UNIT TWO

ANIMALS

Unit Overview

2.1. Characteristics of animals

2.2. Vertebrates & Invertebrates

2.3. Reproduction in Animals

2.4. The Economic Importance of Animals

2.5. Animal Behaviour

2.6. Homeostasis in Animals

2.7. Renowned Zoologists in Ethiopia

Unit Objectives

• To understand, state, and describe the characteristics of animals

• To distinguish between vertebrates & invertebrates

• To compare & contrast reproduction in vertebrates

• To evaluate the economic importance of animals- especially insects- in different industries

• To explore animal behavior, its different types, & patterns

• To explain homeostasis

• To appreciate the works of Ethiopian zoologists

Introduction

• Animals makeup one of the 5 kingdoms.

• Kingdom Animalia contains over 2 million diverse species, each with different adaptations &
behaviors.

• The field of biology that studies about animals in particular is Zoology. Under this field, there are
many disciplines such as Ornithology (the study of birds), Entomology (the study of insects), &
Ichthyology (the study of fish).

2.1. Characteristics of Animals

• Animals show all the traits of living things; i.e., nutrition, respiration, excretion, growth,
reproduction, movement, adaptability, & irritability(sensitivity).

Common characteristics of animals

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• Eukaryotic,Respiration,Protection,Body
symmetry,Excretion,Reproduction,Multicellularity,Sensitivity,Motility,Nutrition and Growt

Common characteristics of animals

[Link] animals

❖ They are organisms that have cells with membrane-bounded organelles such as the nucleus,
mitochondria, and Golgi bodies.

[Link] symmetry is the balanced arrangement of body parts or shapes around a central point or axis.

✓ Animals classified into three groups based on their body symmetry such as:
a) Bilateral Symmetry. Is Symmetry in which similar anatomical parts are arranged opposite
sides of a median axis so that only one plane can the individual into essentially identical
halves. Eg. Arthropoda
b) Radial Symmetry. is a symmetry in which the sides exhibit correspondence or regularity of
parts around a central [Link] is lacking the left and right sides. Eg. Cnidaria
c) Asymmetrical (No symmetry) is a type of symmetry where no radial plane that passes through
the centre of the organisms can divide it into two equal halves. Eg .Eg porifera

[Link]:

❖ are organisms composed of more than one cell.

❖ However, there are also unicellular animals such as amoeba, paramecium and others.

[Link]:

o Unlike plants, animals do not prepare their own food from raw materials and energy.
✓ These groups of organisms are called heterotrophs.
[Link]: Animals protect themselves from different types of damage caused by other organisms
or natural phenomena.

[Link]: Almost all animals are capable of moving from place to place.

[Link]: Animals need energy, which is obtained from cellular respiration.

[Link]: Animals excrete different unwanted materials from their bodies.

[Link]: Animals are sensitive to their environment.

[Link]: Animals grow until they reach adulthood.

[Link]: Animals reproduce through sexual and asexual reproduction systems to perpetuate
their generations.

❖ Animals can be categorized into two major groups based on the presence or absence of a
backbone: a) vertebrates and b)invertebrates.
a) Vertebrates are further classified into homeothermic (warm-blooded) animals that include
mammals and birds, and poikilothermic (cold-blooded) animals that include fish, reptiles, and
amphibians.

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b) Invertebrateses also classified into porifera, platyhelminthes, cnidaria, arthropoda, Annelida,
echinidermata, and mollusca.
❖ Arthropods are again classified into crustacea, spiders, insects, and many-legs

2.2. Invertebrates and Vertebrates

2.2.1 Invertebrate Animals

Invertebrates are animals that

o do not have a backbone or vertebral column.

o are the most diverse group of animals in the world.
o found almost everywhere, from the hottest deserts and the deepest seabed's to the darkest
caves & the highest mountains.
o 2lack a rigid internal skeletal system.
✓ Many invertebrates are soft-bodied.
✓ However, some of them have an external skeleton called an exoskeleton, usually made
of chitin, which protects their soft inner bodies.
o are cold-blooded, and hence,.
o This group includes earthworms, insects, spiders, snails, sponges, jellyfish, lobsters, crabs, sea
stars, and squid.
2.2.2 Vertebrate Animals
❖ Vertebrates are:-
✓ the most advanced groups in the animal kingdom.
✓ They are a highly advanced group of animals.
✓ They possess a well-defined internal skeleton system with cartilage and a backbone or
vertebral column separated into
i) an axial skeleton (skull, vertebrae, ribs and sternum) and
ii) appendicular skeleton (girdles and appendages).
❖ The skull and vertebrae protect the highly developed brain and the nerve cord respectively.
❖ Vertebrates have more comp0lex and specialized organ systems such as the
▪ circulatory systems,
▪ respiratory systems,
▪ nervous systems, and
▪ excretory systems
❖ The Vertebrate circulatory system is a closed circulatory system with
▪ a ventral heart having 2-4 chambers and
▪ a median dorsal artery.
❖ The respiratory system consists of either gills or lungs
❖ They have a centralized nervous system with a brain and sensory organs (eyes, ears, nostrils).
❖ The excretory system of vertebrates consist of paired kidneys.
❖ They have bilaterally symmetrical.
❖ This group includes mammals, birds, fish, reptiles, and amphibians.
❖ Vertebrates such as fish, reptiles, and amphibians are cold-blooded animals, whereas birds
and mammals are warm-blooded animals

