Lesson 1 : Physical Quantities &

S.I. Units
1. Physical quantities and units
1.1 Physical quantities
Learning outcomes

1 understand that all physical quantities consist of a numerical magnitude and a unit

2 make reasonable estimates of physical quantities included within the syllabus

1.2 S.I Units

1 recall the following SI base quantities and their units: mass (kg), length (m), time (s),
current (A),temperature (K)

2 express derived units as products or quotients of the SI base units and use the
derived units for quantities listed in this syllabus as appropriate

3 use SI base units to check the homogeneity of physical equations

recall and use the following prefixes and their symbols to indicate decimal
4 submultiples or multiples of both base and derived units: pico (p), nano (n), micro (μ),
milli (m), centi (c), deci (d), kilo (k), mega (M),giga (G), tera (T)
Starter: List as many physical quantities as you
can in 2minutes.
What do we mean when we say the
Magnitude of a physical quantity?
S.I Units.
The globally-agreed system of measurement units was formally named the
'International System of Units' (SI) in 1960. The SI covers units for every type of
measurement, but at the heart of the SI is a set of seven units known as the
‘base units’.
S.I Units.
The globally-agreed system of measurement units was formally named the
'International System of Units' (SI) in 1960. The SI covers units for every type of
measurement, but at the heart of the SI is a set of seven units known as the
‘base units’.
Derived units
Units that are combinations of the base units SI system

Eg: Can you determine the derived units for,

Area = length x width Power, Voltage?
Area = metres x metres
Area = metres2 or m2

Derived unit
Homogeniety of Equations
Equations with the same base units on each side are homogenous
[2]
Prefixes
Prefixes
Lesson 2 :
Errors & uncertainty
1. Physical quantities and units
1.3 Errors & Uncertainty

Learning outcomes

1 understand and explain the effects of systematic errors (including zero

errors) and random errors in measurements

2 understand the distinction between precision and accuracy

3 assess the uncertainty in a derived quantity by simple addition of absolute

or percentage uncertainties
Systematic Errors

These are errors which tend

to shift all measurements in
a systematic way, so their
mean value is displaced.

E.g. A Vernier calliper may

not line up with zero.
Random Errors
These are errors which tend to arise from an unknown and unpredictable
variation in conditions.

Random errors have non-consistent size and errors.

E.g. measuring the time

taken for a car to roll
down a ramp. There may
be reaction time errors if
using stop watches or if
the car starts from
different heights each
time. The slope may not
be perfectly smooth and
thus may affect the
motion down the slope
differently each time.
Precision & Accuracy
Accuracy:
This is a measure of how close a reading is to the true value of the quantity

Precision:
• A precise measurement is one made several times, giving the same or
very similar set of values.
• The smallest change in value that can be measured by an instrument or
an operator. Eg for a metre ruler the smallest measurement is 1mm
Can you match the pics to the correct
descriptions?
Absolute uncertainties
If a metre ruler can be precise only to 1mm then if a reading lies in
between 2 points then we are uncertain of the true value. We are
uncertain by 1mm therefore and therefore a metre ruler would have an
absolute uncertainty of ±1mm

What is the absolute uncertainty

in the voltmeter shown?

_________________
Percentage uncertainty

UNCERTAINTY=Resolution =  0.2V

𝑹𝒆𝒔𝒐𝒍𝒖𝒕𝒊𝒐𝒏
% 𝒖𝒏𝒄𝒆𝒓𝒕𝒂𝒊𝒏𝒕𝒚 = 𝒙 𝟏𝟎𝟎
𝑶𝒓𝒊𝒈𝒊𝒏𝒂𝒍 𝒓𝒆𝒂𝒅𝒊𝒏𝒈

Above %=
example:

% = 1.6%
Calculating absolute uncertainties
when you have repeat values

𝑟𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑢𝑙𝑡𝑠
𝑈𝑛𝑐𝑒𝑟𝑡𝑎𝑖𝑛𝑡𝑦=
2

5.17 −5.00
𝑈𝑛𝑐𝑒𝑟𝑡𝑎𝑖𝑛𝑡𝑦= =± 𝟎 .𝟎𝟗
2
h𝑎𝑙𝑓 𝑡h𝑒 𝑟𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑢𝑙𝑡𝑠
% 𝑈𝑛𝑐𝑒𝑟𝑡𝑎𝑖𝑛𝑡𝑦= 𝑥 100
𝑎𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑔𝑒 𝑟𝑒𝑎𝑑𝑖𝑛𝑔

0.09
% 𝑈𝑛𝑐𝑒𝑟𝑡𝑎𝑖𝑛𝑡𝑦= 𝑥 100=𝟏 . 𝟖 %
5.09
Finding absolute uncertainty of natural logs
Combining absolute uncertainties: same units
Example. Find the area and its associated uncertainty:

