Baroid BSS Revalidation Exam Study Guide

1. Solids and Solids Control Theory

Be able to identify Solids Classifications.

First, solid particles are classified by the Source of the solid. This is referring to the means by which the solid was
introduced to the drilling fluid. Solids contributing to the overall solids volume can only be attributed by two
different sources:

- A Commercial Solid that is added by the mud engineer or derrick hand (Additives).
- A Drill Solid that is generated by the crushing and chipping action of the drill bit.

Second, solids are classified in reference to the Specific Gravity of the solid. Simply stated, some solids are denser
than others.

- HGS are solids with a higher specific gravity that function as weighting material. Solids such as Barite with
a SG of 4.2 are classified as HGS.
- LGS are solids with a lower specific gravity in comparison. LGS can be commercial additives or drill solids.
These solids typically pose a SG of around 2.6.

Third, solids are classified based on the Solid Particle Size. The three classifications shown here (Sand, silt, and
colloidal) are generalized, not API specifications. The size of the solid particle in a mud dictates the challenges it
provides. For example, large sand sized solids may be easier to remove, but their abrasiveness can attribute to
negative consequences related to equipment damage. When it comes to fluid performance and solid control the
smaller particles provide increased challenges.

Lastly, solids are classified in reference to the Solid Particle Reactivity. This refers to how the solids interact with
water and ions in the water.
Understand solids particle size effects on Physical Fluid properties.

Ultrafines and colloids have pronounced effects on mud properties because both particle types have large surface
to volume ratios.

These solids are responsible for up to 80% of all drilling fluid treatments costs.

The viscosity and fluid loss properties of a drilling fluid are difficult to control with high concentrations of drilled
solids smaller than 44 microns.

The effect of drill solids degradation on surface area is demonstrated in the figure displayed, which shows that the
surface area increases almost 400 times when a particle degrades from 100 micron to 1 micron.

Today, fluids are highly inhibitive and attempt to prevent cuttings dispersion similar to that demonstrated in the
figure shown on the top left. However, the fluids themselves cannot prevent cuttings recirculation or the
mechanical degradation inherent from recirculation.

Drilled solids that circulate through the mud tanks and back downhole are subject to mechanical degradation from
surface pumps, drill pipe rotation, mud motors, and the bit’s jet nozzles. It is imperative that solids control
equipment remove solids as far upstream as possible in the mud system. Once drilled solids have degraded to
ultrafines or colloids, it is increasingly difficult to remove them by mechanical separation or settling.

This is due to the obvious size reduction which reduces the solids mass, but the most pronounced effect is due to
the increased solid surface area increasing the viscosity.

If this factor is not properly managed the necessity of increased dilution will be the only solution.
Be able to understand Solids Concentration Problems

- Effect of Solids on ROP (Rate of Penetration)

• Rate of penetration (ROP) can be affected by many variables, including: hydraulics, weight-on-bit,
rotational speed, bit wear, lithology and bottom-hole circulating pressure. It is this latter factor that is the
most experienced.

• High solids content ultimately can increase the density and viscosity of the mud. Hence, it exposes the well
to high BHP. Moreover, high horse power is also required to break up the gel and pump the mud for
circulation. This not only leads to hydraulic fracturing, but also induces the tendency of mud losses into
the formation. The higher the mud density and viscosity, the greater the differential pressure exerts.

• ROP decreases when differential pressure increases as the formation cannot handle excessive pressures
provided by the hydraulic energy paired with the denser and thicker fluid.

• Due to the increased differential pressure the driller will have to slow the circulation rate of the mud
pumps. Without the proper pump rate to efficiently transport cuttings out of the well the driller will also
have to decrease the ROP’s in order to maintain adequate hole cleaning.

• ROP is also affected by drill solids in which drill bits are exposed to and if not properly managed will lead
to a solid cushioning effect of solids between the bit and formation that will lead to pre-mature bit failure.

• Significantly reduced ROP and time out of the hole changing the bit are detrimental to the operational
cost. The old phrase “TIME IS MONEY” is especially true in this instance and commonly referenced in the
field.

