ELECTRONICS IV
feedback
z
amplifier
Assist. Lec. Nawar Alseelawi
2
CHAPTER
Find it on
1. Negative Feedback
Negative feedback is one of the most useful concepts in electronics, particularly in op-amp
applications.
Negative feedback is the process whereby a portion of the output voltage of an amplifier is
returned to the input with a phase angle that opposes (or subtracts from) the input signal.
Negative feedback is illustrated in Figure 2.1.
The inverting input effectively makes the feedback signal 180° out of phase with the input signal.
Figure 2.1
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Negative Feedback
The inherent open-loop voltage gain of a typical op-amp is
very high (usually greater than 100,000).
Therefore, an extremely small input voltage drives the op-
amp into its saturated output states.
In fact, even the input offset voltage of the op-amp can drive
it into saturation.
For example, assume and . Then,
Since the 𝑉 𝐼𝑁 𝐴 𝑜𝑙
output = (1 𝑚𝑉
level of an) ( 100 )=100
, 000can
op-amp 𝑉 reach , it is
never
driven deep into saturation and the output is limited to its
maximum output levels, as illustrated in Figure 2.2 for both
a positive and a negative input voltage of . Figure 2.2
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Negative Feedback
The usefulness of an op-amp operated without negative feedback is generally limited to comparator
applications.
With negative feedback, the closed-loop voltage gain () can be reduced and controlled so that the op-amp
can function as a linear amplifier.
In addition to providing a controlled, stable voltage gain, negative feedback also provides for control of
the input and output impedances and amplifier bandwidth.
Table 2.1 summarizes the general effects of negative feedback on op-amp performance.
Table 2.1
𝐺
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Negative Feedback
Figure 2.3 shows the basic structure of a negative-feedback
circuit.
The arrows indicate signal flow, and the generic symbol stands
for either a voltage or a current signal.
Besides the source and load, we identify the following basic
blocks:
An amplifier called the error amplifier, which accepts a
signal called the error signal, and yields the output signal 𝑨
𝑥𝑜 = 𝐴 𝑥 𝜀
where is called the open-loop gain.
A feedback network, which samples and produces the 𝜷
feedback signal
𝑥𝑓 = 𝛽 𝑥𝑜
where is the gain of the feedback network and is called Figure 2.3
the feedback factor.
A summing network, denoted as , which sums the negative
of to the input signal to yield the difference
𝑥 𝜀=𝑥 𝑖 − 𝑥 𝑓
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Negative Feedback
The designation negative feedback stems from the fact
that we are in effect feeding a portion b of back to the
error amplifier’s input, where it is subtracted from to
yield a reduced signal . Were it added instead,
feedback would be positive.
For reasons that will become clearer as we move
𝑨𝜺
along, negative feedback is also said to be
degenerative, and positive feedback regenerative.
Substituting previous equations, we get
𝒙 𝑨 𝜷
𝑮= 𝒐 =
𝒙 𝒊 𝟏+ 𝑨 𝜷
where is called the closed-loop gain.
Note that for feedback to be negative we must have . Figure 2.3
Consequently, will be smaller than by the amount ,
which is called the amount of feedback.
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Negative Feedback
As a signal propagates around the loop consisting of the error amplifier, feedback network, and summer, it experiences an overall gain of
and called the loop gain .
𝑳= 𝑨 𝜷
Substituting with previous equation and letting yields the ideal situation
𝟏
𝑮𝒊𝒅𝒆𝒂𝒍 =𝐥𝐢𝐦 𝑮=
𝑳→∞ 𝜷
that is, becomes independent of and is set exclusively by the feedback network, regardless of the error amplifier in use. By proper
choice of the topology and components of the feedback network, we can tailor the circuit to a variety of different applications.
Henceforth we shall express the closed-loop gain in the insightful form
1
𝐺=𝐺𝑖𝑑𝑒𝑎𝑙
1
1+
𝐿
Rearranging as
𝑮=𝑮𝒊𝒅𝒆𝒂𝒍 𝟏 − ( 𝟏
𝟏+ 𝑳 )
indicates that the fractional departure of the actual gain from the ideal gain is inversely proportional to the amount of feedback . This
departure is more commonly expressed via the gain error.
