Mastering Introduction to Computers By Sir Chimukombo –Essentials- Release 3

Information Technology -Courseware

Overview
 Information Technology (IT)
 Information and Communication Technology (ICT)
These two phrases are used interchangeably and the former is the old terminology while
the latter is the latest term in use these days.

IT or ICT refers to the procedures and equipment used to gather, store, process, and
output and transmit data and information from one place to another. There are many
examples of IT or ICTs and these are:

 Radios  Microwave  Telephone

 Televisions  Telex  Cell phones
 Satellites  Facsimile  Computers

Since the Computer is the main gadget within the data processing and transmission
system, we will discus the Computer in greater detail.

The computer
A computer is an electronic device that can accept input data, store such data, process it
and produce an output under the control of a stored program and using both hardware and
software.

From this definition, we can extract the main components of a computer, which are
 Input
 Output
 Storage
 Process
 Control

Definitions of a Computer.

 A computer is an electronic device that is capable of accepting input data, process

, store and output the results of that processing using both hardware and software.
And all theses operations will be happening under the control of a “stored
program”.

 A computer is an electronic device that work under the control of a stored

program and which can accept, store and process data to produce information.

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From these definitions we can establish the basic components or elements of a computer
system. And these are:

1. Input 2. Process 3. Storage 4. Control 5. Output

Diagram showing the main/basic components of a computer system:

Control

Input Process Output

Storage

We will discuss these components briefly as follows:

Input
This refers to what ever is entered in to the computer to be processed. And generally we
enter data to be processed. To do this we need to have some devices or equipment that is
used to take data from the outside world to the computer and these are:

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Examples are detailed below:

DEVICE PRINCIPLE OF AREA OF USE /

OPERATION APPLICATION
Keyboard Data is entered by typing on Used for entering text data
the keyboard
Mouse A point and click device Used to Copy , Drag,
Highlight and move the
cursor
Used for fast opening of
folders and programs.
Point of Sale (POS) Uses a cash register as a Used in supermarket check-
computer terminal out points as tills
Bar Code Reader Reads the bar codes on Used in association with
products and capture details POS in supermarkets
into the computer
Scanner Takes a photograph of a Used where people need to
document and displays on reproduce documents or
the CRT for editing modify original documents
Video Digitizer Used to display video Generally used by video
signals from a video camera editors
on a computer screen
Optical Mark Reader Reads special forms or Marking of multiple choice
(OMR) cards by detecting marks exams dome on scanner
on predetermined positions sheets
using light sensitive
techniques
Optical Character Reader Light sensing method used Automatic mail sorter that
(OCR) to recognize printed read typed post-cards.
characters.
WAND Hand held device used to
scan bar codes. It works by
sensing light reflected by
the bar code.
Blue tooth This is a device that allows Used for transferring data
high speed transmission of between laptops or in
data over short distances. internet kiosks type of
applications where roaming
is not needed.
WebCams

All these devices will not be found on every computer but only a few may be found
depending on the activities happening at the organization.

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Processing
Processing is the transformation of data into Information. Let us define these two terms:

Data refers to the raw facts and figures about a situation and cannot be used for decision
making by the management. For instance, some transactions or statistics

Information is processed and analyzed data which has more meaning and is used for
decision making by management. Examples are reports, graphical analysis of statistics
etc

Management requires information, which has following qualities:

Accuracy – information has to be accurate if it has to be used for making decisions.

Timeliness – information has to be made available on time.
Integrity – information has to have substance and authentic
Relevant – information has to be relevant to the given situation.

There are other enviable attributes of information you can think of, but the point is that
we need the computer to produce the information that has the desired qualities and had
usefulness to management.

Processing in the computer is done by the Central Processing Unit (CPU) which is also
known as the Microprocessor. This is the element that transforms data into information.
It uses the following three elements:
 Registers – which are a temporary holding area for data and intermediate results
 Control Unit – which interprets the instructions typed by users at the keyboard
 Arithmetic Logic Unit – which does all mathematical and data manipulations
All processing is handled by this component.

The CPU contains some electronic circuits that cause processing to occur. It interprets
logical and arithmetic processing operations and cause the input and output operations to
happen. It is considered the “brain” of the computer.

Storage
This refers to where the computer places either data awaiting processing or processed
information. Generally storage is divided into two sections, which are

 Primary storage
 Secondary storage
Primary storage
This is also known as main memory or internal storage. And it is in the form of modules,
which are plugged on the main circuit board of a computer called a motherboard. This
again is subdivided into Random Access Memory (RAM) and Read Only Memory
(ROM)

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RANDOM ACCESS MEMORY (RAM)

This is the working storage of the computer and everything that we will be doing for as
long as the computer is on, will be sitting in this RAM. Therefore, RAM holds programs
in current use. So when we are typing a document in Ms Word, that document will be
sitting in RAM. RAM has limited storage capacity but has very high access speed. That
means that one can easily and quickly retrieve information in RAM. It is a temporary
storage for data.

READ ONLY MEMORY (ROM)

This is the permanent storage for the programs that are used by the computer during its
booting process. These programs do not change and are generally referred to as firmware
as they were inserted into the chip during manufacturing of ROM. As users, we do not
interact with ROM but we need ROM to make the computer work for us.

Cache Memory
This is a special type of very fast memory used to store intermediate workings of the
CPU. It is located between the RAM and the CPU.

Virtual Storage
This is a technique that allows an application to see the system as providing a large
uniform primary memory, which in reality is smaller, more fragmented and partially
simulated by secondary storage such as the hard disk. Infact, the system uses an area of
the hard disk as if it were RAM, without the user being aware of it.
Secondary storage
This is the storage that is external to the computer and is generally portable. We need this
secondary storage to supplement the primary storage, which has limited capacity. The
table below summaries the common storage devices in use:

STORAGE DEVICE CHARACTERISTICS AND USES

Hard Disk (C.Drive) This is the main secondary storage device
found on every computer. It is used to store
the operating system, application programs
and data.
Floppy Disk ( A drive) Also called a stiffy or diskette. It comes in
two basic forms which are the Mini Floppy
and the Microfloppy. It is inserted in the
floppy disk drive and has a small storage
capacity of about 1.44Mb.
Flash disk or Memory stick This is the latest portable storage device in
use. The capacity ranges from 256 Mb to
over 40GB. It is stuck in the Universal
Serial Bus (USB) port

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Compact Disks (CDs) These are a form of optical storage. They

are used to store things like music, videos,
& programs. They are inserted in the
CDROM drive. They come in two forms
which are: CD-R ~ Recordable CD, which
can store things only once & the CD-RW ~
Re-Writable CD which allows us to store
(burn) and erase contents for a limited
number of times.
Digital Versatile Disk (DVD) DVDs are used for the same purpose as
CDs and only differ in the capacity in
which they go up to and above 4Gb.
Magnetic Tape This is used on large computers such as
minis & mainframes. It is sequential
storage used basically as back-up. Also
described as mass storage media.