- Effect of Solids on ECD (Equivalent Circulating Density)

• ECD (equivalent circulating density) is the dynamic density exerted by a circulating mud at any point in the
borehole. The equivalent circulating density or dynamic density at any time during fluid flow is always
greater than the static mud density when flow is stopped.

• The mud pumps supply the pressure that forces drilling mud down the drill string to the bottom of the
hole and up again to the surface.

• As the drilling mud exits the bit nozzles, it flows through the annular space between the drill string and the
borehole wall.
• Contact is made between the drilling mud and the borehole wall as drilling mud flows upwards to the
surface, this contact creates some form of “drag” as a result of friction and the drilling mud loses some of
the pressure supplied by the pump in order to overcome the frictional drag.

• This frictional drag is significantly increased with higher amounts of solids, especially finer drilled solids.
The thicker viscosities and higher densities attribute greatly to increased ECD’s.

• The higher the frictional drag between the mud and the borehole, the higher the pressure drop in the mud
and the higher the ECD.

• This pressure loss is absorbed by the formation; therefore, the equivalent circulating density is the sum of
this pressure loss and the original mud density of the drilling mud under static conditions. This is why the
ECD is always greater than the static mud density.

• Obviously, the greater the pressure loss from the drilling mud due to frictional drag, the higher the ECD
will be.

• The hydrostatic pressure from the mud is a function of the mud density. The aim is to always keep the
hydrostatic pressure within safe limits such that it is not too high and ends up exerting a pressure that
fractures the wellbore resulting in loss circulation, or possibly too low resulting in an influx resulting in a
kick.

- Effect of Solids on Differential Sticking

• Failure to control the build of solid and regrinding the same drilled cutting may increase the mud surface
area causing them to become very difficult to remove using mechanical solid control equipment.

• High concentrations of drill solids do not provide the appropriate PSD (Particle Size Distribution), and due
to the increased abrasiveness present with drill solids it will deteriorate the quality of the filter cake .
Therefore, the drill solids will lead to a substantial increase in the filter cake thickness, as well as increase
the amount of filtrate invasion to the formation.

• The thicker the filter cake, the higher chances of drill string to get stuck due to the differential sticking
effect.

• Thin and impermeable filter cakes are important as they reduce contact area across the drill string.

• Due to the thick and highly permeable filter cake, annular pressures and velocities tend to increase
resulting in worsened hole cleaning capabilities.

• The accumulation of drill solids in any given section of the wellbore will lead to a high mud overbalance in
which the hydrostatic pressure is far too much above the formation pressure. The overbalance paired with
a thick filter cake results in contact between the drill string in the wellbore and the highly permeable filter
cake. This often leads to stuck pipe.

• This is an extremely devastating result attributed to solids contamination.

- Effect of Solids on Erosion

• Wear due to erosion is costly due to down time, and the expense of replacing worn equipment.

• Wear rates depend on Solids content, solid shape, solid type and solid size (especially sand size particles
74 microns and above) as well as impact force.

• The sand content test is used to monitor the amount of particles with a diameter greater than 74 microns.

• The sand content should normally be less than 1/4 %.

• Equipment most affected by high solids are:

– Pumps, pump liners, valve seats and seals.

– Shaker screens, hydrocyclones and centrifuges
– Turbines and MWD tools
– Tubulars and bits

• Larger abrasive solids are easier to remove if you optimize your solids separation equipment and control
fluid properties.

• In some instances where the solids accumulation begins so excessive the properties such as viscosity
become so thick that the shaker screens are unable to make an effective cut without losing large amounts
of fluid. This often results in changing to a coarser screen that allows a higher amount and larger particles
to pass through to the active circulation. This leads to ineffective operations with downstream equipment
and can lead to a much higher volume of abrasive sand sized particles left in the mud that will cause
significant wear and tear on some of the forementioned equipment and drilling components. The cost to
repair or replace is noteworthy, but the cost of NPT can be much more severe given the operation stops
to replace or repair those components.

- Effect of Solids on Dilution Cost

• If the solids are not properly managed, they pose a much higher probability of encountering some of the
devastating risks discussed. These are all costly risks to the overall drilling operations but can be mitigated
with proper implementation of solids control equipment.

