Aerated bath nitriding. C) Aearted low cyanide nitriding
the component by conduction, the temperature profile crosses the Ms temperature [Link]: Plasma is formed in a vacuum using a high-voltage electrical energy
profile at a point below the surface, and martensite begins to form while the surface to accelerate nitrogen ions which bombard the alloy surface nad diffusion in sub layers
remains austenitic. The result is that the martensitic transformation does not begin at [Link]: A direct laser synthesis a material is placed in the reactive gas
the surface, as one might expect, but rather at a depth below the surface. Soon environment and irradiated with the laser light. Nitrogen is fed through a nozzle into
thereafter, the surface drops below its Ms temperature and transforms to martensite. the melt pool.
This inside-out hardening has a profound effect on the residual-stress profile of a [Link] are the Advantages & Limitations of Carburizing and nitriding methods?
carburized component. As the layer of steel beneath the surface transforms into Advantages Disadvantages
martensite, it expands as a result of the crystallographic change associated with the -Low equipment and operating costs -not for shallow depths (control)
austenite-to-martensite transformation. Martensite formation results in an increase of -wide variety of furnaces (produces its -long heating time
both hardness and strength. Moments later, when the surface (with its lower Ms) own contained environment) -not for direct quenching
Low-pressure Pack Carburizing
transforms, it similarly tries to expand. However, because the surface is constrained by -ideal for low cooling -decarburization if air cooled
the volume underneath that has already transformed, expansion is inhibited. This Green main headings -grind to remove porosity
causes the surface to enter a state of residual compression. Grey- sub heading -labor intensive
Because all static components must be in balance, the surface compressive residual Blue- sub- sub headings
stress is balanced by a tensile stress at the core of the component. -excellent uniformity and reproducibility -equipment cost
PROCESS: low-carbon base steel0.15-0.30%, carbon-rich source, heat(interstitial space due to improved process control -limited quench intensity of high
carburizing
in austenite unit cell is larger than ferrite carbon grabs it diffsn with temp, container, -Improved mechanical properties(lack of pressure gas quench(argon)
[Link](deepest point at which the specific hardness or chemical composition is intergranular oxidation)
reached) and total(distance at which differences in chemical or physical properties
between the case and core are no longer measurable) case depth -controlled environment -high costs
case depth measurement chemical-combstion,spectrographic analysis;mechancial- -high carburizing rate -high process sensitivity
Plasma (ion) carburizing
microhardnesstest;visual-macro,micro;ndt-eddycurrent test masure electrical and -surfaces free from internal oxidation
magnetic changes. -complex geometries possible
Drawbacks: high surface carbon content results in excessive retained austenite and/or -No heat or dangerous gas emissions
-high reproducibility
free carbides when carbursing time increases Diffntd microstruc./Proporties at
-higher temperatures possible
[Link] due to Content/[Link]. METHOD
-Shorter cycle duration
a. Gas carburizing: . Gaseous hydrocarbons, such as methane (CH4), propane (C3H3),
-low input of energy and carburizing
and butane (C4H10), or vaporized hydrocarbon liquids, are normal sources of C . A gases
sufficient carrier gas flow must be established in the gas carburizing furnace to mitigate H2 Gas -control nitriding potential by controlling -nitrogen concentration cannot be
dilution and to maintain the desired CO [Link] of Steel Alloy Composition: Alloying nitriding partial pressure precisely monitored
elements affect the characteristic distribution & diffusivity of C atoms in the alloyed -low predictability and repeatability
austenite matrix. Austenite-stabilizing elements (Ni, Cu, etc.) exhibit negative atomic Liquid -short cycle time due to intense heating -toxic bath
interactions and tend to repel carbon atoms. Carbide-forming elements (Mo, Cr, V, W, salt and high reactivity of the bath -poor surface quality
etc.) tend to attract interstitially diffusing carbon atoms. nitriding TYPESLiquid pressure -non-uniform surface hardening in
BatchType and Continous Aerated BAth complex geometries
Parametrs: Temp-Uniform for Uniform case depth and C concentration 925-930; Carbon Aerated low cyanide -difficulties maintaining bath
Potentialis defined as the amount of C in the furnace atmosphere at a [Link] & in concentration
thermodynamic equilibrium with C wt.% dissolved in unalloyed austenitic Plasma -better control of nitrogen supply and -non-uniform temperature
steel.;time,steel alloy comp. , surface preparation, (ion) case thickness, -possible overheating
b. Pack carburizing: parts were simply placed in a suitable container and covered with a nitriding -lower temperatures -Sensitive to part geometry
thick layer of carbon powder (pack carburizing).Carbon monoxide derived from a solid -Low distortion -Arcing can cause damage
-no environmental hazards (no ammonia) -inhomogeneous plasma distribution
compound decomposes at the metal surface into nascent carbon and carbon dioxide.
