General Physics Lab Report
Measurement And Uncertainty
College of Education And Behavioral
Study
Section-2
Group Members ID
1.DAGIM YENENEH UGR/0986 /17
2.AMANUEL TAYU UGR/8069 /17
3.ABEL GEBRESLASSIE UGR/7643 /17
4.ABEL ABERA UGR/1016/17
Experiment Date:- 02/12/2024
Submission Date:- 01/01/2025
Submitted to :- Ato Gizaw
Title:- Measurement and uncertainty
Introduction
Physics relies on precise and accurate measurements to explore the natural world and validate scientific
theories. Yet, no measurement is entirely free from uncertainty. This uncertainty can stem from various
factors, such as the limitations of measuring instruments, the properties of the object being measured, the
skill of the person conducting the experiment, and environmental influences. Recognizing and quantifying
this uncertainty is essential, as it enables scientists to evaluate the reliability and accuracy of their results,
fostering a deeper understanding of the phenomena being studied.
Objective
The purpose of this experiment is to:
Develop skills in estimating distance, mass, and volume.
Learn how to effectively use vernier calipers and micrometer screw gauges.
Perform basic measurements of length, mass, and time with progressively greater precision.
Calculate volume and density based on collected data.
Theory: Measurement and Uncertainty
In physics, the accuracy and precision of measurements are of utmost importance, as they
form the foundation of scientific experiments. Understanding the concepts of
measurement and uncertainty helps us to assess the reliability of their data and to make
informed decisions based on their experimental results.
1. Measurement
Measurement quantifies physical quantities using standardized instruments. Commonly measured
quantities include length, mass, time, temperature, and electrical current, each expressed in standard
units like meters for length or seconds for time.
The meter stick
An ordinary meter stick is a simple tool for measuring length in the physics lab. Laboratory-grade
meter sticks are calibrated in centimeters with a least count of 1 millimeter.
The vernier caliper
The vernier caliper provides greater precision than a meter stick. It is ideal for measuring small
thicknesses, the outer and inner diameters of round objects, and the depth of holes.
The micrometer screw gauge
The micrometer screw gauge measures dimensions smaller than those measurable by a vernier caliper.
It consists of a main scale and a rotating scale (thimble). The thimble’s 50 divisions correspond to 0.5
mm on the main scale, giving a least count of 0.01 mm.
The triple beam balance
It measures the mass of an object by balancing it with sliding masses of known values.
The triple-beam balance is usually calibrated in grams with a least count of 0.01g.
2. Accuracy and Precision:
● Accuracy: refers to how close a measured value is to the true or accepted
value.
● Precision: describes the consistency or repeatability of measurements. High
precision indicates low variability among repeated measurements.
3. Uncertainty:
Sources of Uncertainty
Uncertainty arises from various sources during the measurement process like:-
● Instrumental Uncertainty: Limitations of the measuring instrument, such as
the smallest division on a ruler or the resolution of a digital scale, contribute to
uncertainty. Even some instruments don't start with zero.
● Human Error: The skill and judgment of the experimenter, such as reading an
instrument or recording data, can introduce uncertainty. This includes parallax
error which is an error occurring when the experimenter’s eye is not in the exact
position.
● Environmental Factors: External conditions, such as temperature fluctuations or
vibrations, can affect the measurement process. This also includes the object that
is being measured because of its irregularity.
Types of Uncertainty:
● Systematic Uncertainty: Systematic uncertainty, or systematic error, is consistent
and predictable, often resulting from calibration issues or inherent biases in the
measurement process. It affects the accuracy of measurements and can be
corrected if identified.
● Random Uncertainty: Random uncertainty, or random error, varies unpredictably
between measurements due to unpredictable factors. It affects the precision of
measurements and is usually reduced through repeated measurements and
statistical analysis.
Quantifying Uncertainty:
Uncertainty is typically expressed as an interval or range within which the true value is
expected to lie. Common methods for quantifying uncertainty include:
● Absolute Uncertainty: The actual amount of uncertainty, given in the same
units as the measured quantity (e.g., ±0.1 cm).
Absolute error = measured value - accepted value
● Relative Uncertainty: The ratio of absolute uncertainty to the measured value,
often expressed as a percentage (e.g., ±0.1 cm / 10.0 cm = ±1%).
Relative error = (Absolute error/accepted value)*100%
Equipments(Apparents)
● Meter Stick or Metric Ruler
● Vernier Caliper
● Triple-beam balance
● Graduated Cylinder, 25 mL,50ml
● Rectangular block
● Cylindrical Blocks (brass and aluminum)
● Coin (1 Birr)
Procedures
1. Estimating Dimensions with Meter Stick or Metric Ruler:
● Two participants independently measured the length, width, and height of a rectangular
block using a meter stick or metric ruler during two separate trials.
