Zhi Qian

Brill’s Encyclopedia of Buddhism Volume II: Lives Editor-in-chief Jonathan A. Silk Editors Richard Bowring Vincent Eltschinger Michael Radich Editorial Advisory Board Lucia Dolce Berthe Jansen John Jorgensen Christian Lammerts Francesco Sferra LEIDEN | BOSTON For use by the Author only | © 2019 Koninklijke Brill NV Contents Prelims Contributors ............................................................................................................................................................. xi Editors and Editorial Board .................................................................................................................................. xxxiii Primary Sources Abbreviations........................................................................................................................... xxxv Books Series and Journals Abbreviations ......................................................................................................... xxxvii General Abbreviations .......................................................................................................................................... xlii Introduction ............................................................................................................................................................. xliv Section One: Śākyamuni: South Asia .......................................................................................................................................... Barlaam and Josaphat ............................................................................................................................................ 3 39 Section Two: South & Southeast Asia: Ajātaśatru .................................................................................................................................................................. Āryadeva.................................................................................................................................................................... Āryaśūra..................................................................................................................................................................... Asaṅga/Maitreya(nātha)....................................................................................................................................... Bhāviveka .................................................................................................................................................................. Brahmā, Śakra, and Māra ...................................................................................................................................... Buddhaghoṣa............................................................................................................................................................ Buddhas of the Past: South Asia ......................................................................................................................... Buddhas of the Past and of the Future: Southeast Asia ............................................................................... Candragomin ........................................................................................................................................................... Candrakīrti................................................................................................................................................................ Ḍākinī ......................................................................................................................................................................... Devadatta .................................................................................................................................................................. Dharmakīrti .............................................................................................................................................................. Dharmapāla .............................................................................................................................................................. Dharmottara............................................................................................................................................................. Dignāga ...................................................................................................................................................................... Early Sarvāstivāda Masters ................................................................................................................................... Gavampati in Southeast Asia ............................................................................................................................... Gopadatta ................................................................................................................................................................. Guṇaprabha.............................................................................................................................................................. Haribhadra................................................................................................................................................................ Haribhaṭṭa ................................................................................................................................................................. Harivarman............................................................................................................................................................... Harṣa .......................................................................................................................................................................... Hayagrīva................................................................................................................................................................... Indian Tantric Authors: Overview ...................................................................................................................... Jñānagarbha ............................................................................................................................................................. Jñānapāda ................................................................................................................................................................. © Koninklijke Brill NV, Leiden, 2019 Also available online – www.brill.com For use by the Author only | © 2019 Koninklijke Brill NV 51 60 70 73 81 85 92 95 109 121 125 132 141 156 168 173 179 186 191 196 198 204 209 211 214 218 228 261 264 BEB, vol. II vi Contents Jñānaśrīmitra ........................................................................................................................................................... Kamalaśīla ................................................................................................................................................................ Karuṇāmaya ............................................................................................................................................................. Kṣemendra ................................................................................................................................................................ Kumāralāta ............................................................................................................................................................... Mahādeva.................................................................................................................................................................. Maitreya..................................................................................................................................................................... Mārīcī ......................................................................................................................................................................... Mātṛceṭa .................................................................................................................................................................... Nāgārjuna .................................................................................................................................................................. Paccekabuddhas/Pratyekabuddhas