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NB All vertebrates are chordates, but not all chordates are vertebrates.

2.3 Reproduction in Animals

❖ is essential for the continuity of animal species.

❖ It involves the duplication of living organisms
❖ It is categorized into two types: **asexual** and **sexual reproduction**.
❖ Most animals reproduce sexually, while some groups also reproduce asexually.
i. Asexual Reproduction
o It involves a single individual and does not require gamete fusion.
o Common Among**: More prevalent in invertebrates.
Types Asexual ReproductionTy
a) Budding**: New individuals grow from a parent organism.
b) Fragmentation**: An organism breaks into pieces, each capable of growing into a new
individual.
c) Parthenogenesis**: Unfertilized eggs develop into offspring, seen in some insects and
vertebrates (e.g., bee.
ii. Sexual Reproduction
o Involves two parents and the fusion of male and female gametes, resulting in offspring
with genetic material from both.

- **Process**:

- Males produce sperm in the testes.

- Females produce eggs in the ovaries.

- Fertilization forms a zygote, which is diploid (2n).

Types of Fertilization**:

a) Internal Fertilization**: Eggs are fertilized within the female body (common in land animals).

- Can occur as:

1. *Oviparity**: Eggs laid outside (e.g., birds).

2. Ovoviviparity**: Eggs retained in the female; nourishment from yolk (e.g., some sharks).

3. Viviparity**: Young develop within the female, receiving nourishment directly (e.g., most
mammals).

- **Advantages**: Protects eggs, reduces predation risk, and improves offspring survival

b) External Fertilization**: - Eggs and sperm are released into water (common in aquatic animals).

- Protects eggs from drying but increases exposure to predators.

Developmental Stages After Fertilization

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Cleavage**: Rapid cell divisions of the zygote lead to an eight-celled structure.

Blastula Formation**: Further cell division creates a hollow structure cpalled a blastula.

*Gastrulation**: The blastula reorganizes into a gastrula with three germ layers:

Ectoderm**: Develops into the nervous system and skin.

Mesoderm**: Forms muscles and connective tissues.

Endoderm**: Develops into the digestive system and internal organs.

Organogenesis**: The process where germ layers differentiate into various organs and systems,
resulting in a fully developed organism.

Table 2.2 Comparison of asexual reproduction with sexual reproduction

**Sexual Reproduction**:

- Involves two parents.

- Fertilization occurs (egg by sperm).
- Common in most animals.
- Offspring differ from parents.
- Takes longer to produce offspring.

*Asexual Reproduction**:

- Involves one parent.

- No fertilization; organism clones itself.
- Found in a few species (e.g., sponges).
- Offspring are identical to parents.
- Rapid reproduction process.

2.3.3 Reproduction in Insects (Complete and Incomplete Metamorphosis)

• Insects are the most diverse group within the phylum Arthropoda, characterized by segmented
bodies, jointed legs, and exoskeletons.
• Common examples include flies, grasshoppers, lice, bees, and beetles.
• They reproduce sexually, typically with internal fertilization, though some species can reproduce
via parthenogenesis (development from unfertilized eggs).
• After fertilization, females lay eggs which undergo metamorphosis—major body structure
changes during development.
• This process is regulated by hormones, particularly ecdysteroids and juvenile hormones.
Ecdysteroid (Ecdysone)**:
• This hormone regulates molting and metamorphosis in insects.
• It triggers the shedding of the exoskeleton and the transition between life stages.
Juvenile hormone (JH) also plays a role by determining whether the next stage will be a nymph
or an adult.

Types of Metamorphosis

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1. **Complete Metamorphosis**: Involves four stages: egg, larva, pupa, and adult (e.g., honeybees).

2. **Incomplete Metamorphosis**: Involves three stages: egg, nymph, and adult (e.g., grasshoppers).

Reproductive Structures and Functions of bees

- **Male (Drone) Reproductive System**:

1. *Testes**: Produce sperm.

2. *Vas Deferens**: Transports sperm.
3. *Seminal Vesicles**: Store sperm
4. *Mucus Glands**: Aid in reproduction.
5. *Ejaculatory Duct**: Carries sperm to the copulatory organ.
6. *Copulatory Organ**penis: Used for mating.

