EXPERIMENT NO 1.

Aim: Study of various type of measuring Instruments and selecting

appropriate meter for measurement.

➢ Measuring instruments are used for the measurement of electrical

quantities like
1. Current
2. Voltage
3. Frequency
4. Power
5. Electrical Energy
6. Resistance

➢ Measuring instruments are classified into two categories

• Analog instruments
• Digital instruments

Analog instruments: Analog instrument gives their output in terms of

deflection of pointer over a calibrated scale. Analog instruments are used for
the measurement of analog quantity which continuously varies with time.

Digital instruments: Digital instrument gives their output in terms of digits.

In the digital instruments seven segment digital display system is used.
Digital instruments are used for the measurement of discrete quantities.

According to their working principle instruments are of following types

TYPE SYMBOL ELECTRICALQUANT

ITY

PMMC, Permanent DC, Voltage DC,

magnet moving coil Current
instrument

MI ,moving iron AC and DC voltages and

instrument currents
Electro Dynamometer Watt-meter
type

Name of Measuring Instruments Name of Electrical Quantity

Voltmeter, Multimeter Voltage (AC and DC)

Ammeter, Multimeter Current (AC and DC)

Ohm-Meter, Multimeter Resistance

Frequency Meter Frequency

Wattmeter Power

Energy Meter or KWH Meter Electrical Energy

CRO- Cathode Ray Oscilloscope Time period, Frequency, Amplitude

of voltage & current.

Ammeters: Ammeters are used for the measurement of the current flowing
through the circuit, as such these are connected in series with the circuit.
The voltage drop across the terminal of the ammeter, while connected in
series with the circuit should be as low as possible, so that the power
consumption of the meter is small. Hence the resistance of the current coil
of the meter should be very low.

Voltmeters: Voltmeters are used for the measuring the potential difference
between two points of the circuit. These are connected in parallel with the
circuit for the measurement of voltage. The voltmeter should draw a very
small current, while connected in a circuit, so that it’s power consumptions
is small. Hence the resistance of the voltmeter should be very high.

Watt meter: Watt meter is used to measure the power in AC circuit. The
power in DC circuit can be measured by voltmeter and ammeter. The
product of the two reading(V*I) gives the power in DC circuit However, in
single phase AC circuit, average power over a cycle consumed by a circuit
is equal to VI cosØ , where V & I are the RMS value of voltage & current
and cosØ is power factor of the load. Thus power consumed by AC circuit
can be measured properly connected the voltmeter, ammeter and power
factor meter in the circuit. However the use of these meters reduce the
accuracy method of measurement, more over it quit expensive. Hence the
most convenient and efficient method of measuring the power in single
phase and tree phase AC circuit is to use wattmeter properly connected in
the circuit.

Multiplying of wattmeter: = Voltage rating * Current rating

*cosɸ
No of division on main scale
EXPERIMENT NO. 2

AIM:-
To verify the Kirchhoff’s current law (KCL) and Kirchhoff’s voltage law
(KVL).

APPARATUS REQUIRED:

S.NO NAME OF THE RANGE Type QUANTI

EQUIPMENTS TY
1 Regulated Power Supply 0-30 V,5A - 1
(RPS).
2. Ammeter (DC) 0-1 A Moving 2
0-2 A Iron(MI) 1
3 Voltmeter (DC) 0-30 V MI 3
4 Resistors 100-250 ohms
3
5 Bread board - - 1
4. Connecting Wires - - As per
requiremen
t

a) KIRCHHOFF’S CURRENT LAW (KCL)

It States that the algebraic sum of currents meeting at a junction of

conductors is zero. In other words, the sum of the currents flowing away
from a junction is equal to the sum of currents flowing towards the junction.
This law is illustrated in fig (2.1) Where there are six currents I1,I2,I3,I4,I5 &
I6 meeting at a junction . Assuming the current entering into the junction as
positive and currents leaving the junction as negative, we can take the
algebraic sum of all of these six currents and equate it to zero:
I1+I2 +I3+I4 -I5- I6 =0 ……………(1

Mathematically the equation can be written as

I
j =1
j =0

Where j = No of branches

Fig (2.1)

Alternatively, we can write KCL as the sum of currents flowing towards the
junction equal to the sum of currents flowing away from the junction. Thus,

I1+I2 +I3+I4 = I5+I6

……………….(2)

Kirchhoff’s current law is nothing more than a restatement of Principle of

conservation of charge. Since the accumulation of electric charge at a
junction is not possible, the amount of charge entering a junction at an
instant must be the same as the amount of charge leaving the junction.

b) Kirchhoff’s Voltage Law (KVL).

