Switchgear and Protection

Switch is a device which makes the circuit ON

and OFF.
When control units are added to switch, it
becomes Switchgear.
So switching and Controlling is achieved in
switchgears.
What is A Fault
• An electrical power system consist of generators,
transformers, transmission lines and distribution lines.
• When current flows through the circuit following a
prescribed path, the system is called a normal system.
• Short circuits and other abnormal conditions often occur on
a power system.
• During such conditions, current does not flow through the
path intended for it.
• It follows some other path not intended or prescribed for it.
• This condition in which system has some defects due to
which the current is diverted from its intended path is called
A Fault.
Types of Faults

• Faults are broadly classified as Symmetrical and Unsymmetrical

faults.
• Symmetrical faults involve 3 phase fault, and it is the severmost
fault.
• Unsymmetrical faults involve single line to ground fault, double
line to ground fault, line to line fault, breaking of conductors etc.
• Abnormal condition is one in which circuit parameters
deviate/change from their normal or rated values. This may be due
to temperature rise, over voltage, under voltage, under frequency
etc.
• If abnormal condition is not attended in time, then it may get
converted into a fault.
• For analysis and for designing the protective scheme, three phase
fault is considered.
Single line diagram
Fault Analysis
• Per Unit System
• For the analysis of electrical machines or
electrical machine system, different values are
required, thus, per unit system provides the
value for voltage, current, power, impendence,
and admittance. The Per Unit System also
makes the calculation easier as all the values
are taken in the same unit. The per-unit system
is mainly used in the circuit where variation in
voltage occurs.
Definition: The per-unit value of any quantity is defined as the ratio of actual value
in any unit to the base or reference value in the same unit. Any quantity is
converted into per unit quantity by dividing the numeral value by the chosen base
value of the same dimension. The per-unit value is dimensionless.
•The base values can be selected arbitrarily. It is usual to assume the base
values as given below

 Base voltage = rated voltage of the machine

 Base current = rated current of the machine
 Base impedance = base voltage /base current
 Base power = base voltage x base current
• Firstly the value of base power ie Base kVA and the base voltage ie Base
kV are selected, and their choice automatically fixes the other base values.
Putting the value of base current from the
equation (1) in equation (2) we get
• Putting the value of base current from the equation (1) in the equation (3)
we get

• Now
• Putting the value of base impedance from the equation (4) in the equation
(5) we will get the value of impedance per unit
Single Line Diagram
Change of Base

• Base value can be changed as per requirement. Then all parameters

will be referred to the new base value.
• P.U. impedance (Z) referred to new base is given by
2
• P.u. Z referred to old base value * Base kV old Base kVA new
Base kV new Base kVA old
• A 11 kV, 15,000kVA generator has reactance of 0.15p.u. referred to its
ratings as bases. The new base chosen for calculations
2 are 110kV and
30,000kVA. Calculate the new p.u. reactance.
• Zp.u.new = Zp.u.old
2 *(kVBase old/kVBase new) (kVA Base new/kVA
Base old)
• = 0.15 * (11/110) (30000/15000)
• = 0.003 p.u.
Fault Level

• P.u. fault current= p.u.voltage at fault point

» p.u.Xequivalent

• Fault MVA = Base MVA

• j p.u.Xequivalent
Fault current = Fault MVA * 10³ < -j
• √3 * Base kV

• These formulae are used to calculate fault level.