𝑮− 𝑮 𝒊𝒅𝒆𝒂𝒍 𝟏
𝑮𝑬 ( % )= × 𝟏𝟎𝟎 %= ×𝟏𝟎𝟎 %
𝑮𝒊𝒅𝒆𝒂𝒍 𝟏+ 𝑳
Chapter two – feedback Department of Electrical Engineering- College of Engineering- University of Misan 8
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Negative Feedback
Example 1 (a) Find the loop gain needed for
(b) Find to achieve with the above .
(c) What is the actual value of ? How would you change to make exactly?
Solution
(a) (c)
To make
Use .
(b)
2. Ideal Feedback Topologies
There are four basic feedback topologies, based on the parameter to
be amplified (voltage or current) and the output parameter (voltage
or current).
The four feedback circuit categories can be described by the types of
connections at the input and output of circuit.
The four types of connections are shown in Figure 2.4.
The four connections are referred to as: series–shunt (voltage
amplifier), shunt–series (current amplifier), series–series
(transconductance amplifier), and shunt–shunt (transresistance
amplifier).
The first term refers to the connection at the amplifier input, and the
second term refers to the connection at the output.
Also, the type of connection determines which parameter (voltage or
current) is sampled at the output and which parameter is amplified.
The connections also determine the feedback amplifier characteristics
—in particular, the input and output resistances. The resistance
parameters become an important circuit property, when, for example,
we consider voltage amplifiers versus current amplifiers. Figure 2.4
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Voltage Amplifier (Series-Shunt)
Figure 2.5 a shows the voltage-series feedback connection with a part of the
output voltage fed back in series with the input signal, resulting in an overall gain
reduction.
If there is no feedback (), the voltage gain of the amplifier stage is
𝑉𝑜 𝑉𝑜
𝐴= =
𝑉𝑠 𝑉𝑖
If a feedback signal is connected in series with the input, then
𝑉 𝑖=𝑉 𝑠 − 𝑉 𝑓
𝑉 𝑜= 𝐴 𝑉 𝑖 = 𝐴 ( 𝑉 𝑠 −𝑉 𝑓 ) = 𝐴 𝑉 𝑠 − 𝐴𝑉 𝑓 = 𝐴 𝑉 𝑠 − 𝐴 ( 𝛽 𝑉 𝑜 )
( 1+ 𝐴 𝛽 ) 𝑉 𝑜 = 𝐴𝑉 𝑠
so that the overall voltage gain with feedback is
𝑽𝒐 𝑨
𝑮𝒇 = =
𝑽 𝒔 𝟏+ 𝑨 𝜷
Equation above shows that the gain with feedback is the amplifier gain reduced by
the factor (). This factor will be seen also to affect input and output impedance Figure 2.5
among other circuit features.
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Voltage Amplifier (Series-Shunt)
Three examples of series–shunt feedback amplifiers are shown in
Figure 2.6, Figure 2.7, and Figure 2.8.
The amplifier in Figure 2.6 is the familiar noninverting op-amp
configuration.
The feedback network, composed of the voltage divider (, ),
develops a voltage that is applied to the negative input terminal
of the op amp.
The subtraction of from is achieved by utilizing the differencing
action of the op-amp differential input.
For the feedback to be negative, must be of the same polarity
as , thus resulting in a smaller signal at the input of the basic
amplifier. Figure 2.6
To ascertain that this is the case, we follow the signal around the
loop, as follows: As increases, increases and the voltage divider
causes to increase. Thus the change in is of the same polarity as
the change in , and the feedback is negative.
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Voltage Amplifier (Series-Shunt)
The second feedback voltage amplifier, shown in Figure
2.7, utilizes two MOSFET amplifier stages in cascade.
The output voltage is sampled by the feedback network
composed of the voltage divider (, ), and the feedback
signal is fed to the source terminal of .