Kirchhoff’s Voltage law states that the algebraic sum of the voltage around
any closed path in a given circuit is always zero.

fig (2.2)

Consider the fig (2.2) in which there are 3 resistors in series. According to
kirchhoff’s voltage law

V = V1 + V2 + V3
………………………(3)

While writing the KVL equation for a circuit, attention should be paid to the
algebraic sign of the voltage across each element. Kirchhoff’s voltage law
can be also be stated as
the algebric sum of product of current and resistance in each of the
conductors in any closed path in a network plus the algebric sum of the
e.m.f. in the closed path is zero. ΣIR+ΣE.M.F. =0
………………(4)
We may apply KVL to a circuit in several different ways. Often students
commit error while writing KVL equation for a closed circuit. Viewing
KVL, as given in eq. (3) leads to fewer errors than other statements. To
apply KVL, you should first mark the polarity of the voltage across each
element. In a resistor, the polarity depends upon the assumed direction of
the current

As shown in the fig (2.3) (a),the end into which the current enters is marked
+ - + -

Assumed direction of current

(a) A resistor (b) A battery

Fig (2.3) Polarity of voltage

Positive, the end from which the current leaves is marked negative . Note
that, as shown in fig (2.3) (b) ,the polarity of the voltage (emf) across a
battery does not depend upon the assumed direction of current flowing
through the circuit.
Now, you can write the KVL equation simply by moving around
the closed circuit in a clockwise (or in an anticlockwise, if you so wish)
direction & writing down directly the voltage of each element whose (+)
terminal is entered and writing down the negative of every voltage first met
at (-) sign.

CIRCUIT DIAGRAM:

1. KCL
Fig

(2.4)

2. KVL
Fig(2.5)

PROCEDURE:

1. Kirchhoff’s current law (KCL):

1. Make the connection as per the circuit diagram fig (2.4 ).

2. Switch on the power supply.
3. Measure the current in the three ammeters.
4. Repeat the procedure and take 4 to 5 readings.
5. Check that at every time current in the main branch is equal to the sum
of currents in the two branches.
6. Switch off the main supply and remove the connections.
2. Kirchhoff’s voltage law (KVL) :

1. Make the connection as per the circuit diagram fig (2.5 ).

2.Switch on the power supply.
3. Measure the voltage in the three voltmeters.
4.Repeat the procedure and take 4 to 5 readings.
5. Switch off the main supply and remove the connections.

OBSERVATION TABLE:

1. Kirchhoff’s current law (KCL):

Observation table 1

S.NO. APPLIED TOTAL I1 I2 I=I1+I2

VOLTAGE CURRENT (mA) (mA) (mA)

(V)
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.

2. Kirchhoff’s voltage law (KVL)

Observation table 2

S.N APPLIED V1 (Volts) V2 (Volts) V3 (Volts) V=

O. VOLTAGE(V) V2+V2+V
2

1.
2.
3.
4.
5.

CALCULATIONS:-

1. Kirchhoff’s current law (KCL):

% Error = calculated current – input current x 100

input current

2. Kirchhoff’s voltage law (KVL) :

% Error = calculated voltage – input voltage x 100

input voltage

FORMULA USED:-

1. Kirchhoff’s current law (KCL):

I = 0
I=I1+I2

2. Kirchhoff’s voltage law (KVL) :

ΣIR+ΣE.M.F. =0

Hence,
V = 0
i.e. V =V1 +V2 + V3

RESULTS

From the observation table 1 , it is concluded that the algebraic sum of

current at any node is ZERO(for each observation).

From the observation table 2 , it is concluded that the algebraic sum of the
voltages around the closed loop is 0 volts (for each observation)

PRECAUTIONS:

Following precautions should be observed while performing this

experiment:

1. All the connections should be tight.

2. Before connecting the instruments, check their zero reading.
3. The directions of current should be identified correctly.
5. Remove zero error and parallax in indicating instruments.
6. Instruments of least possible range should be used.
7 . Reading should be taken carefully.
8. All the safety precautions of basic electrical lab should be followed.

VIVA –VOCE QUESTIONS

Q.1 What is the statement of Kirchhoff’s first law?
Ans. The sum of the currents entering at any junction is equal to the sum of
the currents leaving the junction.
Q.2 According to Kirchhoff’s second law, the algebraic sum of all IR drops
and emf’s in any closed loop of a network is equal to…
Ans. It is equal to zero.
Q.3 Kirchhoff’s second law is related to what?
Ans. EMF and IR drops.
Q 4 Application of Kirchhoff’s Law?
Ans Kirchhoff’s Law is used to solve electrical circuit.Title of the Practical:
Measure voltage & current in RLC series circuit,Calculate
impedance,inductance, capacitance, & power factor, Draw vector diagram
Q.5 KVL is based on
Ans Law of conservation of energy.
Q 6. KCL is based on
A ns Law of conservation of charges.
Q 7 KVL is applied at ________?
Ans A node.
Q8. KCL is applied __________?
Ans In a loop
Q.9 what is the internal resistance of the ideal voltage source?
Ans. Zero
Q.10 What is higher, the terminal voltage or the emf?
Ans. The emf
Q.11 What is he internal resistance of the current source ideally?
Ans. Infinity
Q.12 What is the active network?
Ans. An active network is that which contains one or more than one sources
of emf. or current sources
Q.13 What is the bilateral network?
Ans. It is the circuit whose properties are same in either direction
Q.14 What is the difference between a node and a branch?
Ans. A node is a junction in the circuit where two or more than two circuit
elements are connected together. The part of the network, which lies
between two junctions, is called branch.
Q.15 What is the non-linear circuit?
Ans. The circuit whose parameters change with the change in voltage and
current is called the non-linear ckt
EXPERIMENT NO. 3