Female (Queen) Reproductive System**:

1. *Ovary**: Produces eggs.

2. *Oviduct**: Transports eggs.
3. *Spermatheca**: Stores sperm from drones.
4. *Accessory Glands**: Nourish eggs.
5. *Vaginal-Genital Opening**: Site of mating and egg-laying.
2.3.4 Reproduction in Frogs
❖ The **common frog** (*Rana temporaria*) is prevalent throughout Europe.
❖ The **grass frog** genus *Ptychadena goulenger* is widely distributed in sub-Saharan Africa,
including Ethiopia.
❖ Other species such as *Ptychadena harenna* and *Leptopelis ragazzi* inhabit the Bale
Mountains and Shoa forests in Ethiopia.
❖ Frogs undergo **sexual reproduction** and possess distinct male and female reproductive
structures.
❖ Unlike birds, frogs do not produce **amniotic eggs**; instead, their eggs are typically encased in
a **jelly-like substance** that serves to protect them from drying out.
❖ Frogs primarily exhibit **external fertilization**, where:

- The female releases eggs into the water.

- The male simultaneously releases sperm to fertilize the eggs.

❖ Some frog species also exhibit **internal fertilization**.

❖ Frogs usually lay a **large number of eggs** at the same time and in the same location.

Male Reproductive Structures and Functions

1. **Testis**: Produces sperm cells.

2. **Vasa Efferentia**: Transports sperm from the testes to the cloaca.

3. **Cloaca**: Common exit for sperm, waste, and urine.

4. **Cloacal Aperture**: External opening for the release of sperm.

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5. **Adrenal Gland**: Produces hormones regulating metabolism and stress response.

6. **Rectum**: Stores waste before excretion.

**Ureter**: Transports urine from kidneys to cloaca.

**Kidney**: Filters blood and produces urine.

**Urinary Bladder**: Stores urine prior to excretion.

Female Reproductive Structures and Functions

1. **Ovary**: Produces eggs (ova).

2. **Oviduct**: Transports eggs from ovaries to cloaca; fertilization may occur here.

3. **Cloaca**: Exit point for eggs and waste.

4. **Cloacal Aperture**: External opening for laying eggs.

5. **Adrenal Gland**: Similar to males; produces hormones for bodily functions.

6. **Rectum**: Functions in waste storage.

**Ureter**: Transports urine from kidneys to cloaca.

**Kidney**: Filters blood and produces urine.

**Urinary Bladder** Stores urine before excretion.

Life Cycle of Frogs

• Frogs undergo **metamorphosis** after fertilization, where the fertilized eggs develop into a
**larval stage** (tadpole) that is markedly different from the adult form.

Comparison of Tadpoles and Frogs

No Tadpoles Frogs
1 Have gills to aid Have lungs to
breathing aid breathing on
underwater land
2 Have tails and Have forelimbs
fins to help (arms) and hind
them swim limbs (legs) for
swimming
3 Have keratin-like Have tiny teeth
teeth called on the upper
denticles and lower jaws
4 Live in water Live in both
only water and on
land

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5 Have a two- Have a three-
chambered chambered
heart heart
6 Are herbivores Are carnivores
7 Have a soft Have a well-
cartilage-like developed
skull hardened skull
Conclusion

• **Male structures** are primarily focused on sperm production and transport, while **female
structures** are designed for egg production and transport.
• Both sexes share excretory systems, indicating specialized reproductive roles and functional
overlap in waste management.
• The frog life cycle consists of:
1. **Eggs**: Laid in water in jelly-like clusters.
2. **Tadpoles**: Aquatic larvae with gills, tails, and an algae diet.
3. **Metamorphosis**: Development of legs, loss of tail, and growth of lungs.
4. **Froglet**: Young frogs that can live on land but need moisture.
5. **Adult Frog**: Mature frogs that can inhabit both water and land, capable of reproduction.
This process illustrates frogs' adaptations to their environments.
2.3.5 Reproduction in Crocodile

Crocodilians

• Are large semi-aquatic reptiles that live in different parts of the world.
• Are reproduce sexually involving both male and female parents.
• They have internal fertilization.
• Their mating season usually begins in July or August and mating takes place under water.
• During mating, the sperm fertilizes the egg and develops inside the female
• They lay their eggs and bury them in sand or deposit them in mound vegetation, providing
protection.
• The number of eggs a crocodile deposits varies from 10 to 100, depending on the species.
• Unlike many amphibians, crocodile eggs have a **hard, leathery shell**, which helps protect
the developing embryos from environmental threats.
• Crocodiles, part of the crocodilian family, reproduce sexually, involving both male and female
partners. Their reproductive process includes several key stages and structures:

Reproductive Structures and function

Female Structures

a. Ovary**: Produces eggs.

b. Ciliated Funnel**: Helps guide eggs from the ovary to the oviduct.
c. Wolf'sDuct(Oviduct)**: Transports eggs and is where fertilization
occurs. Urinary Bladder**: Stores urine.
d. Cloaca**: Common opening for the urinary, reproductive, and digestive
tracts.

