MAP READING

Trg Off: Capt E STEWART

LESSON 1
OUTLINE
1. Introduction
2. The basics of Map and Map Reading
a. What is a Map?
b. What is Map Reading
c. Features found on a Map
d. Map Care
e. Map Format
3. Marginal Information
4. Scales
5. Measuring Distances( Road and Range)
6. Questions
INTRODUCTION

 Navigation is important to a soldier’s

success in peace time operations and
in times of war.
The basics of Map and Map
Reading

a. WHAT IS A MAP?

A map is a bird’s eye view of the

ground drawn to scale showing
physical features, man made
features and relief information.
The basics of Map and Map
Reading

b. What is Map Reading?

Map reading is the correct

interpretation of the information
contained on a map.
The basics of Map and Map
Reading
c. Features found on a Map

i. Physical features – (any

vegetation & water features)
woodland; forest; rivers; ponds; streams
etc
ii. Manmade features – (anything
created by man ) buildings; roads;
bridges; gullies.
iii. Relief Information – (any feature
that determines the formation of the
land) ridges; saddles; spurs; re-entrants;
The basics of Map and Map Reading
d. Map Care
i. Maps must be folded
correctly
ii. Most maps are printed on
paper and require protection from
water, mud and tearing.
iii. It should be carried in:
(a) a waterproof packet,
(b) under an outer garment,
(c) other places where it is
handy for use but still
The basics of Map and Map
Reading
Map Care Cont’d
(d) Care must also be
exercised when using the map as it
may have to last for a long time. If
it becomes necessary to mark a
map, use a pencil, and make light
lines so that they may be erased
easily without smearing or
smudging, or leaving marks that
may later cause confusion.
The basics of Map and Map
Reading
e. Map Format

Map formats fall into two (02) main

categories
i. Four Margin Format
ii. Bi Margin Format
The basics of Map and Map Reading

i. The four sides of the map is surrounded

by a frame and a margin (Four Margin
Format )
The basics of Map and Map
Reading
ii. Bi Margin Format
Most medium scale maps and nearly
all topographic aeronautical charts
are published in a bi-margin format
in which the cartographic detail
extends to the north and east edges
of the sheet thus leaving two
margins only.

(a). The edges of the map sheet to

which the cartographic detail is
The basics of Map and Map
Reading
(b) This format enables adjacent
map sheets to be mounted together
without the need to cut off margins
which could contain essential
information.
MARGINAL INFORMATION
a. This is information found on the outer edges
of the map.

b. These provide the basic instructions and

correct information about the particular map.

c. All maps are not the same so it becomes

necessary, every time a different map is
used, to examine the marginal information
carefully.
Marginal Information

a. Sheet Name/Title
i. This is stated in bold, large
lettering at the top centre of the
margin.
ii. Generally, a map is named
after its outstanding cultural or
geographic feature.
iii. Whenever possible the name
of the largest city is used.
Marginal Information
b. Sheet Number
i. The sheet number is found
in two places; the upper right
margin and the lower left margin.
ii. It is used as a reference
number for that map sheet or to
other sheets showing neighbouring
areas.
Marginal Information
c. Edition Number
i. The edition number is found in the
upper right margin and in the lower left
margin.
ii. It represents the age of the map
in relation to other editions of the
same map and also the agency
responsible for its production.
iii. Example: Edition 1 – JSD/DOS 1982
indicates the first edition
prepared by Jamaica Survey
Department / Directorate of
Marginal Information

d. Adjoining Sheet Diagram

This is found at the lower margin.
Maps at all standard scales contain
a diagram which illustrates the
adjoining sheets.
Marginal Information

e. Legend/Key
This is a list which explains the
symbols and abbreviations used on a
map. The legend is normally located
at the right margin.
Marginal Information

f. Scales
The scale is found in the upper left
margin and the bottom centre margin.
Scales

a. DEFINITION: A scale can be defined

as the ratio of a unit distance measured on
the map to the corresponding distance
measured on the ground in the same units
of measurement.
 NB. Each centimetre on the map

represents a distance on the ground. The

distance itself depends on the scale of the
map.
Scales
b. There are three (03) types of scales
i. As a statement (i.e. one
centimetre to one kilometre)
ii. As a representative fraction
(1/50,000)
iii. As a scale line ( usually shown
on all maps)
NB. The representative fraction is
also known as the numerical scale
Scales
THE REPRESENTATIVE FRACTION

The representative fraction is the most

accurate way of expressing scale since it
can be applied to any unit of measure,
and enables very accurate calculation of
distances on the ground and on the map.
 Examples: 1:50,000 OR 1:25,000
Scales
A GRAPHIC SCALE/BAR SCALE
A graphic scale is a ruler printed on the map
against which, distances on the map may be
measured as actual ground distances.