Since AREA = Length x Width

Width = 4  0.1cm

And both width and length have the

same units we can simply ADD the
uncertainties together

Thus AREA = (4x15)  ( 0.1 +0.1)cm

AREA = 60  0.2cm

Length = 15  0.1cm

• When Multiplying/dividing  ADD UNCERTAINTIES

• When Adding/Subtracting  ADD UNCERTAINTIES
In general : • Eg An UNCERTAINTY x n
Combining absolute uncertainties: Different units
Example. Find the Momentum and its associated uncertainty:

Mass = 0.40  0.01kg Since Moment = Mass x Velocity

And both mass and velocity have the different units, we

cannot simply add their associated uncertainties.
We must first find the % uncertainties and then the
basic rules of combining uncertainties apply (see
previous slide).Ie we can simply ADD the uncertainties
together.
Velocity = 15  2m/s

% uncertainty in Mass % uncertainty in Speed % uncertainty in Momentum

Lesson 3: Scalars & Vectors
1. Physical quantities and units
1.4 Scalars & vectors
Learning outcomes
understand the difference between scalar and vector quantities and give
1 examples of scalar and vector quantities included in the syllabus

2 add and subtract coplanar vectors

3 represent a vector as two perpendicular components

Starter: Definitions

What is a ‘scalar’ quantity?

What is a ‘vector’ quantity?

Starter: Definitions

What is a ‘scalar’ quantity?

A scalar is a physical quantity which only has a
magnitude (size), NOT a direction.

What is a ‘vector’ quantity?

A vector is a physical quantity which has BOTH a
magnitude and a direction.

• Can you think of any examples of scalars and

vectors?
LO: State the difference between scalars and vectors. Explain how we add and resolve vectors.

Grouping scalars and vectors

• Group these quantities into scalar and vector groups:

Energy Distance Force

Displacement Speed Velocity

Acceleration Pressure Mass

Weight Density Momentum

Volume Temperature Electric

current
LO: State the difference between scalars and vectors. Explain how we add and resolve vectors.

Grouping scalars and vectors

• Group these quantities into scalar and vector groups:

Scalars: Vectors
LO: State the difference between scalars and vectors. Explain how we add and resolve vectors.

Grouping scalars and vectors

• Group these quantities into scalar and vector groups:

Scalars: Vectors:
Energy Force
Distance Displacement
Speed Velocity
Pressure Acceleration
Mass Weight
Density Momentum
Volume Electric current
Temperature
LO: State the difference between scalars and vectors. Explain how we add and resolve vectors.

Representing vectors
• All vectors can be represented by arrows
• The length of the arrow shows the magnitude of the
vector quantity
• The direction of the arrow gives the direction of the
vector. A positive direction is from left to right and
negative is from right to left.

• Displacement: can be represented as an arrow

A cyclist
from the first point to the second point on a map. travelled 50
Length must be proportional to distance. km from point
• Velocity: represented as an arrow of length in A to point B in
proportion to the speed and pointing in the an westerly
direction of motion. direction
• Force and Acceleration: represented by an arrow
in correct direction and the length in proportion to
their magnitude.
Example

A cyclist
travelled 50
Scale 1 big box = 10Km km from point
A to point B in
an westerly
direction

B A
LO: State the difference between scalars and vectors. Explain how we add and resolve vectors.

Adding parallel vectors

• What do you get if you add 4 kg to 4kg?
This always gives you 8 kg, because mass is a scalar

• How about if you add 4 N to 4 N?

Sometimes this will give you 8 N, but sometimes it will give you 0 N.
Why do you think this is?

Draw a scale diagram, with 1cm = 1 ms-1, of:

1. An airport conveyer belt is travelling from left to right at a velocity of 1.50

ms-1. What is the resultant velocity of a man running at 3.40ms-1 the
opposite way along the airport conveyor belt?

2. What is the resultant velocity of a man walking at 2.00 ms-1 in the same
direction of travel as an airport conveyor belt travelling at 1.50ms-1
LO: State the difference between scalars and vectors. Explain how we add and resolve vectors.

Adding parallel vectors

• What do you get if you add 4 kg to 4kg?
• This always gives you 8 kg, because mass is a scalar

• How about if you add 4 N to 4 N?

• Sometimes this will give you 8 N, but sometimes it will give you 0 N.
• Why do you think this is?

Draw a scale diagram, with 1cm = 1 ms-1, of:

1. An airport conveyer belt is travelling from left to right at a velocity of 1.50

ms . What is the resultant velocity of a man running at 3.40 ms-1 the opposite way
-1

along the airport conveyor belt?

1.50 – 3.40 = - 1.90 ms-1

2. What is the resultant velocity of a man walking at 2.00 ms-1 in the same
direction of travel as an airport conveyor belt travelling at 1.50 ms-1

1.50 + 2.00 = 3.50 ms-1

But vectors aren’t always parallel!!!
Combining vectors: The triangle rule
This rule can be applied whenever one vector acts followed by another.