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Male Structures**

1. Testes**: Produce sperm.

2. Muller's Duct**: Transports sperm to the [Link] Bladder**: Stores urine.
3. Cloaca**: Common exit point for sperm and waste.

Life cycle

Adults lay -eggs hatching------> Juvenile sating to grow-----→ Adults live in the wate

2.3.6 Reproduction in Birds

Birds

• Are reproduce sexually, utilizing internal fertilization.

• including chickens, lay eggs. Chickens are just one example of many bird species.

Mating Systems

• Most species are :-

1. monogamous (one male and one female),

Examples : Bald Eagles, Swans:**

2. polygamous (multiple partners).

• Some species are Polygamous.
• This can include
A .polygyny(one male with multiple females)
Eg**Red-winged Blackbirds:**
[Link] (one female with multiple males).
Eg **Jacanas:**
Reproductive system of birds

Male Reproductive Structures

• Male birds lack external genital organs.

1. Testes Produce sperm.
2. Vas deferens Transports sperm to the cloaca.
3. Cloaca Discharges sperm.

Female Reproductive Structures

1. Cloaca :Cloca Used for laying eggs

2. . Ovary Produces ova (eggs).
3. Oviduct A long tube divided into five sections (infundibulum, magnum, isthmus, uterus, and
vagina) where the egg develops.
• Female birds typically have a single ovary, which is an adaptation for egg production.

Oviduct Functions

1. **Infundibulum**:

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• Engulfs the yolk.
• Where fertilization occurs.
2. **Magnum**:
• Secretes albumen (egg white).
• Adds layers of egg white (albumen).
3. **Isthmus**:
• Forms shell membranes around the egg.
4. **Uterus**:
• Develops the eggshell.
• Finalizes the egg's protective layers, including the hard shell.
5. **Vagina**:
• Facilitates egg laying.
• The passage through which the egg exits.

Egg Structure and function

1. Shell Hard outer covering made of calcium compounds, allowing gas exchange.
2. Membranes: Protect the contents and form an air cell.
3. Egg White (Albumen): Contains water and proteins.
4. Yolk: Nutrient-rich part for the embryo.
5. Chalaza: Holds the yolk in place.

Incubation

- The process of keeping eggs warm, primarily done by females, sometimes with male assistance.

- A brood patch helps transfer heat effectively.

- Eggs are rotated for even warmth distribution.

:Hatchng

- Chicks develop a tooth-like structure (egg tooth) to break the shell.

- They communicate with parents before hatching.

Parental Care

- Varies significantly among species; some birds build nests for protection, while others lay eggs
without nests.

- Care may last from immediate post-hatching to extended periods, depending on the species.

2.3.7Reproduction in Rat

❖ The term "rat" generally refers to various members of the rodent family, particularly the **black
rat** (*Rattus rattus*) and the **brown rat** (*Rattus norvegicus*).
❖ - Rats are found globally, primarily in areas settled by humans.
**Black rats** prefer warmer climates.
**Brown rats** thrive in temperate regions.

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❖ The **giant mole rat** (*Tachyoryctes macrocephalus*), endemic to Ethiopia, lives in high-
altitude shrub and grasslands.

Reproductive Structures and Functions of rats

Male Reproductive System

1. **Testes**: Produce sperm and testosterone.

2. **Scrotum**: Regulates temperature for sperm production.
3. **Seminiferous Tubules**: Site of sperm production.
4. **Epididymis**: Stores and matures sperm.
5. **Vas Deferens**: Transports sperm to the urethra during ejaculation.
6. **Penis with Baculum**: Delivers sperm; baculum provides support during copulation.

Female Reproductive System

1. **Ovaries**: Produce eggs and hormones (estrogen, progesterone).

2. **Oviducts**: Transport eggs to the uterus; site of fertilization.
3. **Uterine Horns**: Support developing embryos and accommodate multiple offspring.
• **Vagina with Vulva**: Birth canal and receptacle for sperm; vulva protects the vaginal
opening.
❖ These systems work in tandem to ensure effective reproduction, from gamete production to
fertilization and implantation.

Pregnancy and Development in Rats

Gestation Period

❖ The gestation period of rats varies by species:

• -Brown Rat**: 22 to 24 dais
• Black Rat**: Approximately 22 days
• Giant Mole Rat**: 37 to 49 days

Development Stages

1. **Fertilization**: After fertilization, the zygote divides into a hollow ball of cells, forming a blastocyst
known as a blastula.