NB: Storage Device is the hardware with Read & Write heads such as Disk drives,
CDROM drive, DVD-ROM drive and the USB port.

Storage Media is the material on which data is held such as the hard disk, flash disk, CD
& DVD

Basic Units of Measurement (measuring the storage media capacity)

In the computer, the smallest unit of measurement is the BIT

Bit stands for Binary Digit
8 Bits make a Byte = one character
1024 Bytes = 210 Bytes = 1 Kilobyte = 1 Kb
20
1024 Kb = 2 Kb = 1 Megabyte = 1 Mb
1024 Mb = 230 Mb = 1 Gigabyte = 1 Gb
40
1024 Gb = 2 Gb = 1 Terabyte = 1 Tb

Output
This refers to the results of a computer process. The devices that are used to transfer data
from the internal memory to the outside world are called Output devices.

Examples are the Screen, Printers, Graphic Plotter, Speakers, and Computer Output on
Microfilm (COM), Terminals, and Actuators etc

The Screen
This is also called a Visual Display Unit (VDU) or Monitor. This device produces an
output that is not tangible and such an output is called a Soft copy. The type of screens
used commonly on standard computers are called CRT (Cathode Ray Tube) and those
used on laptops are called LCDs (Liquid Crystal Displays). The screen can either be
black and white (referred to as Monochrome) or Colour.

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The Monochrome screens are the old types and were used with the MS DOS operating
system. On the other hand, the Colour screens are the in-thing these days and are
designed to work with the Windows operating system.
Examples of screens
 CRTs
 LCDs
 Flat Panel screens

Printers
These are output devices that produce output that is tangible and in paper form. Such an
output is called a Hard copy. The printers are subdivided into two groups as follows:

PRINTERS

IMPACT NON-IMPACT
PRINTERS PRINTERS

IMPACT PRINTERS NON-IMPACT PRINTERS

The print mechanism is such that the print The print mechanism is such that ink is
head strikes/hits the ribbon against the prayed on paper to produce an image
paper in order to produce an image
It produces noise as it prints Does not make noise when printing
The print quality is low Has high print quality
Generally slow when printing Prints fast
Generally cheap to buy and maintain Very expensive to buy and maintain
Examples are : Examples are:
 Dot Matrix printer  Laser printer
 Daisy Wheel printer  Ink Jet printer
 Drum printer  Thermal Printers
 Chain printer

All the input and output devices are collectives referred to as PERIPHERALS.

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BASIC TYPES OF COMPUTERS

Type Description and features

Digital Computers These are computers which process data
presented in the form of discrete values.
Examples are Microcomputers,
Minicomputers, Main frames and Super
computers.
Analog Computers These are machines that process data
presented in the form of electrical voltages
which are variables like the variable
positions of a pointer on a dial. The output
in this case is often in the form of smooth
graphs from which information can also be
read.
Hybrid Computers These have combined features of both
Digital and Analog computers.

CLASSIFICATION OF COMPUTERS

CLASSIFICATION OF COMPUTERS BY USE

Type Description and features
Word Processor This is a special purpose computer used
solely for the production of documents.
Personal Computers Computer designed for independent use by
an individual at work or at home.
Desktop Computers Computer designed for use on a desk in an
office environment – also fall under
personal computers (PCs)
Work Station Computers This is similar to PCs but do have added
capability of being networked with other
computers.
Embedded Computers This is a computing element which is
within some device or system and can not
be accessed directly. Such devices are
available in robots, VCRs, DVDs etc

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CLASSIFICATION OF COMPUTERS BY SIZE

TYPE FEATURES
Microcomputers Are called Microcomputers because they
are based on a single chip called a
Microprocessor.
Are physically the smallest and most
popular type of computers
Are largely used in schools , small
businesses and in homes
Examples are laptops, palmtops, pen
computers, PCs etc
Minicomputers Are moderately sized computers
More powerful than PCs
Can be used in networks to control a
number of workstations
Examples are The Digital Equipment Corp
Vax 11/730 , The Data General MV/800II
Mainframes Are larger than Minis and Micros
Have higher processing speeds
Can support up to 100 workstations
Are used as network servers on the
Internet
Examples are IBM4381 series, Honeywell
P58 , Cray X-MP48
Super Computer The largest type of computer and most
powerful and used for extremely
complicated computations.
What has been described so far has been the physical components of a computer that is
those elements of a computer that we can touch. And these are referred to as Hardware.
So all the input and Output devices we have been talking about are examples of
Hardware.
However, for a computer to be alive, it needs to have another component called
Software.

Computer Software
The term Software refers to programs – and a program is a set of instructions, which are
meant for a computer to execute (that is, perform). Unlike hardware, software is
intangible – we can not touch it! The various types of Software are:

System Software
This is software which manages and controls the hardware so that application software
can perform a task. The very common examples of this category of software are:
 The Operating System (OS)
 Utilities
 Language Translators

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The Operating System

This is critical software that links you to your programs and then links your programs to
the computer’s hardware. It controls how the computer does its most basic tasks such as
storing files or talking to peripherals. It is a critical suite / collection of programs that run
first when the computer is Booted up (Booting – the process of loading the operating
system / or simply switching on the computer).

Common methods of Booting up the computer are:

1. Cold boot – when you switch on the computer which has been previously
shutdown.
2. Warm / Soft boot – when you re-start a computer after some jamming up or “
freezing up” and this is done by pressing simultaneously the Ctrl + Del + Alt keys
or simply pressing the Reset button on the front panel of the system unit.