Example:
• A man walks 30m due east and
then walks 50m south?

Find both Displacement & direction

Test yourself:
Q: you walk 8km south east and then 12km due west.
a) Draw a vector diagram showing the route. Use your diagram
to find the total displacement & direction. (remember to
give the scale on your diagram)

b) Calculate the resultant displacement. Show your working

clearly
Combining vectors: The Parallelogram rule
This rule can be applied whenever vectors act at the same time or from the
same point another.

Example:
• A plane travels east at 60ms-1
with wind traveling in a northerly
Direction at 5ms-1 .

Find resultant Velocity & direction

Combining vectors: The Parallelogram rule
This rule can be applied whenever vectors act at the same time or from the
same point another.

Example:
• A plane travels east at 60ms-1
with wind traveling in a northerly
Direction at 10ms-1 .

Find resultant Velocity & direction

NOTE: 1box=5m/s
Resolving Vectors
Consider a diagonal Distance (s):

sy=64.2m S=100m

This distance is given by:

sy = s x sin θ F
F1

θ
θ Sx= 76.6m
F2
This force is given by:
sx = s x cos θ
LO: State the difference between scalars and vectors. Explain how we add and resolve vectors.

Practice questions
Relative velocities and displacement
In these questions, you have to find the velocity and the displacement of a
bird relative to the ground, when it is actually flying relative to the wind.

Flying in a side wind

A bird flies at a steady speed of 3 m s–1 through the air. It is pointing in the
direction due north. However, there is a wind blowing from west to east at a
speed of 2 m s–1.

1. What is the velocity of the bird relative to the ground?

2. What is the displacement of the bird, relative to its starting point,

after it has flown for 20 seconds?

3. In what direction should the bird point if it is to travel in a northerly

direction?
Answers
1. The magnitude of the resultant velocity is found using Pythagoras'
theorem as the two vectors to be added are at right angles.
Hence: magnitude of velocity relative to the ground
= 3.6 ms-1
The direction is found by drawing a vector diagram or using trigonometry.
It is 33.7° due East of North.

2. After 20 s, the displacement of the bird is found from displacement =

velocity x time. The direction of displacement is as for velocity if the velocity
is constant. The magnitude of the displacement is simply 3.6 m s–1 x 20 s = 72
m.

3. To fly due north, the bird has to fly in such a direction that it has a
component of its velocity that cancels out the velocity of the wind. This
means that it has to have a component of velocity equal to 2 m s–1 west.
Lesson 4: Equations of motion
2. Kinematics
2.1 Equations of motion
Learning outcomes
1 define and use distance, displacement, speed, velocity and acceleration

use graphical methods to represent distance, displacement, speed, velocity

2 and acceleration

3 determine displacement from the area under a velocity–time graph

4 determine velocity using the gradient of a displacement–time graph

5 determine acceleration using the gradient of a velocity–time graph

derive, from the definitions of velocity and acceleration, equations that

6 represent uniformly accelerated motion in a straight line
solve problems using equations that represent uniformly accelerated motion
7 in a straight line, including the motion of bodies falling in a uniform
gravitational field without air resistance
Mechanics Recall

Variable Definition

Distance

Displacement

Speed

Velocity

Acceleration
Recall: Distance-Time Graphs

How can we find the speed

from a dist-time graph?
________________

Label on the graph where

the object is…
a) …traveling the fastest
b) …Traveling the slowest
c) …Stationary
Displacement-Time graphs
• This is different to a distance-time graph as it monitors how far an object is
from its origin over time.

Eg: A person walks 20m

20
(at constant speed) in 10s.
They then stop for 5 seconds
and then turn around and walk
back to the starting point, again
at constant speed in a further 10s. 10
Plot a Displacement-Time
graph for the person

0 5 10 15 20 25
Plot a Displacement-time
graph which shows the
following?
a) Constant Acceleration
b) Increasing Acceleration
c) Fast constant speed
d) Slow constant speed
e) Stationary

(use different colours for

different graphs and label)
A closer look at motion graphs
(Consider a ball released from a height )
Displacement

Time
A closer look at motion graphs
Consider a ball released from a height :

Displacement

Time
Recall: Velocity-Time Graphs
A closer look at motion graphs
Consider a ball released from a height (Ignore Air resistance!)

Velocity

Time
A closer look at motion graphs
Consider a ball released from a height (Ignore Air resistance!)

Velocity

Time
Extension: Can you plot a graph of Accel Vs Time?
Consider a ball released from a height (Ignore Air resistance!)

Acceleration

Time
Extension: Can you plot a graph of Accel Vs Time?
Consider a ball released from a height (ignore air resistance):
Acceleration

Time
Gradient of V-T graph
v

From the equation above for gradient, we can see that it is equal to the
change in the velocity with respect to time which is also the definition of
acceleration.


