Automatic Identification and Data
Capture
Sections:
1. Overview of Automatic Identification Methods
2. Bar Code Technology
3. Radio Frequency Identification
4. Other AIDC Technologies
Automatic Identification
and Data Capture
A family of technologies that provide direct entry of data
into a computer or other microprocessor controlled
system without using a keyboard
Reasons for using AIDC:
1. Data accuracy
2. Timeliness
3. Labor reduction
Alternative to AIDC: Manual Methods
of Data Collection and Entry
Problems with manual collection and data entry:
1. Human errors
When data are collected and entered manually
Average error rate of manual keyboard entry is one
error per 300 characters
2. Time factor
Time delay between occurrence of activities and events
and entry of associated data
Manual methods are inherently time consuming
3. Labor cost
Cost of full-time attention of human worker
AIDC Applications
Retail sales and inventory control
Material handling
Shipping and receiving, sortation, order picking, mail
and parcel handling
Factory operations
Order processing, WIP tracking, machine utilization,
worker attendance
Other
Patient identification in hospitals, check processing in
banks, security system
Components of AIDC
Nearly all AIDC technologies consist of three principal
components, which are the sequential steps in AIDC:
1. Data encoding - a code is a set of symbols or signals that
usually represent alphanumeric characters
alphanumeric characters are translated to machine-
readable form
1. Machine reading or scanning - scanner reads the
encoded data and converts it to alternative form, usually
an electrical signal
2. Data decoding - electrical signal is transformed into digital
data and finally back into original alphanumeric
characters
AIDC Technologies
Many different technologies are used to implement AIDC
1. Optical
Bar codes (linear and 2-D), optical character
recognition, machine vision
2. Electromagnetic
Radio frequency identification (RFID)
3. Magnetic
Data are encoded magnetically, similar to magnetic
tape (e.g., plastic credit cards, bank checks), and
magnetic ink character recognition
AIDC Technologies
4. Smart card
Small plastic cards imbedded with microchips
(integrated circuits)
5. Touch techniques
Touch screens
6. Biometric
Voice recognition, fingerprint analysis, retinal eye
scans
Measures of AIDC Reading Accuracy
Although the error rate in automatic identification and
data collection technologies is much lower than for
manual data collection and entry, errors do occur in ADC.
The industry has adopted two parameters to measure the
errors:
1. First read rate (FRR)
Probability of a successful (correct) reading by the
scanner in its initial attempt
2. Substitution error rate (SER)
Probability of scanner incorrectly reading the
encoded character as some other character
In a given set of encoded data containing n
characters, the expected number of errors = SER x n
Bar Code Technology
Bar codes are of two basic types:
1. Linear
Encoded data are read using a linear sweep of the
scanner
2. Two-dimensional
Encoded data must be read in both directions
Linear (One-Dimensional) Bar Codes
Two forms of linear bar codes:
1. Width-modulated
Symbol consists of bars and spaces of varying width
Most widely used (e.g., Universal Product Code)
2. Height-modulated
Symbol consists of evenly spaced bars of varying
height
Used only by U.S. Postal Service for ZIP code
identification
Two Forms of Bar Codes
(a) (b)
(a) Width-modulated bar code, exemplified here by the Universal
Product Code (UPC), and
(b) height-modulated bar code, exemplified by Postnet, used by the
U.S. Postal Service
SOS Distress Signal in
"Morse" Bar Codes
Difficulties with the "Morse" bar codes:
(1) only the dark bars are used, thus increasing the length of the
coded symbol, and
(2) (2) the number of bars making up the alphanumeric characters
differs, making decoding more difficult
Reading the Bar Code
Bar code readers interpret the code by scanning and
decoding the sequence of bars
The reader consists of the scanner and decoder.
The scanner emits a beam of light that is swept past
the bar code (either manually or automatically) and
senses light reflections to distinguish between the bars
and spaces.
The light reflections are sensed by a photodetector,
which converts the spaces into an electrical signal and
the bars into absence of an electrical signal.
