Basic Principle of MRI

Explaining Basic principles

1. Properties of atoms
2. Their interaction with magnetic fields
Atom
• All things are made up of atoms, including us

• Atoms are organized in molecules

• Two or more atoms arranged together

• The most abundant atom in the body is Hydrogen

• Most commonly found in water (H,O) and fat (carbon
and hydrogen combination)
Atomic Structure

• Central nucleus and orbiting electrons

• Nucleus is VERY small

• One millionth of a billionth of the total volume of an atom, yet
contains all the atom's mass

• Mass combination of nucleons

• Subdivided into protons and neutrons
Atom Characterization
• Atoms are characterized in TWO WAYS
1. Atomic number
• The sum of the protons within the nucleus
• The atomic number gives the atom its chemical identity
2. Mass number
• Sum of protons and neutrons
• Usually balanced, so mass number is even

However, some are slightly more or fewer neutrons than

protons= Isotopes (VERY IMPORTANT IN MRI)
Atom

• Protons - Positively charged

• Neutrons - No net (neutral) charge
• Electrons - Negatively charged
• Atoms are electrically stable if # of electrons equal # of protons
• Balance sometimes altered by applying external energy to knock
out electrons from the atom
• Causes a deficit in the # of electrons compared with protons
Causes electrical instability
These atoms are called IONS
Motion in the Atom
• Spin up 3 Types of Motion within atom:

1. Electrons spinning on their own axis

2. Electrons orbiting the nucleus
3. The nucleus itself spinning about its own axis
Motion in the Atom

• Even mass # particles - ½ spin in one direction and ½ in the

other
Therefore, the nucleus has NO NET SPIN
• Odd mass # particles (Isotopes) - # of neutrons is slightly more
or less # of protons
Spin directions are NOT EQUAL AND OPPOSITE
Therefore, nucleus has a NET SPIN = ANGULAR
MOMENTUM
These nuclei are known as MR Active Nuclei
MRI active Nucleus
Hydrogen Nucleus
• Isotope of Hydrogen nucleus – protium
THE MR active nucleus used in clinical MRI
• Used in clinical MR because of its sheer abundance in
the human body
• Contains a single proton
• Due to solitary proton, has a large magnetic moment
Tiny Hydrogen Magnets

• Faraday's law of EM induction states that a

moving charge will create a magnetic field
• The hydrogen nucleus has a single proton
spinning on its own axis
• Therefore, it will act as a small magnet or a dipole
Magnetic Dipoles

• Magnet of each hydrogen nucleus has a north and

south pole of equal strength (magnetic dipole)
• This north south axis is represented by a magnetic
moment
• The magnetic moment of each nucleus has vector
properties size and direction and one
denoted by an arrow
Vector
• Each magnetic moment has vector properties
Size and Direction, denoted by an arrow
• Direction - designates direction of magnetic moment
• Length (Magnitude) - designates the size of magnetic moment
• Can also be broken down into components
Proton Alignment Outside Bo
• Protons outside the external field are randomly oriented
Two Kinds of Alignment Inside Bo

• Magnetic moments of Hydrogen are

normally randomly oriented
• When exposed to an external magnetic
field (Bo) they will be influenced by it in
one of two ways
• They align with the field or
against the field
Classical (direction) Theory
• Parallel and anti-parallel
• Nuclei that align with the field are parallel
• Nuclei that align against the field are anti-parallel
Quantum (energy level) Theory
• High and Low energy
• It takes more energy to line up against the external field
• More nuclei aligned in the low energy state or parallel (spin up)
• Nuclei that are in the high energy state are anti-parallel (spin down)
Alignment
• Influenced by two things:
1. Strength of the external magnetic field
2. Thermal energy of the nuclei - determined by patient's
temperature (cannot control) - THERMAL EQUILIBRIUM
• Low energy nuclei - not enough energy to oppose Bo High
energy nuclei - do have enough to oppose Bo
• As Bo increases, fewer nuclei have enough energy to oppose
• After alignment, there are always a few more spins
parallel to the Bo
Thermal Equilibrium
• At any moment in time, there are a greater proportion of spins with their
magnetic moments aligned in the same direction as Bo than against it .
• More spin-up, low-energy than spin-down, high- energy spin’s.
• Small excess in the direction that produces a NMV
NMV (Net Magnetization Vector)
Alignment
• As Bo gets stronger, fewer nuclei have the energy to
align against the external field
• So, more nuclei align anti-parallel to Bo
• This results in a larger NMV or Mo
• Larger NMV-more signal from the patient
What Is Precession?
• Each hydrogen nucleus is spinning on its axis .The influence of Bo
produces an additional spin or wobble of the magnetic moments
of hydrogen around Bo. This secondary spin is called precession .
• Precessional path: the circular path that the magnetic moments
follow around Bo
• Precessional frequency: the speed at which the magnetic
moments are precessing around Bo (measured in MHz)