-Reduced energy consumption -expensive equipment;PARAMETE
Energizers or catalyst compounds (calcium carbonate (CaCO3), potassium carbonate
-process automation temperature, vacuum, plasma
(K2CO3)), are very often added with carbon to force the reaction in the direction -shield areas with masking or pastes parameters, gas composition
favouring the formation of carbon monoxide
Chap 6 Adding surface layer
c. Low pressure carburizing: popular casehardening process. It is a non-equilibrium, 1. Zinc Coatings provide the most effective & economical way of protecting steel
boost-diffusion-type carburizing process in which austenitizing (920-980C) takes place
against corrosion. What are the different Zinc Coating processes?
in a rough vacuum (5-15mbar), followed by carburization in a partial pressure of
Ans: Hot dip galvanizing, Continues sheet galvanizing, Zinc painting, Zinc spray
hydrocarbon gas (acetylene C2H2), diffusion in a rough vacuum, and then quenching in
metallizing, Zinc Plating & Sherardizing.
either high-pressure gas quenching (HPGQ) or oil. Vacuum carburizing offers the
[Link] are the differences between HDG & CG processes?
advantages of excellent uniformity and reproducibility because of the improved process
HDG CG (Continuous Sheet Galvnising)
control with vacuum furnaces, improved mechanical properties due to the lack of
-Can be done on any part shape and -usually done on sheets with thickness 0.25 Ans:Combustion Thermal Spraying Systems:
size. mm to 6.3 mm. 1) The Flame Spraying (FS) of powders, wires, or rods. FS uses the chemical energy of
-consists of three basic steps , Surface -the sheet passes through the molten zinc fuel gases to generate the high temperature flow. Oxyacetylene torche yields a
prep, galvanizing and inspection. bath at speed of 175 200 m/min. temperature of 3410 K at atmospheric pressure. Powders, wires, rods, and cords are
-gal done for 3-10 mins (dependsreq - The strip is only in the zinc bath for 4-8 introduced axially through the rear of the nozzle into the flame burning at the nozzle
thickness). seconds. exit. The feedstock is melted & the particles/ droplets accelerated toward the substrate
-bath immersion time , bath - The coated steel is then cooled & the zinc surface by the expanding hot gas flow and air jets. The droplets velocity is a few tens of
withdrawal rate and steel cooling rate solidifies on the surface of the sheet by m/s. The main difference between delivery of the feedstock as powder vs. as wire/rod is
defines the final output of HDG process using gas knives (air is directed at both the melting capability (2550 & 3200 k).
sides of the sheet to remove excess zinc). (2) The detonation spray (D-Gun) process where an explosive mixture is ignited
[Link] are the three steps involved in HDG process? upstream of a barrel to create a detonation with high pressure and temperature for
Ans: [Link] preparation: Removes any remaining oxides. Deposits a protective layer heating and accelerating the powders. D-Gun consists of long, closed at one end & open
on the steel to prevent any further oxides from forming on the surface prior to at the other, water-cooled barrel. A gaseous detonation consists of a tightly coupled
immersion in the molten zinc. shock wave & a reaction zone,(The ideal detonation travels at constant speed 1500 -
Degreasing/ Sand Blasting : Uses hot alkali solution or bath to remove dirt and paint etc. 3000 m/s, depending on the type & composition of the fueloxidizer gases). Following
sand blasting removes any epoxies, vinyls, asphalt, or welding slag. detonation melts & accelerates the particles up to a velocity of 800m/s. There are 1-15
Pickling : A dilute solution of heated sulfuric acid or ambient HCL acid removes null scale detonation/s.