 Acceleration = (v-u) / t  v = u + at Eq: 1

Area under V-t graph (constant velocity)

To find the area under the graph shown is:

area = height x base

area = velocity x time

However, recall that  Distance = Velocity x time

 Area under VT graph = Total distance travelled

Area under V-t graph (constant acceln)
To find the area under the graph shown:

Notes shape is a trapezium

area = ½ (A+B) x base

area = ½ (u + v) x time

Since Area under VT graph = Total distance travelled

We can say S = ½ (u + v) x t Eq: 2

SUVAT SUMMARY

REMEMBER: SUVAT eq’s can only be used when

*dealing with constant acceleration
*motion in a straight line
How to solve SUVAT problems
Q: A car is travelling at 50ms-1 before slamming on the breaks and
coming to rest 3.5s later.
A) Calculate the acceleration of the car.
B) Calculate the distance travelled during this braking?

It is good practice for

motion questions to write s=
down the SUVAT down u=
the side and write down all
knowns and unknowns. v=
a=
Make sure you make note
of correct sign for each value.
t=
Is it +ve or –ve?

To solve motion problems, you will

need to know just 3 of the 5 quantities
used. Then refer to the equations and
choose one which contains the 3 known
quantities and the quantity to be found.
Then solve as normal
Lesson 5: Equations of
motion Cont…
2. Kinematics
2.1. Equations of motion
Learning outcomes

8 describe an experiment to determine the acceleration of free fall using a

falling object

9 describe and explain motion due to a uniform velocity in one direction and a
uniform acceleration in a perpendicular direction
Experiment: Measuring g using electronic
timer
Method:

Results table:
Uncertainties
Extension Question
Projectiles
A projectile is an object that has been launched with an initial
velocity u. Whilst air resistance is a factor we need to consider in
calculations, we will ignore the effects of air resistance (unless
otherwise stated) and only consider the force due to gravity.
Ie. Gravitational acceleration.
Let us consider purely vertical motion of projectiles.

Example:
A ball is thrown vertically upwards with a velocity of 3.5ms-1
• A)Find the maximum height reached
• B)Find the time taken to reach maximum height.

Note: at first glance it looks like I have not provided enough information, however you are
expected to read it understand certain things. Eg. What is the velocity at max. height? What
is the acceleration of a projectile In the vertical direction?

a) VERTICAL MOTION

s=
u=
v=
a=
t=
Resolving Vectors
Projectiles often travel in both the X and Y directions and therefore we need to resolve the
velocities into both X and Y directions to solve SUVAT eq’s

Uy = U sin θ

Ux = U cos θ
Independent motion

Consider a yellow ball launched

horizontally with velocity V and a
pink ball dropped from rest. We can
see that the motion vertically and
horizontally are different. Its vertical
motion has initial Velocity

However, we can see quite clearly

that they both hit the ground at the
same time
Conclusion
Vertical Motion
• From the image we can see that both balls
accelerate downwards at the same rate
despite one on the left being projected
horizontally. This acceleration is to caused
by the acceleration due to Gravity which is
acting downwards therefore

acceleration= -9.8ms-2

Note: even if a ball is thrown UPWARDS, a projectile will still accelerate due to gravity
ie. -9.8ms-2
Conclusion
Horizontal Motion
• Take note that the camera that took the
photos took them at regular intervals. If you
look at the horizontal projectile and look at
the horizontal distance travelled after each
picture you can see that it seems to be
travelling at constant velocity. This makes
sense as we ignore air resistance.

There are no other horizontal forces acting on the

projectile thus there is no acceleration in
x-direction. Distance travelled in x-
direction at regular intervals

• Note that motion in both the horizontal and vertical are independent of
one another.
• The time of flight of both particles are the same as can be seen. Ie. Both
balls hit the ground at the same time
How to solve parabolic problems.
Suppose we have a projectile
with an initial velocity u, at an
angle θ .

We need to look at both the

horizontal and vertical
separately.

We must therefore resolve

the velocities into the
relevant components.

Horizontal velocity: u cosθ

Vertical velocity: u sinθ

Once you have done this we

can simply solve as normal.
Example 1
A football player kicks a ball with a
velocity of 9ms-1 at an angle of 32 ̊ to
the horizontal.
Find:
a) The total time of the flight
b) The Horizontal distance travelled

(Remember the time of a ball in flight regardless

of whether horizontal or vertical will always be the
same)
a) Let us look at the objects VERTICAL MOTION b) HORIZONTAL MOTION

s= s=
u= u=
v= v=
a= a=
t= t=
Example 2
A canon from the top of a cliff fires a
projectile horizontally with an initial
velocity of 75ms-1. The projectile hits
the ground below 6s later.
Find:
a) The height of the cliff
b) The Horizontal distance travelled

a) VERTICAL MOTION b) HORIZONTAL MOTION

s= s=
u= u=
v= v=
a= a=
t= t=
Example 2 continued…..
Find:
c) The velocity and direction of the
ball as it impacts the ground
(hint: consider first the velocity of the
ball on impact vertically )

c) ∴ VERTICAL MOTION (To find the direction, simply use the

Parallelogram method of vectors.!)
s=
u=
v= ?
a=
t=
Example 3

/s
m
15
U=
A player shoots a ball at 15m/s at 40̊ to 40̊
horizontal. The net is 3m high and the S=?
ball is shot from 1.5m above the ground.