Examples of Operating systems are

 Microsoft Disk  Windows Me

Operating System (Ms (Millennium)
Dos)  Windows XP
 Windows ’95  Windows Vista
 Windows ‘98  Windows NT
 Windows ‘2000  Unix
 Linux

The OS performs the following important functions on a computer:

 It manages the flow of information in the computer

 It keeps a record of all saved files , their names , sizes, location etc
 It establishes a relationship between hardware and software
 It controls the running of other programs
 It provides an interface the user and the computer e.g.: command line for Ms Dos
and GUI for Windows.

These activities are critical for the computer and hence the importance of the operating
system.

Utilities (Utility Software)

This is software that is used to service the various need of a computer and also used for
diagnostic purposes. Generally this software enables users to do the following on a
computer:
 Detecting and correcting problems ( known as troubleshooting)
 Managing files on a computer ( copying and transferring files from one
media to another)
 General house-keeping operations – such as erasing / deleting old files

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Examples of such software:

 Scandisk program- for detecting and fixing disk problems
 Defrag program – for maintaining disk to ensure good performance
 Anti-virus programs – for detecting and cleaning out viruses from a
computer

Language Translators
These are programs that are used to translate human usable and readable instructions
(English-like statements) known as High Level Languages into the computer’s own
language (in the form of binary number sequences and also known as Low Level
Languages). Common examples of such programs are:
 Compilers
 Interpreters
 Assemblers
By and large, this System software is considered to be computer oriented software
because, it is there to satisfy the needs of the computer and as users we only interact with
it when the computer has a problem.

Programming software
This is the software that provides tools to assist a programmer inn writing computer
programs and software using different programming languages:
Examples of programming languages are:
COBOL, BASIC, Visual Basic, Pascal, Java, Delphi, C++ etc
The languages are categorized as Low Level Languages (eg. Machine Code and
Assembly Language), High Level Languages (e.g.: COBOL, BASIC, Pascal etc) and
4GL (Fourth Generation Languages).

Application Software
This is the important type of software that enables us to use the computer. It makes the
computer usable by human beings by providing the necessary tools and facilities for use
to do what we want to do. Generally, this software is user-oriented because it is there to
meet the users’ needs (hence the term application).

This software is generally subdivided into two categories:

User – Application programs – which are programs designed and created by professional
called computer programmers using some programming languages such as Java, Visual
Basic, Delphi, Pascal etc.

Application packages – these are more general programs that are used by many
companies for various purposes. They are bought from a software shop and as such, they
are also known as Off-the-shelf software. Common examples are Microsoft products
which are described below:

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Generic Package name Description Example

Word Processing - A tool that helps users in Ms Word
creating and editing and Corel Word Perfect
printing documents such as Ms Write
: - Letters , memos , reports Word Perfect
, books etc Word Pro

Spreadsheets - A program used to Ms Excel

numerical analysis of data. Lotus 1-2-3
It does business calculations Quattro Pro
and production of graphs Super Cal
based on given statistics.
Typical uses include Profit
forecasting, cash flows,
Sales analysis, Budget
Control etc
Databases - A program used for Ms Access
electronic filing of records. dBase III & IV
It replaced the traditional Clipper
filing cabinet. It is used for Lotus Approach
storing, searching, sorting Paradox
& fast retrieval of data / Fox Base
records.
Generic Package name Description Example
- This is a fashionable Ms PowerPoint
package that enables the Harvard graphics
user to produce a multi- Ms Paint
Presentation media slide show with
colour, animation and sound
for showing to clients
Multi-media Applications This is technology that Ms Encarta
deals with a combination of Edusoft
text, graphics, sound video
and animation.
- A program used to create Ms Publisher
new design for artwork. It Corel Draw
Desktop Publishing (DTP) generally produces things Page Maker
like Letterheads, Calendars, Ventura Publisher
Greetings cards, Business
cards , Invoices etc
- Programs used for doing Pastel v2-14
Computerized Accounting accounting operations and Tetra 2000
functions on a computer. It Sage
does book-keeping up to Quick books
final accounts.

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For someone to be able to use a computer, one has top learn these application packages
and be able to use them, then the person is said to be computer literate. This is because
these are the programs that matter on a computer and people use these every day.

Because Software plays an important role on a computer, the computer can also be
described as a system of hardware and software.

How does the computer process data into information?

DATA PROCESSING
This refers to the collection and manipulation of items of data to produce meaningful
information.

Examples of data processing

 Payroll processing
 Sales Order processing

The Data Processing Stages or Cycle

Data Origination

Preparation of data for input

Verification

Validation

Input of data

Processing of data

Output of data

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During data processing, control must be instituted because the quality of output (which
is information ) depends heavily on the nature of the input.

This is where the concept of the phrase Garbage In Garbage Out (GIGO) comes in – to
say that if you enter into the computer wrong data or formulas you will get wrong results.
And the opposite is Correct In Correct Out (CICO) – enter good input and you get super
output!

Why do we need to have controls in data processing? Reasons are:

 To ensure that all the data has been entered

 To detect and correct all errors before they enter the system to be processed
 To prevent and detect fraud

Examples of Control in Data Processing

Manual controls
These involve checking all the documents before computer processing with the aim of
detecting missing and illegal entries.
Batch Controls
This involves finding the total number of items in a batch to use when cross-checking
with the output after the processing run.
Hash totals
That is establishing the total number of items processed and reconciling.

Verification
This is the process of checking that all the data has been transcribed correctly

Validation
The process of ensuring that the data that enters the system is complete and accurate. A
validation check would build in to a computer program some powers of judgment so that
incorrect data items are detected and reported.

Examples or Type of validation checks are:

Field Check - Verify that fields, which should contain only numeric data, contain no
non-numeric characters.
Limit Check – Determine that a field does not contain an excessive amount.

Self-Checking Account number – Use the Modulus 11 method to verify that a check digit
is correct.
Completeness Check – Determine that a critical field in a record has not been left blank.
If the field is blank it means that the record has not been processed.