2. **Travel and Implantation**: The blastula travels down the oviducts, implants in the uterine horns,
and begins to differentiate into:

- **Embryonic tissue**

- **Extra-embryonic tissue**

3. **Nourishment**: The umbilical cord connects the embryo to the mother, providing nourishment
through a complex system of blood vessels.

4. **Placenta Function**: The placenta facilitates oxygen transport from the mother to the embryo and
removes waste from the embryo's environment. The amniotic sac protects the embryo during
pregnancy.

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5. **Embryonic Development**:

- Formation of the neural plate, which develops into the brain and spinal cord.

- Visibility of arm and leg buds.

- Development of nervous system pathways.

- Offspring are born hairless, deaf, and with sealed eyelids.

Reproductive Characteristics

❖ Rats typically give birth to **7 to 12 offspring**.

❖ - The age of sexual maturity varies:

- **Brown and Black Rats**: Varies by specific species 4 month

- **Giant Mole Rats**: Reach reproductive maturity at 4-6 months.

Parental Care in Rats

- Parental care is essential for the survival and development of offspring (pups or kittens).

- Female rats build nests for their young and care for them until weaning.

- Female rats will nurse pups regardless of their biological relation.

- If a mother dies, other females will often take over nursing her pups.

- Male rats do not participate in parental care.

This reproductive process highlights the biological similarities among species within the rodent family.

Table 2.5 Comparison of reproduction in animals

Criteria Insects Frog Crocodile Birds Rats

Reproductive Varies by External Internal Internal Internal

structure species; reproductive reproductive reproductive reproductive
typically organs; organs; organs; organs;
includes cloaca cloaca cloaca uterus |
ovipositors
for laying
eggs
Fertilization external; Mostly Mostly Mostly Internal
some external internal internal
species
internal |
Types of egg Often Soft-shelled Hard-shelled Hard-shelled Live births
small, eggs eggs eggs (no eggs)
numerous,
and can be

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hard or
soft-shelled
Embryo Develops in Develops in Develops in Develops in Develops in
eggs water or eggs; eggs; uterus; live
outside the moist incubation incubation young
body environment by parents | by parents

2.4 Economic Importance of Insects

2.4.1 Beneficial Aspects of Insects

• Insects play a crucial role in various sectors, including:

A. Agriculture
❖ Crop Production**: Insects contribute significantly through:
i. Pollination**: Many flowering plants rely on pollinators, like bees and butterflies, to transfer
pollen, essential for seed and fruit production. About 35% of global crop production benefits
from insect pollination.
ii. Pest Regulation**: Natural predators and parasitoids, such as lady beetles and mantises, help
control pest populations, reducing the need for chemical pesticides.

B. Food Production

❖ Insects are consumed in many cultures, particularly in Asia and Central America. They are
recognized as a sustainable protein source, with over 1,462 edible species documented.
❖ Insect Farming**: As an efficient means to address global food security, insects have a high
growth rate and low environmental impact.

C. Industry

▪ Insects contribute to various commercial products:

1. **Honey and Beeswax**: Produced by honeybees, these are widely used in food and cosmetics.

2. **Silk**: Silkworms yield silk fibers, integral to textiles.

3. **Shellac**: A resin from lac insects, used in polishes and dyes.

4. **Cochineal**: A pigment from scale insects, used in foods and cosmetics.

5. **Tannic Acid**: Used in leather dyeing and ink manufacturing.

D. Health and Medicine

o Insects and their products have medicinal uses:

i. -Honey**: Applied to treat wounds and burns.
ii. Bee and ant Venom**: Used for joint pain relief.
iii. Cantharidin**: Secreted by blister beetles, it shows potential in cancer treatment.
iv. Traditional remedies include using ground grasshoppers for pain relief.

2.4.2 Harmful Aspects of Insects

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o While many insects are beneficial, some can be harmful:
1. Pest Species**: Certain insects damage crops and stored grains, including locusts, caterpillars,
and aphids. Locust swarms can devastate agricultural areas.
2. Stored Grain Pests**: Insects like the rice weevil and flour beetle threaten stored food supplies.
3. Disease Vectors**: Some insects transmit diseases, such as:
a. Anopheles Mosquitoes**: Spread malaria.
b. Culex Mosquitoes**: Transmit filariasis.
c. Tsetse Flies**: Spread sleeping sickness.
d. Houseflies**: Carry foodborne pathogens.
2.5 Animal Behavior
❖ It is the ways animals interact with each other and their environment, which is crucial
for survival and reproduction.
❖ This includes their movements, environmental interactions, and learning processes.
2.5.1 Types of Animal Behavior
➢ Animal behavior can be categorized into two main types:
A. Innate (Inherent) Behavior
B. Learned (Acquired) Behavior
A. Innate (Inherent) Behavior
o It is Inborn behaviors determined by genetics, independent of experience, and specific to a
species.