H=3m
H=1.5m
How far away from the net should he
stand?

a) VERTICAL MOTION b) HORIZONTAL MOTION

s= s=
u= u=
v= v=
a= a=
t= t=
Lesson 6: Newton’s 1st & 2nd
3. Dynamics
3.1 Momentum and Newton’s laws of motion

Learning outcomes
understand that mass is the property of an object that resists change in
1 motion

recall F = ma and solve problems using it, understanding that acceleration

2 and resultant force are always in the same direction
Mass & Weight
Recall from iGCSE: Mass, m (S.I. units Kg)- At iGCSE we have learnt that
the mass at of an object is a measure of how much ‘stuff’ or particles there
are in an object.
However, it is more correct to think of mass in terms of its inertia.

Inertia is a measure of an
objects resistance to change
of motion. Ie. An object with
high inertia will require a large
force to move/stop and thus is
said to have a large mass and
vice versa. We can observe
this from Newton’s 2nd law
Newtons 1st law
An object will either stay at rest or move with constant
velocity unless acted upon by unbalanced forces.

Box at rest as weight

and Normal reaction
force are balanced
Newton’s 2nd law
Recall from GCSE

An objects acceleration is directly proportional to the

resultant force applied to it and will accelerate in the
same direction of the resultant force.

or
Units of force: Newtons (N). 1N is equal to the force that

ΣF = ma would give a mass of one kilogram an acceleration of one

metre per second per second,
Example 1: (towing a trailer)
A car of mass 800kg is towing a trailer of
mass 200kg. If the car is accelerating at
2ms2 calculate:

a) The force required

b) The tension in the towbar.

a) b)
Example 2: (Rocket problems)
A rocket of mass 550kg has an acceleration of 4.2ms-2 .

a)Find the thrust of the engine from the rocket.

b)In Reality the acceleration will be higher than that
stated in the question. Why?

a)

b)
Example 3: (Lift problems)
A lift of mass 650kg is moving downwards and then decelerates at
at 1.5ms-2

Calculate the tension in the cable.

(this is not as simple as it may seem at first glance. The trick here
is to consider whether the acceleration of 1.5ms-2 is positive or negative.)

GOLDEN RULE:
Whether the acceleration is -/+ will depend on whether the
NUMBER that representsVELOCITY is getting LARGER or
SMALLER. (ie. If the NUMBER gets larger then it must have a
+acceleration and vice versa
More on Lift problems
Why does one feel Lighter or heavier in a lift depending on whether they
are decelerating/accelerating up or downwards?
More on Lift problems
Why does one feel Lighter or heavier in a lift depending on whether they
are decelerating/accelerating up or downwards?

A person only feels their

weight due to a reaction force
acting on them in the
opposite direction to their
weight. Therefore, it stands to
reason that if the reaction
force is low, then the person
will feel less weight
Lesson 7: Momentum and Newton’s laws
of motion
3. Dynamics
3.1 Momentum and Newton’s laws of motion

Learning outcomes
define and use linear momentum as the product of mass and
3
velocity

4 define and use force as rate of change of momentum

5 state and apply each of Newton’s laws of motion

Momentum
Any object with mass and is in motion is said to have momentum

Momentum = mass x velocity

(kgms-1) (kg) (ms-1)

or

p = mv
Momentum and Newtons 2nd Law
Netwton’s II can actually be best thought of as:

Newton’s 2nd Law:

The rate of change of momentum of an object is proportional to
the resultant force acting on it

From IGCSE we learnt that F= ma

𝑚( 𝑣 − 𝑢)
F=
𝑡

∴
Impulse
This is defined as the change in
momentum ie. mv-mu

When two objects collide, they remain in

contact for a period of time. For a given
force, the longer the objects remain in
contact with each other, the larger the
impulse, as can be seen below:

Since Impulse

can be also written as

Ft =
Impact forces
Example 1: objects being hit.
A golf ball is struck with a force
40N.The club and ball remain in
contact for Around 0.1s. The mass of
the ball is 50g. Find the velocity of the
ball after impact.
Example 2: rebounds.

v= 10ms-1
u= 10ms-1

m=0.15kg

The ball is in contact with the wall for 1ms

Find the force exerted on the ball by the wall.
Example 3: rebounds continued.
m= 2kg

40 ̊
40 ̊

The ball is in contact with the wall for 4ms

Find the force exerted on the ball by the wall .
Force-Time Graphs
To calculate the area under the
graph we must do the following

Force x Time.