The subtraction is implemented by applying to the gate of
and to its source, with the result that the signal at this
amplifier input
𝑉 𝑖=𝑉 𝑔𝑠 =𝑉 𝑠 −𝑉 𝑓
To ascertain that the feedback is negative, let increase.
The drain voltage of will decrease, and since this is applied
to the gate of , its drain voltage will increase.
The feedback network will then cause to increase, which is Figure 2.7
the same polarity initially assumed for the change in .
Thus the feedback is indeed negative.
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Voltage Amplifier (Series-Shunt)
The third example of series–shunt feedback, shown in Figure 2.8,
utilizes a CG transistor with a fraction of the output voltage fed
back to the gate through a voltage divider (, ).
Observe that the subtraction of from is effected by applying to
the source, thus the input to the CG amplifier is obtained as .
As usual, however, we must check the polarity of the feedback: If
increases, (which is ) will increase and will correspondingly
increase.
Thus and change in the same direction, verifying that the
feedback is negative.
Figure 2.8
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Current Amplifier (Shunt-Series)
The configuration of an ideal shunt–series feedback
amplifier is shown in Figure 2.9.
The circuit consists of a basic current amplifier with an
input resistance and an open-loop current gain .
The feedback circuit samples the output current and
produces a feedback current , which is in shunt with an
input signal current .
In this ideal configuration, the feedback circuit does not
load down the basic amplifier output; therefore, the load
current is not affected.
Current is the difference between the input signal
current and the feedback current and is the error signal.
The error signal is amplified in the basic current
amplifier.
We can recognize the shunt connection on the input and Figure 2.9
the series connection on the output for this
configuration.
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Transconductance Amplifier (Series-Series)
The configuration of an ideal series–series feedback amplifier
is shown in Figure 2.10.
The feedback samples a portion of the output current and
converts it to a voltage.
This feedback circuit can therefore be thought of as a voltage-
to-current amplifier.
The circuit consists of a basic amplifier that converts the error
voltage to an output current with a gain factor and that has
an input resistance .
The feedback circuit samples the output current and
produces a feedback voltage , which is in series with the input
signal voltage .
Figure 2.10
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Transresistance Amplifier (Shunt-Shunt)
The configuration of the ideal shunt–shunt feedback
amplifier is shown in Figure 2.11.
The feedback samples a portion of the output voltage and
converts it to a current.
This feedback circuit can therefore be thought of as a
current-to-voltage amplifier.
The circuit consists of a basic amplifier that converts the
error current to an output voltage with a gain factor and
that has an input resistance.
The feedback circuit samples the output voltage and
produces a feedback current , which is in shunt with the
input signal current .
Figure 2.11
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Ideal Feedback Topologies
Summary of Gain, Feedback, and Gain with feedback for feedback topologies
Symbol Series-Shunt Shunt-Series Series-Series Shunt-Shunt
Gain without feedback
Feedback
Gain with feedback
3. Impedance in Feedback Amplifiers
Sampling and Mixing
Sensing or Sampling
The feedback network must sample the output signal of interest. Thus if is the output signal of interest, as in the
case of voltage and transresistance amplifiers, the feedback network is connected in parallel (or shunt) with the
amplifier output node, just as a voltmeter is connected to measure a voltage. On the other hand, if is the output
signal of interest, as in the case of transconductance and current amplifiers, the feedback network is connected in
series with the output loop, just as a current meter is connected to measure a current.
Mixing
If the input signal to be amplified is a voltage, as in the case of voltage and transconductance amplifiers, the signal
source is represented by its Thevenin equivalent and the feedback voltage signal is connected in series with the
input signal source . On the other hand, if the signal to be amplified is a current, as in the case of current and
transresistance amplifiers, the Norton form is used to represent the signal source, and the
feedback current signal If is connected in parallel (shunt) with the input signal source .
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Input Impedance – Series Mixing (Voltage & Transconductance)
A more detailed voltage-series feedback connection
is shown in Figure 2.12.
The input impedance can be determined as follows:
𝑅𝑖𝑓 𝑅𝑜 𝑓
𝑅𝑜
𝑅𝑖 𝑅𝐿
The input impedance with series feedback is seen to
( 𝟏+input
be the value 𝑹of𝒊𝒇 =the 𝑨𝜷) 𝑹 impedance
𝒊 without
feedback multiplied by the factor (), and applies to 𝑮
both Series-Shunt and Series-Series configurations.