AIM:-
To verify voltage relationship in a R-L-C series circuit and draw its
Phasor diagram.
APPARATUS REQUIRED:-
S Name of Range Type Quantity
No. equipments
1. AC Source 230V Single phase AC 1

2 Auto Transformer 0-230V, Single phase 1

1kVA
3 Rheostat 96Ω, 2A 1

4 Inductive coil or ---- Copper Type 1

choke
5 Capacitance 10µf 1

6 Voltmeter 0-300V MI 3

7 Ammeter 0-1A MI 1

8 Connecting Wires As per

requirement

THEORY:-
In an RLC circuit, the most fundamental elements of a resistor, inductor,
and capacitor are connected across a voltage supply. All of these elements
are linear and passive in nature. Passive components are ones that consume
energy rather than producing it; linear elements are those which have a
linear relationship between voltage and current.
There are number of ways of connecting these elements across voltage
supply, but the most common method is to connect these elements either in
series or in parallel.
When a resistor, inductor and capacitor are connected in series with the
voltage supply, the circuit so formed is called series RLC circuit.
Since all these components are connected in series, the current in each
element remains the same. In fig (3.1)

Let VR be the voltage across resistor, R.

VL be the voltage across inductor, L.
VC be the voltage across capacitor, C.
XL be the inductive reactance.
XC be the capacitive reactance.

Fig (3.1 )

The total voltage in the RLC circuit is not equal to the algebraic sum of
voltages across the resistor, the inductor, and the capacitor; but it is a vector
sum because, in the case of the resistor the voltage is in-phase with the
current, for inductor the voltage leads the current by 90o and for capacitor,
the voltage lags behind the current by 90o
So, voltages in each component are not in phase with each other; so they
cannot be added arithmetically. The fig (3.2) shows the phasor diagram of
the series RLC circuit. For drawing the phasor diagram for RLC series
circuit, the current is taken as reference because, in series circuit the current
in each element remains the same and the corresponding voltage vectors for
each component are drawn in reference to common current vector.

The Impedance for a Series RLC Circuit

Fig (3 .2)
The impedance Z of a series RLC circuit is defined as opposition to the flow
of current due circuit resistance R, inductive reactance, XL and capacitive
reactance, XC. If the inductive reactance is greater than the capacitive
reactance i.e XL > XC, then the RLC circuit has lagging phase angle and if
the capacitive reactance is greater than the inductive reactance i.e XC > XL
then, the RLC circuit have leading phase angle and if both inductive and
capacitive are same i.e XL = XC then circuit will behave as purely resistive

circuit.

CIRCUIT DIAGRAM:-

Fig 3.3

PROCEDURE:-
1. Collect all components required with prescribed range as shown in
above apparatus requirement table.
2. Connect the circuit as shown in fig 3.3 and set the auto transformer to
zero.
3. Now switch on the voltage supply and slowly vary the input voltage
to the rated voltage i.e. 230V using auto transformer.
4. Measure the voltage and current using voltmeter and ammeter.
5. Tabulate the readings in the observation table.
6. Do necessary calculations required for drawing the Phasor diagram on
the series RLC circuit.

OBSERVTION TABLE:-

Observation Table for RLC circuit -

VIN(V) VR(V) VL(V) VC(V) I(A) Phasor Power

Angle Factor
(Φ) CosΦ
230

CALCULATIONS:-
V L − VC
Phasor angle Φ = tan-1( VR )

RESULT:-

The Phase angle ϕ=........................... and the nature of current is ....... to

voltage.

PRECAUTIONS:-

1. Make sure the supply is off before making connection.

2. All the connections should be tight to avoid loose connection.
3. Set the auto transformer to zero before switching on supply.

4. Before connecting the instruments, check their zero reading.

5. Remove zero error and parallax in indicating instruments. .
6. Instruments of least possible range should be used.
7. Reading should be taken carefully.
8. Switch on the supply on after the confirmation of the technician.
9.Switch off the supply as soon as the experiment is complete.
10. All the safety precautions of basic electrical lab should be followed

Viva Voce Questions:

1. What is resonance?
2. State the resonance condition for series RLC circuit.
3. Define Band Width and Q – factor.
4. Draw the phasor diagram for series RLC circuit.
5. Derive an expression for the current in R-L-C series circuit.
6. What is the power consumed by R-L-C load ?
7. What is the difference between purely inductive load and capacitive
load?
8. The impedance becomes equal to the resistance of the circuit in.
9. Active power is defined as.
10.The admittance become equal to the conductance of the circuit in.
EXPERIMENT NO. 4

AIM:- To study the working of tube light and to measure its power and
power factor.