• Fault MVA is called the Breaking capacity.
• A 3 ph 5000kVA, 6.6 kV generator having 12% sub transient
reactance. A 3 phase short circuit occurs at its terminals.
Calculate fault MVA and fault current.
• Base MVA= 5
• P.u.Xequi = 0.12 p.u.
• Fault MVA = 5/0.12 = 41.60 MVA
• Fault current = MVAf * 1000
• √3 * kVbase
• = 41.60* 1000 / √3 * 6.6
• = 3644 < -90⁰
• Rated current = 5000/ √3*6.6 = 437.4 A
• Two 11 kV ,3 phase 3000 kVA generators having sub transient
reactance of 15% operate in parallel. The generators supply
power to a transmission line through a 6000 kVA transformer
of ratio 11/22 kV and having leakage reactance of 5%.
Calculate fault current for three phase fault on (a) HT side (b)
LT side of transformer.
• Draw single line diagram.
• Choose Base MVA
• Let MVA base = 6000kVA or 6 MVA
• Base voltage on LT side of transformer= 11 kV
• Base voltage on HT side = 22 kV
• Pu reactance of G1 and G2 = 0.15 * (6/3) = 0.3 pu
• Leakage reactance of transformer = 0.05 pu
• Draw reactance diagram-
• When fault takes place on HT side-
• Reactances involved are G1, G2 and T1
• Xeq pu = (j0.3 j 0.3) + j0.05 = j0.20 pu
• Fault MVA = 6/ j 0.20 = 30 MVA
• Fault current = 30 * 1000/ √3 * 22 = 786 A.

• If fault takes place on LT side, fault current =

• 40*1000/ √3 * 11 = 2100 A
Current Limiting Reactors
• When a symmetrical three phase fault occurs at a point in a power
system , the fault current is very large which may damage the
equipment of the power system. The fault currents depend upon
the generating capacity, pre fault voltage at fault point, and the
total reactance between the generators and the fault point. If X is
the total reactance upto fault point and Vf is voltage at fault point,
then the current at fault point is
• I = Vf/ X. That means if X is increased then I will decrease.
• This X is highly inductive reactance. It has very small or
negligible resistance.
• The breaking current capacity of CB should be such that the fault
currents are less than the capacity of CB.
• Sometimes fault currents are so high that circuit breaker of
suitable capacity may not be available.
• The fault currents , in such circumstances are limited by using current
limiting or series reactors.
• A current limiting reactor, also sometimes called a series reactor, is an
inductive coil having a large inductive reactance in comparison to its
resistance and is used for limiting short circuit currents during fault
conditions. These are installed in feeders and ties, in generator leads, and
between bus sections to reduce the magnitude of short circuit currents and
the effect of the resulting voltage disturbances.

• The reactors are classified as Generator reactors, feeder reactors and bus
bar reactors.
PHASE REACTORS
:
This type of reactor is connected in series with the transmission or
distribution lines and is used to reduce fault level at the output of the
reactor to the desirable level. They carry a continuous current during
normal operation and hence Power loss is an important
consideration. A dry type air core reactor by design has a high Q
factor and hence preferred for this application. A low loss reactor
can bring substantial benefit to the customer during course of life of
the equipment.
BUS TIE REACTORS :

• These reactors are used to tie two or more feeders or power sources are
connected to a single bus. It is desirable to sectionalize the bus due to high
fault levels without losing operational flexibility. The advantage of bus tie
reactor is that if load is essentially balanced on both sides of the reactor
under operating conditions, the reactor has negligible effect on voltage
regulation or system losses.
Unit 2- Circuit interrupting devices
• Fuse- HRC stands for High Rupturing Capacity. HRC Fuse has high rupturing
capacity. Because of its high current rupturing capacity, a special method for
extinguishing arc is required in the design of HRC Fuse.
•Construction of HRC Fuse:
•HRC Fuse consists of heat resisting ceramic body having metal end caps on which
silver current carrying element is welded in a special manner as shown in figure
•The space between the body surrounding the Fuse element is filled filling powder
such as with Silica Sand, Chalk, plaster of paris etc.