Whilst working with the graphic scale to the

right of the zero (o), you will see the scale is
marked in full units of measure and this side
is called the primary scale.
 The part to the left of the zero is
divided into tenths of a unit and is
called the extension scale.
Full Standard Scale for Maps

 SCALES GRID LINE

INTERVAL
 500,000 (small scale) 10 km
 250,000 (medium scale) 10 km
 100,000 (medium scale) 10 km
 50,000 (large scale) 1 km
 25,000 (town maps) 1 km
 10,000 (city maps) 1 km
 2,500 (street plans etc) 100 m
Measuring Distances
a. The measurement of distances is
one of the most important uses of a
map. However it is essential to note
that distances scaled directly from a
map are horizontal distances which
take no account of slopes. Thus
when estimating the duration of a
proposed journey proper allowance
must be made for the shape of the
ground.
Measuring Distances

b. Straight Line Distances: The

two main techniques are:
i. Use of Grid lines
ii. The Paper strip method.
NB. The paper strip method is the
more accurate of the two
Measuring Distance
c. Use of Grid Lines
Maps carry grid lines which are fixed
distances apart. A very quick
estimate of the distance between
two points is obtained by counting
the grid squares between them.
The method is satisfactory in the
north–south or east-west directions
but significant errors accumulate in
the diagonal directions. 1sq = (1km)
Measuring Distances
d. Measuring Distances by Range
i. Lay the straight edge of a strip
of paper against the two points and at
each point mark the paper with a tick.

ii. Then lay the paper along the bar

scale on the map with the right-hand
tick against one of the main divisions so
that the left- hand tick lies within the
sub-divisions to the left of the zero mark.
iii. The distance between the points is
the number of main divisions plus the
number of sub- divisions to the left of the
Measuring Distances
e.Measuring Distances by Road
i. To measure a distance which is not
straight, e.g., along a road or a river,
consider the road as a number of straight
or nearly straight sections. Lay a piece of
paper along the first section, and mark it
with a tick at the starting point and
another at the end of the first section.
Then pivot the paper about the second tick
until it lies along the second section.
Mark the end of the second section with
Measuring Road
Distances
ii. The total distance along the
road is then recorded as a straight
line on the piece of paper, and can
be read off against the scale.
iii. This is done by placing one end
against a whole number on the
map’s scale line (bar scale)
iv. Read the fraction of the whole
division to the left of the zero on the
scale line (bar scale) and adding the
two components together.
Questions??
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TO’s Questions
1. What is a map?
2. What is marginal information ?
3. List the four marginal
information and
explain each.
4. What is a scale?
LESSON 2

Outline
1. Introduction
2. 4, 6 & 8 FIG GRID REFERENCE
3. NORTH POINTS
4. Questions
GRID and GRID
REFERENCES
a. A grid is a system of numbered
squares printed on a map which forms the
basis for map references.
b. The grid system is made up of
EASTINGS and NORTHINGS
i. EASTINGS are lines which run
vertically on a map and advance
numerically to the East.
ii. NORTHINGS are lines which run
horizontally on a map and advance
numerically to the North.
GRID and GRID
REFERENCES
GRID and GRID
REFERENCES
c. Types of Grid References
The most commonly used grid
references are:
4 FIG, 6 FIG and 8 FIG GRID
REFERENCES

d. PRECISION OF GRID
REFERENCES
i. 4 fig +/-1000m /1km
ii. 6 fig +/- 100m
iii. 8 fig+/- 10m
Give 4 fig grid reference for
the following
What is the six figure
grid reference of the churches
&
Trig point
GRID and GRID
REFERENCES

e. Romers
Romers are a useful item of map
reading equipment that are used to
make the recording of grid
references a little easier. The
romers that are used by the Force
come on two different items of kit.