APPARATUS REQUIRED :-

S. Name of Equipment Range Type Quantity

No.

1. AC source 230 V Single phase 1

AC

2. Auto-transformer 0-270 V Single phase 1

AC

3. Tube light choke coil Copper choke 1

4. Tube light 40 W(4 feet) fluorescent 1

5. Tube light starter Glowing type 1

6. Voltmeter 0-300 V MI 1

7. Ammeter 0-1 A MI 1

8. Wattmeter 0-300V, 15 A Dynamometer 1

9. Connecting wires - - As per

requiremen
t

THEORY:-

Tube lights, which are basically fluorescent, are most commonly used light
source for illumination in houses, industries, commercial organizations and
public utility services. A fluorescent lamp is a low pressure mercury
discharge lamp with internal surface coated with suitable fluorescent
material. This lamp consists of glass tube provided at both ends with caps
having two pins and oxide coated tungsten filament. Tube contains argon or
krypton gas to facilitate, starting with low quantity of mercury under low
pressure. Fluorescent material when subjected to electro magnetic material
of particular wavelength produced by the discharge through the mercury
vapour , gets excited and turns out to give radiations in some other
wavelength which falls under visible spectrum. Thus the secondary
radiations from the fluorescent powder increase the efficiency of lamp. In
order to make tube light self starting, a starter and choke are connected.
When switch S is closed, full supply voltage appears across the starter
electrodes P & Q which are in closed in a glass bulb filled with argon gas.
This voltage causes discharge in the argon gas with consequent heating of
the electrodes. Due to this heating the electrode P which is made of
bimetallic strip, bends and closes contact of the starter. At this stage the
choke, the filament M1 and M2 of the tube T and the starter becomes
connected in series across the supply. A current flows through filament M 1
and M2 and heats them. Mean while the argon discharge in the starter tube
disappears and after a cooling time, the electrodes P & Q cause sudden in
the circuit. This causes a high value of induced EMF in the choke.

The induced EMF in the choke is applied across the tube light electrodes M 1
and M2 and is responsible for initiating a gaseous discharge because initial
heating has already created good number of free electrons in the vicinity of
electrodes. Thus the tube lights starts giving light output. Once the discharge
through the tube is established, a much lower voltage than the supply
voltage is required to maintain it. A reduction in voltage available across the
tube during running conditions is achieved by having a voltage drop across
the choke. The capacitor connected across the starter terminals P and Q is
used to suppress the electromagnetic waves generated at the gap due to
sparking, thereby reducing the disturbances caused to the nearby radio and
TV receivers.
starter

M1 T M2

Choke
S

--------I - Φ--------

Wiring Diagram For a Tube Light

Fig 4.1

Power factor of the lamp is some what low and about 0.5 lagging due to
inclusion of choke. A condenser, if connected across the supply may
improve the power factor to about 0.95 lagging. The light output of the lamp
is the function of its supply voltage. At reduced supply voltage ,the lamp
may click at start but it may fail to hold because of non availability of
required holding voltage across the tube. Higher than normal voltage
reduces the useful life of the tube light to a very great extent.

CIRCUIT DIAGRAM :-
Fig 4.2

PROCEDURE:-

1. Collect all the components required with prescribed range as given in

the table apparatus required. .

2. Connect the circuit as shown in circuit diagram (fig 4.2) and set the
auto transformer to zero.

3. Now switch on the voltage supply and adjust the voltage to 230 V .The
tube light should start glowing. Note the readings of Ammeter,
Voltmeter and Wattmeter . Calculate Power Factor of the tube light.

4. Now slowly reduce the supply voltage and note down the minimum
voltage required to maintain the glow. Along with this note the reading
of Ammeter, Voltmeter and Wattmeter . Calculate the Power Factor of
tube light at this condition.

5. Switch off the power supply.

6. Switch on with reduced input voltage. Increase the voltage through

Variac till the tube light starts glowing (without flicker). Record
Ammeter, Voltmeter and Wattmeter. Calculate power factor of the tube
light.

7. Tabulate the readings in the observation table.

OBSERVATION TABLE :-
Multiplying Factor of wattmeter = Vrange X Irange X cos ɸ
Full scale division

Voltmete Ammet Wattmet Multiplicatio Actual Power

r er er n factor
Power Factor
V(V) I1(A) Reading (M F)
(W) (Cos Φ)
W1(W)

Rated
supply
voltage

Supply
Voltage
required
for
maintaini
ng

Reduced
supply
voltage

CALCULATIONS :-

APPARENT POWER = V*I

ACTUAL POWER = V*I Cos Φ

RESULT : The minimum operating voltage of tube light is ............Volts

and the corresponding power ……….and power factor is ...................
PRECAUTIONS:-

1. All the connections should be tight.

2. Proper Ammeter & Voltmeter ranges must be selected.

3. At starting, variac should be kept at zero.

4. Ammeter should always be connected in series with Load.

5. Before connecting the instruments, check their zero reading.

6. Take the wattmeter reading carefully, using its multiplying factor in
consideration.
7. Remove zero error and parallax in indicating instruments.
8. Instruments of least possible range should be used.
9 . Reading should be taken carefully .
10. All the safety precautions of basic electrical lab should be followed.