• The phrase “Dilution is the Solution” is phrase commonly used by individuals in the industry. This is partly
true, but the impact on overall cost should be greatly considered when utilizing this method to control
solids build-up.

• Dilution is an essential element to drilling operations but should never be relied upon as the core means
to control solid concentration. Instead, it should be conservatively utilized to aid mechanical separation.
The overall objective of the solids control system is to mechanically separate the solids to minimize the
dilution to “essential dilution” only. This greatly reduces costs associated with:

• Mud Maintenance or the cost to build increased volumes of mud. This requires costly additions of
product additives as well as excess transportation costs to maintain product inventory.
• Increased waste volumes, as building more mud will result in an excess volume that will be
required to be stored, transported, and eventually disposed of which increases the overall drilling
costs.

Understand Mechanical Separation: Solid Control System

• Separation equipment is incorporated as part of the “Solids Control System” which is a critical component
of the “Surface Mud System” that ensures the drilling fluid is properly conditioned.

• The equipment is arranged on the “return pits” to process the returning drilling fluid transporting the drill
solids to surface.

• Separation tasks are facilitated by employing an arrangement of solids control equipment that uses various
methods to remove solids.

• Each component is designed to remove solids of a particular size range and arranged to remove
sequentially smaller solids.

Be able to identify Conventional Separation Equipment

• The conventional separation equipment is made up of a series of mechanical devices that are designed to
separate solids in a progressive sequence from largest to smallest.

• Some of these devices are specifically purposed for either “un-weighted” fluid or “weighted” fluid systems.
Un-weighted systems refer to fluid systems with lower mud densities that don’t comprise significant
amounts of weighting material and provide more available free liquid. Weighted muds are high density
muds that incorporate large amounts of weighting material and therefore have less free liquid. Essentially
the weighted system refers to fluids with higher amounts of solids that produce thicker viscosities.

• Shakers & Shaker Screens are:

– The first line of defense against drilled solids.

– They are configured to handle the maximum anticipated flow rate.
– They separate solids by micron size based on screen selection.
– Capable of removing 60-80% of the total generated drilled solids from the drilling fluid.

• Hydrocyclones are:

– Also referred to as desanders and desilters.

– The cone size dictates the size of particle it can remove.
– They separate solids through centrifugal force.
– They are utilized on un-weighted mud systems.

• A Mud Cleaner is:

– Purposed to remove solids larger than barite in weighted systems with use of an API 200 screen.
– can be used to minimize liquid phase losses of expensive base fluids.
– A mud cleaner is essentially a hydrocyclone package mounted on a shaker.

• A Centrifuge

– Offers various bowl designs and sizes fit for project specifications.
– They offer the flexibility to be utilized for various operations (max solids removal, barite
recovery, dewatering, secondary drying)
– They separate solids through centrifugal force (Accelerated Sedimentation).
2. Introduction to Drilling Fluids

Be able to name and understand the 10 basic functions of Drilling Fluids

Be able to identify Drilling Fluid Classes

3. Flow Divider

Be able to understand Flow Divider definition.

• The preliminary distribution of flow at the flow line is a critical element to a good solids control system
design.

• The equal distribution of flow distributed to the shakers equalizes the load that each shaker configured
into the system has to process.

• With unequal distribution, you face issues of having “too much” flow or “to little” flow to any given shaker.

• In the case that too much flow is being distributed to a certain shaker, the result would provide wetter
discharged solids and more than likely increased fluid loss. This situation would require that particular
shaker to be fit with Coarser screens and therefore it would compromise the solids removal negatively.

• In the case that too little flow is being distributed to a certain shaker the result would provide accumulation
of solids due to lower conveyance that would lead to excessive blinding and premature wear on screens.
This situation would require screening finer or adjusting flow with valve mechanisms on distributor or
manifold.

• The problem with adjusting flow with the use of valves leads to wear and tear on the valves as well as
restricting flow enough that it could plug the flowline.