in Indic Sources ................................................................................... Phra Malai in Thailand and Southeast Asia..................................................................................................... Prajñākaragupta ...................................................................................................................................................... Ratnākaraśānti......................................................................................................................................................... Ratnakīrti .................................................................................................................................................................. Saṅghabhadra .......................................................................................................................................................... Śaṅkaranandana ..................................................................................................................................................... Śaṅkarasvāmin ........................................................................................................................................................ Śāntarakṣita .............................................................................................................................................................. Śāntideva ................................................................................................................................................................... Sarasvatī/Benzaiten................................................................................................................................................ Śāriputra .................................................................................................................................................................... Scholars of Premodern Pali Buddhism ............................................................................................................. Seers (ṛṣi/isi) and Brāhmaṇas in Southeast Asia ............................................................................................ Siddhas....................................................................................................................................................................... Śrīlāta ......................................................................................................................................................................... Sthiramati ................................................................................................................................................................. Śubhagupta............................................................................................................................................................... Tantric Buddhist Deities in Southeast Asia ..................................................................................................... Thera/Therī in Pali and Southeast Asian Buddhism ..................................................................................... Udbhaṭasiddhasvāmin .......................................................................................................................................... Upagupta ................................................................................................................................................................... Vāgīśvarakīrti ........................................................................................................................................................... Vasubandhu .............................................................................................................................................................. Vināyaka .................................................................................................................................................................... Yama and Hell Beings in Indian Buddhism ..................................................................................................... 269 272 279 286 293 298 302 325 332 335 348 357 363 366 371 374 378 382 383 391 398 409 420 437 443 452 456 458 463 474 479 481 490 492 507 513 East Asia: Ākāśagarbha in East Asia ...................................................................................................................................... Arhats in East Asian Buddhism .......................................................................................................................... Aśvaghoṣa (East Asian Aspects) ......................................................................................................................... Avalokiteśvara in East Asia................................................................................................................................... Dizang/Jizō ............................................................................................................................................................... Jianzhen (Ganjin) ................................................................................................................................................... Mahākāla in East Asia............................................................................................................................................ Mahākāśyapa in Chan-inspired Traditions...................................................................................................... Mañjuśrī in East Asia ............................................................................................................................................. Maudgalyāyana (Mulian)...................................................................................................................................... Musang (Wuxiang) ................................................................................................................................................. Tejaprabhā ................................................................................................................................................................ Yinyuan Longqi (Ingen) ........................................................................................................................................ For use by the Author only | © 2019 Koninklijke Brill NV 521 529 540 546 562 571 576 586 591 600 608 612 616 Contents vii China: Amoghavajra ............................................................................................................................................................ An Shigao .................................................................................................................................................................. Chengguan ................................................................................................................................................................ Daoxuan .................................................................................................................................................................... Falin ............................................................................................................................................................................ Faxian ......................................................................................................................................................................... Fazun .......................................................................................................................................................................... Hanshan Deqing ..................................................................................................................................................... Hongzhi Zhengjue .................................................................................................................................................. Huihong (see Juefan Huihong) Huineng (see Shenxiu) Huiyuan (see Lushan Huiyuan) Jigong.......................................................................................................................................................................... Juefan Huihong ....................................................................................................................................................... Liang