Viva Voce Questions:

1. In an a.c. circuit which power is more apparent or real and why?
2. What is the basic difference between an inductive load and purely
inductive load?
3. The practical loads are purely inductive or inductive?
4. What is load factor?
5 . What is the function of starter?

6. What is the function of choke?

7. Can we use fluorescent lamp in DC

EXPERIMENT NO. 5
AIM:-To determine inductance and resistance of a choke coil.
APPRATUS REQURED: -

S. Name of the Range Type Quantity

NO. Equipment
1 Single phase Variac 0-270V, 4A Fully Variable 1
2 Wattmeter 150/300V, 5/10 A Dynamometer 1
3 Ammeter 0-10 A MI 1
4 Voltmeter 0-150-300V MI 1
5. Inductive load - Inductive Type -
6. Connective Wire - - As per
requirement

CIRCUIT DIAGRAM:-

FIG 5.1

THEORY:-

The power which is actually consumed or utilized in an a c circuit is

called true power or active or real power. As the power is consumed only by
resistance .But a pure inductor and a pure capacitor don't consume any
power in a cycle. Since in a half cycle Whatever power is received from the
source by inductor and capacitor ,the same amount of power is returned to
the source. The power, which flows back or forth and reacts upon itself, is
called as Reactive Power.

True Power or Active Power P = VI Cosɸ Watt

Reactive Power Q = VI Sinɸ VAR

PROCEDURE:-

1. Connect the instruments, auto transformer and load as shown in the

circuit Fig 5.1.
2. Setup the autotransformer to zero position.
3. Switch on the supply and adjust the auto transformer to a suitable
voltage.
4. Vary the voltage by auto transformer and take down the various
readings of voltmeter, ammeter & wattmeter.

OBSERVATION:-

Multiplying Factor of Wattmeter…….…..

S V(Volt) I(Amp) Active ɸ = Cos–1 Reactive

no. Power (W / V*I) Power=
W(Watt) V*I
Sinɸ
(VAR)

CALCULATIONS:-

Multiplying Factor of wattmeter = Vrange X Irange X cos ɸ

Full scale division
Z = V/I

R = Z cosɸ = _____________Ω…………………………….(1)

XL = √ Z2 –R2

L= XL = ---------------Henry……………………………………………………..(2)
2πf
Taking the average value from the observation table for the calculation

RESULT: -

The active Power & Reactive power measured are......... and ........ The
Average resistance and inductance is ............... and ................. respectively.

PRECAUTIONS:-

1. All the connections should be tight.

2. Proper Ammeter & Voltmeter ranges must be selected.

3. At starting, variac should be kept at zero.

4. Ammeter should always be connected in series with Load.

5. Voltmeter should always be connected across the load.

6. Before connecting the instruments, check their zero reading.

7. Take the wattmeter reading carefully, using its multiplying factor in
consideration.
8. Remove zero error and parallax in indicating instruments.
9. Instruments of least possible range should be used.
10 . Reading should be taken carefully .
11. All the safety precautions of basic electrical lab should be followed.

Viva Voce Questions:

1.Define impedance of a coil.
2. What do you understand by capacitive and inductive reactance?
3. How the reactance depend on the frequency?
4. What are the units of impedance and reactance?
5. Define power factor of circuit.
6. Define active power.
7. Define reactive and apparent power with units?
8. What is the relation between these three power?
9. Which power is actually consumed in elements?
10. In what form inductor and capacitor store energy?
EXPERIMENT NO. 6

AIM:- To perform open circuit test on a 1-phase transformer and find its no
load loss and shunt parameters.

APPARATUS REQUIRED:-

Name of the
S.NO. Range Type Quantity
Equipment
1 Single phase Variac 0-270V, 4A Fully Variable 1

2 Wattmeter 75/150V, 5/10 A Dynamometer 1

3 Ammeter 0-5 A, 0-1 A MI 1
4 Voltmeter 0-150-300V MI 1
5. Single Phase 1 KVA, 1 Phase Core 1
Transformer 230/230V ,50 Hz

6. Connecting Wires - - As
per
requirement

Theory:-

In this test low voltage winding is connected to a supply of normal voltage

frequency (as per the rating of transformer) and high voltage winding is left
open as shown in fig 6 . The winding to which supply is connected is called
primary winding so in this test LV winding is primary winding. The primary
winding draw very low current hardly 3 to 5% of full load current (may be
up to 10% or very small rating transformer used in laboratory) under this
condition. As such copper losses in the primary winding will be negligible.
Thus mainly iron losses occur in the transformer under no-load or open
circuit condition, which are indicated by the wattmeter in the circuit.

