Unit – 3

Angular Metrology
3.1 Introduction, Instruments for Angular Measurements.
3.2 Construction, Working Principle, Least Count, Use and Ranges available of Universal Bevel
Protractor, Sine Bar.
3.3 Working Principle and Use of Spirit Level, Clinometer.
3.4 Working Principle of Angle Gauges (with numerical on setting of Angle Gauges).

The precise measurement of angles is an important requirement in workshops and tool rooms.
We need to measure angles of interchangeable parts, gears, jigs, fixtures, etc. Some of the typical
measurements are tapers of bores, flank angle and included angle of a gear, angle made by a
seating surface of a jig with respect to a reference surface, and taper angle of a jib. Sometimes,
the primary objective of angle measurement is not to measure angles. This may sound rather
strange, but this is the case in the assessment of alignment of machine parts. Measurement of
straightness, parallelism, and flatness of machine parts requires highly sensitive instruments like
autocollimators. The angle reading from such an instrument is a measure of the error of
alignment.
There are a wide range of instruments, starting from simple scaled instruments to
sophisticated types that use laser interferometry techniques. The basic types are simple
improvisations of a protractor, but with better discrimination (least count), for example, a vernier
protractor. These instruments are provided with a mechanical support or a simple mechanism to
position them accurately against the given workpiece and lock the reading. A spirit level has
universal applications, not only in mechanical engineering but also in civil engineering
construction for aligning structural members such as beams and columns. Instruments employing
the basic principle of a spirit level but with higher resolution, such as conventional or electronic
clinometers, are popular in metrology applications. By far, the most precise instruments are
collimators and angle dekkors, which belong to the family of instruments referred to as optical
tooling. This chapter deals with some of the popular angle measurement devices that are widely
used in the industry.

Types of Angular Measuring Instruments:

There are various types of Angular Measurements which are based on various standards, and
those are the following:

• Line Standard Angular Measuring Devices

1. Protractor
2. Universal Bevel Protractors
• Face Standard Angular Measuring Devices
1. Sine bar
2. Angle Gauges
• Measurement of Inclines
1. Spirit Level
2. Clinometer
• Angle Comparators
1. Angle Dekker

Universal Bevel Protractor

The universal bevel protractor with 5’ accuracy is commonly found in all tool rooms and
metrology laboratories. Figure below illustrates the construction of a universal bevel protractor.
It has a base plate or stock whose surface has a high degree of flatness and surface finish. The
stock is placed on the workpiece whose angle is to be measured. An adjustable blade attached to
a circular dial is made to coincide with the angular surface. It can be swivelled to the required
angle and locked into position to facilitate accurate reading of the circular scale that is mounted
on the dial. The main scale on the dial is graduated in degrees and rotates with the rotation of the
adjustable blade. A stationary vernier scale mounted close to the dial, as shown in Fig. below,
enables measurements to a least count of 5' or less.

An acute angle attachment is provided for the measurement of acute angles. The main scale on
the dial is divided into four quadrants, each measuring 90°. Each division on this scale reads 1°.
The degrees are numbered from 0 to 90 on either side of the zeroth division. The vernier scale
has 24 divisions, which correspond to 46 divisions on the main scale. However, the divisions on
the vernier scale are numbered from 0 to 60 on either side of the zeroth division, as shown in Fig.
below.

Calculation of Least Count

Value of one main scale division = 1° , 24 vernier divisions correspond to 46 main scale
divisions. From Fig. below, it is clear that one vernier division equals 1/12 th of 23°.
Let us assume that the zeroth division on both the main and the vernier scales are lined up to
coincide with each other.
Now, as the dial rotates, a vernier division, starting from the fifth minute up to the 60th minute,
progressively coincides with a main scale division until the zeroth division on the vernier scale
moves over the main scale by 2°. Therefore, the least count is the difference between one vernier
division and two main scale divisions, which is 1/12° or 5'.
Reading Vernier Scales
Consider the situation shown in Fig. below. The zeroth division of the vernier scale is just past
the 10° division on the main scale. The 7th division, marked as the 35' division, on the left hand
side of the vernier scale coincides with a division on the main scale. Therefore, the reading in
this case is 10°35'.