However, we have learned that

F x t = Impulse

∴ 𝑎𝑟𝑒𝑎𝑢𝑛𝑑𝑒𝑟 𝑔𝑟𝑎𝑝h =𝐼𝑚𝑝𝑢𝑙𝑠𝑒

Newton’s 3rd law
For every action between 2 objects there is an equal
and opposite reaction.

For Newton’s 3rd law each pair of forces must

• Be of the same type

• Act in the same plane but opposite
directions
• Must act on different objects.

example: the newtons PAIR of forces in the diagram would be

the contact force of the rocket pushing down on the fuel, and
the fuel pushing up on the rocket.
Lesson 8: Terminal velocity
3. Dynamics
3.1 Momentum and Newtwon’s laws of motion

Learning outcomes
describe and use the concept of weight as the effect of a gravitational field
1 on a mass and recall that the weight of an object is equal to the product of
its mass and the acceleration of free fall

3.2 Non-uniform motion

show a qualitative understanding of frictional forces and viscous/drag forces
including air resistance (no treatment of the coefficients of friction and
1 viscosity is required, and a simple model of drag force increasing as speed
increases is sufficient)
describe and explain qualitatively the motion of objects in a uniform
2 gravitational field with air resistance

understand that objects moving against a resistive force may reach a

3 terminal (constant) velocity
Gravitational Field Strength
Recall from iGCSE:

Weight , W (S.I. units N)- Weight is the result of the gravitational field
strength acting on an objects mass.

W= m x g where ‘g’ is = -9.81Nkg-1

If an object has a mass of 80kg then W = 80 x -9.81

W = -784N
Acceleration due to gravity
As the earth pulls on all objects with a force of -9.81N/kg all objects will start to
accelerate

To find the acceleration we can apply newtons 2nd law.

Ie.

Since the force causing this acceleration is the Weight, we therefore say that

𝑚 ×− 𝑔=𝑚 ×𝑎
Thus − 𝒈= 𝒂
The acceleration due to gravity is also therefore -9.81ms-2
velocity V-t graphs continued

time
velocity V-t graphs continued
Without A,R.

With A,R.

time
How does an object reach terminal velocity

Start at rest

W=mg
W > AR
AR=0
Fresultant ‘s
W= AR
-mg-0 =ma Fres = 0
a= - 9.81 since Fres = ma
Acceln ‘s
(ie. a < -g ) a=0ms^-2
 Terminal vel.

List the factors affecting DRAG FORCE:

1)
2)
3)

How can an object increase its terminal speed?

V-T graph for object reaching terminal velocity
Extension Question
A bullet Train is travelling at nearly 500km/h East

window

Birds eye view of train travelling east.

Someone manages to open a window and
throws a tennis ball at 90 degrees to the
Direction of travel at high speed
train out the window. Draw the path that the
ball takes and forces acting on it as it
leaves the train
Extension Question: Answer
A bullet Train is travelling at nearly 500km/h East

Birds eye view train travelling east. Someone

manages to open a window and throws a tennis Direction of travel at high speed
ball at 90 degrees to the train out the window.
Draw the path that the ball takes and forces
acting on it as it leaves the train
Lesson 9: conservation of momentum
3. Dynamics
3.3 linear momentum and its conservation

Learning outcomes

1 state the principle of conservation of momentum

apply the principle of conservation of momentum to solve simple problems,

2 including elastic and inelastic interactions between objects in one
(knowledge of the concept of coefficient of restitution is not required)

recall that, for a perfectly elastic collision, the relative speed of approach is
3 equal to the relative speed of separation

understand that, while momentum of a system is always conserved in

4 interactions between objects, some change in kinetic energy may take place
Conservation of Momentum
For a system of interacting objects, the total momentum remains constant,
assuming no external forces are acting on the objects.

u1 u2

v1 v2

Ie. Σmomentum Before interaction = Σmomentum After interaction

m1u1 + m2u2 = m1v1 + m2v2

Example 1. Collisions

? ms-1

Calculate the velocity if the first ball after the collision:

Example 2. Collisions

Ub = 300m/s
V= ?

A bullet is fired into a block and causes the block to move with a velocity V.
Find V.
Example 3: Explosions
A 300kg canon fires a 10kg projectile at 200m/s.
How fast does the cannon recoil backwards?
Example 4: Explosions
Elastic & Inelastic Collisions
Consider a rock dropped off a cliff from rest:

The initial momentum before was 0kgm/s as

it was at rest. Since it is now falling, it
clearly has gained momentum thus
momentum >0 .