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Methods of data Processing

 Batch processing  Transaction  Distributed

 On-Line Processing processing Processing
 Off-Line Processing  Centralized  Time-sharing
 Real-Time Processing Processing
Processing  Decentralized
Processing
DATA PROCESSING METHODS OR TECHNIQUES
Method Characteristics Advantages Disadvantages
Data items are Economical when A slow method of
collected over a processing large processing data.
period of time and amounts of data. Does not process
Batch then processed at Data is verified and transactions as they
one go. validated to detect occur.
Processing is and correct any Information in a
periodic i.e, daily, errors. batch is always out-
weekly or monthly. of-date
Large amounts of
data are processed
all at once.

The computer keeps Data processing is Needs expensive

pace with some fast equipment.
external operations. Keeps up-to-date High
Real-time Received data is information communication
processed instantly Very convenient to costs.
and results are users and customers
produced
immediately.
Information is Information is The information is
available to all users relatively up-to-date not 100% up-to-date
at their own
terminals. Enquiry handling is
Users are not able to fast and efficient.
update the
information.
On-Line Updating is not
instant in most
cases.
Updating happens in
batch mode usually
in the night when
say the ATM is
closed.

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Facilities are made Meets the specific It is expensive to

available at all sites needs of each local have powerful
instead of at a user & the needs of computers
central place. the entire company. (mainframes) at all
Distributed Control is spread Data files are held the branches of the
Computing facilities centrally. company.
are linked by a If the central Also security can be
Also called
communication computer breaks a challenge.
network. down the individual
Decentralized users will continue
to work.
The processing is
generally faster.

Allows several users Several users are Sometimes the

to use the compute able to use or share processing is slow
on a simultaneous the computer because of either
basis. resources data overload or
Time-Sharing Each user is simultaneously. network overload.
allocated a fixed Data is processed
amount of CPU time efficiently.
called time slice in
which to work.

This is the opposite of On-line processing. The terminal is not

connected directly to the processing computers. And as such the
Off-Line results are not available immediately.

TPS supports the organization’s daily activities and maintains the

Transaction majority of the organization’s internal data. These systems employ
heavily repetitive processes that require capability to deal with
high volumes of transactions with great accuracy and high
security.
All processing is done at a central location often on a mainframe
computer.
Terminals at geographically widespread locations send data and
information for processing & receive results.
Centralized
Who is involved in data processing?

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THE DATA PROCESSING STAFF

POST DUTIES / RESPONSIBILITIES

 He or she must ensure that the IT
department functions efficiently in
EDP MANAGER the service of the company.
Electronic Data Processing Manager  Is responsible for administration,
Or design and overall monitoring of
I.T MANAGER the data processing activities
 Helps to promote and select staff,
allocate tasks and job
responsibilities.

 Defines the objectives of a system

 Analyses the existing systems with
a view to computerize them
SYSTEMS ANALYST  Designs new systems
 Carries out feasibility studies

 Writes (Codes) source programs

using a programming language.
PROGRAMMER
 Maintains programs by correcting
errors and making improvements.

COMPUTER OPERATOR  Boots the computer systems

 Operate peripheral equipment
connected to the computer.
 Performs back-ups at the end of the
day.

 He or she keeps record of all

computer accessories such as tapes ,
COMPUTER LIBRARIAN CDs, DVDs, Memory sticks,
diskettes.
 He issues the above items to the
computer room as and when
needed.
DATABASE  Responsible for the design ,
creation , organization and control
ADMINISTRATOR of the database.
 Creates the data dictionary
 Manages the database use and
users

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NETWORK MANAGER  Installs the network and customizes

it.
 Manages access levels (passwords )
for users
 He puts Users on to the system
 Running training courses for new
and updates for existing personnel
 Virus control by constantly
updating the virus checking
facilities

FILE MANAGEMENT SYSTEMS

A file is a collection of stored information which can be retrieved for later use. It is a
collection of logically related data.
Common examples of files are:

Program file – a file that holds data which is executable, such as game files etc –
usually these have the extensions like .exe , .sys , .com etc

Data file – a file that contains data which is not executable and is largely text in nature
such the files that we produce using application packages- these have extensions .doc ,
.xls etc

Types of Files
A file that contains relatively permanent
information. Such a file would require
regular updating to show the current
Master Files position. Examples are – the Customer
Master file , Inventory Master file ,
Employee Master file etc
Also called the Movements file. It is a file
made up of various transactions created
Transaction File form source documents. This file is used to
update the Master File. For instance , the
Sales Journal is used to update the
Customer Master file
This file has some reasonable amount of
Reference File permanency – examples are the price lists ,
table of rates of pay etc.
Back-Up File This is a duplicate copy of another file to
be used when there is a problem.

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FILE PROCESSING ACTIVITIES

ACTIVITY DESCRIPTION
Updating This is when data on a master file is
changed to reflect the current position.
File Maintenance Involves adding, deleting and amending
records in a file- e.g. when a worker
changes their address or marital status
File Enquiry / Interrogation The act of trying to ascertain some piece of
information from a master record – e.g.- to
find out about a customer’s current balance
FILE CHARACTERISTICS
Characteristic Description
Hit rate Describes the rate of processing of the
master file in terms of active records. For
instance if 100 transactions are processed
against a master file of 1000 records then
the hit rate is 10%.
File Volatility Refers to the frequency in which records
are added or deleted form a file.
Size A file would change in size when records
are removed or added.

FILE ORGANIZATION METHODS

The general file organization methods are as follows:

METHOD DESCRIPTION ADVANTAGES DISADVANTAGES

Records are stored Efficient if all Very slow access to
physically one after records need to be specific records.
the other. processed. Not suitable if there
Records are sorted Magnetic tapes are will be need for
Sequential file by key field. less expensive than enquiry handling.
organization Access method is disks.
sequential.
Generally stored on
magnetic tapes.
Generally used as
back-up

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Records are stored Specific records Storage media is

on a disk in a can be accessed expensive.
particular location very quickly.
Direct File that can be Records take up more
Organization determined by a space on the disk.
Or key field.
Random File The address for the
Organization location is
calculated by a
technique called
hashing.
Indexed This is a Faster than Costs are high.
sequential compromise sequential and more
Organization between Sequential efficient than direct
and Direct file file organization.
organizations.
Records are stored
in sequential order
Contains an Index
that lists the key to
each group of
records stored &
corresponding disk
address for that
group.
Serial File Records are stored one after another in no particular order. This file
Organization is not sorted.
Access to records is sequential.
Storage media is magnetic tape.