Wudi................................................................................................................................................................ Lokakṣema ................................................................................................................................................................ Luo Qing .................................................................................................................................................................... Lushan Huiyuan ...................................................................................................................................................... Mazu Daoyi............................................................................................................................................................... Mingben (see Zhongfeng Mingben) Nāgārjuna in China ................................................................................................................................................ Nenghai...................................................................................................................................................................... Ouyang Jingwu ........................................................................................................................................................ Ouyi Zhixu ................................................................................................................................................................ Paramārtha ............................................................................................................................................................... Qian Qianyi............................................................................................................................................................... Qisong ........................................................................................................................................................................ Shenhui (see Shenxiu) Shenxiu, Huineng, and Shenhui ......................................................................................................................... Śubhākarasiṃha...................................................................................................................................................... Wumen ...................................................................................................................................................................... Wuxiang (see East Asia: Musang) Wuzhu ........................................................................................................................................................................ Xiao Ziliang............................................................................................................................................................... Yinshun...................................................................................................................................................................... Yixing ......................................................................................................................................................................... Yuan Hongdao ......................................................................................................................................................... Yuanwu Keqin .......................................................................................................................................................... Zhanran ..................................................................................................................................................................... Zhi Qian ..................................................................................................................................................................... Zhili............................................................................................................................................................................. Zhixu (see Ouyang Zhixu) Zhiyi............................................................................................................................................................................ Zhongfeng Mingben............................................................................................................................................... Zhuhong .................................................................................................................................................................... 623 630 642 648 653 657 662 668 673 679 684 689 700 707 711 722 727 735 741 748 752 759 764 768 777 782 787 791 795 800 806 810 814 818 826 833 839 844 Korea: Chinul......................................................................................................................................................................... Hyujŏng ..................................................................................................................................................................... Ich’adon ..................................................................................................................................................................... For use by the Author only | © 2019 Koninklijke Brill NV 853 860 864 viii Contents Kihwa ......................................................................................................................................................................... Kim Sisŭp .................................................................................................................................................................. Kyŏnghŏ..................................................................................................................................................................... Kyunyŏ ....................................................................................................................................................................... Muhak Chach’o ........................................................................................................................................................ Musang (see East Asia) Pou .............................................................................................................................................................................. Tosŏn .......................................................................................................................................................................... Ŭich’ŏn ....................................................................................................................................................................... Ŭisang ........................................................................................................................................................................ Wŏnch’ŭk .................................................................................................................................................................. Wŏnhyo...................................................................................................................................................................... Yi Nŭnghwa .............................................................................................................................................................. 