Is the momentum conserved? Explain

your answer
Lesson 10: Collisions in 2D
3. Dynamics

3.3 linear momentum and its conservation

Learning outcomes

apply the principle of conservation of momentum to solve simple problems,

2 including elastic and inelastic interactions between objects in two dimensions
(knowledge of the concept of coefficient of restitution is not required)
Collisions In Two Dimensions
Objects don't always collide head on and therefore move along different
planes to one another. For example consider the two masses m 1 and m2 below
colliding slightly off centre.

Before. After.

In these situations we need to make sure that momentum is conserved in the

X and Y directions.
When Solving problems in 2D….

1) Draw a before and after diagram to help visualise the problem (if none is
already done for you!)

2) Treat the momentum in X and Y directions separately.

3) Resolve the velocities and into their X and Y components and then find the
momentum of each objects. Note Momentum in x-direction before and
after collision should be equal. Same for Y-direction
Before
Worked example
An asteroid is heading towards a rocket and is on mrocket =2000kg vrocket =500m/s
collision course. After collision the rocket is knocked
s
off course as shown and a new velocity. Calculate
0 m/
the new velocity and direction of the asteroid. 50
=1
id
e ro
masteroid=220kg v a st
30
(X-direction)
Mom. before = mom. After
(500x 2000) + (220 x 1500cos30) = (2000x 420cos30) + (220 Vx)
s
1,000,000 + 285788 = 727461.3 + 220 Vx After 0 m/
558326.7 = 220 Vx = 42
k et
Vx = 2537.8m/s v roc
30

(Y-direction) vasteroid= _____

Mom. before = mom. After

(0 x 2000) + (220 x 1500sin30) = (2000 x 420sin30) + (220 Vy)
0 + 165000 = 420000 + 220 Vy
Answer
-403500 = 220 Vy
Vx = 2537.8 m/s
Vy = -1834.1 m/s 36

V = 3131.2 m/s
Vy = -1834.1 m/s
Question
You are playing a game of pool and need
to hit the 8 ball at an angle to get it to go
into the pocket. The cue ball has a mass
of 0.26 kg while the 8 ball has a mass of
0.15 kg. From the diagram on the right
find the speed and direction of the cue
ball after the collision.
Elastic collisions in 2-D
In 2D collisions, if objects are of
same mass, then it will be elastic.

All objects in elastic collisions will

fly off at an angle of 90 degrees
between them (diag.a)

1 & 2 are not always equal,

1
however 1 + 2 is always 90.
2
Since elastic
*KE before and after must be
conserved.
*Momentum before and after in
both x & y directions must be
conserved.
*Elastic collisions produce a right-
angled vector triangle (diag. b)
Question 2.
Lesson 11: moments
4. Forces, Density and pressure
4.1 Turning effects of forces

Learning outcomes

understand that the weight of an object may be taken as acting at a single point
1 known as its centre of gravity

2 define and apply the moment of a force

3 understand that a couple is a pair of forces that acts to produce rotation only

4 define and apply the torque of a couple

Centre of Gravity
The centre of mass is a position defined relative to an object or system of objects.
It is the average position of all the parts of the system, weighted according to their
masses.

For simple rigid objects with uniform density, the centre of mass is located at
the centroid. For example, the centre of mass of a uniform disc shape would be at its
centre. Sometimes the centre of mass doesn't fall anywhere on the object. The
centre of mass of a ring for example is located at its centre, where there isn't any
material.
Practical:determining the centre of gravity of
irregular shaped object

Method:
Moments
Practice Questions:

Q1. Calculate the moment:

Q2. Calculate the Distance if there is a

moment of 200Nm:
S= _____
Find the moment for the following situations.

Q1 Q2

Pivot point
Find the moment for the following situations.

Q1 Q2

Pivot point

.24 x cos30 x 20 = mom 20 x 5sin30 = mom

Mom= 4.16 Nm Mom= 50Nm
Torque
The turning effect or moment of a couple is known as its torque

• A couple is a pair of equal and opposite forces acting on a body, but not along
the same line (ie. Separated by a distance d)

• Consider 2 equal forces acting on a steering wheel of diameter d.

Take moments about the centre

Torque = one of the Forces x Distance between forces

Task
• Question 10- p81

• Question 8- p85
More than one 1 moment acting on an object
When there is more than one moment acting on an object, the resultant moment is
the sum of the individual moments. At A level we deal with only 2 dimensions. This
means that there will be moments that turn the object clockwise and Anti-
clockwise.