and iron oxides frm the steel giving a chemically clean metallic surface. (3) The high-velocity oxy-fuel (HVOF) or the high-velocity air fuel (HVAF) processes with
Fluxing: this is the final surface preparation step where an zinc ammonia chloride significantly higher upstream pressures and a Laval nozzle allowing attainment of
solution is used. supersonic speeds, using mostly powders. HVOF / HVAF is basically the same as the
[Link]: During the galvanizing step of the process, the material is completely combustion powder spray process except that this process has been developed to
immersed in a bath of molten zinc (3-10 mins). " The bath chemistry requires at least produce extremely high spray Velocity. Fuel (kerosene, and oxygen are fed into the
98% pure Zn maintained at 435-455C." After the immersion, the material is withdrawn chamber, combustion produces a hot high pressure flame which is forced down a nozzle
slowly from the galvanizing bath, and the excess zinc is removed by draining, vibrating, increasing its velocity. They have also shown that the gas velocity at the exit plane
and/or centrifuging. they are cooled either by immersion in a passivation solution or depends on the fuel/oxygen ratio. Development of HVOF systems has been aimed at
water or by being left in open air. reducing the temperature of particles & increasing their velocity. Higher particle
[Link]: The inspection of hot-dip galvanized steel is simple and quick. simple velocities were obtained by using convergingdiverging de Laval nozzle designs and
physical tests can be performed to determine thickness, uniformity, adherence, and higher gas pressures (chamber pressure of up to 1 MPa)
appearance. Thickness or weight per surface area , magnetic thickness gauge or optical Electric Discharge Systems:(1) Wire Arc Thermal Spraying, the arc is struck between two
microscopy are the ways to [Link] Weight-Weigh-galvanise-Weigh;W-Strip-W continuously advancing wires, one being the cathode and the other the anode. The
Thckness/appreance(spark,shiny) dpnds on Comp. of Steel,Surface condition,Immersion melted tips of the wires are fragmented into tiny droplets (a few tens of m) by the
Time,withdrawl rate(Rapid more thick),Steel cooling rate-Slow leads to dull,matte gray atomizing gas blown between both wires. The main requirements for this process are:
4. What are the three corrosion protection mechanisms involved in galvanizing? (1) the material must be electrical conducting & (2) it can be obtained in the form of a
Ans: a. Barrier: It provides a barrier against corrosion by isolating the steel from the wire without being too brittle
electrolytes in the environment. Also, zinc corrodes approximately 1/10to 1/40the rate (2) Plasma Spraying , In plasma spraying, an electric arc generates plasma within a
of steel depending on the environment. plasma torch. The arc is struck between a cathode (usually a rod or button-type design)
b. Cathodic : Zinc is anodic to steel; therefore, the galvanized coating will provide and a cylindrical anode nozzle, and the plasma gas is injected at the base of the
cathodic protection to exposed steel. cathode, heated by the arc, and exits the nozzle as a high temperature, high velocity jet.
c. Zinc Patina: As galvanized coatings are exposed to both moisture and free flowing air, Recombining electrons and ions releases HEAT & LIGHT. Can be sprayed as Atmospheric
corrosion byproducts will naturally form on the coating surface. The formation of the plasma spraying (APS), Controlled atmosphere plasma spraying (CPS) and Low pressure
by-products (patina) (zinc oxide, zinc hydroxide, and zinc carbonate) occurs during (vacuum) plasma spraying (LPPS - VPS)
natural wet and dry cycles in the environment. The zinc patina, once fully developed, Different types of torches exists:Direct Current plasma torches generate a plasma jet
slows the corrosion rate of zinc to about 1/30th the rate of steel in the same from a continuously flowing gas heated by an electric arc inside a nozzle. Under Patm,
environment and acts as an additional passive. the process is known as Atmospheric Plasma Spraying (APS). Under soft vacuum
5. What are the properties of HDG process? conditions, it is referred to as Vacuum Plasma Spraying (VPS). :Radio Frequency
Ans: a. Metallurgical Bond : during the immersing in the bath, the zinc reacts with the inductively coupled plasma: Plasma is generated though the electromagnetic coupling
iron in the steel to form a series of metallurgically bonded zinc-iron intermetallic alloy of the energy into the discharge cavity. It is carried out under reduced P & referred to as
layers, commonly topped by a layer of impact-resistant pure zinc. Vacuum Induction Plasma Spraying (VIPS). VIPS is characterized by the electrodeless
b. Abrasion Resistance: tightly-bonded (~3,600 psi),Abrasion resistant intermetallic nature of the discharge which allows for high purity, and greater flexibility with regard
(Gamma, Delta, and Zeta) layers will form during galvazing process. The three to the chemistry of the plasma gas, and the ease of axial injection of the powder into
intermetallic layers are harder than the base steel, while the eta layer has ductility the center of the plasma jet.