i. The light weight or “silva”

compass
GRID and GRID
REFERENCES
f. It is important to remember that
on the protractor there are two sets
of romers.
g. One is yards and the other is in
metres. You must remember that
you use the metres romer only, on
modern maps.
Protractor
Protractor
NORTH POINTS

a. Since the entire map

reading syllabus will continually refer
to the word “North” it is essential
that the map reader knows the
direction that is meant. This is
complicated further by the fact that
there are three different directions
that could be referred to as north,
these are as follows:
NORTH POINTS

i. TRUE NORTH: This is the

direction of the geographic north
pole and is very rarely used in
map reading
ii. MAGNETIC NORTH: This is
the direction of the magnetic north
pole, and it is the direction to which
the compass needle will point.
NORTH POINTS

iii. GRID NORTH: This is the

direction indicated by the direction
that the Eastings point to on the
map.
NORTH POINTS

Diagram showing the difference

between magnetic north and true
north
Questions??
?
LESSON 3
Outline
1. REPRESENTATION OF
INFORMATION ON THE MAP.
a. Colour codes
b. Elevation
c. Relief Information
2. MAP ORIENTATING WITH AND
WITHOUT A COMPASS
3. Questions
MAP COLOURS
a. 5 BASIC COLOURS ON A MAP
i. BLUE - All water features
ii. GREEN- (Vegetation; blue and
green area symbols may be combined
when necessary to represent, mangrove or
swamps).
iii. BROWN - contours, sand
iv. BLACK -All outlines, railways and
cultural details. However, may be used in
conjunction with other colours
v. RED- Roads (major) &
highways.
NB. There are exceptions to these
ELEVATION
a. A knowledge of map symbols, grids,
scale
and distance gives enough information to
identify two points, locate them, and
determine how long it would take to travel
between them. But what happens if there
should be a 300-foot cliff between the two
points?
The map user must also become proficient in
recognizing the various landforms and
irregularities of the earth’s surface and be
ELEVATION
b. Datum plane. This is a reference from
which vertical measurements are
taken. The datum plane for most maps
is mean or average sea level.
c. Elevation. This is defined as the
height (vertical distance) of an object
above or below a datum plane
(mean sea level).
d. Relief. Relief is the representation of
the shape and height of landforms and
the characterization of the earth’s
surface.
ELEVATION

e. A contour line is an
imaginary line drawn through all
points on the ground of the same
height above datum plane, usually
mean sea level.
f. The vertical distance between
adjacent contour lines is known as
the contour interval. (This interval is
given in the marginal information.)
ELEVATION
g. Starting at zero elevation, every
fifth contour line is drawn with a
heavier line. These are known as
index contours. Someplace along
each index contour the line is broken
and its elevation is given.
ELEVATION

h. The contour lines falling between

index contours are called
intermediate contours. They are
drawn with a finer line than the index
contours and usually do not have
their elevation given.
ELEVATION

j. Indicating points of known

elevation
i. Spot height/spot elevation
ii. Trigonometric station
iii Bench Mark
iv Contour lines
ELEVATION

i. Spot elevations / Spot heights: Spot

heights are located to indicate
ground height in ruling positions such
as tops of hills, bottoms of valleys,
ridge points and saddles.
ii. Trigonometric stations:
Trigonometric stations usually show
the height of ground level to the
nearest whole unit.
ELEVATION

iii. Bench Marks: Bench marks

appear only on large scale maps
and plans as a symbol with a height
value stated to one or two places of
decimal. The stated height is to the
actual mark – not to ground level.
However the marks are rarely more
than a metre above ground level.
ELEVATION
ELEVATION

iv. The spacing of the contour lines

indicates the nature of the slope.
Contour lines evenly spaced
and wide apart indicate a
uniform, gentle slope.
Contour lines evenly spaced
and close together indicate a
uniform, steep slope.
Contour lines closely spaced at
the top and widely spaced at
the bottom indicate a concave
slope.
Contour lines widely spaced at
the top and closely spaced at
the bottom indicate a convex
slope.
RELIEF INFOMATION

a. PROMINENT RELIEF
FEATURES
i. SPUR
ii. RE-ENTRANT
iii. RIDGE
iv. SADDLE
v. KNOLL
vi. CLIFF
RELIEF INFOMATION

i. SPUR A usually short,

continuously sloping line of higher
ground normally jutting out from the
side of a ridge. (A spur is a projection
of high ground from a ridge into a
valley)
ii. RE-ENTRANT A re-
entrant is the low ground between
two spurs.
RELIEF INFORMATION

iii. RIDGE A ridge occurs

where two slopes are inclined
towards each other to form a long
narrow hill-top. Contour lines
forming a ridge tend to be U-shaped
or V-shaped. The closed end of the
contour line points away from high
ground
RELIEF INFORMATION