Reading the Bar Code
(a)
(b)
Conversion of bar code into a electrical signal pulse train :
(a) bar code and,
(b) corresponding electrical signal
Bar code symbol
The bar code standard adopted by many
manufacturing industries is Code 39, also known as
AIM USD-2 (Automatic Identification Manufacturers
Uniform Symbol Description-2)
Code 39 uses a series of wide and narrow elements
(bars and spaces) to represent alphanumeric and other
characters
The wide elements are equivalent to a binary value of
one and the narrow elements art equal to zero
The width of the wide bars and spaces is between two
and three times the width of the narrow bars and
spaces.
USD-2
Character Set
USD-2 is a subset
of Code 39
Code 39
Tile reason for the name Code 39 is that nine elements
(bars and spaces) are used in each character and three of
the elements are wide.
The placement of the wide spaces and bars in the code is
what uniquely designates the character.
The code is sometimes referred to as code three-of-nine.
In addition to the character set in the bar code. there must
also be a so-called "quiet zone" both preceding and
following the bar code, in which there is no printing that
might confuse the decoder.
Code 39
A typical grouping of
characters to form a
bar code in Code 39.
Linear Bar Code Readers
Usually classified as:
1. Contact
Hand-held wands or light pens operated by moving
the tip quickly past the bar code
2. Noncontact
Readers focus a light beam on the bar code and a
photo detector reads the reflected signal
1. Fixed beam - stationary readers used fixed beam
2. Moving beam - light beam (lasers) traverse an
angular sweep to search for the bar code
Bar Code Scanner
Stationary moving beam bar code scanner located along a moving
conveyor
Bar-Coded Route Sheet
Bar-coded
production order
and route sheet
Two-Dimensional Bar Codes
First 2-D bar code introduced in 1987
Two basic types of 2-D bar code symbols
1. Stacked bar codes
Consists of multiple rows of conventional bar
codes stacked on top of each other
2. Matrix symbologies
Consists of 2-D patterns of data cells that are
usually square and are colored dark or white
Advantage over stacked bar codes is capability to
contain more data
2-D Stacked Bar Code (PDF417)
2-D Matrix Bar Code (Data Matrix)
Radio Frequency Identification
RFID uses an identification tag containing electronically
coded data that is attached to the subject item.
The tag consists of a memory microchip and an antenna,
usually encased in a plastic container
The tag is a transponder - a device capable of emitting
a signal of its own when it receives a signal from an
external source
The tag communicates the encoded data by RF as
the item passes a reader and is activated by a low-
level RF magnetic field transmitted by the reader.
Radio Frequency Identification
RFID represents the biggest challenge to the
predominance of bar codes
Wal-Mart, Target, Metro AG (Germany) and U.S. DoD
have mandated their suppliers use RFID on incoming
materials
According to a study of Wal-Mart, "RFID stores are 63
percent more effective in replenishing out-of-stock
items than traditional stores"
Types of RFID Tags
1. Passive tags
Have no internal power source
They derive their electrical power from the external
signal transmitted by the reader
Smaller, less expensive, longer lasting
2. Active tags
Have their own battery power packs
Possess a larger memory capacity and longer
communication range
Higher cost and used for higher value items
Industrial Applications of RFID
Inventory management
Supply chain management
Tracking systems
Warehouse control
Location identification
Work-in-progress
RFID Advantages and Disadvantages
Advantages
Identification does not depend on physical contact or
direct line of sight
Much more data can be contained in the identification
tag than with most AIDC technologies
Data in read/write tags can be altered for historical
usage purposes or to reuse the tag
Disadvantages
More expensive than most other AIDC technologies
Bar Codes vs. RFID
Comparison Bar Codes RFID
Technology Optical Radio frequency
Read-write capability Read only Read-write available
Memory capacity 14 to 16 digits (linear) 96 to 256 digits
Line-of-sight reading Required Not required
Reusability One-time use Reusable
Cost Very low cost per label Approx 10X cost of bar
code
Durability Susceptible to dirt Mode durable in plant
and scratches environment
Other AIDC Technologies
Magnetic stripes
Used for credit cards and money access cards
More expensive than bar codes
Must contact scanner to obtain a reading
Optical character recognition (OCR)
Can be read by humans and machine readers
Low first read rate
Machine vision
Principal application is inspection
Used with 2-D optical symbols