DATABASES
DATA ORGANIZATION
BIT – stands for Binary Digit

BYTE – a group of eight bits

CHARACTER – a single letter, number, or a special character such as a punctuation

mark or a $ sign etc.

FIELD – A field contains a set of related characters e.g. – on a birth certificate, the
person’s first name represents a field.

RECORD - a collection of logically related fields e.g.- a birth certificate is a record

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FILE – a collection of related records e.g.- all the birth certificates issued at a hospital
would form a file

DATABASE – this is a collection of logically related files.

Traditional File Approach

In the early days of data Processing, an organizations data was duplicated in separate files
for the use by individual departments. For instance, the HR department could hold details
of NAME, ADDRESS, and QUALIFICATIONS etc of each employee while the
Accounts Department would hold details of NAME, ADDRESS, and AND SALARY
of each employee.

Each department had its own set of application programs to process the data in those
files. This led to
 Duplicated data, meaning wasted space on the storage media
 Inconsistency problems – where for example, an address was
updated on one file but not on the other.
 Data was not shareable – if one department needed data that was
held by another, it was hard to obtain it.

In an attempt to solve the above problems, the data from various departments was
centralized in a pool so that all applications had access to the same data sets. And this
gave rise to the DATA BASE APPROACH.

DATABASES!
A database is a single organized collection of structured data, stored with minimum
duplication of data items so as to provide a consistent and controlled pool of data.

A database is organized and designed to allow a large number of users to draw

information from it for many different purposes and in many different formats.

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The outline view of database systems

USER 1

USER 2 DBMS DATABASE

PROCESS

USER 3

Modern information systems utilize database technology called DATABASE

MANAGEMENT SYSTEM (DBMS) for storage and retrieval of information.

DATABASE MANAGEMENT SYSTEM (DBMS)

This is a complex software that constructs, expands and maintains a database. Its also
provides a controlled interface between the users and the data in the database.
DBMS is the software that is used to create, modify and gain access to the database.
Examples of DBMS are
 Ms Access
 DBase III & IV
 Paradox
 Clipper
 FoxBASE+

What are the advantages of the DBMS approach?

Advantages of the DBMS Approach
 Data independence – (program & data independence)
 Control over redundancy – each data item such as name and address is
held once only. In a traditional file system, several different files may contain
the same information, thereby wasting space and making updating more time
consuming and error prone.
 Data Consistency – because the data is held in one place only , a
situation can not arise where for instance, an address has been changed on one
file but not on the other.
 Better security of data- DBMS can control access rights for each
individual item of data. Depending on a user’s code and password, they may
be allowed full update rights to some fields, read-only rights to other fields
and no access at all to certain fields.
 Better access to data – since all the data is held centrally and access
rights can be controlled, all employees can have the access they need in order
to do heir jobs.

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 It is also easier to retrieve specific information from the database using

Queries than in the traditional file system where programs would have to be
written to extract information from the files.
 Information supplied to management is more valuable because it is based
on a comprehensive collection of data.
 DBMS can provide reports, both ad hoc and routine.
 The use of integrated systems is greatly facilitated

GENERAL FUNCTIONS OF DBMS

Allocating storage to data
Maintain the data in the database by
a) Adding new records
b) Deleting “dead” records
c) Amending records
Provides an interface with user programs ( see the diagram above)
Provides security for the data in the database such as .
a) Protecting data against unauthorized use
b) Safeguarding data against corruption
c) Providing recovery and re-start facilities after a hardware or software failure

The Database Administrator (DBA)

This is a special manager of the database who has a sound knowledge of the structure of
the database and the DBMS .

Functions /Activities /Responsibilities of the DBA

1. He is responsible for ensuring that
 The data in the database meets the information needs of the organization.
 The facilities for retrieving data and for structuring reports are appropriate to
the needs of the organization.
2. He or she is responsible for the following documentation:
 Data dictionary - which contains data about data - & referred to as meta data
 Manuals for users describing the facilities the database offers and how to
make use of the facilities.
3. To supervise the addition of new data
4. Ensures database security and the requirements of privacy
5. Periodic appraisal of data held in the database to ensure that it is complete, accurate
and not duplicated.
6. Providing training to users
7. Keeping users informed of the changes in the structure of the database that will affect
them.
8. Design the database

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ASSOCIATED TERMS
DDL - Data Description Language – the language use to specify the data in the database

DML – Data Manipulation Language- The language used to access the data

DSL – Data Sub Language – this is a combination of DDL and DML

SQL – Structured Query Language – this is the most common DSL in use

There are different styles of database management systems available and each is
characterized by the way that the data is defined and structured- and these are called
MODELS or DATABASE ARCHITECTURES.

Database models
Hierarchical
In this architecture the files are arranged in a top-down structure that resembles a tree.
The top is called a ROOT or PARENT while the bottom files are called LEAVES or
CHILDREN. This is a ONE-TO-MANY relationship. Generally it consists of elements
that act in a parent-child relationship. The data stored on lower levels can only be
accessed through the parent element. An element in a database must only have one parent
element.

Relational
This is the most flexible model of a database. It is in the form of a table and this table is
called a RELATION. The entries can be easily added, deleted and modified.
This model has the advantage that the relationships between data can be determined
dynamically at the time that the user requests information from the database.

Network
In this model, each file may be associated with an arbitrary number of files. That is, an
element can have more than one parent. In this case the parent is called the OWNER
while the child is called a MEMBER. It is also called a MANY – TO – MANY
relationship.

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DATA COMMUNICATION AND NETWORKS

(TELECOMMUNICATIONS)
Communication means exchange of information. The task of communicating data from
one computer to another is accomplished by connecting one computer to the next using
communication channels (communication media):

Examples of communication media are:

 Microwave  Coaxial cables
 Satellites  Optic fibre cables
 Twisted pair lines  Telephone lines

This is what is used to link up or connect computers or data communication gadgets

together.