869 873 877 882 887 891 895 900 903 908 913 918 Japan: Amaterasu Ōmikami .............................................................................................................................................. Annen......................................................................................................................................................................... Benzaiten (see South and Southeast Asia: Sarasvatī) Dōgen ......................................................................................................................................................................... Dōhan......................................................................................................................................................................... Eisai (see Yōsai) Eison ........................................................................................................................................................................... En no Gyōja .............................................................................................................................................................. Enchin ........................................................................................................................................................................ Ennin .......................................................................................................................................................................... Ganjin (see East Asia: Jianzhen) Genshin ..................................................................................................................................................................... Hachiman ................................................................................................................................................................. Hakuin ....................................................................................................................................................................... Hōnen ........................................................................................................................................................................ Ikkyū Sōjun ............................................................................................................................................................... Ingen (see East Asia: Yinyuan Longqi) Ippen Chishin .......................................................................................................................................................... Jakushō ...................................................................................................................................................................... Jiun Sonja .................................................................................................................................................................. Jizō (see East Asia: Dizang) Jōjin............................................................................................................................................................................. Jōkei ............................................................................................................................................................................ Kakuban .................................................................................................................................................................... Keizan Jōkin ............................................................................................................................................................. Kōmyō ........................................................................................................................................................................ Kūkai .......................................................................................................................................................................... Kūya ............................................................................................................................................................................ Menzan Zuihō ......................................................................................................................................................... Monkan ..................................................................................................................................................................... Mugai Nyodai ........................................................................................................................................................... Mujaku Dōchū ......................................................................................................................................................... Musō Soseki .............................................................................................................................................................. Myōe ........................................................................................................................................................................... Nichiren ..................................................................................................................................................................... Nōnin.......................................................................................................................................................................... For use by the Author only | © 2019 Koninklijke Brill NV 923 930 933 941 944 951 956 961 967 971 976 980 987 991 995 998 1002 1006 1011 1016 1020 1026 1036 1041 1047 1057 1062 1066 1071 1076 1088 Contents Raiyu........................................................................................................................................................................... Ryōgen........................................................................................................................................................................ Saichō ......................................................................................................................................................................... Saigyō ......................................................................................................................................................................... Shinran....................................................................................................................................................................... Shōtoku Taishi ......................................................................................................................................................... Tenjin ......................................................................................................................................................................... Tenkai ......................................................................................................................................................................... Yōsai/Eisai ................................................................................................................................................................. Zaō .............................................................................................................................................................................. ix 1094 1097 1102 1107 1111 1117 1122 1128 1134 1139 Tibetan Cultural Sphere Atiśa and the Bka’ gdams pa Masters ................................................................................................................ Ge sar of Gling ......................................................................................................................................................... Gter ston: Tibetan Buddhist Treasure Revealers ............................................................................................. Gtsang smyon Heruka ........................................................................................................................................... Lcang skya Rol pa’i Rdo rje ................................................................................................................................... Mi la ras pa................................................................................................................................................................ The Mongolian Jebdzundamba Khutugtu Lineage ....................................................................................... Padmasambhava in Tibetan Buddhism ............................................................................................................ The Sa skya School’s Five Forefathers................................................................................................................ Spirits of the Soil, Land, and Locality in Tibet ................................................................................................ Ston pa Gshen rab: The Bön Buddha ................................................................................................................. Tibet's Crazy Yogins ................................................................................................................................................ Tsong kha pa and his Immediate Successors .................................................................................................. Worldly Protector Deities in Tibet ..................................................................................................................... 