● To improve accuracy, they ensured the ruler was positioned parallel to the edges being
measured and avoided parallax errors by keeping their eyes level with the measurement
markings.
● The measurements were taken in millimeters for greater precision and recorded for each
trial.
● After completing both trials, the participants compared their results to evaluate
consistency and identify any potential sources of error, such as slight misalignment or
irregular block surfaces.
2. Precise Measurements with Vernier Caliper:
The length, width, and height of the rectangular block were measured with a
vernier caliper to ensure higher precision during two additional trials.
Care was taken to align the block properly within the caliper's jaws and to read
the scale accurately, avoiding parallax errors.
The measurements, recorded to the nearest 0.01 millimeter, were documented
for each trial.
The results were then compared to those obtained with the meter stick or ruler to highlight the
improved accuracy of the vernier caliper.
3. Measuring Cylindrical Objects:
Four individuals measured the diameter and height of two cylindrical objects—one
aluminum and one brass—using a vernier caliper in four separate trials.
To ensure accuracy, they carefully positioned the caliper's jaws perpendicular to the
cylinder's surface when measuring the diameter and aligned it precisely along the cylinder's axis
when measuring the height.
Each measurement was taken to the nearest 0.01 millimeter and recorded for every trial.
The results were later compared across trials to assess consistency and identify any variations
due to user handling or instrument precision.
4. Measuring Coin Dimensions:
● The thickness and diameter of a 1-birr coin were measured using a vernier caliper to
ensure.
● Each measurement was recorded to the nearest 0.01 millimeter, highlighting the
precision of the instrument.
● The recorded data were analyzed to confirm the uniformity of the coin's dimensions and
to identify any minor variations that might arise due to wear or imperfections.
5. Estimating Mass with Triple Beam Balance:
● Estimated the masses of the rectangular block, aluminum cylinder,
brass cylinder, and 1-birr coin using the triple beam balance.
● Recorded the estimated masses.
.
6. Data Recording:
● Compiled all measurements and estimates into tables for easy reference and
analysis.
Data table collected
1. Dimensions of a rectangular block.
Measurement of Measured Values (Four trials)
T1 T2 T3 T4
Length(cm) 4.4 4.5 4.1 4.2
Width(cm) 3.5 3.6 3.1 3.2
Height(cm) 1.7 1.5 1.7 1.6
2. Dimensions of brass and aluminium cylinders
Cylinders Measurement of Measured values(Four trials)
T1 T2 T3 T4
Brass Height(cm) 3.2 3.1 3.2 2.2
Diameter(cm) 2.8 2.9 2.8 3.0
diameter(cm) 1.6 1.6 1.5 2.5
Aluminum Height(cm) 2.2 2.1 2.21 2.2
Diameter(cm) 1.6 1.00 1.5 1.2
3. Dimension of one-birr coin
Measurement of Measured values (Four trials)
T1 T2 T3 T4
Thickness(cm) 0.3 0.3 0.2 0.2
Diameter(cm) 2.6 2.6 2.7 2.7
4. Masses of the objects
Measurement of Measured values (Four trials)
T1 T2 T3 T4
Rectangular 20.5 20.3 20.5 20.4
block(gm)
Brass cylinder(gm) 29.4 29.1 29.4 29.5
Aluminum 36.7 36.1 36.3 36.7
cylinder(gm)
One-birr coin(gm) 6.5 6.5 6.3 6.4
Data and Error analysis
For table 1
Step 1: we calculated the mean
● Length:
Length=(4.9+4.5+4.1+4.2)/4=4.425 cm
● Width:
Width= (3.5+3.6+3.1+3.2)/4=3.35 cm
● Height:
Height=(1.7+1.5+1.7+1.6)/4=1.625 cm
Step 2: Calculate the Standard Deviation
𝑛
2
∑ (𝑥
σ =
−𝑥)
𝑖=1
𝑖
𝑛−1
uncertainty= σ/ �
● Length:
Length=
(4.9 – 4. 42 5) +(4.5−4. 42 5) + (4.1−4. 42 5)2 + (4.2−4. 42 5)2/(4 − 1)
2 2
≈0.3594 cm
uncertainty=0.1797
● Width:
Width=
(3.5 – 3.35) +(3 . 6−3. 3 5) + (3 . 1−3.35)2+ (3 . 2−3 . 35)2/(4 − 1)
2 2
≈ 0.119cm
uncertainty=0.119
● Height:
(1.7 – 1.625) +(1.5−1.625) + (1 .7−1.625) + (1.6−1.625) /(4 − 1)
2 2 2 2
Height=
≈ 0.0958cm
uncertainty=
0.0479cm
Analysis
1. Length:
○ Mean: 4.425 cm
○ Uncertainty (Standard Deviation): ±0.1797 cm
○ The measurements are fairly consistent, with low uncertainty indicating precise
measurements.