• PRECESSIONAL FREQUENCY IS DIRECTLY AFFECTED BY

EXTERNAL FIELD STRENGTH
The Larmor Equation
• To determine the precessional frequency, or Larmor frequency use
the Larmor equation

Wo= Bo x λ

• wo- precessional frequency (MHz)

• y (or λ)-gyromagnetic ratio (constant)
• Bo is the magnetic field strength of the magnet
The Gyromagnetic Ratio
• Expresses the relationship of the nuclear spin (angular momentum) and
magnetic moment of each nucleus within the external field
• Different nuclei have a different gyromagnetic ratios
• The gyromagnetic ratio is a constant expressed as the precessional
frequency of nuclei at 1T . The unit y (or λ) is measured in MHz/T
• The gyromagnetic ratio of Hydrogen @ 1T is 42.58 MHz/T
• 0.5T-21.28 MHz
• 1.5T-63.86 MHz
• 3.0T-127.68 MHz
• 5.OT-212.80 MHz
The Larmor equation tells us two important facts:

1. All MR active nuclei have their own gyromagnetic constant so that when
they are exposed to the same field strength, they precess at different
frequencies, i.e. hydrogen precesses at a different frequency to either
fluorine or carbon, which are also MR active nuclei.
• This allows us to specifically image hydrogen and ignore the other MR
active nuclei in the body.

2. As the gyromagnetic ratio is a constant of proportionality, B0 is

proportional to the Larmor frequency. Therefore if B0 increases, the Larmor
frequency increases and vice versa.
Resonance
• Resonance is a phenomenon that occurs when an object is exposed to an
oscillating perturbation that has a frequency close to its own natural
frequency of oscillation.
• When a nucleus is exposed to an external perturbation that has an
oscillation similar to its own natural frequency, the nucleus gains energy
from the external force.
• The nucleus gains energy and resonates
• if the energy is delivered at exactly the same precessional frequency.
• If energy is delivered at a different frequency to that of the Larmor frequency of the
nucleus, resonance does not occur.
Radio frequency (RF)
• Energy at the precessional frequency of hydrogen at all field strengths in
clinical MRI corresponds to the radio frequency (RF) band of the
electromagnetic spectrum .

• For resonance of hydrogen to occur, an RF pulse of energy at exactly the

Larmor frequency of hydrogen must be applied.

• Other MR active nuclei that have aligned with Bo do not resonate, because
their precessional frequencies are different to that of hydrogen. This is
because their gyromagnetic ratios are different to that of hydrogen
The results of resonance
• One of the results of resonance is that the NMV moves out of alignment
away from Bo .
• This occurs because some of the low-energy nuclei are given enough
energy via resonance to join the high- energy population.
• As the NMV reflects the balance between the low and high-energy
populations, resonance causes the NMV to no longer lie parallel to Bo but
at an angle to it.
• The angle to which the NMV moves out of alignment is called the flip
angle. The magnitude of the flip angle depends on the amplitude and
duration of the RF pulse .Usually the flip angle is of 90°
Flip Angle
• Magnitude of flip angle depends on AMPLITUDE and DURATION of RF
pulse.
• Flip angle - 90° (usually)
• M₂ - Longitudinal plane
• Plane 90° to M₂-Transverse plane Mxy
• The other result of resonance is that the magnetic moments of hydrogen
nuclei move into phase with each other.