4. Shakers

Be able to understand Shale Shaker performance:

• Capacity: is defined as both the amount of fluid that can be processed at any given time and the amount
of solids that can be loaded onto the screens to be processed.

• Dryness of solids discharge: All solids discharged from the end of the shaker will be coated in drilling fluid.
The shaker must convey the solids off the screen while simultaneously removing drilling fluids from the
solids. The drier the cuttings (solids) discharged the more drilling fluid that can be kept in the system, and
the less mud that will have to be added to maintain volume in the system.

• Solid’s removal: Refers to the size of cuttings (solids) discarded.

5. Pumps

Be able to understand how the Centrifugal pumps works.

• Centrifugal pumps offer a robustness that when properly operated and maintained they endure a long
pumping life. In addition, the operational design provides the ability to replace and even re-build these
pumps as a cost-effective alternative to purchasing new pumps.

• The centrifugal pump offers the ability to transfer fluid at a higher rate than positive displacement pumps
but also comprises limitations in reference to the pumping and flow characteristics that are not ideal for
more complex operations such as feeding processing equipment.

• These pumps are best suited for applications requiring high-capacity pumping of lower viscosity fluids.
Some of the day-to-day uses of centrifugal pumps on a drilling rig are listed but not limited to those
displayed on the slide.

Be able to understand Cavitation.

• Cavitation is possible in all centrifugal pumps.

• The eye is where fluid is drawn into the impeller and where the rotation of the impeller begins to act on
the fluid. When pressure acting on the liquid (the Net Positive Suction Head provided) is too low, bubbles
form, and as the liquid accelerates because of impeller rotation, pressure increases and the bubbles
collapse.

• Under normal atmospheric pressure conditions, fluids have predictable vapor pressure. As the pressure
inside the pump falls below the liquid's vapor pressure, bubbles form. The bubbles collapse when they
reach areas of the liquid where the pressure is above the vapor pressure.

• In less common instances, at extremely high discharge pressure, some fluid circulates inside the pump
instead of discharging. Fluid trapped between impeller and housing at very high velocity cause a drop in
pressure, creating the same conditions as for suction cavitation.

• In the case of cavitation, this formation and collapse is both rapid and violent. In extreme cases, cavitation
sounds like gravel circulating through the pump, pipes, or hoses. The effects of prolonged cavitation are
visible on the pump impeller and other components.

• Disrupted or poorly executed processing lines can cause suction or discharge pressure to fall, which leads
to cavitation.

• The best approach to avoid cavitation is to ensure the NPSH (Net Positive Suction Head) is efficient and
ensure the correct pump has been selected.

Be able to understand Centrifugal Pump Advantaged.

• The centrifugal pumps are simple in design in which there is not as many moving components. Less
mechanical components provide for more simplified maintenance and repair tasks.

• This aspect also accounts for the centrifugal pump being the cheaper alternative to the forementioned
positive displacement pumps. Not only is the initial cost to purchase a centrifugal pump a cheaper
alternative, but the upkeep and cost to replace vital components is cheaper as well.
• In addition, the centrifugal pump encompasses a smaller footprint than both the lobe and progressive
cavity pump. This provides the ability to place the pump in a wider range of configurations that may include
footprint restrictions. It’s compact size also provides the ability to more easily relocate the pump if the
operation requires.

• Lastly, though the centrifugal pump is more compact, it typically offers the ability to pump higher volumes.
The volume of the fluid is dictated by the horsepower and RPM delivered in conjunction with the size of
the impeller and casing.

Be able to understand Centrifugal Pump Limitations.

• The efficient operation of a centrifugal pump relies on the constant, high speed rotation of its
impeller. With high viscosity feeds, centrifugal pumps become increasingly inefficient: there is greater
resistance, and a higher pressure is needed to maintain a specific flow rate. In general, centrifugal pumps
are therefore suited to low pressure, high capacity, pumping applications of liquids with lower end
viscosities.

• High viscosity slurries such as drilling mud can cause excessive wear and overheating leading to damage
and premature failures. Positive displacement pumps often operate at considerably lower speeds and are
less prone to these problems.