1145 1159 1165 1171 1175 1181 1191 1197 1213 1226 1233 1239 1246 1254 Appendix To Volume I: Buddhist Narrative Literature in Japan ............................................................................................................. Poetry: Japan ............................................................................................................................................................ Korean Sŏn Literature............................................................................................................................................ For use by the Author only | © 2019 Koninklijke Brill NV 1269 1286 1294 Zhi Qian Of all the figures known to have participated in the 1st century of Buddhist translation activity in China (mid-2nd–mid-3rd cents. CE), one of the most prolific – and by far the most versatile – was the lay translator Zhi Qian (支謙; c. 193–252 CE). Born into a prominent Yuezhi (月氏) family in the northern Chinese capital of Luoyang (洛陽), over the course of his life he produced dozens of translations of Buddhist texts. In addition to these, he is also credited with revising several translations produced by his predecessors (above all, those of →Lokakṣema [支婁迦讖; fl. c. 168–186] and his group), writing at least one commentary, and composing a number of “Indian songs” (fanbai [梵唄]). His engagement with Buddhist scriptures spanned a period of more than four decades, and his surviving works display a remarkable diversity in language and style, no doubt reflecting the dramatic shifts that took place in his own life circumstances. Eventually his work came to be overshadowed by that of later translators, notably Kumārajīva (鳩摩羅什; fl. c. 344–413), but in his own time, and for at least three centuries afterwards, his translations continued to be avidly used. By any standard, he was thus one of the most influential translators in Chinese Buddhist history. Sources Aside from the rich data contained within Zhi Qian’s surviving translations themselves, virtually all of our information on his life and work comes from a single source: the justly famous Chu sanzang ji ji (出三藏記集, T. 2145) produced by Sengyou (僧 祐; 435–518) in c. 518 CE, which is the oldest extant catalog of Chinese Buddhist translations, incorporating the earlier catalog by Dao’an (道安; 312/314– 385), the Zongli zhongjing mulu (綜理眾經目錄), completed in 374. The Chu sanzang ji ji is hardly just a single witness or list of translations, however, for Sengyou also assembled information and documentation from a wide range of sources, including prefaces and textual notes by writers both known and unknown and biographies of translators, as well as providing his own assessments of the quality of their translations. Thus the Chu sanzang ji ji is not so much a single-authored work as an encyclopedia, and it is the essential starting point for any study of early Chinese Buddhist translations. The most substantial materials concerning Zhi Qian found in the Chu sanzang ji ji are the following: • the Catalog section (新集經論録), which provides a list of the translations attributed to Zhi Qian by Dao’an (T. 2145 [LV] 6c10–7a16), followed by the titles of six additional translations attributed to Zhi Qian by Sengyou himself on the basis of other sources (7a17–22; for a detailed discussion of these texts and their extant counterparts in the Taishō edition of the canon see Nattier, 2008, 121–148). • Part I of the Biographies section (傳上卷), which includes a detailed account of Zhi Qian’s life (97b13–c18; trans. Lamotte, 1965, 77–79 = 1998, 70–72). • the Prefaces section (集序卷, which includes not only prefaces in the strict sense but also afterwords and other informal textual notes). Here we find two key sources concerning Zhi Qian’s translations: – a lengthy scriptural note (49c20–50a28; cf. T. 210 [IV] 566b14–c26) on a hybrid edition of the Dharmapada, based on two manuscripts reflecting quite different recensions of the text, produced by Zhi Qian in initial collaboration with two Indian monks (法句經序). Though registered as anonymous by Sengyou, the note is thought to have been composed by Zhi Qian himself (Mizuno, 1953, 15; Maeda, 1964, 700; Tokiwa, 1938, 358, 555; trans. Willemen, 1973, 210–213). – a detailed note (49a16–b9) by Zhi Mindu (支 愍度; fl. c. 326) to his own (non-extant) combined edition of the Śūraṃgamasamādhisūtra (合首楞嚴經記), containing substantial information on Zhi Qian’s translation style, as well as biographical details that largely match (and perhaps served as one of the sources of) Sengyou’s account (trans. of the preface in Lamotte, 1965, 68, 74–75 = 1998, 61, 67; for the first part, dealing with Lokakṣema and © Koninklijke Brill NV, Leiden, 2019 Also available online – www.brill.com For use by the Author only | © 2019 Koninklijke Brill NV BEB, vol. II Zhi Qian including the first few lines of the portion on Zhi Qian, →Lokakṣema). In addition to these, brief mentions of Zhi Qian and his work also occur elsewhere in the Chu sanzang ji ji: in prefaces by Zhi Mindu (58b24–c4), Dao’an (45b21ff., 52c13–14), Sengzhao (僧肇; 384–414?) (58b9–10), and Sengrui (僧叡, = Huirui? [慧叡; 355–439; for arguments for the identity of these two figures see Ōchō, 1942; Wright, 1957; T. 2145 (LV) 58a4ff.]), as well as in comments by Sengyou himself (4c25ff. and 37c1–4). Rather unexpectedly – since Zhi Qian remained a layman throughout his life – he also receives a notice in the collection of “Lives of Eminent Monks,” the Gaoseng zhuan (高僧傳, T. 2059 [L] 325a18–b4), completed by Huijiao (慧皎; 497–554) in 530, where an account of Zhi Qian’s life is inserted at the beginning of the biography of Kang Senghui (康僧會; ?–280?; trans. Yoshikawa and Funayama, 2009, 64–67; Chavannes, 1909, 200–202; also Shih, 1968, 21–23). For his information on Buddhist translators Huijiao drew heavily on the biographies contained in Sengyou’s Chu sanzang ji ji, though in Zhi Qian’s case the account is abbreviated dramatically, and Huijiao (or a subsequent copyist) appears to have introduced at least one glaring error (see below). Though Zhi Qian’s family had at least a distant connection with the Han court in Luoyang, and though he himself served as tutor to the crown prince of the Wu (呉) kingdom after his migration to the south, it appears that Zhi Qian’s name is not mentioned in secular sources. Life and Legend Despite his status both as a layman and as a Chinese of foreign descent (in modern ethnic-group parlance, a “Yuezhi-Chinese”), Zhi Qian receives surprisingly detailed treatment in Buddhist biographical sources. The most extensive account is that provided by Sengyou, which begins as follows: Zhi Qian (支謙) – whose byname was Gongming (字恭明) and who was also known as Yue (越) – was a Great Yuezhi person (大月支人). His grandfather, Fadu (法度), in the time of the Han emperor Ling (漢靈帝; r. 168–190), leading several hundreds of his countrymen, had submitted [to Han rule]; as a result he was honored [by the Han court with the title] shuai shan zhonglang jiang (率善中郎將) (T. 2145 [LV] 97b14–16). 