2. Width:
○ Mean: 3.35 cm
○ Uncertainty (Standard Deviation): ±0.119 cm
○ There is slightly higher variability in width measurements, suggesting some
inconsistencies.
Height:
○ Mean: 1.625 cm
○ Uncertainty (Standard Deviation): ±0.0479 cm
○ The uncertainty is moderate, indicating reasonably consistent measurements but
with some variation.
For table 2
Brass cylinder
● height
Mean (Average) height:
height=3.2+3.1+3.2+3.2/4=3.175 cm
Standard Deviation:
(3.2 − 3.175)2 + (3.1 − 3. 175)2 + (3. 2 − 3.175)2 + (3. 2 − 3. 175)2/(4 −
σLength=
≈0.05 cm
uncertainty= 0.025
● Diameter
Mean (Average) Diameter:
Diameter=2.8+2.9+2.8+3.0/4= 2.875 cm
Standard Deviation:
(2.8 − 2. 875)2 + (2. 90 − 2. 875)2 + (2. 80 − 2. 875)2 + (3.0 − 2.
σDiameter=
≈0.0957cm
uncertanity=0.0479
Aluminum Cylinder
● Length
Mean (Average) Length:
Length=2.2+2.1+2.1+2.2/4=2.15 cm
Standard Deviation:
(2.2 −2 . 1 5 )2 + (2,1 – 2.15)2 + (2.1 – 2.15)2 + (2.2 – 2.15)2/(4 − 1)
σLength=
≈ 0.0577cm
uncertainity=0.00288
● Diameter
Mean (Average) Diameter:
Diameter=1.6+1.00+1.5+1.2 /4=1.325 cm
Standard Deviation:
(1.6 – 1.325)2 + (1. 00 – 1.325)2 + (1.5 – 1.325)2 + (1.2 – 1.325)2/(4 − 1)
σDiameter=
0.2753≈ cm
uncertainty= 0.2753/ 4 =0.1377
Analysis
● Brass Cylinder:
○ Length: The mean length is 3.175 cm with a standard deviation of ±0.05cm,
indicating highly consistent measurements.
○ Diameter: The mean diameter is 2.875 cm with a standard deviation of
±0.0957 cm, showing slightly more variability but still reasonably consistent.
● Aluminum Cylinder:
○ Length: The mean length is 2.15 cm with a standard deviation of ±0.00288 cm,
showing very high consistency in measurements.
○ Diameter: The mean diameter is 1.325 cm with a standard deviation of
±0.1377cm, indicating moderate variability.
For table 3
One-birr coin’s
Thickness
Mean (Average) Thickness:
Thickness=0.20+0.20+0.30+0.3/4=0.25 cm
Standard Deviation:
(0. 20 − 0.25)2 + (0. 20 − 0. 25)2 + (0. 30 − 0.25)2 + (0. 3 – 0.25)2/(4 − 1)
σThickness=
≈0.0577 cm
uncertainty=0.0577 / 4 =0.0289
Diameter
Mean (Average) Diameter:
Diameter=2.60+2.60+2.70+2.70/4=2.65 cm
Standard Deviation:
(2. 60 − 2. 65)2 + (2. 60 − 2. 65)2 + (2. 70 − 2. 65)2 + (2. 70 − 2.
σDiameter=
=0.0577cm
Uncertainity=0.0289cm
Analysis
1. Thickness:
○ Mean: 0.25 cm
○ Uncertainty (Standard Deviation): ±0.0289 cm
○ The thickness measurements show a small variability, indicating
reasonably consistent measurements.
2. Diameter:
○ Mean: 2.65 cm
○ Uncertainty (Standard Deviation): ±0.0577 cm
○ The diameter measurements are extremely consistent with no
variability, indicating precise measurements.