• Any pumped medium that is sensitive to shearing such as drill solids and fluid additives such as polymers
can also be damaged by the high speed of a centrifugal pump impeller. In such cases, the lower speed of
a positive displacement pump is preferred.

• A further limitation is that, unlike a positive displacement pump, a centrifugal pump cannot provide
efficient suction. It must initially be primed with the pumped fluid. Centrifugal pumps are therefore not
suited to any application where the supply is intermittent. This provides the increased risk of pump
cavitation.
• Additionally, if the feed pressure is variable, a centrifugal pump produces a variable flow rate. a positive
displacement pump is insensitive to changing pressures and will provide a constant output. So, in
applications where accurate dosing is required, a positive displacement pump is preferred.

• Centrifugal Pump will degrade solids the most.

6. Positive Displacement Pumps (PC Pumps)

Be able to understand Positive Displacement (PD) Pumps Operations

• Flow rate can be easily adjusted (Variable Speed)

• The PC pumping characteristics are inherent to most positive displacement pumping characteristics, but
in addition, the PC pump provides the ability to efficiently handle fluids with high solids content. This is
one aspect that other positive displacement pumps such as gear pumps, vane pumps, and peristaltic
pumps encounter significant issues that typically result in the solids packing off or damaging the pumping
elements of the pump.

• The low velocity nature of the pump provides several advantageous pumping characteristics in which due
to the low shearing and gentle conveying action the PC pump is well suited to transport fluids with fragile
solids.

• Unlike the centrifugal pump, a PC pumps flow rate is proportional in which each revolution of the rotor
inside the stator provides a consistent volume delivered regardless of fluid consistency. The centrifugal
pump pressure is directly related to the speed at which the fluid is accelerated combined with the
consistency of the medium being pumped.

• Thicker, heavier fluids will have different volumetric flow rates than lighter less viscous fluids in a
centrifugal pump. For a PC pump the pressure is independent of speed and provided the volume space of
each cavity between the rotor and stator remains unchanged, the pump will deliver the same amount of
volume with every revolution.

• The PC pump can also maintain a suction and therefore is a self priming pump. This provides flexibility as
to how the pump can be incorporated into an operation in which it does not require Net Positive Suction
head to maintain continual pumping operations.
Be able to understand Positive Displacement Pumps (PC Pumps) Applications

7. Midstream Separation: (Degassers, Hydrocyclones & Mud Cleaners)

Be able to identify a Desander & Desilter and understand it’s operation theory:

Hydrocyclones removal efficiencies are greatly influenced by the following three factors:

– Drilling fluid properties

▪ Percent solids and solids distribution…more solids = coarser cut
▪ Liquid phase density…higher density = coarser cut
▪ Viscosity…higher viscosity = coarser cut
– Centrifugal pump operations
▪ Reduced feet of head = coarser cut / less capacity
– Cone size and geometric design
▪ Inner diameter
▪ Geometry of the feed, overflow, and underflow openings.
8. Centrifuges

Be able to understand Centrifuges Principles of Operations as well as identify Centrifuge Components (Gear
Box, Bowl, Conveyor, etc.)

Be able to understand Centrifuges performance with regards to the feed

- Drilling Fluids Properties (Density & Viscosity).

- Properties of individual solids
- Quantity and size distribution of total solids

Be able to understand Centrifuges performance factors with regards to the equipment itself:

Bowl Geometry retention Time in Pond Depth

Centrifugal forces Dewatering Time on the beach

Torque

Be able to understand Dewatering Time in a Centrifuge

• The conveyor differential speed determines how fast the solids move across the beach and thus how much
time the solids have to dewater. A faster conveyor differential speed gives less time for dewatering and
yields a wetter solids discharge. A slower conveyor differential speed gives more time for dewatering and
yields a drier solids discharge.

• The available beach area is in part determined by the bowl geometry, specifically the steepness of the
beach. This illustration shows two centrifuges with the same cylindrical bowl section and same pond
depth. Notice on Centrifuge 1 with the more gradual beach angle, there is more available beach area for
dewatering. Centrifuge 2 has a steeper beach with less area for dewatering.