Types Innate (Inherent) Behavior

1.1 Instinctive Behaviors

1.2 Reflex Behaviors
1.3 Orientation Behaviors
1.1 Instinctive Behaviors
• It is the most complex innate behaviour.
• It involves a fixed action pattern for each key stimulus.
• This means it is carried out to completion once started.
Examples:
✓ Web-making in spiders
✓ Nest-building in birds
✓ Swimming in dolphins
✓ Chicks opening their mouths when the mother returns
✓ Honeybees performing a dance after finding food.
1.2 Reflex Behaviors
▪ It is Involuntary responses to stimuli.
Examples:
o Pulling away from hot objects
o Blinking when an object approaches the 6eye
❖ **Mechanism**: Reflex actions involve a quick response routed through the spinal cord,
bypassing the brain to ensure faster reactions.
1.3 Orientation Behaviors

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• It is the movement of simple animals away from unfavourable conditions. It also includes
the movement towards and remaining in favourable ones.
A. Taxis**: Directed movement toward (positive taxis) or away (negative taxis) from a
stimulus.
Example:
✓ Cockroaches moving away from light.
B. Kinesis**: Random movement in response to stimulus intensity, not direction.
Example:
o Woodlice moving based on temperature changes.
B. Learned (Acquired) Behavior
❖ It is refers to actions or responses that are not inherited genetically but are developed during
an individual's lifetime through experiences and interactions with the environment.
Characteristic:
• Not Genetic**: Unlike inherited traits, learned behaviors are shaped by experiences.
• Adaptability**: These behaviors enable organisms to adjust to environmental changes based
on past experiences.
Types of Learned Behaviors
1. **Associative Learning is a process where an individual connects two stimuli
or a stimulus and a response, essential for understanding behavior acquisition
and modification.
Types:
B. Classical Conditioning**: A process where a natural response to one stimulus becomes
associated with a second, previously neutral stimulus ((e.g., Pavlov's dogs salivating at
a bell).
Stages
1. BeforeConditioning:Unconditioned stimulus (UCS) elicits an unconditioned
response (UCR).
2. During Conditioning**: UCS is paired with a conditioned stimulus (CS).
3. After Conditioning**: CS alone elicits a conditioned response (CR).
C. Operant Conditioning**: Learning based on the consequences of behavior, where
actions are reinforced or punished (e.g., Skinner's experiments(e.g., a rat pressing a
lever for food).

Types of Responses

1. Neutral Operants**: Responses that do not affect behavior likelihood.

2. Reinforcers: Increase the likelihood of behavior (can be positive or negative).
3. Punishers: Decrease the likelihood of behavior.
2. Non-Associative Learning:refers to changes in an organism's response to a
stimulus after repeated exposure, without forming associations between
different stimuli. It comprises two primary forms:

A. Habituation: A decrease in response to a repeated, non-

threatening stimulus (e.g., becoming accustomed to
background noise).

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B. Sensitization: An increased response to a stimulus following a
strong or harmful stimulus (e.g., heightened sensitivity after a
painful experience).
3. Observational Learning:

- Learning by watching others, which can include:

a. Latent Learning**: Learning that occurs without reinforcement but is

not immediately reflected in behavior.
b. Insight Learning**: Problem-solving through reasoning and past
experiences, often seen in humans...
2.5.2 Patterns of Behavior
❖ Animal behavior exhibits various patterns influenced by species diversity, yet many
commonalities exist across different groups.
❖ behavioral patterns include:
1. Behavioral Cycles
▪ Animals respond to periodic environmental changes, which can be daily (circadian rhythms) or
seasonal (migration).
i. Seasonal Migration**: Movement of species (e.g., birds, whales) to different habitats
based on seasonal factors like food and temperature.
ii. Circadian Rhythms**: 24-hour internal cycles regulating functions like the sleep-wake
qcycle.
2. Reproductive Behavior
❖ Involves coordination in timing and patterns for mating and raising offspring.
❖ Essential for finding mates and successfully rearing young (e.g., courtship displays in birds).
3. Social Behavior
➢ Common in group-living animals, enhancing survival through division of labor.
➢ Examples include social insects (ants, bees) and mammals (elephants, primates).
4. Competition Behavior
❖ Observed in struggles for resources like food, territory, and mates.
Types of competition:
A. Intra-specific**: Between members of the same species, affecting population dynamics.
B. Inter-specific**: Between different species, potentially leading to local extinctions.
5. Territoriality Behavior
• Involves defending an area to secure resources necessary for survival.
• Many animals use displays (e.g., vocalizations, scent marking) to signal boundaries without
direct conflict.
6. Communication Behavior
➢ Vital for interaction among animals, utilizing sight, sound, touch, and chemical signals
(pheromones).
➢ Examples include birds singing and ants using pheromones to communicate locations of
food.
2.6 Homeostasis in Animals
❖ Homeostasis is a vital self-regulatory process that enables animals to maintain stable internal
conditions despite external changes.