Hence, total iron losses=Wo (Reading of wattmeter)

From the observation of this test, the parameters R0 and Xm of the parallel
branch of the equivalent circuit can also be calculated following the step
given below:

Power drawn W0=V0.I0.CosΦ0

Thus no-load power factor CosΦ0=W0/(V0.I0)

Core loss component of no-load current Iw = I0CosΦ0

&, magnetizing component of no-load current Im= I0SinΦ0

Equivalent resistance representing the core loss R0=(V0/Iw)

Magnetizing reactance representing the magnetizing current, Xm=(V0/Im).

CIRCUIT DIAGRAM:-

Fig. 6.1
PROCEDURE:-

1. Connect the circuit as per circuit diagrams fig 6.1 using instrument of
required range.
2. Check that variac is at low voltage output.
3. Switch on A.C. supply and adjust rated voltage across transformer circuit.
4. Take readings of wattmeter W0, Voltmeter V and ammeter A,to rated
voltage.
5. Switch off the AC supply.

OBSERVATION TABLE:-

Multiplying Factor of wattmeter:-

Name plate rating of transformer:-
Voltmet
Ammeter Wattmeter
S.N er Ro(Oh Xo(Ohm Zo(Ohm
reading(Am Reading(Wa
o. reading m) ) )
p.)Io tt)Wo
(Volt)Vo
1

CALCULATIONS:-
Multiplying Factor of wattmeter = Vrange X Irange X cos ɸ
Full scale division

Zo = Vo /Io = ______Ω----------------(1)
Po = Vo Io cosɸ_____________________________(2)

cosɸ= Po/ Vo Io________________________(3)

also cosɸ = Ro/Zo
substituting the value of cosɸ from eq (3)
Ro = __________Ω
Then tan ɸ = Xo/Ro
Xo = ____________Ω-------------------(4)

Core loss Po= Wo = Vo Io cosɸ=____________Watt______________(5)

RESULTS :-

Calculated Value of Core Loss Resistance Ro =------------Ohms.

Calculated Value of Magnetizing Reactance Xo =------------Ohms.
Core loss =-----------Watt.

PRECAUTIONS:-

1. Connection should be tight.

2. Proper Ammeter & Voltmeter ranges must be selected.
3. At starting, variac should be kept at zero.
4. Ammeter should always connected in series with Load.
5. Voltmeter should always be connected across the load.
6. Do not apply the voltage beyond its rated current carrying capacity.
7. Switch on the supply, only after getting the circuit checked by the proper
person guiding the experiment.
8. Take the wattmeter reading carefully, using its multiplying factor in
consideration.
9.Check the zero alignment of an instrument before use.
10. All the safety precautions of basic electrical lab should be followed.
Viva Voce Questions:
1. When a transformer is energized what types of losses occur in the
magnetic frame of the transformer?

2. What information can be obtained from open circuit test of a transformer?

3. Why in open circuit test HV side is always kept open?

4. What is the power factor of a transformer under no load test situation?

5. What is the magnitude of no load current as compared to full load

current?

6. With the parameters of equivalent circuit known, draw the equivalent

circuit of the transformer referred to primary.
7. Why is the open circuit test carried out at rated voltage and frequency?

8. Under what conditions open circuit test is preformed?

9. Why do you hear typical sound when the transformer is put into
operation?

10. What are the various information that can be obtained from open circuit
test on transformer?
EXPERIMENT NO. 7

AIM:- To perform short circuit test on a 1-phase transformer and find its
full load loss and series parameters.

APPARATUS REQUIRED:-

S.N Name of the Range Type Quantit

O. Equipment y
1 Single phase Variac 0-270V, 4A Fully Variable 1

2 Wattmeter 75/150V, 5/10 A Dynamometer 1

3 Ammeter MI 0-10 A MI 1
4 Voltmeter MI 0-75V MI 1
5. Single Phase 1 KVA, 1 Phase Core 1
Transformer 230/230V ,50Hz

6. Connecting Wires - - As per

require
ment

THEORY:-

In this test low voltage winding is short circuited and experiment is

performed at high voltage side (usually 5-10 % of normal primary voltage)
Allow voltage at correct frequency is applied to the primary and is
cautiously increased till full load current is flowing both in primary and
secondary.
Since in this test applied voltage is a small percentage of normal
voltage, the mutual flux produced is also a small percentage of its normal
value. Hence core losses are very small with the result that wattmeter
reading represents full load Copper losses or I2R losses for the whole
transformer i.e. for the primary copper losses and secondary copper losses.

Zsc = Vsc/Isc
Rsc = W/Isc2
Xsc = ( Zsc2 – Rsc2)
CIRCUIT DIAGRAM:-

1 ,
230V,50Hz
Supply

PROCEDURE:-

1. Connect the circuit as given in circuit diagram.

2. Set up the autotransformer to zero position.
3. Apply voltage Vsc with the help variac which is required to calculate
rated current.
4. Note the reading of wattmeter, voltmeter and ammeter.
5. Switch off AC supply.