How data is transmitted:

Serial Transmission
This is the transmission of a single bit of data at a time through a single wire.
Characteristics:
 Cheap
 Slow
 Used over long distances
Parallel Transmission
This is the simultaneous transmission of a group off bits over separate wires (usually 8
bits at a time).
 Characteristics
 Faster
 More expensive
 Used for short distances e.g.: computer to printer

BANDWIDTH
Data is transmitted in the form of signals and there are two basic types of signals which
are Analog and Digital.
The data transmission speeds are related to signal frequencies. The frequency of a signal
is the number of cycles per second and is expressed in units called hertz (Hz).
The range of frequencies over which a transmission may take place over a channel is
called the Bandwidth of the channel.

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Types of bandwidth

BANDWITH TYPE DESCRIPTION

*Uses only one channel on the cable to
support digital transmission.
Good over short distances of less than 1km
Base band Suffers signal degradation over long
distances
*A workstation forms data into packets,
and each packet is transmitted one at a time
over the channel.
*These use analog signaling and a range of
frequencies
Also called Wide band channels
Carry more data
Suitable for high speed bulk data
Broad band transmission.
*A workstation broadcasts messages onto
the channel very much like a radio
transmitter broadcasts into the air.
Voice & video signals and digitized data
can be transmitted on a broad band.
Narrow band
Voice band

What makes up a Data Communication system?

BASIC COMPONENTS OF A DATA COMMUNICATION SYSTEM.

The Computer or Terminal – This may be located at a remote location.

Modem – to convert digital data generated by a computer to the analog format for
7transmission over telephone lines.

Communication channels – over which data is transmitted.

Communication processors – This may be Front-End or Back-End processors

and are used to relieve the main computer of simpler or preparatory tasks.

The Host Computer – This is the main computer with which communication take
place.

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Data Transmission Equipment

Modem – This is an acronym to Modulator/Demodulator.
The computer produces digital data and so in order for the digital data to be sent via the
Telephone lines, the data must first be converted to analog ( voice signal suitable for
transportation by telephone lines) and then converted back at the receiving end for the
receiving computer to understand..

An alternative to a Modem is an Acoustic coupler which makes it possible to use an

ordinary telephone handset for transmission. This is suitable only for low speed
transmission.

Multiplexer – This is a device that combines more than one input signal into a single
stream of data that can be transmitted over a single high speed communication channel.
Common techniques are Time Division Multiplexing (TDM) and Frequency Division
Multiplexing (FDM).

Dataplex or Concentrator – This connects a number of terminals that are close to

each other but not to the central computer. The messages are transmitted in a single
stream using multiplexing techniques. Generally concentrators use a method called
Asynchronous Time Division Multiplexing in which the signals from each terminal are
transmitted at regular intervals and must therefore be identified by a number transmitted
with each item. This method is also called Statistical Multiplexing.

TRANSMISSION METHODS

Asynchronous Transmission – in this method the computer will transmit or

receive one character at a time. Each character consists of a series of bits identified by a
star
t bit and a stop bit.
Start bit

Start bit

Start bit
Stop bit

Stop bit

Stop bit

Character Character Character etc

This method is suitable for sending data over telephone lines. This type of transmission is
usually used by PCs, and is fast and economical for relatively small amounts of data. The
method is generally slow.

Synchronous Transmission – In this method timing signals control the rate of

transmission and there is no need for the start and the stop bits to accompany each
character. The characters are transmitted as a block or group of characters and this makes
it faster than Asynchronous transmission.

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Data communication modes

There are three possible modes of transmission:

Simplex
With this method transmission can ONLY take place in one direction. Common examples
of such a method of transmission are Radio and TV broadcast since listeners and viewers
can not respond or shout back.

A B

Half Duplex

Also known as Two-Way Alternate.

Transmission happens in both directions but one direction at a time. Examples are
Telephone conversation. The method is used between a central computer and some
terminals.

A B

Duplex (Full Duplex)

Also known as Two-Way Simultaneous. With this method transmission can take place in
both directions at the same time. It is suitable for interactive computer applications.

A B

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COMPUTER NETWORKS
Computer Networks can be classified based on the distance covered by them. And the
categories are :
 Local Area Networks (LAN)
 Wide Area Networks (WAN)
 Metropolitan Area Networks (MAN)
 Value Added Networks (VAN)

Types of Networks Description

This is a network that covers a smaller
Local Area Network geographical area such as a factory, an
industrial site, office block etc.
Characteristics
 It is private – no access from
outside
 It is connected by cables
 It Occupies a single site
This is a network that covers an entire city
Metropolitan Area Networks but uses LAN technology. It is larger than a
LAN but smaller than a WAN.
Example – Cable TV Networks
This is a network that is spread over a wide
area like across countries, cities, states and
even the entire world. Typically a WAN is
a group of LANS connected together.
Wide Area Network Example – the Internet
Characteristics
 Requires the use of modems
 Connected by telephones, satellite
links etc
 May need front-end processor or
multiplexer to manage many lines

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NETWORK TOPOLOGY

TOPOLOGY
This refers to the configuration of network components. It also refers to the physical
layout of the nodes in a network.

The types of topologies are:

 Star or Centralized network
 Bus or Multi-drop network
 Ring or Loop network
 Mesh network
 Hybrid network

TOPOLOGY ADVANTAGES DISADVANTAGES

 Easy to install  Hardware bugs hard to
 Easy to extend debug
BUS TOPOLOGY  Requires less  Cable breakdown can
cabling affect many users.
 Signals do not need  Covers small
to be boosted distances
 Easy to add nodes  Uses more cables
STAR  Failure of one node  If the hub fails the
does not affect the entire network breaks
rest. down.
 Can cover great  Extending the system
distances needs disabling the
RING  Performance is entire network.
smooth despite  Network re-
many users configuration disrupts
operation

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ADVANTAGES / USES OF NETWORKING

 Connectivity and communication (e-mail)
 Data (user files) sharing
 Software (programs) sharing
 Hardware (& peripheral) sharing
 Internet Access
 Data security and management

Disadvantages
 Cost of network hardware & software
 Hardware & software management and administration costs
 Undesirable sharing
 Data security concerns
 Viruses can easily spread over networked computers

DATA SWITCHING TECHNIQUES

 Circuit switching
 Packet switching
 Message switching

Switching techniques are employed in WANs or Long Haul Networks (LHN) to make a
communication link across a network:

SWITCHING TECHNIQUE DESCRIPTION

This is used on telephone lines.
The telephone exchanges are the data
switching exchange nodes in a network.
When the computer places a call, the
CIRCUIT SWITCHING switching equipment at nodes in the
telephone system seeks and establishes an
unbroken path all the way from the sending
to the receiving computer. Thos link is
maintained for the duration of the
transmission. The sender and the receiver
then disconnect thereafter.
This uses the store and forward method
through Interface Message Processors
(IMPs). During transmission some packets
PACKET SWITCHING of data may be held in the IMP’s storage.
The duration of each packet’s transmission
is limited which ensures more balanced
access to the communication channel. The
packet size limit means that a pss handles
messages as multiple packets.