Series Connection always increases the resistance.
The increase is always by the amount of feedback ().
Figure 2.12
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Input Impedance – Shunt Mixing (Current & Transresistance)
A more detailed voltage-shunt feedback connection
is shown in Figure 2.13.
The input impedance can be determined to be
𝑅𝑜
𝑅𝑖 𝑅𝐿
𝑹𝒊
𝑹 𝒊𝒇 =
𝟏+ 𝑨 𝜷 applies to the Shunt-
This reduced input impedance
series connection of and the Shunt-Shunt
connection.
Parallel Connection always decreases the
resistance.
The decrease is always by the amount of feedback
(). Figure 2.13
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Output Impedance – Series Sampling (Current & Transconductance)
The output impedance with Series-Series feedback can
be determined by applying a signal to the output with
shorted out, resulting in a current , the ratio of to
being the output impedance.
Figure 2.14 shows a more detailed connection with
current-series feedback. 𝑅𝑖 𝑅𝑜
For the output part of a Series-Series feedback
connection shown in Figure 2.14, the resulting output
impedance is determined as follows:
With ,
Figure 2.14
𝑽
𝑹 𝒐𝒇 = =𝑹 𝒐 ( 𝟏+ 𝑨 𝜷 )
𝑰
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Output Impedance – Shunt Sampling (Voltage & Transresistance)
The Series-Shunt feedback circuit of Figure 2.15
provides sufficient circuit detail to determine the
output impedance with feedback. The output
impedance is determined by applying a voltage , 𝑅𝑖𝑓 𝑅𝑜 𝑓
resulting in a current , with shorted out ().
The voltage is then 𝑅𝑜
𝑅𝑖 𝑅𝐿
For ,
𝑽 𝑹𝒐
𝑹 𝒐𝒇 = =
This Equation shows𝑰 that 𝟏+ 𝑨 𝜷 Series-Shunt
with Figure 2.15
feedback the output impedance is reduced from
that without feedback by the factor ().
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Impedance in Feedback Amplifiers
Example 2 Determine the input resistance of a series input connection and the output resistance of a shunt
output connection for an ideal feedback voltage amplifier. Consider a Series–Shunt feedback amplifier
in which the open-loop gain is and the closed-loop gain is . Assume the input and output resistances
of the basic amplifier are and , respectively.
Solution
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Impedance in Feedback Amplifiers
Example 3 (a) Determine the input and output impedances of the amplifier in Figure below. The op-amp
datasheet gives , , and .
(b) Find the closed-loop voltage gain.
Solution
(a)
(b)
𝑅1
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Impedance in Feedback Amplifiers
Example 4 Consider the ideal shunt–series feedback amplifier in Figure below. Assume that the source resistance
is .
(a) If , , and , determine , , and , including units.
(b) Using the results of part (a), determine and , for and .
Solution
(a)
(b)
4. Practical Feedback Amplifiers
Voltage (Series-Shunt) Feedback
Op-Amp Amplifier
Figure 2.16 shows a Series-Shunt feedback connection using
an op-amp.
The gain of the op-amp, , without feedback, is reduced by the
feedback factor
𝑹𝟐
𝜷=
𝑹𝟏 + 𝑹𝟐
Figure 2.16
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FET Amplifier
Figure 2.17 shows an FET amplifier stage with Series-Shunt feedback. A part of the
output signal is obtained using a feedback network of resistors and . The
feedback voltage is connected in series with the source signal , their difference
being the input signal . Without feedback the amplifier gain is
𝑽𝒐
𝑨= =− 𝒈 𝒎 𝑹 𝑳
𝑽𝒊
where is the parallel combination of resistors:
𝑹𝒐 𝑹 𝑫
𝑹 𝑳=
𝑹 𝒐+ 𝑹 𝑫
The feedback network provides a feedback factor of
𝑽𝒇 𝑹𝟐
𝜷= =−
𝑽𝒐 𝑹𝟏 + 𝑹𝟐
Using the values of and above, we find the gain with negative feedback to be
𝑨 − 𝒈𝒎 𝑹 𝑳 Figure 2.17
𝑮= =
𝟏+ 𝑨 𝜷 𝟏+ [ 𝑹𝟐 𝑹 𝑳/ ( 𝑹𝟏+ 𝑹𝟐 ) ] 𝒈 𝒎
If , we have
𝟏 𝑹𝟏 + 𝑹 𝟐
𝑮≅ =−
𝜷 𝑹𝟐
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BJT Amplifier
The emitter-follower circuit of Figure 2.18 provides Series-Shunt feedback. The
signal voltage is the input voltage .