• An important consideration when attempting to attain the driest possible solids discharge is conveyor
torque. The conveyor can more easily move wetter solids because there is less friction, just as a wet floor
is slippery when wet. However, drier solids create greater friction and it requires more torque on the
conveyor to move the solids across the beach. Conveyor torque should be carefully monitored to prevent
overloading when attempting to achieve the drier solids discharge.

Be able to understand Stoke’s Law based on the chart below:

Be able to understand the operational variables of a centrifuge that can be adjusted (detailed below) and what
operational parameter will be affected by the given adjustment:

Bowl Speed Conveyor Speed

Feed Rate Pond Depth

Feed Dilution

Be able to identify and describe the Centrifuge primary applications detailed below:

- Max Solids removal

- Barite recovery
- Dewatering
Be able to identify and understand a centrifuge Barite recovery configuration as it shows below:

Be able to identify the three different types of centrifuges:

- Full Hydraulic Drive (FHD)

- Variable Frequency Drive (VFD)
- Gear Box Drive (GBD)

9. BaraG-Force Vertical Cutting Dryer (VCD)

Be able to understand Vertical Cutting Dryer (VCD) Operation principle / Identify Separation Methods:

Centrifugal Force Screening (Filtration)

Be able to identify VCD Components:

Be able to identify and describe the main components of the Rotating Assembly (RA):

Basket Screen Flights with cone

Be able to know the ROC achieved at the discharge of the VCD. (Maintains < 5% ROC average)

Be able to identify and describe all equipment needed to complete the vertical Dryer operations.

VCD & Control Panel Solids Delivery System

Solids Discharge System Positive Displacement Pumps

Effluent (Recovery) Tank High Speed Centrifuge

10. Waste Handling and Transportation

Be able to understand Screw Conveyors Operations.

Be able to identify Screw Conveyor Components (Electric Motor, Gear Box, Bearing, Through, etc.).

Be able to know the optimal and maximum through load for a screw conveyor:
11. BaraClear Filtration

Be able to define the Following:

Filtration: Mechanical removal of solids from a fluid by means of a pressurized flow through a permeable
medium.

Permeability: is the measurement used to describe the ability of the fluid to flow through the rock formation.

Porosity: is the percentage of the open or void space in the rock that fluid can encompass.

Be able to identify every piece of the equipment use in a Filtration Operation.

Fluid flow path:

Wellbore, Header Box, Shakers, return pits, filtration unit, active pits, rig pumps.

Be able to identify and understand the common field test for Filtration:

TSS (Total Suspended Solids) Turbidity (NTU)

• There are a number of tests that are done on a fairly constant basis, but the two tests that will be ran in
high capacities to determine the cleanliness of the brine in the field are the NTU test and the centrifugal
spin out (TSS).

• The NTU meter tests the turbidity, or clarity of the fluid; while the centrifugal spin out (TSS) measures the
solids content of the fluid.

• NTU stands for Nephelometric Turbidity Unit. This is a measure of the clarity of the fluid. Using an NTU
Meter, a beam of light is directed into the sample, a detector on the opposite side measures how much
light is allowed through the sample.

• As less light is allowed through the sample, a higher value will be displayed. This means that an ideal
number is around 20 NTU. You should also be aware that certain products added to the fluid can raise the
NTU number. Even though a 20 NTU is accepted by the industry, the real values that should be looked at
are those entering the well versus those exiting the well.

• The second test that the filtration operator will perform is the solids analysis via centrifugal spin-out (TSS).
To perform this test a new sample is caught and put into a glass vial, this vial has graduated marking on it
that will give the quantitative value of solids content. Once the sample is caught, it is spun at a high-speed
using the hand-crank centrifuge. The extra g-forces applied to the fluid cause the solids to fall to the
bottom and build up.

• Even though there is no such thing as a solids-free fluid, this value will never be “0”. If there is no visible
solids in the sample after being spun-out, the value notated should be <.025%, noting just a trace of solids
in the fluid.

• These tests are conducted on samples gathered from multiple sample points throughout the process.
However, to ensure the fluid is clean and meets NTU & TSS specifications, the fluid sample should be
gathered as close to the return of the wellbore as possible.