Introduction

Electronics to everyday
affects Electronics
life

GGSCMT
What is Electronics?
⮚ Electronics is the study of the flow of
charge (electron ) through various
materials and devices such as
semiconductors ,resistors, inductors ,
capacitors , nanostructure etc.

⮚ All applications of electronics involve

the transmission of power and possibly
information.
What is Electronics?
⮚ A branch of engineering that deals with the
design & practical applications of machinery &
equipment for efficient communication.

Examples

▪ Mobiles/TVs/DVDs
▪ computers/laptops
▪ Home Security Systems
▪ Intelligence systems
Some of the of the present & emerging
Technologies are:

⮚ Wireless communication
⮚ PLCC
⮚ Satellite communication
⮚ Internet Communication
⮚ Nanotechnology
⮚ Embedded System
⮚ Display Techniques
⮚ Robotics
⮚ Radar
⮚ Milk Fat Testing
⮚ Remote Sensing
⮚ Microwave Communication
⮚ Advanced Processing
History of Electronics
Early History of IC Devices
ENIAC-The first digital computer

1940’s: Vacuum-tube era

• Vacuum tubes were used for radios,
television, telephone equipment,
and computers
… but they were expensive, bulky,
fragile, and energy-hungry
🡪 Invention of the point-contact
transistor
▪ Walter Brattain, John Bardeen,
Nobel Prize inShockley,
and William Physics 1956
Bell Labs, 1947
– reproducibility was an issue, however
🡪 Invention of the bipolar junction transistor (BJT)
▪ William Shockley, Bell Labs, 1950
– more stable and reliable; easier and cheaper to make
Discrete Electronic Circuits
In 1954, Texas Instruments produced the first commercial
silicon transistor.

These components, often simply called “discretes”, were

manufactured separately and were wired or soldered
together onto circuit boards.

These are used in amplifiers and other electronic products.

The Integrated Circuit (IC)
An IC consists of interconnected electronic components in
a single piece (“chip”) of semiconductor material.

– In 1958, Jack S. Kilby (Texas – In 1959, Robert Noyce

Instruments) showed that it was (Fairchild Semiconductor)
possible to fabricate a simple IC demonstrated an IC made in
in germanium. silicon using SiO2 as the
insulator and Al for the
metallic interconnects.

The first planar IC

(actual size: ~1.5mm
diameter)
Atomic Structure
The Atom and its characteristics

Semiconductor Basics Electronic Devices and Circuit 38

The ATOM
The smallest particle of
an element that retains
the characteristics of
the element.
Parts
▪ Electron
▪ Nucleus
• Proton
• Neutron

Semiconductor Basics Electronic Devices and Circuit 39

Atomic Number
All elements are arranged in the periodic
table of elements in order according to
their atomic number. The atomic number
equals the number of protons in the
nucleus, which is the same as the number
of electrons in an electrically balanced
(neutral) atom.

Semiconductor Basics Electronic Devices and Circuit 40

Electron Shells and Orbits
Electron Orbit- discrete
distances of electrons in the
nucleus of an atom.
Electron Shell- energy bands
formed by group of electron
orbits, represented by number
1, 2, 3, etc.

Energy of an electron
increases as the distance of the
electron from the nucleus
increases.

Semiconductor Basics Electronic Devices and Circuit 41

Valence Electrons
Valence Shell- the outermost shell of
an atom

Valence Electron- electrons that are in

the valence shell, they have the
highest energy and are relatively
loosely bounded to the atom.

Semiconductor Basics Electronic Devices and Circuit 42

Ionization
Ionization the process of losing valence electron in an
atom.
Ions atoms of the same element but have
different number of electrons.
Positive Ion ions that have more protons than electron.
Negative Ion ions that have more electrons than proton.
Free Electron valence electrons that have acquired
sufficient energy to escape the valence
shell.
Holes vacancies in the valence shell when an
electron escaped.

Semiconductor Basics Electronic Devices and Circuit 43

Electrons in a Shell
The number of
electrons in a shell
can be calculated by
the formula
🡪🡪🡪🡪🡪🡪🡪

Semiconductor Basics Electronic Devices and Circuit 44

Electrical Classification
of Materials
Conductors, Insulators and
Semiconductor

Semiconductor Basics Electronic Devices and Circuit 45

Core of an Atom
The core of an atom is
composed of the
nucleus and the inner
orbits.

The diagram of a carbon

atom showing its core🡪

Semiconductor Basics Electronic Devices and Circuit 46

Electrical Classification of Materials
Conductors Insulators Semiconductors
• Easily conducts • Does not conduct • Between
electrical current electrical current conductor and
• Less than four at normal insulator in terms
valence electrons conditions of electric
• More than four conductivity
valence electrons • Exactly four
valence electrons

Semiconductor Basics Electronic Devices and Circuit 47

Energy Levels
The more distant the
electron from the nucleus,
the higher the energy state,
and any electron that has
left its parent atom has a
higher energy state than
any electron in the atomic
structure.