iv. SADDLE A dip or low point

along a ridge. A saddle is not
necessarily the lower ground
between two hilltops; it may be
simply a dip or break along an
otherwise level ridge crest.
(A saddle is a ridge between two
summits)
RELIEF INFORMATION

v. KNOLL A knoll is a small

isolated hill on a plain or plateau.
vi. CLIFF A cliff is a vertical or
near vertical feature. It is an abrupt
change of the land with a slope so
steep that contour lines are very
close together and in some
instances, touching each other.
vii. VALLEY A valley is the low
ground between two ridges and
usually has a river or a stream
flowing along its lowest line or floor.
THE LIGHT WEIGHT
COMPASS
MAP ORIENTATING WITH
AND WITHOUT A COMPASS
a. Three (03) simple stages
with a compass:
i. Use your light weight
compass to locate magnetic north.
ii. Ensure the compass card
north pointer and the compass
needle both point to north.
iii. Place your compass on the
map ensuring that the orienting lines
run parallel to the easting's on the
MAP ORIENTATING WITH
AND WITHOUT A COMPASS
b. WITHOUT A COMPASS (The
Inspection Method
i. First have a general idea of
where you are then consider the
following points:
ii. DIRECTION
iii. DISTANCE
iv. NEARNESS
v. LINES
vi. RELIEF
Questions??
?
QUESTIONS?
Define the following:
 SPUR
 RE-ENTRANT
 RIDGE
 SADDLE
 KNOLL
 CLIFF
 VALLEY
LESSON 4

Outline
1. Introduction
2. METHODS OF EXPRESSING DIRECTIONS
3. The Cardinal Points
4. Bearing
5. Re-section
6. Questions
METHODS OF
EXPRESSING DIRECTIONS
a. DIRECTIONS are expressed in every
day life as left right, straight ahead, at the
corner etc. but the question arises “to the
left of what?” Military personnel require a
method of expressing a direction that is
accurate, adaptable for use in any area of
the world and has a common unit of
measure. So in map reading directions
are expressed as units of angular measure
and there are several systems used.
b. These systems are as follows:
The Cardinal Points (The
Points of the
Compass)
North, east, south and west are the
four (04) cardinal points of the
compass. There are in all 32 points
of the compass, but only 16 of them
are normally used for the description
of direction. There are four cardinal
points and twelve intermediate
points shown in the diagram below.
The Cardinal Points
1. The most commonly used units of angular
measure is the degree with its subdivisions of minutes
and seconds.
{i.e. 1 degree = 60 min }
therefore
{1 degree = 1 hour }
2. Another unit frequently used for military ops is
the mils (abbreviated ) with the mils system a circle is
not divided into 360 degrees but is now divided into
6400 mils. Therefore it is more accurate to use.
The definition of one mil is as follows:
GRID MAGNETIC ANGLE
(G.M.A)
 Definition:
 The difference
between the direction
of magnetic north and
grid north is called
 The Grid Magnetic
Angle (GMA)

NB The Grid Magnetic Angle is also known as the

Magnetic Variation. It is given this name because the
distance is not constant. It varies with time due to the
rotation of the earth around the sun.
 The magnetic variation is indicated in the marginal
information by a line showing grid north and another line
showing the magnetic north. Between the two lines the
magnetic variation on a given date is printed, to include
the annual change. (The direction of true north is also
given but can be ignored.)
 For example:
 - On your map the GMA is the magnetic variation which i
2 degrees 18` west.
 - So because the annual change is to the west (9’west)
then it must be getting larger.
 - So for every year since 1980 we have to add (9’).
 Therefore the current GMA for the map would be.
 22 x 9=198’
 198/60=3 degrees 18 min
 2 degrees 18` + 3 degrees
18`= 5 degrees 36
 Current GMA = 5 degrees
36’
BEARINGS
 Definition:
 A bearing is the angle (always
measured in a clockwise direction)
that a line makes with a defined zero
(0) line. The zero line is usually
north, unless some other zero line
stated.
BACK BEARINGS
 A bearing gives you the direction of a point P to
a point A. A back bearing gives the direction
from the point A back to the point of
observation P.
 {It can be considered as an “About Turn” i.e. a