OBSERVATIONS :-

Multiplying Factor of wattmeter:-

Name plate rating of transformer:-

Voltmete Ammeter Wattmeter

S.No
r reading reading(A Reading(Watt Zsc(Ω) Rsc(Ω) Xsc(Ω)
.
(Volt)VSC mp.)ISC )WSC
1

4
CALCULATION:-

Multiplying Factor of wattmeter = Vrange X Irange X cos ɸ

Full scale division
2
Psc = I sc X Rsc
Rsc = Psc/ I2sc = --------Ω …………….-(1)
Zsc = Vsc/Isc = ______Ω………………..(2)
Xsc = ( Zsc2 – Rsc2) = _________Ω……………..(3)
Wsc = Psc = I2sc X Rsc =_________Watt…………(4)

RESULT:-

Short circuit test gives the following result.

1. Impedance Zsc = ---------------Ohm
2. Resistance Rsc =----------------Ohm
3. Reactance Xsc =----------------Ohm
4. Ohmic loss W =-------------Watt

PRECAUTIONS:-

1. Connections should be neat and tight.

2. Proper Ammeter & Voltmeter ranges must be selected.

3. At starting, variac should be kept at zero.

4. Ammeter should always connected in series with Load.

5. Voltmeter should always be connected across the load.

6. Do not apply the voltage beyond its rated current carrying capacity.
7. Switch on the supply,only after getting the circuit checked by the proper
person guiding the experiment.
8. Take the wattmeter reading carefully, using its multiplying factor in
consideration.
9.Check the zero alignment of an instrument before use.
10. All the safety precautions of basic electrical lab should be followed.
Viva Voce Questions:

1. Why transformer rating is in KVA?

2. What type of losses occur in the primary and secondary windings of a
transformer when it is in service?
3. How do copper losses vary with load on the transformer?
4. Which parameters of the equivalent circuit of a transformer can be found
through short-circuit test
6.Why short circuit test on the transformer is preformed on high voltage
winding with the low voltage winding short circuited?
7.What is the approximate value of applied voltage is this test?
8.Under what conditions the shor circuit test is preformed?
9.Comment on the power drawn by the transformer under shor circuit test?
10.Write down the approximate expression for the regulation, for which the
regulation can be determined from the data of these test?
EXPERIMENT NO. 08 (a)

AIM:- To study constructional features of D.C machine.

THEORY:-

A D.C machine is an electro mechanical energy conversion device.

When it converts mechanical energy in to electrical energy (DC), is called
DC generator On the other hand, when it converts electrical energy(DC) in
to mechanical energy is called D.C motor.It consists of following parts: -

(1). Magnetic Frame or Yoke

The outer cylindrical frame to which main poles and inter poles are fixed
and by which machine is fixed to the foundation is called yoke.
i. It provides mechanical support to all inner parts of machine.
ii. It provides low reluctance path to the flow of magnetic flux.
The magnetic frame of DC machines is made up of cast iron.

(2). Pole & Pole Shoes

They are fixed to the yoke by bolts. Pole has two parts
1. Pole core
2. Field winding.
Enameled copper wire is used for construction of fixed or exciting coils.
The coils are wound on the former and then placed around the pole core.
When D.C current is passed through the fields winding, it magnetizes the
poles, which produce the required flux. Pole shoes reduces flux leakage and
they provide supports to field winding .

(3) Armature Core

A laminated cylindrical armature core is used which is made up of silicon

steel to reduce the hysteresis losses.
(1) It houses the conductors in the slot.
(2) It provides an easy path to magnetic flux.

(4) Armature Winding

The insulated conductor housed in an armature slot is suitably connected is
called armature winding. There are two types of windings.

i. Lap winding :

In lap winding, conductors are connected in such a way that number

of parallel paths is equal to number of poles. Thus if machine has P
poles and Z armature conductors then there will be P parallel paths
and each path will have Z/P conductors.

ii. Wave winding :

In wave windings conductors are so connected that they are divided into
two parallel paths irrespective of the number of poles of machine. Thus if
machine has Z armature conductors there will be only two parallel paths
each having Z/2 conductors.

(6) Commutator

It is the most important part of a D.C machine and serves the following
purposes.
i. It connects the rotating armature conductors to stationary external
circuit through brushes.
ii. It converts the alternating current induced in armature conductors into
unidirectional current in the external load circuit in generator.
iii. It converts the unidirectional current given to the machine into
alternating current when works as motor.

(7) Brushes :

The brushes are pressed over the commutator and form the
connecting link between the armature winding and external circuit. They are
usually made of high-grade carbon because carbon is a conducting material
and at the same time it provides lubricating effect for commutator surface.
The brushes are helping in particular position around the commentator by
brush holders.

(8) End Housing

End housings provides side support to the machine .End housings are made
up of cast iorn. Housings usually support the bearings

(9) Bearings: -
The ball or roller bearing is fitted in the end housings. The function of
the bearing is to reduce friction between rotating and stationary parts of the
machine. Mostly high carbon steel is used for construction of bearings and it
is very hard material.
EXPERIMENT NO- 8 (b)

AIM:

To study constructional features of induction machine.