The output voltage is also the feedback voltage in series with the input
voltage. The amplifier, as shown in Figure 2.17, provides the operation with
feedback.
The operation of the circuit without feedback provides , so that
𝑉 𝑜 h 𝑓𝑒 𝐼 𝑏 𝑅 𝐸 h 𝑓𝑒 𝑅 𝐸 ( 𝑉 𝑠 / h𝑖𝑒 ) 𝒉 𝒇𝒆 𝑹 𝑬
𝐴= = = =
𝑉𝑠 𝑉𝑠 𝑉𝑠 𝒉𝒊𝒆
And
𝑉𝑓
𝛽=
=1
𝑉𝑜
The operation with feedback then provides that
𝐴 h 𝑓𝑒 𝑅 𝐸 / h𝑖𝑒
𝐺= =
1+ 𝐴 𝛽 1+ ( 1 ) ( h 𝑓𝑒 𝑅 𝐸 / h𝑖𝑒 )
𝒉 𝒇𝒆 𝑹 𝑬
𝑮=
𝒉𝒊𝒆 +𝒉 𝒇𝒆 𝑹 𝑬 Figure 2.18
For
𝑮≅𝟏
Chapter two – feedback Department of Electrical Engineering- College of Engineering- University of Misan 29
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Voltage (Series-Shunt) Feedback
Example 5 Calculate the amplifier gain of the circuit of Figure below for op-amp gain and resistances and .
Solution
Note that since ,
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Voltage (Series-Shunt) Feedback
Example 6 Calculate the gain without and with feedback for the FET amplifier circuit of Figure below and the
following circuit values: , , , , and .
Solution
Neglecting the resistance of and in series gives
The feedback factor is
The gain with feedback is
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Voltage (Series-Shunt) Feedback
Example 7 Consider the noninverting op-amp circuit shown in Figure below, with parameters , , and . Assume . Let
the input signal voltage be .
a) What is the ideal voltage gain and the ideal output voltage?
b) (i) Determine the actual closed-loop gain and the actual output voltage. (ii) What is the error voltage ?
c) If the open-loop gain increases by a factor of , what are the values of (i) the closed-loop gain and (ii) the error
voltage?
Solution
(a) (ii)
(c)(i)
(b)(i)
(ii)
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Transconductance (Series-Series) Feedback
BJT Amplifier
Another feedback technique is to sample the output current and return a proportional voltage in series with the input. Although it
stabilizes the amplifier gain, the Series-Series feedback connection increases input resistance. Figure 2.19 shows a single transistor
amplifier stage. Since the emitter of this stage has an unbypassed emitter, it effectively has Series-Series feedback. The current through
resistor results in a feedback voltage that opposes the source signal applied, so that the output voltage is reduced. To remove the
Series-Series feedback, the emitter resistor must be either removed or bypassed by a capacitor.