819 The biography of Zhi Qian found in Huijiao’s Gaoseng zhuan largely follows Sengyou’s account, but with an interesting twist: Formerly there was the upāsaka Zhi Qian, whose byname was Gongming (恭明), also called Yue (越). He was originally a Yuezhi person (本月支 人), who had come to stay in the Han territory (來遊漢境) (T. 2059 [L] 325a18–19). But this is surely mistaken, for all other sources agree that Zhi Qian was born in China, rather than being an immigrant from the country of the Yuezhi. It seems likely that Huijiao’s account is the result of a copying error, in which 大月支人 was miscopied as 本月支人 perhaps under the influence of the preceding biography of Lokakṣema, who was described in precisely this wording (T. 2059 [L] 324b13). The additional phrase 來遊漢境, which has no counterpart in Sengyou’s account, might then be construed as a gloss added to attempt to make sense of this initial error. As befits a layman with no ecclesiastical rank, Zhi Qian is not the subject of miracle tales or other stories of superhuman prowess. His biography does, however, contain two homely anecdotes, which might best be described as “character witnesses.” The first chronicles an event, which took place when Zhi Qian (here referred to by his alternate given name of Yue [越]) was still a young boy: When Yue was seven years old, riding a hobbyhorse and playing at a neighboring house, he was bitten by a dog, and his shin-bone was broken. The neighbors wanted to kill the dog and take out its liver to put it on the wound. But Yue said, “Heaven produced this creature to be a guard dog for people. If I hadn’t come to your residence, I would not have been bitten. The fault is mine, it has nothing to do with the dog. It would be wrong to kill him even to help me recover; how much more so if it did me no good, but brought great demerit in vain! Moreover, animals are lacking in knowledge, so how can one justify punishing him?” Because of this, villagers from dozens of households were moved by his words, and none of them ever again killed living beings (T. 2145 [LV] 97b16–22). Shortly afterwards he embarked on the studies that would ultimately lead to his work as a translator, beginning with Chinese texts and then moving on to study foreign languages: For use by the Author only | © 2019 Koninklijke Brill NV 820 Zhi Qian At the age of ten he began to study, and his fellow students were all impressed by his intelligence. At thirteen, he embarked on the study of foreign (hu [胡]) writings, mastering the languages of six countries (T. 2145 [LV] 97b22–23). Sengyou’s account then turns to a description of Zhi Qian’s lineage as a student of Buddhism, giving the same kind of precise details that we have already seen in the case of his family ancestry: First of all, in the time of [the Han emperors] Huan (桓; r. 146–168) and Ling, Zhi Chen (支讖, i.e., Lokakṣema) had translated Dharma-texts. And there was [a certain] Zhi Liang (支亮; d.u.), [whose byname was] Jiming (紀明), who had studied with [Zhi] Chen. [Zhi] Qian, in turn, received training under [Zhi] Liang. He read exhaustively in the scriptural texts, carefully studying them all, and he also practiced many worldly arts....He originally received the Great Dharma (大法 = the Mahāyāna?) and he became well trained in the purport of the scriptures (T. 2145 [LV] 97b23–28). As this passage makes clear, Zhi Qian began his study of Buddhism as a member of Lokakṣema’s community, which is known from other sources to have been a multi-ethnic, and Mahāyāna-oriented, group. That Zhi Qian was widely esteemed among the locals is made clear in the following anecdote, playing on the description of his physique given in his biography (tall but thin, dark-skinned, with eyes whose light-colored irises appeared yellow to his Chinese compatriots) to report a popular saying, which includes a pattern of rhyme (Hurvitz in Tsukamoto, 1985, 521, additional n. a under n. 5 on T. 2145 [LV] 97b27). In colloquial English, the effect may have been something like the following: “Master Zhi has yellow eyes; he may be skinny, but he sure is wise!” Zhi Qian’s privileged life in the Chinese capital was not to last, however, for just as he entered adulthood the Han Dynasty was entering its death throes. His biography goes on to report that at the end of the Han he and many others of Yuezhi descent fled to the Wu (T. 2145 [LV] 97b28–29). At this point we meet with the second anecdote providing a “character witness,” which at the same time emphasizes the often-overlooked hardships of the journey undertaken by these refugees from the Han: On the day they first set out, [Yue] had only a single blanket. There was a stranger who followed him; it was extremely cold, and he had no blanket. Yue called out to the stranger to come and sleep together [i.e., to share the blanket]. [But] in the middle of the night the stranger grabbed the blanket and left. The next morning his companions asked him where the blanket was, and Yue replied, “Last night it was taken by the stranger.” His companions all said, “Why didn’t you tell us?” And he replied, “If I had told you, you certainly would have accused him of theft. But how could it be right to kill a man over a blanket?” (T. 2145 [LV] 97b29–c4). Despite many challenges, Zhi Qian successfully arrived in the Wu Kingdom, and at this point his biography turns to an account of the Wu ruler Sun Quan’s (孫權; 182–252, r. 222–252) delight at learning of the presence of such a distinguished Buddhist scholar in his realm. After questioning Zhi Qian on a variety of doctrinal points, he enthusiastically brought him into his circle, conferring on him the title of boshi (博士, “Scholar of Wide Learning”) and appointing him tutor to the crown prince (東 宮, lit. “Eastern Palace,” a metonym for the crown prince himself). The biography goes on to provide information on Zhi Qian’s translation work in the Wu kingdom, discussed below. His life in the royal circle was to be interrupted, however, by the death of Crown Prince Deng (登; 209–241) Afterwards Crown Prince Deng passed away, and consequently [Zhi Qian] retired to Qionglong Shan (穹隆山), having nothing more to do with worldly affairs. Under the monk (道人) Zhu Falan (竺法蘭; d.u.) he undertook training in the five [lay] precepts, interacting only with monks (沙門). Later he died on the mountain, at the age of sixty (T. 2145 [LV] 97c13–16; see Tang, 2001 [1938], 160). The biography closes with an account of a letter said to have been sent by Sun Quan’s successor, Sun Liang (孫亮; 243–260, r. 252–258), to the monastic community, praising Zhi Qian and bemoaning his death. Authentic Translations Translators working prior to Zhi Qian’s time specialized in a fairly narrow range of literature: in the case of An Shigao (安世高; fl. c. 148–170), non-Mahāyāna For use by the Author only | © 2019 Koninklijke Brill NV Zhi Qian sūtras and śāstras (generally identified as being of Sarvāstivādin provenance), and in the case of Lokakṣema, long Mahāyāna sūtras. But with Zhi Qian we see a veritable explosion of inclusivity: his corpus includes both Mahāyāna and nonMahāyāna sūtras, didactic verses (corresponding to the Dharmapada and the Aṭṭhakavagga), a jātaka tale, and a biography of the Buddha. In order to evaluate Zhi Qian’s work, our first task is to eliminate false attributions from the list, for – as was the case with so many early translators – the record of his authentic translations became completely muddled at the hand of Fei Changfang (費長 房; d.u., fl. 562–598), whose Lidai sanbao ji (歷代三 寶紀; T. 2034, completed in 598) introduced dozens of spurious attributions to the roster of his work. Whereas Sengyou had assigned a total of 36 texts to Zhi Qian, for example, Fei credits him with no fewer than 129 works (on problems with Fei’s catalog see Radich, forthcoming). Many (though not all) of these new attributions were accepted by subsequent generations of catalogers, and a substantial number still remain in the Taishō and other widely used editions of the Chinese Buddhist canon. Careful analysis (Nattier, 2008, 3–27) yields a much shorter but still substantial list of authentic works. Arranged according to genre, the extant texts now considered to be genuine translations by Zhi Qian are the following (see Nattier, 2008, 126–148): Āgama texts (non-Mahāyāna sūtras): T. 6: Bannihuan jing 般泥洹經 (“The Sūtra on the Final Nirvāṇa [of the Buddha]”) T. 54: Shi Monan jing 釋摩男經 (“The Sūtra on Mahānāma the Śākyan”) T. 68: Laizhaheluo jing 賴吒和羅經 (“The Sūtra on Rāṣṭrapāla”) T. 76: Fanmoyu jing 梵摩渝經 (“The Sūtra on Brahmāyus”) T. 87: Zhai jing 齋經 (“The Abstinence Day Sūtra”) T. 493: Anan si shi jing 阿難四事經 (“The Sūtra on the Four Matters [preached to] Ānanda”) T. 581: Ba shi jing 八師經 (“The Sūtra on the Eight Teachers”) T. 735A: Si yuan jing 四願經 (“The Sūtra on the Four Wishes”) Jātaka tale: T. 790: Bo jing chao 孛經抄 (“The Condensed *Puṣya Scripture”) Avadānas (with Mahāyāna elements): T. 556: Qi nü jing 七女經 (“Scripture on the Seven Women”) 821 T. 561: Laomu jing 老母經 (“Scripture on the Old Woman”) Didactic verses: T. 198: Yizu jing 義足經 (*Arthapada; of the Pāli Aṭṭhakavagga) T. 210: Faju jing 法句經 (Dharmapada) A Biography of the Buddha: T. 185: Taizi ruiying benqi jing 太子瑞應本起經 (“Scripture on the Prince’s Former Deeds and their Auspicious Response”) Mahāyāna sūtras: T. 169: Yueming pusa jing 月明菩薩經 (“The *Candraprabhabodhisattva Sūtra”) T. 225B: Da mingdu jing 大明度經 (“The Shorter Prajñāpāramitā”) T. 281: Pusa benye jing 菩薩本業經 (“The Proto-Buddhāvataṁsaka”) T. 361: Wuliang qingjing pingdengjue jing 無量清 淨平等覺經 (“The Larger Sukhāvatīvyūha”) T. 474: Weimojie jing 維摩詰經 (“The Vimalakīrtinirdeśa”) T. 532: Sihemo jing 私呵末[<–昧] 經, var. Pusa daoshu jing 菩薩道樹經 (“The Siṁhamati Sūtra”) T. 533: Chamojie jing 差摩竭經, var. Pusa shengdi jing 菩薩生地經 (“The Kṣemaṅkara Sūtra”) T. 557: Longshinü jing 龍施女經 (“The Nāgadattā Sūtra”) T. 632: Huiyin sanmei jing 慧印三昧經 (“The Tathāgatajñānamudrāsamādhi”) T. 1011: Wuliangmen weimi chi jing 無量門微密 持經 (var. 