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In these networks IMPs are special purpose

communication s computers. Most
computers or terminals would be connected
to the IMPs. IMPs may communicate
MESSAGE SWITCHING directly with each other if connected
directly by cables. An IMP may receive ,
store and forward messages received from
one IMP and intended for another. IMPs
perform a message switching function.

The Internet
This is a global network of numerous computers and networks world over, allowing one
access to information over the network and enabling exchange of information.

Requirements for Internet connection

 The computer
 Internet software – a web browser such as Mozila or Internet explorer
 Modem
 Telephone line or wireless Access Protocol (WAP)
 Internet service Provider (ISP) such as ZOL, M-Web etc

Facilities offered by the Internet

 E-Mail  Entertainment
 E-Banking  On-line shopping
 E-Commerce  Chat sessions
 File transfers –  Face Book
(uploading & down  Interactive Browsing
loading)  Collaborative Learning
 Current Information  Virtual classrooms

Search Engines
This is a database that contains information about web pages and their URLs. It is also
referred to as a website that enables the users to query, index and then return results
relevant to that query. After searching, the search engine will display the results.
Examples are:
 Yahoo  Infoseek
 Google  Profusion
 Hotbot  Excite
 Lycos  Alta Vista

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Associated Technical Jargon

WWW – This provides an entry point to the internet that expands outwards in an
exploratory way using many of the basic internet tools such as: FTP, Telnet, Usenet and
Gopher.
Surfing – This is the process of navigating and exploring the WWW.
Telnet – a standard protocol allowing one computer to access and utilize resources on
another computer.
Intranet – It is any network belonging to one organization. It uses the existing
telephone network and works like a private internet. It uses the same software and
protocols as those on the internet.
Extranet – is a private network that uses Internet protocols and the public telephone
system to securely share part of a business’s information and operations with suppliers,
vendors, partners, customers etc. It can also be viewed as part of a company’s intranet
that is extended top users outside the company.
Web page – this is a file encoded with a mark-up language (html)
Web site – this is a group of web pages that are managed by a company, organization
or an individual.
Home page – This is the first page you see when you visit a web site.

Network Protocols
Protocols
Data being transmitted may not be in a format that the other computer can receive. A
high level of co-ordination is needed for the exchange of information between computers
on a network. This is provided by a universally agreed format used to exchange data and
information on a network. This universally agreed format is called a PROTOCOL.

PROTOCOLS – provide a standard in a computer network to exchange information

efficiently.

COMMONLY USED PROTOCOL

TCP / IP – Transmission Control Protocol / Internet Protocol

This is a commonly used protocol in computer networks because of its ability to be used
in computer networks having many different types of computers.
It supports routing and accessing the internet and its resources.
Other protocols that have been written specifically for the TCP/IP suite are:
a) SMTP – Small Mail Transfer Protocol – this is used for sending e-mails
b) FTP – File Transfer Protocols – used for the transfer of files among computers
using TCP/IP
c) SNMP-Simple Network Management Protocol – used for network management.
TCP/IP is a slow protocol but is routable over wide, complex networks and supports the
error correction features.

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COMPUTER SECURITY

Computer Security – is concerned with the taking care of the hardware, software and data
on a computer. It is important that we protect the computer against any known threats as
follows:

THREAT TO COMPUTER EQUIPMENT MEASURES OR REMEDY

Fire damage Install and use smoke detectors
Damage by lightning Switch off and Plug off
Computer theft Lock doors and have Alarmed circuits
Unauthorized use Biometrics , passwords , keyboard locks
Temperature extremes Air conditioning - fans
Dusty and dirty environment Clean the room & equipment regularly
Viruses Install an updated antivirus program that
will scan, detect and clean away viruses.
Misuse of data & information stored on a Data encryption – files with sensitive data
computer are coded, scrambled or encrypted.
Hackers Have a security guard , lock the room

NB: Biometrics – refers to the science of measuring individual body characteristics.

The technology may consist of using machines that can recognize someone’s finger
prints, voice, signature etc; - this is used in the banking industry.

Passwords – these are secret words or numbers that must be keyed into a computer
system in order to gain access.

COMPUTER VIRUSES

Computer Virus - This is a computer program that is designed to destroy other programs
and data files. It places itself in a computer in such a way that it interferes with the
normal processes of operating systems.

Types of Viruses
VIRUS TYPE CHARACTERISTICS / DESCRIPTION
The boot sector is a location in the hard
disk that controls how the OS starts when
you boot the computer. A boot sector virus
Boot sector virus replaces the disk’s original boot sector with
its own, loads itself into the memory. Once
there, it makes the OS fail and starts
spreading to other disks.

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This virus attaches itself to executable files

File Infector and makes them corrupt thereby causing a
computer breakdown.
This is a virus that disguises itself as a
Trojan Horse legitimate program. It damages files and
disks and the disks damaged may not be
recoverable.
Worm A small program that replicates and fills up
the computer causing breakdown.
Mass Mailer
Macro A virus that modifies Ms Word &
Spreadsheet documents.