Stator: As its name indicates stator is a stationary part of induction motor.
A stator winding is placed in the stator of induction motor and the three
phase supply is given to it.
Rotor: The rotor is a rotating part of induction motor. The rotor is
connected to the mechanical load through the shaft.
The rotor of the three phase induction motor are further classified as
•Squirrel cage rotor,
•Slip ring rotor or wound rotor or phase wound rotor.
Depending upon the type of rotor construction used the
•Squirrel cage induction motor,
•Slip ring induction motor or wound induction motor or phase wound
induction motor.
The construction of stator for both the kinds of three phase induction motor
remains the same and is discussed in brief in next paragraph. The other
parts, which are required to complete the induction motor, are:
Shaft for transmitting the torque to the load. This shaft is made up of steel.
Bearings for supporting the rotating shaft.
One of the problems with electrical motor is the production of heat during
its rotation. In order to overcome this problem we need fan for cooling.
For receiving external electrical connection Terminal box is needed.
There is a small distance between rotor and stator which usually varies
from 0.4 mm to 4 mm. Such a distance is called air gap.
EXPERIMENT NO- 8 (c)

AIM: To study constructional features of synchronous machine.

Stator Construction
The stationary part of the machine is called Stator. It includes various parts
like stator frame, stator core, stator windings and cooling arrangement. They
are explained below in detail.

Stator Frame
It is the outer body of the machine made of cast iron, and it protects the
inner parts of the machine.

Stator Core
The stator core is made of silicon steel material. It is made from a number of
stamps which are insulated from each other. Its function is to provide an
easy path for the magnetic lines of force and accommodate the stator
winding.

Stator Winding
Slots are cut on the inner periphery of the stator core in which 3 phase or 1
phase winding is placed. Enamelled copper is used as winding material. The
winding is star connected. The winding of each phase is distributed over
several slots. When the current flows in a distributed winding it produces an
essentially sinusoidal space distribution of EMF.
Rotor Construction
The rotating part of the machine is called Rotor. There are two types of rotor
construction, namely the salient pole type and the cylindrical rotor type.

Salient Pole Rotor

The term salient means projecting. Thus, a salient pole rotor consists of
poles projecting out from the surface of the rotor core.

Field Winding or Exciting Winding

It is wound on the former and then placed around the pole core. DC supply
is given to it through slip rings. When direct current flow through the field
winding, it produces the required magnetic field.
EXPERIMENT 8(D)

AIM:- To study the construction of single phase transformer.

THEORY:-
Basically a transformer consists of two inductive windings and a laminated
steel core. The coils are insulated from each other as well as from the steel
core. A transformer may also consist of a container for winding and core
assembly (called as tank), suitable bushings to take our the terminals, oil
conservator to provide oil in the transformer tank for cooling purposes etc.
The figure at left illustrates the basic construction of a transformer. In all
types of transformers, core is constructed by assembling (stacking)
laminated sheets of steel, with minimum air-gap between them (to achieve
continuous magnetic path). The steel used is having high silicon content and
sometimes heat treated, to provide high permeability and low hysteresis
loss. Laminated sheets of steel are used to reduce eddy current loss. The
sheets are cut in the shape as E,I and L. To avoid high reluctance at joints,
laminations are stacked by alternating the sides of joint. That is, if joints of
first sheet assembly are at front face, the joints of following assemble are
kept at back face.

Types Of Transformers

Transformers can be classified on different basis, like types of construction,

types of cooling etc.
(A) On the basis of construction, transformers can be classified into two
types as; (i) Core type transformer and (ii) Shell type transformer, which are
described below.

(I) Core Type Transformer

In core type transformer, windings are cylindrical former wound, mounted

on the core limbs as shown in the figure above. The cylindrical coils have
different layers and each layer is insulated from each other. Materials like
paper, cloth or mica can be used for insulation. Low voltage windings are
placed nearer to the core, as they are easier to insulate.

(Ii) Shell Type Transformer

The coils are former wound and mounted in layers stacked with insulation
between them. A shell type transformer may have simple rectangular form
(as shown in above fig), or it may have a distributed form.

(B) On the basis of their purpose

1. Step up transformer: Voltage increases (with subsequent decrease in

current) at secondary.
2. Step down transformer: Voltage decreases (with subsequent increase
in current) at secondary.
(C) On the basis of type of supply

1. Single phase transformer

2. Three phase transformer
(D) On the basis of their use

1. Power transformer: Used in transmission network, high rating

2. Distribution transformer: Used in distribution network, comparatively
lower rating than that of power transformers.
3. Instrument transformer: Used in relay and protection purpose in
different instruments in industries
▪ Current transformer (CT)
▪ Potential transformer (PT)
(E) On the basis of cooling employed

1. Oil-filled self cooled type

2. Oil-filled water cooled type
3. Air blast type (air cooled)