•Working Principle of HRC Fuse:

•Under normal operating conditions the current flowing through the Fuse element does
not provide enough energy to melt the element. The heat produced is absorbed by the
surrounding filling powder. If a large current flows the energy produced melts and
vaporizes the fuse element before the fault current reaches the peak. The chemical
reaction between the fuse element vapour and filling powder results into high
resistance material which helps in extinguishing the arc.
•Under overload condition the fuse element will not blow off but if the condition exists
for prolonged period, the fuse element Material will melt and break the fuse element. 
•Under high current short circuit conditions, the smaller area constricted parts of the
fuse element will melt rapidly and vaporize and will break before the fuse Material.
That is why constrictions are provided in the HRC Fuse element.
• Process of arcing and  pre-arcing resulting in blowing of fuse-
link.
Cut-off-. The melting of fuse-element before the current
reaches the prospective peak. The value of current at which
the cut-off occurs is called cut-off value.
• Pre-arcing time-
• Time between commencement of the current loop and the  
cut-off .
• Arcing time-
• It is that time when final current become zero. Or it is time
between cut-off and final current zero time
• Total operating time 
• It is Pre-arcing time plus arcing time .
• Applications- HRC fuse is used in industries for motor
protection, commercial complexes, distribution system upto
33 kV. It is also used as a back up protection.

• Isolator-
• An isolator is a NO LOAD switch. It is NC switch.
• It is used to make or break the circuit during no load
condition only.
• It is never operated during load condition.
• It used along with circuit breaker.
• Isolator does not have any making or breaking capacity.
• There is no arc extinguishing medium needed in isolator.
Types of isolators

• According to plane of operation, isolators are classified as

• Vertical break isolator
• Horizontal isolator
• Pantograph type isolator.
• Isolator is always operated along with CB and Earth Switch.
• During maintenance or during fault, when circuit breaker
operates, ie, it is opened. After its opening isolator is opened.
• The line which was operating at high voltage, is now open.
But it holds lot of charge. If operator touches this line even
after opening isolator, may get severe shock.
• To avoid this, earth switch is closed after opening of isolator.
So that all charge is transferred to ground.
Sequence of Operation.
• During opening of line-
1) Open Circuit breaker
2) Open isolator
3) Close earth switch.
• During closing of line-
1) Open earth switch
2) Close isolator
3) Close circuit breaker.
• MCCB stands for Moulded Case Circuit Breaker. It is another type
of electrical protection device which is used when load current
exceeds the limit of a miniature circuit breaker. The MCCB
 provides protection against overload, short circuit faults and is
also used for switching the circuits. It can be used for higher
current rating and fault level even in domestic applications. The
wide current ratings and high breaking capacity in MCCB find
their use in industrial applications. MCCB can be used for
protection of capacitor bank, generator protection and main electric
feeder distribution. It offers adequate protection whenever an
application requires discrimination, adjustable overload setting or
earth fault protection.
S.No MCB MCCB
It stands for Miniature Circuit It stands for Molded Case Circuit
1
Breaker. Breaker.
Rated current not more than 125
2 Rated Current up to 1600A
Ampere.
Its interrupting current rating is under Their interrupting current ranges from
3
10KA around 10KA -85KA
Judging from their power capacities,
MCCB is mainly used for both low
MCB is mainly used for low Breaking
4 and high Breaking capacity
capacity requirement mainly
requirements mainly industrial.
domestic.
Its trip characteristics are normally Its trip current may be fixed as well
5 not adjustable since they basically as adjustable for overload and
cater to low circuits. magnetic setting.
Arc Formation

• During fault, the contacts oof circuit breaker open. During

opening of contacts, an arc is struck between the contacts.
• During opening of current carrying contacts in a circuit
breaker the medium in between opening contacts become
highly ionized through which the interrupting current gets low
resistive path and continues to flow through this path even the
contacts are physically separated. During the flowing of
current from one contact to other the path becomes so heated
that it glows. This is called arc.
Why is Arc formed in CB?