which makes damaging the HDG coating very difficult. (3)Direct Current Transferred Arc Plasma (PTA). : Similar to a d.c. plasma torch with the
c. Edge Protection: at least as thick at the corners and edges as the coating on the rest exception that the arc is transferred between a floating electrode and the substrate
of the part. because the reaction between iron and zinc is a diffusion reaction and thus (similar to a welding process). Kinetic energies (High Tp&Vp) at impact result in good
the crystalline structure of the coating forms perpendicular to the steel surface. flattening, bond strengths exceed 30 MPa (up to 70 MPa). Coating density can exceed
d. Complete coverage : total immersion of the material into cleaning solutions & molten 95% (of bulk density)
zinc, all interior & exterior surfaces are coated. Cold (Kinetic) Spray :CS (or CGDS) is a kinetic spray process, utilizing supersonic jets of
e. Variety of sizes and shapes: Sizes ranging from small nuts and bolts to larger compresses gas to accelerate, near-room temp. powder particles, to ultrahigh
structural pieces can be galvanized. velocities. The solid ductile particles, traveling at velocities 250 - 1,500 m/s, plastically
6. What are the benefits of galvanizing? deform on impact with the substrate, & consolidate to create a coating. The supersonic
Ans: a. Corrosion Protection :ans from Q4 above. velocities is achieved using convergentdivergent de Laval nozzle. For the particle
b. Durability: Hot-dip galvanizing remains durable due to its abrasion resistance, deposition takes place to create a coating the particle velocities at impact need to be
uniform protection, and complete coverage higher than a so-called critical velocity.
c. Longevity: Galvanizing provides maintenance-free longevity for decades As other TS coatings CS ones have been successfully used: Against corrosion & wear,
d. Availability: The main materials used in the galvanizing process, zinc & steel are: * Zn repair, especially Mg- and Al- parts, electromagnetic interference shielding and For
is the 27th most abundant material.* Fe is the 4th most abundant. Both 100% electric, electronic, or thermal applications.
recyclable. 4. What materials can be sprayed by the TS process?
e. Aesthetics: nature and appreciation of beauty on the HDG structures. -Metals (Ag, Al, Cu, Fe, Mo, Ta, Ti, Zn,.),-Alloys (low alloy steels, NiCr, Ni-base
f. Cost: In long term processing its most cost effective in compare to any other coating superalloy, SS, MCrAlY.),-Composite (Al-SiC, Al-B4C, Al/Ni, etc.),-Cermet ( WC-Co,)& -
prc Ceramics (TiO2).
6. What are the diff factors affected by the thickness and appearance of galvzd coating? 5. What are the advantages & the disadvantage of TS process?
a. The chemical composition of steel, b. The surface condition of steel, c. Bath Advantages Disadvantages
immersion time, d. Bath withdrawal rate &e. Steel cooling rate -Deposit wide rang of materials -Tensile bond strength relatively low
1. What is TS process? -Coat almost any type of substrate (due to bonding mechanism)
Thermal spraying comprises a group of coating processes in which finely divided -Rapid rate of deposition (low processing cost!) -Coatings are relatively porous (depend
metallic or nonmetallic materials that are deposited in a molten or semimolten -Large coating thicknesses ( 50u m - 6500 mm) of the selected process and parameters)
-Broad rang of applications (wear resistance, -Coatings are anisotropic
condition to form a coating. In TS process, the coating is deposited on a prepared
multi-layer TBC, atmosphere corrosion control, -Not used for structural parts
substrate by applying a stream of particles, metallic or nonmetallic, which flatten more
high temperature oxidation, electrical resistance -Line of Sight process (part geometry
or less forming platelets, called splats, with several layers of these splats forming the & conductivity ) challenges Deviation from 90 spray by
coating. -Basic equipment low cost and portable allowing 25 compromise the coating quality )-
2. What are the three classes of TS process? infield coating and repair Fine grains (due to work hardening
(1) Combustion Thermal Spraying Systems (2) Electrical Discharge Spraying Systems -Little risk of thermal degradation of substrate and/or thermal quenching)
(3) Cold (Kinetic) Spraying Process
3. Explain how different TS systems works.