As moment is a vector we can take clockwise as POSITIVE and anticlockwise as

NEGATIVE.
Lesson 12: Forces in equilibrium
4. Forces, Density and pressure
4.2 Equilibrium of forces

Learning outcomes

1 state and apply the principle of moments

understand that, when there is no resultant force and no resultant torque, a

2 system is in equilibrium

3 use a vector triangle to represent coplanar forces in equilibrium

Worked example

Let us take both anticlockwise and clockwise moments separately

Moments (anticlockwise) = Force x Distance Moments (clockwise) = Force x Distance

Moments (anticlockwise) = (5x10) x 2 Moments (anticlockwise) = (20x10) x 0.5

Moments (anticlockwise) = 100Nm Moments (anticlockwise) = 100Nm

Principle of Moments (moments in
Equilibrium)

We can say that if an object is in equilibrium (ie. Balanced), then there

is no resultant moment
Worked example 2

∑ 𝑨𝒏𝒕𝒊𝒄𝒍𝒐𝒄𝒌𝒘𝒊𝒔𝒆 𝒎𝒐𝒎𝒆𝒏𝒕𝒔=∑ 𝒄𝒍𝒐𝒄𝒌𝒘𝒊𝒔𝒆𝒎𝒐𝒎𝒆𝒏𝒕𝒔

( 𝑭 ¿¿ 𝟏 𝒙𝒔 )= ( 𝑭 𝟐 𝒙𝒔 ) + ( 𝑭 𝟑 𝒙𝒔 ) ¿
(𝟏𝟓 𝒙 𝟏𝟎 ) 𝒙 𝟏 =¿
𝟏𝟓𝟎 =𝟓𝟎 + 𝟏𝟎𝟎
𝟏𝟓𝟎 =𝟏𝟓𝟎
Thus, proving both sides are balanced
Where should he sit to
balance the beam?

s
Find
( 𝑭 ¿¿ 𝟏 𝒙𝒔 )= ( 𝑭 𝟐 𝒙𝒔 ) + ( 𝑭 𝟑 𝒙𝒔 ) ¿
( ( 𝟓 𝒙 𝟏𝟎 ) 𝒙 𝟐 ) + ¿
𝟏𝟎𝟎 +𝟑𝟎𝟎=𝟖𝟎𝟎 𝒔
𝟒𝟎𝟎 / 𝟖𝟎𝟎 = 𝒔
𝒔=𝟎 . 𝟓 𝒎
Moments with 2 supports.
FA
FB

A B
A car is at the midpoint on a bridge that has a total length of 50m. The Weight of the car
is 10000N.

Find the Forces FA and FB that are required to support the bridge In order to keep the
bridge in equilibrium (ignore weight of the bridge)
Moments with 2 supports.
FA
FB

A B
In order to solve a problem with 2 supports/unknowns simply take
moments about one of the points only. Let us consider A as our pivot
point
Therefore, taking moments about point A
Question
A B
32m 102m

Wcar=10,000N

Wbridge =200,000N

Find the Forces at both A and B

∑ 𝑨𝒏𝒕𝒊𝒄𝒍𝒐𝒄𝒌𝒘𝒊𝒔𝒆 𝒎𝒐𝒎𝒆𝒏𝒕𝒔=∑ 𝒄𝒍𝒐𝒄𝒌𝒘𝒊𝒔𝒆𝒎𝒐𝒎𝒆𝒏𝒕𝒔
(𝑭 ¿¿ 𝑩 𝒙𝒔)=( 𝑭 𝑪𝒂𝒓 𝒙𝒔 ) + ( 𝑭 𝑩𝒓𝒊𝒅𝒈𝒆 𝒙𝒔 ) ¿

Fb = 102,388N

Therefore, newtons III we can say

TOTAL UP FORCE = TOTAL DOWNFORCE

Fa + Fb = Car + bridge
Fa = car+ bridge – Fb
Fa= 107,611N
Combining Forces

Since forces are vectors, we can

use vector arrows to represent
them in force diagrams as seen
on the right. Remember the
length of the arrows represents
the actual force and the
resultant therefore can be
found using Pythagoras or a
ruler!!!
3 or more forces
F1
Consider the 3 forces below. It is now not as
simple as using Pythagoras to find the
resultant. We need to resolve the forces
vertically and horizontally into 1plane

θ
F2

F3
Vertically Horizontally
ForceRes = F1 + F2 + F3 ForceRes = F1 + F2 + F3

ForceRes = F1 sinθ + F2Cos90 + (-F3) ForceRes = -F1cosθ + F2 + F3Cos90

ForceRes = F1 sinθ + 0 - F3 ForceRes = -F1cosθ + F2 + 0

ForceRes = F1 sinθ - F3 ForceRes = F2 - F1cosθ

If object is stationary or in Equilibrium, then resultant force both

vertically and horizontally is ZERO

\ 0 = F1 sinθ - F3 \ 0 = F2 - F1cosθ

F3 = F1 sinθ F1cosθ = F2
3 or more forces in equilibrium
Another way of seeing whether forces are in
equilibrium is to see if the forces can form a
F2 closed triangle. You can see that our 3 forces
from the previous example can be moved in
such a way to create a closed triangle.
F3 Thus, they are in equilibrium
F1
Consider an object sitting a slope

Calculate:

1) Normal reaction force

2) Friction force

Where θ=30, m=500g