complete turn through 180 degrees}

 Therefore:
 Back bearing
P A
Forward bearing
A P

 Example
 a) Forward Bearing = 100 degrees
 b) Back Bearing = 280 degrees

A simple way to calculate back
bearing is as follows:
If the initial bearing is less than 180
degrees; you add 180 degrees.
If the initial bearing is more than 180
degrees; you subtract 180 degrees.
Therefore:
100 + 180 = BB
100 + 180 = 280
Example:
FB = 290 BB = ??
 GRID AND MAGNETIC BEARINGS
 Before we go any further the difference
between grid and magnetic bearings must be
made clear.
 A magnetic bearing is taken with a compass on
the ground. This uses magnetic north and has
no place on the map.
 A grid bearing is taken from a map and uses
grid north. This cannot be put onto a compass
and used, because it does not use magnetic
north as a compass does.
 As a result of this how do we put a magnetic
bearing on a map? Also, how do we measure a
grid bearing on a map and the use it on a
compass?
 This is where the grid magnetic angle (GMA)
comes in to play:
 For example:
 If we have a Magnetic bearing of 50 degrees.(for
example we will say that the GMA is 1 degree for ease)
to change a magnetic bearing to a grid bearing we
simple take off the magnetic variation and therefore the
grid bearing is the 49 degrees.
 (This is the one that we then plan on the map.)
 Also if we have a Grid bearing of 50 degrees and we
wish to use it on a compass, we simply add the
magnetic variation and therefore the magnetic bearing
is 51 degrees. (i.e. using the same variation as above)
 NB There is rule that we use to remind ourselves
about the adding or subtracting of the magnetic
variation, when changing from magnetic bearing to grid
bearings and vice-versa.
 MAG TO GRID - GET RID GRID TO MAG -ADD
 This means that if we are changing from a magnetic
bearing to a grid bearing we
 get rid (subtract) of the magnetic variation, and if we
are changing from a grid bearing to a magnetic bearing
then we (add) the magnetic variation.
 TAKING A MAGNETIC BEARING
 There are three stages to taking a
magnetic bearing:
 1. Hold the compass so that it is flat in
the palm of your hand. Then point the
direction of travel line at the object that
you wish to get the bearing of.
 2. Rotate the compass card until the
north arrow is underneath the compass
needle.
 (i.e. between the two (02) dots)
 3. To get the bearing all we do is read it
from the degree circle at the index line.
 MEASURING A GRID BEARING
 There are three stages to measuring a
Grid bearing:
 1. Place the edge of the compass along
the line (on the map) that you wish to
take the bearing of.
 NB Ensure the direction of travel arrow /
line is heading in the correct direction
 2. Turn the compass card until the north
arrow points directly up the map ( to grid
north) Also ensuring that the orienting
lines run parallel to the easting on the
map.
 3. To get the bearing you simply read it
PLOTTING A MAGNETIC BEARING ON A
MAP
AS A GRID BEARING
 When plotting a Magnetic Bearing (MB) as a Grid
Bearing (GB) we must take into consideration the Grid
Magnetic Angle (GMA).
 There are five (05) stages to plotting a MB as a GB.
 1. Take the magnetic bearing to a known position.
 2. Convert the MB to GB
 NB ( mag to grid get
rid )
 3. Place the value of the grid bearing at the index
line corresponding with the direction of travel arrow.
 4. Place the edge of the compass at your position
 5. Now rotate the entire compass (or the map) until
the orienting lines are parallel to the easting (the grid
north lines)
 Example
 MB = 80 degrees
 GMA = 2 degrees
 The steps are as follows:
 1. Convert MB to GB( mag to grid get rid )
 Therefore, MB - GMA =?
 80 - 02 = 78 degrees
 2. Rotate the compass card until 78 degrees is at
the index line.
 3. Place the compass on the map keeping the
orienting lines parallel with the easting (north south
line) now slide compass over the map until one edge
of the base plate is on your position.
 4. Draw a pencil line from your position in “ direction
of travel”.
 5. The prominent feature that you took your initial
bearing of should be found somewhere along that line
on the map.
 NB Remember to ignore the compass needle as
you are dealing with grid bearings.
RE-SECTION

 Definition:
 The location of the user’s unknown
position by sighting on two or three
known features is called a re-
section.
 This simple and accurate method of
position finding consists of five (05)
stages.
Stages are as follows:
 1) Orient the map using the compass. (As shown
previously)
 2) Locate two or three known positions on the
ground and mark them on the map.
 3) Measure the magnetic bearing to a known
position; convert to grid bearing.
 4) Change the grid bearing to a back bearing and
draw a line on the map from the known position back
toward your unknown position.
 5) Repeat (3) and (4) above for a second known
position.
 For a check on your accuracy, repeat (3) and (4) above
for a second known position.
 The intersection of the lines is your location.
 NB Using three lines, a triangle of error may be formed.
Questions??
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