Sometimes, confusion arises regarding the direction in which the vernier has to be read. This
confusion may crop up for the aforementioned example also. It is possible that a division on the
right side of zero on the vernier scale may be coinciding with a division on the main scale (dial
scale). In order to eliminate this confusion, we follow a simple rule. Always read the vernier
from zero in the same direction that you read the dial scale. In the given example, the 10th
division on the dial, which is close to the zeroth division on the vernier, is to the left of the zeroth
division on the dial scale. In other words, the dial scale is being read in the leftward or
anticlockwise direction. Therefore, the vernier should also be read towards the left of the vernier
zero division. Figure below illustrates the use of a bevel protractor for measurement of angles.
While Fig. (a) illustrates the use of acute angle attachment, Fig. (b) shows how the angle of an
inside bevelled face can be measured.
SINE BAR
A sine bar is used to measure angles based on the sine principle. Its upper surface forms
the hypotenuse of a triangle formed by a steel bar terminating in a cylinder near each end. When
one of the cylinders, called a roller, is resting on a flat surface, the bar can be set at any desired
angle by simply raising the second cylinder. The required angle is obtained when the difference
in height between the two rollers is equal to the sine of the angle multiplied by the distance
between the centres of the rollers. Figure below illustrates the construction details of a sine bar.
Sine bars are made of corrosion-resistant steel, and are hardened, ground, and stabilized.
The size is specified by the distance between the centres of the cylinders, which is 100, 200, or
300mm. The upper surface has a high degree of flatness of up to 0.001mm for a 100mm length
and is perfectly parallel to the axis joining the centres of the two cylinders. The parallelism of
upper surface with the datum line is of the order of 0.001mm for a 100mm length. Relief holes
are sometimes provided to reduce the weight of the sine bar. This by itself is not a complete
measuring instrument. Accessories such as a surface plate and slip gauges are needed to perform
the measurement process. Figure below illustrates the application of a sine rule for angle
measurement.
The sine of angle θ formed between the upper surface of a sine bar and the surface plate
(datum) is given by
Sin (θ) = h/L
where h is the height difference between the two rollers and L is the distance between the
centres of the rollers.
Therefore, h = L Sin (θ)

Measuring Unknown Angles with Sine Bar

A sine bar can also be used to measure unknown angles with a high degree of precision.
The angle of the work part is first measured using an instrument like a bevel protractor. Then, the
work part is clamped to the sine bar and set on top of a surface plate to that angle using slip
gauges, as shown in Fig. below (clamping details are not shown in the figure).
A dial gauge fixed to a stand is brought in contact with the top surface of the work part at
one end and set to zero. Now, the dial indicator is moved to the other end of the work part in a
straight line. A zero reading on the dial indicator indicates that the work part surface is perfectly
horizontal and the set angle is the right one. On the other hand, if the dial indicator shows any
deviations, adjustments in the height of slip gauges is necessary to ensure that the work part
surface is horizontal. The difference in height corresponding to the dial gauge reading is
incorporated in the slip gauges, and the procedure is repeated until the dial indicators show zero
deviation. The actual angle is calculated using the total height of the slip gauges.
Instead of a dial gauge, a high-amplification comparator can be used for better accuracy.
Whether setting a sine bar to a known angle or for measuring unknown angles, a few guidelines
should be followed to ensure proper usage of the instrument:
1. It is not recommended to use sine bars for angles greater than 45° because any error in
the sine bar or height of slip gauges gets accentuated.
2. Sine bars provide the most reliable measurements for angles less than 15°.
3. The longer the sine bar, the better the measurement accuracy.
4. It is preferable to use the sine bar at a temperature recommended by the supplier. The
accuracy of measurement is influenced by the ambient temperature.
5. It is recommended to clamp the sine bar and the work part against an angle plate. This
prevents misalignment of the workpiece with the sine bar while making measurements.
6. One should always keep in mind that the sine principle can be put to use provided the
sine bar is used along with a high-quality surface plate and set of slip gauges.