 It is software
General characteristics of a Virus  It replicates
 It copies itself or duplicates itself

 Loss of Memory
 Missing files
 Very slow processing
 Funny messages or pictures
displayed on the screen
Symptoms of virus Infection  Insufficient disk space
 Disk access taking longer
 Network slow down
 Operating system fails to load
 Failure to read external storage
devices – memory sticks, floppies
etc

 Make back-ups of all important

files
 Install and ant-virus program and
Precautions to take against set it to automatically scan disks
Viruses  Do not open “spam”
 Do not share external storage
devices such as flash disks ,
diskettes etc

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 Files get corrupted and unusable

Damage caused by viruses  Hard disk crushes or damage
 Failure to print
 Severely slows down the network
 Network saturation
 Programs fail to run
 Files get deleted from the hard
drives

 Dr Solomon’s Anti-Virus Toolkit

 AVG
Examples of Anti-virus  Microsoft Anti-virus (MSAV)
 Norton Anti-virus
programs
 Avaste
 Picillin
NB – new anti-virus programs are
being developed – find out!

COMPUTER ROOM ENVIRONMENT

The main requirements for a computer room are as follows:
1) Air Conditioning
2) Optimal shading (curtains) to prevent glare from VDUs – this involve the use of
screen filters.
3) There should be enough power points – avoid the use of adapters
4) Equipment security
5) Cleanliness
6) Use f the Uninterruptible Power Supply (UPS)
7) Carpets to reduce static electricity
8) Smoke detectors to be installed
9) Ergonomic considerations – seating design, keyboard height relative to seats etc

NB: Ergonomics – the study of the relationship of work performance to the

equipment.

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HEALTH AND SAFETY

HEALTH PROBLEM SOLUTION / REMEDY
Repetitive Strain Injury (RSI) – This is Take frequent breaks and rests
caused by joints in the fingers constantly
being pounded by typing fingers at high And
speed. For instance, typing at high speed Have a well positioned keyboard
for long periods.
Eye-strain – your vision is at risk when Use anti-glare materials such as screen
using a computer. filters.
Backaches Use chairs with adjustable back rest, height
and foot rest.
Headaches Take frequent breaks and rests

COMPUTER ETHICS
Ethics are standards of moral conduct.
Computer ethics are the guidelines for the morally acceptable use of computers in our
society.

Computer ethical issues

ACCURACY – Relates to the responsibility of those who collect data and ensure that
data is correct.

ACCESS – Relates to the responsibility of those who have data to control who is to use
that data.

COPYRIGHT – The correct purchasing of software will ensure that the developers of
that software or copyright holders receive the required license fee.

INTEGRITY – Information is supposed to be correct and complete and used only for
the purpose for which it was obtained.

PRIVACY – Information is supposed to be made available only to those who are

supposed to have it. Concerns the collection and use of data about individuals.

PROPERTY – Relates to who owns the data and the rights to software (copyrights).

SHAREWARE – Refers to the software that you are allowed to use on your computer
for an unlimited period. And if you find it useful then you may pay the registration fees
and then get the full benefits of the product.

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FREE WARE – This is the software that is free of any obligation to the end-user. The
end-user is free to use it indefinitely and can distribute it to others free of charge.
Examples are Demonstration disks and Educational programs or games.

USER LICENCE – This is the official or legal permission for the use of particular
software.

COMPUTER CRIME
OFFENCE DESCRIPTION
This the illegal use of software that has
SOFTWARE PIRACY been copied (burned) rather than purchased
– and- without a user license.
Refers to the breaking of passwords and
HACKING making illegal and unauthorized access to
data and information stored on a computer.

A virus is a man-made program that

COMPUTER VIRUS destroys useful programs on a computer
and causes computer breakdowns.
SALAMI SLICING This is an unauthorized program code that
is added to a system in order to steal very
small amounts from many accounts.
DIDDLING Involves the use of a computer by an
employee to forge documents or change
data in records for personal gain.
ESPIONAGE This is theft of organizational data by
competitors.
SNOOPING

COMMONLY USED ABBREVIATIONS

ASCII : American Standard Code for Information Interchange

ATM : Automated Teller Machine
BASIC : Beginners All-purpose Symbolic Instruction Code
CASE : Computer Aided Software Engineering
CAD : Computer Aided Design
CAM : Computer Aided Manufacturing
CAT : Computer Axial Technology
CBT : Computer Based Training

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CPU : Central Processing Unit

CICO : Correct In Correct Out
CRT : Cathode Ray Tube
COM : Computer Output on Microfilm
COBOL : Common Business Oriented Language
CD : Compact Disk
DVD : Digital Versatile Disk
DDL : Data Description Language
DML : Data Manipulation Language
DBA : Database Administrator
DBMS : Database Management System
EBCDIC : Extended Binary Coded Decimal Interchange Code
EFT : Electronic Funds Transfer
EFTPOS : Electronic Funds Transfer at Point of Sale
FAQ : Frequently Asked Questions
FORTRAN : Formula Translation
FTP : File Transfer Protocol
GUI : Graphical User Interface
GIGO : Garbage In Garbage Out
HTTP : Hyper Text Transport Protocol
HTML : Hyper Text Markup Language
IT : Information Technology
ICT : Information & Communication Technology
ISP : Internet service Provider
IRC : Internet Relay Chat
ISDN : Integrated Services Digital Networks
LAN : Local Area Networks
LCD : Liquid Crystal Display
LED : Light Emitting Diode
LHN : Long Haul Networks
MAN : Metropolitan Area Networks

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Mastering Introduction to Computers By Sir Chimukombo –Essentials- Release 3

MS DOS : Microsoft Disk Operating System

MICR : Magnetic Ink Character Recognition
MIS : Management Information System
MID : Multi-User Dimension
OCR : Optical Character Reader
OMR : Optical Mark Reader
PC : Personal Computer
PIN : Personal Identity Number
POS : Point Of Sale
PROM : Programmable Read Only Memory
PBX : Private Branch Exchange
QBE : Query By Example
RAM : Random Access Memory
ROM : Read Only Memory
SQL : Structured Query Language
SHN : Short Haul Network
TCP/IP : Transmission Control Protocol / Internet Protocol
URL : Uniform Resource Locator
VPN : Virtual Private Network
VAN : Value Added Network
VLSI : Very Large Scale Integration
WAN : Wide Area Network
WORM : Write Once Read Many
WIMP : Windows Icons Menu Pointer
WAP : Wireless Access Protocol
Wi Fi : Wireless Fidelity

All rights reserved – Sir Chimms Lecture Series - 2016 40