• Thermal Ionization of Gas

• There are numbers of free electrons and ions present in a gas at room
temperature. These randomly moving molecules collide with each other in
very frequent manner but the kinetic energy of the molecules is not
sufficient to extract an electron from atoms of the molecules. If the
temperature is increased the air will be heated up and consequently the
velocity of the molecules will be increased. Higher velocity means higher
impact during inter molecular collision. During this situation some of the
molecules are disassociated in to atoms. If temperature of the air is further
increased many atoms are deprived of valence electrons and make the gas
ionized. Then this ionized gas can conduct electricity because of sufficient
free electrons. This condition of any gas or air is called plasma. This
phenomenon is called thermal ionization of gas.
Ionization due to Electron Collision

•As we discussed that there are always some free electrons and ions presents in
the air or gas but they are insufficient to conduct electricity. Whenever these
free electrons come across a strong electric field, these are directed towards
higher potential points in the field and acquire sufficiently high velocity. In
other words, the electrons are accelerated along the direction of the electric
field due to high potential gradient. During their travel these electrons collide
with other atoms and molecules of the air or gas and extract valance electrons
from their orbits.
•After extracted from parent atoms, the electrons will also run along the
direction of the same electric field due to potential gradient. These electrons
will similarly collide with other atoms and create more free electrons which
will also be directed along the electric field. Due to this conjugative action the
numbers of free electrons in the gas will become so high that the gas starts
conducting electricity. This phenomenon is known as ionization of gas due to
electron collision.
Arc Extinction
• Arc is developed between circuit breaker fixed and moving contacts.
• This arc must be extinguished or quenched immediately in order to save
damage due to high current.
• The total current by charged particles is directly proportional to their
mobility. Therefore the mobility of charged particles depends upon the
temperature, pressure of the gas and as well as nature of the gas. Again
the mobility of gas particles determines the degree ionization of gas. By
increasing pressure of gas or medium, the mobility or kinetic energy of
charged particles can be reduced, reducing the current flow.
• The final arc extinction or arc quenching in circuit breaker is achieved by
rapid increase of the dielectric strength in the medium between the
contacts so that reestablishment of arc after zero crossing cannot be
possible. This rapid increase of dielectric strength in between circuit
breaker contacts is achieved either by deionization of gas in the arc media
or by replacing ionized gas by cool and fresh gas.
Arc extinction in LV circuit Breaker
• LV circuit breakers generally operate upto 1000V
• Air Circuit Breaker(ACB) is an example of LT/LV circuit breaker.
• High Resistance method of Arc extinction is used in it.
• Air Circuit Breaker (ACB) is an electrical device used to provide
Overcurrent and short-circuit protection for electric circuits over 800
Amps to 10K Amps. These are usually used in low voltage
applications below 450V. We can find these systems in Distribution
Panels (below 450V). 

• This CB uses following three steps for arc extinction-

1) Arc lengthening
2) Arc splitting
3) Arc cooling.
•The construction of an air circuit breaker can be done by using different
internal and external parts like the following.

•The external parts of ACB mainly include the ON & OFF button, an indicator
for the position of the main contact, an indicator for the mechanism of energy
storage, LED indicators, RST button, controller, rated nameplate, handle for
energy storage, displays, shake, fault trip rest button, rocker repository, etc.

•The internal parts of ACB mainly include supporting structure with steel sheet,
the current transformer used to protect the trip unit, pole group insulating box,
horizontal terminals, arcing chamber, trip unit for protection, terminal box,
closing springs, CB opening & closing control, plates to move arcing and main
contacts, plates for fixed main & arcing contacts.
•Air Circuit breakers generally have two pairs of contacts. The main pair of contacts
(1) carries the current at normal load and these contacts are made of copper metal.
The second pair is the arcing contact (2) and is made of carbon. When the circuit
breaker is being opened, the main contacts open first. When the main contacts
opened the arcing contacts are still in touch with each other.