成道降魔得一切智經) (“The Anantamukhanirhāradhāraṇī-sūtra”) This list shows the extraordinarily broad range of Zhi Qian’s output. Indeed, it might be easier to describe what he did not translate than what he did: there are no Vinaya texts here (which is hardly surprising, given his lay status), no Abhidharma works, and no scholastic treatises. Thus, despite the broad array of different genres, there is a certain unity to his corpus, for with the exception of the two texts listed under “Didactic Verses” Zhi Qian appears to have focused exclusively on narrative literature. Original Compositions In addition to his translation work, Sengyou credits Zhi Qian with having composed “linked verses in praise of the bodhisattva comprising three ‘Indian songs (fanbai)’” (讃菩薩連句梵唄三契; for a list of other fanbai known to Sengyou see T. 2145 [LV] For use by the Author only | © 2019 Koninklijke Brill NV 822 Zhi Qian 92a–b). He likewise credits him with a commentary to the Liaoben shengsi jing (了本生死經), presumably based on a text corresponding to T. 708, the Śālistambha-sūtra (T. 2145 [LV] 97c12–13). None of these original works have survived, though the Chinese canon contains one poem, the Hou chu Amituofo jie (後出阿彌陀佛偈, T. 373), devoted to the praise of Amitābha and his world, which contains vocabulary otherwise found only in Zhi Qian’s version of the larger Sukhāvatīvyūha (T. 361), and which may in fact be a revision of Zhi Qian’s original work (Nattier, 2008, 118, and nn20–21). Chronology and Method of Work Sengyou’s catalog does not assign individual dates to Zhi Qian’s works, but in one precious instance we have precise information on when and where a translation was produced. In a notice to the hybrid translation of a Dharmapada (T. 210) – thought to have been authored by Zhi Qian himself – we are told that an Indian monk, *Vijayananda (維祇難; d.u.), arrived in the city of Wuchang (武昌) in the third year of the Huangwu (黄武) era, that is, in 224, bringing the manuscript of a Dharmapada, and that Zhi Qian asked another Indian monk, Zhu Jiangyan (竺將炎; d.u.), to translate it. Afterwards, the author of the notice (presumably Zhi Qian) tells us, he managed to locate a considerably longer manuscript containing an additional 13 chapters not found in *Vijayananda’s version, and that he added this material to the earlier translation, at the same time rearranging and editing the text. This remarkable account is the sole case in which we have any information on the way Zhi Qian worked, and given the complex circumstances under which this Dharmapada translation was produced, this procedure is unlikely to have been typical. Indeed, it may have been precisely this unusual situation that led to the composition of this notice. We have no external evidence for any other translations that would tell us where Zhi Qian got his source-texts, whether he translated alone or in consultation with others, and when the texts in question were produced. We are thus dependent on internal evidence, and what is generally known about his life circumstances, to infer the chronology of his works. A noteworthy feature of Zhi Qian’s corpus is that it contains several texts that are clearly revisions of earlier works, notably several long Mahāyāna sūtras produced by Lokakṣema and his school. Of these, Zhi Qian’s shorter Prajñāpāramitā (T. 225B, excluding Chapter 1, which is by a different hand) shadows Lokakṣema’s Dao xing banre jing (道行般若經, T. 224) very closely, even while producing a dramatically shorter text by eliminating repetitions, reducing long lists of synonyms to a single word, and replacing transcriptions with translations, which in itself eliminated considerable bulk (on T. 225A and T. 225B and their relationships to Lokakṣema’s work see Nattier, 2008 [2010]). Based on the account given by Zhi Mindu in the preface to his own synoptic edition of the Śūraṁgamasamādhi-sūtra (T. 2145 [LV] 49a16–b7), Zhi Qian’s revision of Lokakṣema’s translation of this sūtra was produced in the same way, yielding a revised version of an existing translation rather than a new translation from an Indian text. Other “retranslations” by Zhi Qian, however, do not follow this pattern; his version of the larger Sukhāvatīvyūha (T. 361), for example, contains considerable material not found in Lokakṣema’s Amituo sanyesanfo saloufotan guodu ren dao jing (阿彌 陀三耶三佛薩樓佛檀過度人道經; T. 362), making it clear that he was working from a different Indian source-text even while drawing some of his wordings from Lokakṣema’s earlier version (Nattier, 2008, 139; on the switch of attributions of T. 361 and T. 362, Harrison, 1998, 556–557 and nn16–18; Harrison, 1999; Harrison et al., 2002). Other revisions by Zhi Qian exhibit even more complicated relationships to pre-existing versions, sometimes drawing on more than one Chinese text while working from a different Indian source (e.g., T. 6 and T. 185; see Nattier, 2008, 127–129 and 135). It has also been suggested (Karashima, 2013, 276 and n6) that Zhi Qian’s version of the Vimalakīrti-nirdeśa (T. 474) was a revision of an earlier translation by Yan Fotiao (嚴 佛調). But there is no credible evidence that such a translation – first mentioned in the Lidai sanbao ji (歷代三寶紀, T. 2034) by Fei Changfang (費長房), a notoriously unreliable source (see Radich, forthcoming) – ever existed. Though nothing is known of the provenance of these re-translations, it seems likely that they were produced early in Zhi Qian’s career. In the case of another translation by Lokakṣema, the Banzhou sanmei jing (般舟三昧經, T. 418), a surviving colophon tells us that the text was revised (by unknown participants) in the city of Xu (許, modern Xuchang [許昌]) in 208 (Harrison, 1990, 259–260). The types of changes found in the revised portions of T. 418 – including the replacement of transcriptions with translations and the use of For use by the Author only | © 2019 Koninklijke Brill NV Zhi Qian metrically regular verse (Harrison, 1990, 221–249) – are congruent with what we see in the revisions known to have been produced by Zhi Qian, who may even have been involved in revising the Banzhou sanmei jing himself (Harrison, 1990, 249). Thus Zhi Qian’s efforts in this regard may have been part of a larger trend to update Lokakṣema’s translations that took place in northern China toward the end of the Han. It is also clear, however, that Zhi Qian was active in producing entirely new translations, at least after his move to the South, for his biography explicitly describes his efforts to gather and translate Indian texts that were circulating in the Wu region: Although the Great Teaching [i.e., Buddhism] was circulating [in the region], most of the scriptures were in the Hu language and had not been interpreted [in Chinese], so – since Yue was good at the languages of both Hua and Rong [i.e., of Chinese and foreigners] – he set out to collect the various texts and to translate them into the Han language (T. 2145 [LV] 97c8–9). Translation Style Just as Zhi Qian translated texts of a wide range of types, so he translated them in a wide range of styles, and several distinct sub-groups can be identified within his corpus (Nattier, 2008, 146–148). Some closely resemble the vocabulary and style of Lokakṣema (T. 169, T. 632, and to a lesser but still noticeable extent T. 361) while another group draws heavily on the vocabulary of An Xuan (安玄) and Yan Fotiao’s (嚴佛調) Fa jing jing (法鏡經, T. 322; see Zhi Qian’s T. 76, T. 225B, T. 474, and T. 532). Numerous texts contain five-character verses, some of which rhyme (T. 185, T. 474, T. 581; Saitō, 2000), while others feature six-character verse (T. 6, T. 169, T. 198, T. 210, T. 361, T. 532, T. 533, and T. 632), which never does. Several texts draw freely on indigenous Chinese religious vocabulary (T. 76, T. 281, T. 556, T. 581, and T. 735A), while the majority do not. In short, it is impossible to describe any particular translation style as being “typical” of Zhi Qian’s corpus as a whole. While significant variations can be found in the work of some other translators, notably Dharmarakṣa (竺法護; fl. 265–309), the stylistic range found in Zhi Qian’s corpus is unparalleled. It seems certain that these dramatic differences