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❖ Animals are affected by their surroundings, and changes can disrupt physiological functions.
❖ Most animals achieve a stable internal state, known as homeostasis.
❖ Homeostasis maintains equilibrium at a set point within the body.
❖ Animal systems continually adjust to internal and external changes to sustain stability.
Components of Homeostasis
1. Stimulus Changes in the environment (e.g., temperature, glucose levels) that trigger a
response.
2. Receptor Sensors that detect changes and send signals to the control center.
3. Control Center: Usually the brain (e.g., hypothalamus), which processes information and
coordinates responses.
4. Effector: Organs or tissues (like kidneys or liver) that enact commands from the control
center to restore normal conditions.
Example:
❖ When body temperature rises or blood glucose increases, receptors detect these changes,
and the hypothalamus instructs effectors (like sweat glands or the liver) to cool the body or
regulate glucose, restoring normalcy.

2.6.1. Thermoregulation

• It is the process by which organisms maintain a stable internal body temperature despite
external environmental changes, essential for optimal cellular function.

Types of Temperature Regulation

7. Poikilothermic Animals (Ectothermic)

• Body temperature fluctuates with the environment.
• Lack internal temperature regulation.
• Use behavioral strategies such as burrowing, sunbathing, seeking cool areas, swimming, and
group behaviors (e.g., bees) to manage temperature.

2. Homeothermic Animals (Endothermic)

▪ Generate internal heat to maintain a constant body temperature.

▪ Adapt to both cold and hot conditions.

▪ Regulate temperature via:

a. .Physiological methods:** Internal heat generation or
conservation.

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b. Morphological methods:** Physical adaptations for
temperature control.
c. Behavioral methods:** Actions to stabilize temperature.
❖ The methods of temperature regulation
A. Physiological Methods
o These are involuntary mechanisms that help maintain body temperature:

Heat Loss in Hot Environments:

i. Sweating:Sweat evaporates from the skin, cooling the body.

ii. Vasodilation:Blood vessels widen, increasing blood flow to the skin for heat loss.
iii. Panting:Increases evaporation from respiratory surfaces, aiding cooling.

Heat Gain in Cold Environments:**

i. Vasoconstriction: Blood vessels narrow to reduce heat loss.

ii. Piloerection:Hair stands on end to trap air, providing insulation
iii. Shivering:** Muscle contractions generate heat.
iv. Fat Layer:Insulating fat under the skin minimizes heat loss.

Physiological Mechanisms

o The hypothalamus** regulates temperature by processing signals from

thermoreceptors.
o Key processes include vasoconstriction (narrowing blood vessels to conserve heat) and
vasodilation (widening vessels to release heat).

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B. Behavioural Methods
➢ These involve conscious actions to regulate temperature:
i. Clothing:Wearing appropriate attire for temperature control.
ii. Heating/Cooling:Using fires, central heating, or air conditioning.
iii. Bathing/Wallowing:Water activities to regulate body temperature.
iv. Seeking Shelter:Finding shade or refuge from extreme temperatures.
v. Diet:Consuming high-calorie foods for energy.
vi. Hibernation:A state of inactivity during winter.
vii. Aestivation: Similar to hibernation, but occurs in summer.
C. Morphological Methods
❖ These involve physical adaptations to the environment:

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i. Surface Area to Volume Ratio:Smaller animals lose heat faster due to a higher ratio;
larger animals retain heat better.
ii. Structural Adaptations:
➢ Large Ears:** Found in hot climates (e.g., Fennec fox) to dissipate heat.
➢ Small Ears:** Found in cold climates (e.g., Arctic fox) to reduce heat loss.

Heat Exchange Mechanisms

i. Radiation:Heat transfer without direct contact.
ii. Evaporation:Heat loss through liquid to gas conversion.
iii. Convection:Heat transfer via air or liquid movement.
iv. Conduction:Direct heat transfer through contact.

2.6.2 Osmoregulation

❖ Osmoregulation is the biological process that maintains the osmotic pressure of fluids and
the balance of electrolytes in the body, crucial for homeostasis.
❖ Approximately 60% of the human body consists of fluids.
- About two-thirds of this water is found in intracellular fluids, while the remaining one-third is
extracellular fluid, which includes interstitial fluid (between cells) and blood plasma.
Importance:
o Disruption in osmotic pressure can cause imbalances in fluid movement, affecting
electrolyte concentrations.
o Effective osmoregulation ensures that osmotic pressure and electrolyte balance are
maintained.
o Osmoregulation is vital for maintaining fluid and electrolyte balance, ensuring the
stability of physiological functions in the human body and other organisms.
Mechanism
▪ Osmoregulation is facilitated by osmoreceptors, which detect changes in osmotic pressure.