• As the current gets a parallel low resistive path through the arcing contact. During
the opening of the main contacts, there will not be any arcing in the main contact.
The arcing is only initiated when finally the arcing contacts are separated.
• The arc discharge moves upward due to both thermal and electromagnetic
effects as shown in the figure. As the arc is driven upward it enters the arc chute,
consisting of splatters. The arc in the chute will become colder, lengthen, and
split hence arc voltage becomes much larger than the system voltage at the time
of operation of an air circuit breaker, and therefore the arc is extinguished finally
during the current zero.
• The electromagnetic forces within each and every section of the chute cause the
arc in that section to start the form of a helix, as shown above, figure (b). All
these helices are in series so that the total length of the arc has been greatly
extended, and its resistance is abundantly increased. This will affect the current
reduction in the circuit.
Zero current arc interruption
• This method is used only for AC supply and for HV and EHV
applications.
• To extinguish arc the electrons and ions are to be removed from the gap
immediately after the current reaches a natural zero. The arc is
interrupted if ions are removed from the gap at a rate faster than the rate
of ionization. In this method the rate at which the gap recovers the
dielectric strength is compared with the rate at which the restriking
voltage across the gap rises.
• If the dielectric strength increases more rapidly than the restriking
voltage, the arc is extinguished.
• When the arc is finally extinguished, the power again becomes zero, the
gap is fully de ionized and its resistance is infinitely high.
• The circuit breaker is designed to remove the heat generated in the gap
as early as possible by cooling the gap. If the rate of removal of heat is
faster than the rate of heat generation, the arc is extinguished.
Some terminologies
• Arc voltage- The voltage appearing across the contacts of CB
is called arc voltage.
• Arc is purely resistive in nature. So arc voltage and arc current
are in phase.
• When the current across the contact of the circuit breaker is
zero, a high-frequency transient voltage develops in the whole
breaker contact and is produced by the sudden distribution of
energy between the electric and magnetic field. This transient
voltage is called restriking voltage. The voltage appears across
the breaker contacts at the moment of final current has a
serious influence on the arc extinction process. Under the
influence of this voltage, the arc tries to restrike and hence it is
named as the restriking voltage.
• After the zero current, the arc gets extinguished, if the rate of
rising of restriking voltage between the contact is less than the
rate at which the dielectric strength of the medium between the
contact gains.
• Recovery voltage-
• Immediately after the final current interruption, the normal
frequency rms voltage that appears across the breaker contacts
(transient voltage) superimposed on the power frequency
system voltage is called recovery voltage.
The rate of Rising of Restriking Voltage – It is defined
as the slope of the steepness tangent of the
restriking voltage curve. It is expressed in kV/µs. RRRV
is directly proportional to the natural frequency. The
expression for the restriking voltage is expressed as
                The transient voltage vanishes rapidly due to
the damping effect of system resistance, and the normal
frequency system voltage is established. This voltage
across the breakers contact is called recovery voltage.
Circuit breaker specifications
• Rated voltage- The rated system voltage for which CB is
designed.
• Rated insulation level- It refers to the power frequency
withstand voltage and impulse voltage withstand level for the
insulation of CB.
• Rated frequency- The standard frequency for a three pole CB
is power frequency ie 50Hz.
• Rated normal current- RMS value of current which the CB can
carry continuously.
• Rated short circuit breaking current or Breaking capacity- The
highest RMS value of short circuit current which the CB is
able to break under specified conditions. The corresponding
MVA at fault is called its breaking capacity.
• Rated short circuit making current capacity or Making
capacity- The peak value of fault current at which CB contacts
can be closed without damaging the contacts and insulation.
This current is called making current and the corresponding
MVA is called making capacity of CB.
Making current = 2.5 * Breaking current.
• Rated duration of short circuit current- It is the time for which
CB contacts can carry short circuit current without damage. It
is expressed in kA per second.
• Rated operating sequence or Duty cycle- The sequence of
opening and closing of CB contacts during fault is called its
duty cycle.
• The common sequences are – O-t-CO-T-CO , O-t1-C-t2-O
• CO-t-CO.