reflect the shifting circumstances of his own long and varied career, beginning as a “grand-disciple” of Lokakṣema in the polyglot Buddhist community 823 of Luoyang, and ultimately being drawn into royal circles in the Wu kingdom after his migration to the South. Legacy and Impact It would be difficult to overstate the importance of Zhi Qian’s translations, for their impact on the subsequent history of Buddhism (and even Daoism) in China was enormous. His translations were quoted both in early commentaries (e.g., the Yin chi ru jing [陰持入經] T. 1694, and the interlinear commentary to T. 225A, both of which are thought to have been produced in the 3rd cent.; Zacchetti, 2010) and in Xi Chao’s (郄超; 336–377) Feng fa yao (奉法要, preserved in the Hongming ji [弘明集], T. 2102 [LII] 86a–89b) composed in 377 (Zürcher, 1959, Appendix B to Chapter Two and notes); they are also cited at length in two great anthologies compiled in the 6th and 7th centuries, the Jinglü yixiang (經律異相, T. 2121) and the Fayuan zhulin (法苑珠林, T. 2122). Terms coined or popularized by Zhi Qian appear in great profusion in the works of Dharmarakṣa, who drew heavily on Zhi Qian’s lexicon, and at the beginning of the 5th century Kumārajīva and his team avidly consulted pre-existing translations by Zhi Qian when they were available, sometimes carrying over Zhi Qian’s wording even when it was erroneous (Nattier, 2000). And if imitation is the sincerest form of flattery, the fact that Zhi Qian’s translations were quoted without attribution – i.e., plagiarized – in indigenous Chinese Buddhist apocrypha (Nattier, 2007b) and even in Daoist texts (Bokenkamp, 1983, 1990) make it quite clear that they were considered eminently worthy of appropriation. Zhi Qian was not without his critics, but they are far fewer in number than has often been supposed. Foremost among them may have been Dao’an, whose focus on the Prajñāpāramitā scriptures apparently led him to view Zhi Qian’s entire translation enterprise through the lens of the Da mingdu jing, which is by far the most extreme example of abbreviation and condensation in Zhi Qian’s corpus. Zhi Mindu, who is sometimes classified as holding a critical view of Zhi Qian (e.g., Zürcher, 1959, 336, n. 138), is actually quite positive in his assessment of Zhi Qian’s work (as in his preface to the combined edition of the Śūraṁgamasamādhisūtra), and it is probably significant that he took Zhi Qian’s translations, rather than one of the other available versions, as the base texts for his combined For use by the Author only | © 2019 Koninklijke Brill NV 824 Zhi Qian editions of both the Śūraṁgamasamādhi-sūtra and the Vimalakīrti-nirdeśa (T. 2145 [LV] 58b21ff.). It is certainly the case, as Zürcher contends (loc. cit.), that Sengzhao was highly critical of Zhi Qian (T. 2145 [LV] 58b9–10), and the same seems, at first glance, to be true of Huirui (= Sengrui? cf. above; T. 2145 [LV] 58a4ff.). But there is no evidence that Zhi Qian ever produced a version of the text to which Huirui’s preface is addressed, Kumārajīva’s Siyi jing (思益經, Viśeṣacintibrahma-paripṛcchā, T. 586). On the contrary, the only translation of this sūtra known to have been produced prior to Kumārajīva’s time was that of Dharmarakṣa (Chixin fantian suowen jing [持心梵天所問經], T. 585), which suggests that there was some confusion on Huirui’s part. Sengyou himself was emphatically not among the critical voices, for Zhi Qian is one of just a handful of figures from the first century of Buddhist translation activity in China singled out for special and highly laudatory attention in the introduction to the Chu sanzang ji ji (T. 2145 [LV] 4c25–29). And in his introduction to the chao jing (抄經, “gist scriptures”) section of his catalog, Sengyou specifically exempts Zhi Qian – together with An Shigao – from the charge of having subverted the meaning of Buddhist scriptures by producing condensed versions (T. 2145 [LV] 37c1–4). Sengyou’s positive assessment of the quality of Zhi Qian’s work is more noteworthy given his strong admiration for his predecessor Dao’an, from whose view he diverged in this regard. In sum, though Zhi Qian’s work was eventually overshadowed by that of his successors (above all Kumārajīva), his translations continued to be actively used by Chinese Buddhist writers and translators for several centuries after his time. Bibliography Bokenkamp, S.R., 1990. “Stages of Transcendence: The Bhūmi Concept in Taoist Scripture,” in: R.E. Buswell Jr., ed., Chinese Buddhist Apocrypha, Honolulu: University of Hawai‘i Press, 119–147. Bokenkamp, S.R., 1983. “Sources of the Ling-pao Scriptures,” in: M. Strickmann, ed., Tantric and Taoist Studies in Honour of R.A. Stein, Brussels: Institute Belge des Hautes Études Chinoises, 434–486. Chavannes, É., 1909. “Seng-houei (僧會), † 280 p. C.,” TP, Second Series, 10/2, 199–212. 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Lamotte, É., 1965. La concentration de la marche héroïque (Śūraṃgamasamādhisūtra), Brussels: Institut Belge des Hautes Études Chinoises. Maeda Egaku (前田慧學), 1964. Genshi bukkyō seiten no seiritsushi kenkyū (原始仏教聖典の成立史研究), Tokyo: Sankibō busshōrin. Mizuno Kōgen (水野弘元), 1953. “Udāna to hokku” (ウダーナと法句), Komazawa daigaku gakuhō (駒沢 大学学報) 12/2, 3–24. Nattier, J., 2008 (2010). “Who Produced the Damingdu jing (大明度經) (T225)? A Reassessment of the Evidence,” JIABS 31/1–2, 295–337. Nattier, J., 2008. A Guide to the Earliest Chinese Buddhist Translations: Texts from the Eastern Han (東漢) and Three Kingdoms (三國) Periods, Tokyo: The International Research Institute for Advanced Buddhology, Soka University. Nattier, J., 2007a. “A Reassessment of the Dates and Translator Attributions of the Laonüren jing (老女人經) (T559) and the Laomu jing (老母經) (T561),” ARIRIAB 10, 529–532. Nattier, J., 2007b. “Indian Antecedents of Huayan Thought: New Light from Chinese Sources,” in: I. Hamar, ed., Reflecting Mirrors: Perspectives on Huayan Buddhism, Wiesbaden: Harrassowitz Verlag, 109–138. Nattier, J., 2005. “The Proto-History of the Buddhāvataṁsaka: The Pusa benye jing (菩薩本業經) and the Dousha jing (兜沙經),” ARIRIAB 8, 323–360. Nattier, J., 2000. “The Teaching of Vimalakīrti (Vimalakīrtinirdeśa): A Review of Four English Translations,” BL 2, 234–258. Ōchō E’nichi (橫超慧日), 1942. “Sōei to Eiei wa dōjin nari” (僧叡と慧叡は同人なり), ThGh(K) 13/2, 203–231. Radich, M., forthcoming. “Fei Changfang’s Treatment of Sengyou’s Anonymous Texts,” JAOS. Saitō Takanobu (齊藤隆信), 2005. “Kōshutsu Amida-butsu ge ni tsuite” (『後出阿弥陀仏偈』について), Jōdoshūgaku kenkyū (浄土宗学研究) 32, 50–51. Saitō Takanobu (齊藤隆信), 2000. “Shi Ken to Kumarajū yaku butten ni okeru ge no shiritsu” (支謙と鳩摩羅什 譯佛典における偈の詩律), BSK 43/1, 70–91. For use by the Author only | © 2019 Koninklijke Brill NV Zhi Qian Shih, R., 1968. Biographies des moines éminents (Kao seng tchouan) de Houei-kiao, Première partie: Biographies des premiers traducteurs, Leuven: Institut Orientaliste. Tang Yongtong (湯用彤), 2001 (1938). Han Wei liang Jin Nanbeichao Fojiao shi (漢魏两晋南北朝佛教史), Sanchong: Foguang wenhua shiye youxian gongsi. Tokiwa Daijō (常盤大定), 1973. Gokan yori Sō Sei ni itaru yakkyō sōroku (後漢より宋斉に至る訳経総録), Tokyo: Kokusho kankōkai (Tōhō Bunka Gakuin Tōkyō Kenkyūjo, 1938). Tokuno, Kyoko, 1990. “The Evaluation of Indigenous Scriptures in Chinese Buddhist Bibliographical Catalogues,” in: R.E. Buswell, Jr., ed., Chinese Buddhist Apocrypha, Honolulu: University of Hawai‘i Press, 31–74. Tsukamoto, Zenryū, 1985. A History of Early Chinese Buddhism from Its Introduction to the Death of Hui-yüan, in: L. Hurvitz, trans. vol. I, Tokyo: Kodansha International. Willemen, C., 1973. “The Prefaces to the Chinese Dharmapadas Fa-chü ching and Ch’u-yao ching,” TP 59, 203–219. 825 Wright, A.F., 1957. “Seng-jui alias Hui-jui: A Biographical Bisection in the Kao-seng chuan,” in: K. Roy, ed., SinoIndian Studies 3–4 (Liebenthal Festschrift), 272–294. Yoshikawa Tadao (吉川忠夫) & Funayama Tōru (船山 徹), trans., 2009. Kōsōden I (高僧傳 [一]), Tokyo: Iwanami Shoten. Zacchetti, S., 2010. “Some Remarks on the Authorship and Chronology of the Yin chi ru jing zhu (陰持入經注) T1694: The Second Phase in the Development of Chinese Buddhist Exegetical Literature,” in: M. Maggi & S. Vita, eds., Buddhist Asia 2: Papers from the Second Conference of Buddhist Studies Held in Naples in June 2004, Università di Napoli “L’Orientale” Centro di Studi sul Buddhismo, Kyoto: Italian School of East Asian Studies. Zürcher, E., 2007 (1959). The Buddhist Conquest of China, Leiden: Brill. For use by the Author only | © 2019 Koninklijke Brill NV Jan Nattier