Spirit level
Spirit levels are used for measuring small angle or inclinations and also enable the position
of a surface to be determined with respect to the horizontal.
A spirit level consists of a sealed glass tube, ground on its inside surface to a convex form
with a large radius of curvature R. A scale is engraved on the glass at the top of the tube. The
tube is nearly filled with spirit such that only a small volume remains at the top part of the tube
which contains vapours in the form of a bubble.
The performance of the spirit level is governed by the geometrical relationship between the
bubble and the two references. The first reference is the effect of gravity acting at the centre of
the bubble. The second is the scale against which the bubble position is read. The sensitivity of
the spirit level depends on the radius of curvature of the bubble, which is formed against the
inside surface of the glass vial, and the base length of its mount.
In Fig. below, B is the top of the tube radius and the position of the bubble when the
base is at OA (horizontal). If the base is tilted through an angle α and base occupies position
OA’, the bubble will move a distance l to B’, where angle BOB’ = α. If R is the radius of the
tube then

If L is the length of the base and h is the difference in height between its ends, then
for small value of h,
=
= and if α is taken in seconds, then = (One radian equals 206,265
seconds of an arc)

From above relation it is obvious that the sensitivity of the level increases as R increases. The
scale spacing or the distance between adjacent graduation is generally about 2 mm and thus for
R= 206 m
×
= ≈ "( )
The inclination of 2″ causes bubble movement of 2 mm. This is the sensitive spirit level and is
recommended for research laboratory.
For highly precise shop measurements, spirit levels with scale division value of 4 to 10 are
employed. For ordinary purposes, scale division values of the order of 10 to 40 are sufficient.
It may be noted that spirit levels are very sensitive to variation in the temperature of their
surroundings, since they change the tension of ether vapours in the tube. As such the spirit level
should be used in controlled temperature conditions, or else precise spirit levels equipped with
various devices that compensate for errors due to temperature changes be used.

Clinometer principle :
A clinometer is a special case of application of spirit level for measuring, in the vertical plane,
the incline of a surface in relation to the basic horizontal plane, over an extended range. The
main functional element of a clinometer is the sensitive vial mounted on a rotatable disc, which
carries a graduated ring with its horizontal axis supported in the housing of the instrument. The
bubble of the vial is in its centre position, when the clinometer is placed on a horizontal surface
and the scale of the rotatable disc is at zero position. If the clinometer is placed on an incline
surface, the bubble deviates from the centre. It can be brought to the centre by rotating the disc.
The rotation of the disc can be read on the scale. It represents the deviation of the surface over
which the clinometer is placed from the horizontal plane. Figure shows a diagram of a
clinometer.
A number of commercially available clinometers with various designs are available. They differ
in their sensitivity and measuring accuracy. Sensitivity and measuring accuracy of modern
clinometers can be compared with any other high precision measuring instruments. For shop
uses, clinometers with 10′ graduations are available.

Clinometer Applications

Two categories of measurement are possible with clinometer. Care must be taken to keep the
axis of the rotatable disc parallel to the hinge line of the incline.

The two categories of measurement are:

(i) Measurement of an incline place with respect to a horizontal plane. As discussed earlier, this
is done by placing the instrument on the surface to be measured and rotating graduated disc to
produce zero inclination on the bubble. The scale value of the disc position will be equal to the
angle of incline.

(ii) Measurement of the relative position of two mutually inclined surfaces. This is done by
placing the clinometer on each of the surface in turn, and taking the readings with respect to the
horizontal. The difference of both the readings will indicate the angular value of the relative
incline.

Angle Gauges:
These were developed by Dr. Tomlinson in 1939. The angle gauges are hardened steel blocks of
75 mm length and 16 mm wide which has lapped surfaces lying at a very precise angle.
The engraved symbol ‘<’ indicates the direction of the included angle. Angle gauges are
available in a 13 piece set. These gauges together with a square block enable any angle between
00 & 3600 to be built within an accuracy of 1.5 seconds of the nominal value. The wringing is
similar to that of slip gauges.
Numerical on building of angles:
The required angle may built by wringing suitable combination of angle gauges similar to that of
slip gauges. Each angle is a wedge and thus two gauges with narrow ends together provide an
angle which is equal to the sum of angles of individual gauges. Two gauges when wrung
together with opposing narrow ends give subtraction of the two angles.

Numerical 1:
Build an angle of 37o 16’ 42” using angle
gauges.
Solution:
Degree 27o +9o +1o =37o
Minutes = 27’-9’-3’+1’ = 16’
Seconds = 30”+ 18” -6”= 42”
Numerical 2:
Build an angle of 57o 34’ 9”
Solution:
Degree = 41o +27o -9o +1o -3o =57o
Minutes = 27’+9’-3’+1’ = 34’
Seconds = 6”+ 3” =9”

Numerical 3:
Give the combination of angle gauges required to build 102o 8’ 42”
Solution:
Degree: 90o +9o +3o =102o
Minutes: 9’-1’ = 8’
Seconds 30”+ 18”- 6” =42”