For table 4
Rectangular Block
Mean (Average) Mass:
Mass=20.5+20.30+20.5+20.9/4=20.55 gm
Standard Deviation:
(20.5 – 20.55)2 + (20.3 – 20.55)2 + (20.5 – 20.55)2 + (20.9 – 20.55)2/(4 −
σMass=
0.252≈ gm
Uncertainity=
0.126
Brass Cylinder
Mean (Average) Mass:
Mass=29.4+29.1+29.4+29.5/4=29.35 gm
Standard Deviation:
(29.4 – 29.35)2 + (29.1 – 29.35)2 + (29.4 – 29.35)2 + (29.5 – 29.35)2/(4 − 1)
σMass=
≈0.1732gm
Uncertainity=0.0866gm
Aluminum Cylinder
Mean (Average) Mass:
Mass=36.7+36.1+36.3+36.7/4=36.25 gm
Standard Deviation:
(36.7 − 36. 25)2 + (36.1 – 36.25)2 + (36. 3 − 36. 25)2 + (36.7 –
σMass=
≈0.3786gm
Uncertainity=0.1893gm
One-Birr Coin
Mean (Average) Mass:
Mass=6.5+6.5+6.30+6.4/4=6.425 gm
Standard Deviation:
(6. 5 − 6. 425)2 + (6.5 − 6. 425)2 + (6. 30 − 6. 425)2 + (6. 30 − 6.425)2/(4
σMass=
≈0.0958gm
Uncertinity=0.0479gm
Analysis
1. Rectangular Block:
○ Mean Mass: 20.55 gm
○ Uncertainty (Standard Deviation): ±0.126 gm
○ The measurements are reasonably consistent, with a low standard deviation.
2. Brass Cylinder:
○ Mean Mass: 29.35 gm
○ Uncertainty (Standard Deviation): ±0.0866 gm
○ The measurements are fairly consistent, though there's a moderate variability.
3. Aluminum Cylinder:
○ Mean Mass: 36.25 gm
○ Uncertainty (Standard Deviation): ±0.1893 gm
○ The measurements are very consistent, with a low standard deviation.
4. One-Birr Coin:
○ Mean Mass: 6.425 gm
○ Uncertainty (Standard Deviation): ±0.0479gm
○ The measurements show some variability, but are still reasonably consistent.
Conclusion
❖ Every measurement has some degree of error, and it is our task to minimize the
variability in the data. Measurements should be reviewed repeatedly to reduce
uncertainty.
❖ The primary goal of the Measurement and Uncertainty Experiment is not to
eliminate all errors but to minimize them.
❖ It's unrealistic to expect perfection from this type of experiment. It demonstrates
that error or uncertainty in measurement is unavoidable.
❖ Trials should be conducted with care, in optimal conditions such as good lighting
and with the right mindset. This approach helps minimize uncertainty and
increases our confidence in the measurements.
Questions?
1. Why Is It Important to correctly estimate length, time, and mass?
2. Sometimes many trials are run and recorded. Then the highest and lowest data points
are disregarded when taking the average. Explain why.
3. Which Is More Accurate, individual measurements or their average? Explain.
4. Suppose you are provided with a ruler the ends of which are worn a bit. How should
you start your measurements in order to minimize the possibility of unacceptable errors?
5. For the figures below identify the value of the major mark and the value of the minor
mark (least count) and write the reading from the instrument
Answers
1. Accurate measurements ensure the reliability and reproducibility of results in scientific
experiments or engineering designs.Improper estimation leads to errors that can
significantly impact calculations, processes, or conclusions.It allows consistent
communication of results in research, trade, and manufacturing.
2. Extreme values (outliers) can occur due to measurement errors, external disturbances, or
unusual conditions. These values skew the average, making it less representative of
typical measurements. By disregarding outliers, the average becomes more reflective of
the true value.
3. The Average Is More Accurate: Individual measurements are prone to random errors,
but averaging multiple trials reduces the impact of these errors.
4. Start your measurements from a point other than the worn end, such as the 1 cm mark,
instead of the edge.
5. A. Meter Stick:
● Major Mark: 1 cm
● Minor Mark (Least Count): 1 mm=0.1 cm
● reading= 7.2 cm
(b) Vernier Caliper:
● Major Mark: 1 mm
● Minor Mark (Least Count): 0.01 mm (depending on the scale).
● Reading=3.1cm
(c) Micrometer Screw Gauge:
● Major Mark: 0.5 mm
● Minor Mark (Least Count): 0.01 mm
● Reading = 3.09mm
(d) Triple Beam Balance:
● Major Mark: Depends on the beam (e.g., 100 g,10 g,1 g).
● Minor Mark (Least Count): 0.1 g
● Reading 290.2gm
Reference https://www.iaea.org/sites/default/files/21/12/9_measurement_and_uncertainty.pdf