• Phase is the position of each magnetic moment on the precessional path

around B0 .
• Magnetic moments that are in phase (or coherent ) are in the same place on
the precessional path around B0 at any given time.
• Magnetic moments that are out of phase (or incoherent ) are not in the same
place on the precessional path.
• When resonance occurs, all the magnetic moments move to the same position
on the precessional path and are then in phase
The MR Signal
• As a result of resonance, in phase or coherent magnetization precesses at the
Larmor frequency in the transverse plane.
• Faraday's law of electromagnetic induction states that if a receiver coil or any
conductive loop is placed in the area of a moving magnetic field, the
magnetization precessing in the transverse plane, a voltage is induced in this
receiver coil. The MR signal is produced when coherent (in phase) magnetization
cuts across the coil.
• Therefore the coherent moving transverse magnetization produces magnetic
field fluctuations inside the coil that induce an electrical voltage in the coil. This
voltage constitutes the MR signal. The frequency of the signal is the same as the
Larmor frequency-the magnitude of the signal depends on the amount of
magnetization present in the transverse plane
The free induction decay signal (FID)

• When the RF pulse is switched off, the NMV is again influenced by B, and it tries
to realign with it. To do so, the hydrogen nuclei must lose the energy given to
them by the RF pulse. The process by which hydrogen loses this energy is called
relaxation. As relaxation occurs, the NMV returns to realign with B, because
some of the high-energy nuclei return to the low-energy population and align
their magnetic moments in the spin-up direction.
• The amount of magnetization in the longitudinal plane gradually increases this is
called recovery.
• At the same time, but independently, the amount of magnetization in the
transverse plane gradually decreases - this is called decay.
• As the magnitude of transverse magnetization decreases, so does the magnitude
of the voltage induced in the receiver coil. The induction of reduced signal is
called the free induction decay (FID) signal.
Relaxation
• During relaxation hydrogen nuclei give up absorbed RF energy and the
NMV returns to B. At the same time, but independently, the magnetic
moments of hydrogen lose coherency due to dephasing. Relaxation results
in recovery of magnetization in the longitudinal plane and decay of
magnetization in the transverse plane.
• The recovery of longitudinal magnetization is caused by a process termed
T1 recovery.
• The decay of transverse magnetization is caused by a
process termed T2 decay
T1 recovery
• T1 recovery is caused by the nuclei giving up their energy to the
surrounding environment or lattice, and it is termed spin lattice
relaxation.
• Energy released to the surrounding lattice causes the magnetic moments
of nuclei to recover their longitudinal magnetization (magnetization in
the longitudinal plane).
• The rate of recovery is an exponential process, with a recovery time
constant called the T1 relaxation time. This is the time it takes 63% of the
longitudinal magnetization to recover in the tissue
T2 decay
• T2 decay is caused by the magnetic fields of neighboring nuclei
interacting with each other.
• It is termed spin-spin relaxation and results in decay or loss of
coherent transverse magnetization (magnetization in the transverse
plane).
• The rate of decay is also an exponential process, so that the T2
relaxation time of a tissue is its time constant of decay. It is the time it
takes 63% of the transverse magnetization to be lost (37% remains)
Pulse Timing Parameters
• A very simplified pulse sequence is a combination of RF pulses, signals
and intervening periods of recovery .It is important to note that a
pulse sequence merely shows separate timing parameters used in
more complicated sequences, i.e. TR and TE
Repetition Time (TR)
• The repetition time (TR) is the time from the application of one RF pulse to
the application of the next RF pulse for each slice and is measured in
milliseconds ( ms ).

• The TR determines the amount of longitudinal relaxation that is allowed to

occur between the end of one RF pulse and the application of the next.

• TR thus determines the amount of T1 relaxation that has occurred when

the signal is read
Echo Time (TE)
• The echo time (TE) is the time from the application of the RF pulse to
the peak of the signal induced in the coil and is also measured in ms.

• The TE determines how much decay of transverse magnetization is

allowed to occur. TE thus controls the amount of T2 relaxation that has
occurred when the signal is read.
Reference

• MRI In Practice