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▪ In humans, these receptors are located in the hypothalamus (a brain region) and the kidneys.
Types of Osmoregulation
1. Osmoconformers:
▪ Organisms that match their internal osmotic pressure to that of their environment.
▪ Examples: Invertebrates such as starfish, jellyfish, and lobsters.
2. Osmoregulators:
• Organisms that actively control their osmotic pressure, independent of environmental
conditions.
• Examples: Many vertebrates, including humans.
• The kidneys play a crucial role:
- When body water is high, kidneys produce dilute (hypotonic) urine.
- When water is low, they conserve water and produce concentrated (hypertonic) urine.

Regulatory Mechanism

• The hypothalamus and the antidiuretic hormone (ADH) from the pituitary gland regulate
osmoregulation.
Sodium levels are critical:
- Excess sodium can lead to health issues like kidney stones and high blood pressure.
- Insufficient sodium may cause hyponatremia, with symptoms such as dizziness, confusion,
muscle twitches, and seizures.
2.6.3 Blood Sugar Regulation
➢ Glucose is crucial for energy, especially for brain function.
➢ The body needs glucose for respiration, so it regulates glucose levels to maintain a constant
supply.
➢ The pancreas produces two key hormones—insulin and glucagon—that control blood glucose
levels.
➢ Insulin**: Released when blood glucose is high. It converts excess glucose into glycogen for
storage in the liver.
➢ Glucagon**: Released when blood glucose is low. It converts stored glycogen back into glucose
to raise blood sugar levels.
➢ Insulin lowers blood glucose, while glucagon raises it, maintaining equilibrium.

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➢ The effects of insulin and glucagon on the liver functions are as follows (Fig 2.37):

▪ Normal blood sugar levels fluctuate slightly throughout the day.

▪ Extreme highs or lows can lead to health issues:
i. Hypoglycemia** (low blood sugar) symptoms include sweating, headache, dizziness,
and confusion.
ii. Diabetes** (high blood sugar) can result from prolonged elevated glucose levels.
Maintaining blood sugar levels is critical for overall health and proper body functionilevel2
2..6.4 Control of Homeostasis
➢ Homeostasis refers to the mechanisms that organisms use to maintain stable internal conditions
despite changes in their external environment. This involves feedback mechanisms that help
regulate physiological processes.

Feedback Mechanisms

▪ Feedback Mechanism**: A system that detects changes (stimuli) and initiates responses to
restore balance.
i. Receptor**: Senses environmental changes and sends signals to the control center (typically the
brain).
ii. Control Center**: Processes the information and determines the necessary response.
iii. Effector**: Carries out the response, which may involve muscle contraction or hormone
secretion.
Types of Feedback Mechanisms
1. Negative FeedbackIt is a mechanism that reverses a change in a variable to restore normal
conditions.
• Example**: **Temperature Regulation in Humans**
Increased Body Temperature:
o The receptors detect the rise in temperature

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o The control center (brain) signals the blood vessels to dilate (vasodilation) and activates sweat
glands.
o This allows heat to dissipate and the body cools down.
Decreased Body Temperature:
➢ The receptors detect a drop in temperature.
➢ The control center triggers vasoconstriction (narrowing of blood vessels) and reduces sweat
production.
➢ If necessary, it induces shivering to generate heat.
2. Positive Feedback is a mechanism that amplifies changes in a variable, moving the system further
from homeostasis.
o Example**: **Childbirth**
o During labor, the pressure of the baby’s head against the cervix stimulates the release of
oxytocin.
o Oxytocin increases contractions, which push the baby further against the cervix, leading to
more oxytocin release.
o This cycle continues until delivery occurs, highlighting how positive feedback can enhance a
physiological process.
Summary
❖ Homeostasis is maintained through negative feedback mechanisms that counteract changes to
restore balance, while positive feedback mechanisms enhance certain processes, often leading
to significant physiological events.
2.7 Renowned Zoologists in Ethiopia
▪ Zoology, the study of animals, covers aspects such as evolution, anatomy, and habitats.
▪ In Ethiopia, many zoologists from various universities have dedicated their careers to researching
the country's diverse animal species.
▪ Their significant contributions enhance zoological science and support Ethiopia's economic
development.
▪ These researchers embody patriotism by diligently serving their country, advancing knowledge,
and promoting the well-being of Ethiopia's natural heritage.

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