Without feedback
𝐼𝑜 − 𝐼 𝑏 h 𝑓𝑒
𝐴= =
𝑉 𝑖 𝐼 𝑏 h𝑖𝑒 + 𝑅 𝐸
−𝒉 𝒇𝒆
𝑨=
𝒉𝒊𝒆+ 𝑹 𝑬
𝑽 𝒇 − 𝑰𝒐 𝑹𝑬
𝜷= = =− 𝑹 𝑬
𝑰𝒐 𝑰𝒐
The input and output impedances are, respectively,
𝑹 𝒊 = 𝑹 𝑩 ∥ ( 𝒉 𝒊𝒆 + 𝑹 𝑬 ) ≅ 𝒉 𝒊𝒆+ 𝑹 𝑬
𝑹 𝒐 =𝑹 𝑪 Figure 2.19
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Transconductance (Series-Series) Feedback
BJT Amplifier
With feedback
The input and output impedances are calculated as 𝑮=
− 𝒉 𝒇𝒆
𝒉𝒊𝒆 +𝒉 𝒇𝒆 𝑹 𝑬
𝑹 𝒊𝒇 =𝒉𝒊𝒆 +𝒉 𝒇𝒆 𝑹 𝑬
The voltage gain with feedback is
𝑹 𝒐 𝒇 =𝑹 𝒐 ( 𝟏+ 𝑨 𝜷 )= 𝑹𝑪 𝟏+
( 𝒉 𝒇𝒆 𝑹 𝑬
𝒉𝒊𝒆 )
( )
𝑉 𝑜 𝐼 𝑜 𝑅𝐶 𝐼𝑜 − 𝒉𝒇𝒆 𝑹𝑪
𝐺𝑣 = = = 𝑅 =𝑮 𝑹𝑪 𝑮𝒗 ≅
𝑉𝑠 𝑉𝑠 𝑉𝑠 𝐶 𝒉𝒊𝒆+ 𝒉 𝒇𝒆 𝑹 𝑬
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Transconductance (Series-Series) Feedback
Example 8 Calculate the voltage gain of the circuit of Figure below.
Solution
Without feedback
With feedback
The voltage gain with feedback is
Without feedback (), the voltage gain is
− 𝑹𝑪
𝑮𝒗 =
𝒓𝒆
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Transresistance (Shunt-Shunt) Feedback
Op-Amp Amplifier
The constant-gain op-amp circuit of Figure 2.20(a) provides Shunt-Shunt
feedback.
The op-amp ideal characteristics , , and voltage gain of infinity, we have
𝑉𝑜
𝐴= =∞
𝐼𝑖
𝑰 𝒇 −𝟏
𝜷= =
The gain with feedback is then 𝑽 𝒐 𝑹𝒐
𝑽𝒐 𝑽𝒐 𝑨 𝟏
𝑮= = = = =− 𝑹 𝒐
𝑰𝒔 𝑰 𝒊 𝟏+ 𝑨 𝜷 𝜷
This is a transfer resistance gain. The more usual gain is the voltage gain
with feedback,
𝑽𝒐 𝑰𝒔 𝟏 − 𝑹𝒐
𝑮𝒗 = =( − 𝑹𝒐 ) =
𝑰𝒔 𝑽𝟏 𝑹𝟏 𝑹𝟏
Figure 2.20
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FET Amplifier
The circuit of Figure 2.21 is a Shunt-Shunt feedback amplifier using an FET with no feedback, .
𝑽𝒐
𝑨= ≅ − 𝒈𝒎 𝑹 𝑫 𝑹 𝑺
𝑰𝒊
The feedback is
𝑰 𝒇 −𝟏
𝜷= =
𝑽 𝒐 𝑹𝑭
With feedback, the gain of the circuit is
−𝒈 𝒎 𝑹 𝑫 𝑹 𝑺 𝑹 𝑭
The voltage gain of the circuit with feedback
𝑮= is then
𝑹 𝑭 + 𝒈𝒎 𝑹 𝑫 𝑹 𝑺
− 𝒈𝒎 𝑹𝑫 𝑹𝑭
𝑮𝒗 =
𝑹 𝑭 + 𝒈𝒎 𝑹 𝑫 𝑹 𝑺
Figure 2.21
Chapter two – feedback Department of Electrical Engineering- College of Engineering- University of Misan 37
amplifier
Transresistance (Shunt-Shunt) Feedback
Example 9 Calculate the voltage gain with and without feedback for the circuit of Figure below with values of , , ,
and .
Solution
Without feedback, the voltage gain is
With feedback the gain is reduced to