Energy Gap- the difference

between energy levels

Semiconductor Basics Electronic Devices and Circuit 48

Valence and Conduction Band

Valence Band - energy level of an electron

when it is in the valence shell
Conduction Band - energy level required
to remove an electron out of the valence
shell

Semiconductor Basics Electronic Devices and Circuit 49

Valence and Conduction Bands of
Different Materials

Semiconductor Basics Electronic Devices and Circuit 50

Semiconductors and Conductors
Compared
Silicon Atom Copper Atom

Semiconductor Basics Electronic Devices and Circuit 51

Silicon and Germanium
Silicon and Germanium
are the most widely
used single element
semiconductor material
in the production of
semiconductor
electronic devices.

Semiconductor Basics Electronic Devices and Circuit 52

Covalent Bond
A bonding of atoms, strengthened by the
sharing of electrons, is called covalent
bonding.

Crystal- a definite pattern of some atom

bonded covalently with the same atoms.
Lattice- a periodic arrangement of crystal

Semiconductor Basics Electronic Devices and Circuit 53

Covalent Bonding

Semiconductor Basics Electronic Devices and Circuit 54

Intrinsic Crystal

Intrinsic Semiconductors those whose

crystal structure does not have any
impurity.

Semiconductor Basics Electronic Devices and Circuit 55

Silicon Crystal

Semiconductor Basics Electronic Devices and Circuit 56

Conduction in
Semiconductors
Semiconductors either allow or stop
current to flow.

Semiconductor Basics Electronic Devices and Circuit 57

Silicon atom at 0 Kelvin
Energy diagram of an
unexcited atom in a
silicon crystal.

NOTE: This condition

occurs only at absolute
zero.

Semiconductor Basics Electronic Devices and Circuit 58

Silicon atom at Room Temperature
Energy Diagram Bonding Diagram

Semiconductor Basics Electronic Devices and Circuit 59

Free Electrons and Holes

Holes -vacancy in the valence band when ionization

happens or when a free electron is excited
Electron-Hole Pair -for every electron in the
conduction band there is one hole left in the valence
band, creating an electron-hole pair
Recombination -occurs when a free electron losses
energy and falls back to the hole in the conduction
band

Semiconductor Basics Electronic Devices and Circuit 60

Electron-Hole Pair
An intrinsic silicon crystal at
room temperature creating
electron-hole pairs. Free
electrons are generated
continuously while some
recombine with the holes.

Semiconductor Basics Electronic Devices and Circuit 61

Effects of Temperature
An increase in temperature of a semiconductor
can result in a substantial increase in the number
of free electrons in a material.

Semiconductor material such as Germanium and

Silicon that show a reduction in resistance with
increase in temperature are said to have negative
temperature coefficient.

Semiconductor Basics Electronic Devices and Circuit 62

Electron Current
When voltage is applied
across a piece of an
intrinsic silicon crystal
the thermally generated
free electrons are free to
move randomly in the
crystal structure and are
now easily attracted to
the positive end.
Current occurs and this current
is called Electron Current.

Semiconductor Basics Electronic Devices and Circuit 63

Hole Current
Electrons remaining in the
valence band are still
attached to their atoms and
are not free to move
randomly in the crystal
structure however, a valence
electron can move into a
nearby hole with little change
in its energy level.
Current occurs and this
current is called Hole Current.

Semiconductor Basics Electronic Devices and Circuit 64

Extrinsic
Semiconductors
N-type and P-type semiconductors

Semiconductor Basics Electronic Devices and Circuit 65

Doping
Doping the process of adding small quantities
of particular impurity to an
intrinsically pure semiconductor in
order to alter its conducting properties
Extrinsic are materials that have been subjected
to doping
Impurity are materials added to a pure
semiconductor thus making the
semiconductor not pure anymore

Semiconductor Basics Electronic Devices and Circuit 66

Types of Impurities
Pentavalent Impurity Trivalent Impurity
• Five valence electrons • Three valence electrons
• Donor Atoms • Acceptor Atoms
• Gives off free electron • Creates holes when
when doped doped
• Examples: • Examples:
• Arsenic (As) • Boron (B)
• Phosphorus (P) • Indium (In)
• Bismuth (Bi) • Gallium (Ga)
• Antimony (Sb)

Semiconductor Basics Electronic Devices and Circuit 67

N-type Semiconductor
To increase the number
of conduction electrons
in an intrinsic
semiconductor crystal ,
a pentavalent impurity
is added. The resulting
material is an n-type
extrinsic
semiconductor.

Semiconductor Basics Electronic Devices and Circuit 68

N-type Semiconductor
N-type semiconductor
crystal showing that the
majority charge carriers are
the free electrons resulted
from doping and some
minority carriers which are
holes thermally produced.

Semiconductor Basics Electronic Devices and Circuit 69

P-type Semiconductor
To increase the number
of holes in an intrinsic
semiconductor crystal ,
a trivalent impurity is
added. The resulting
material is an p-type
extrinsic
semiconductor.

Semiconductor Basics Electronic Devices and Circuit 70

P-type Semiconductor
P-type semiconductor crystal
showing that the majority
charge carriers are the holes
resulted from doping and
some minority carriers
which are free electrons
thermally produced.

Semiconductor Basics Electronic Devices and Circuit 71

Majority and Minority Carriers
In an n-type material the electron is
called the majority carrier and the
hole is the minority carrier.
In a p-type material the hole is the
majority carrier and the electron is
the minority carrier.

Semiconductor Basics Electronic Devices and Circuit 72

The DIODE
Conduction in one direction

Semiconductor Basics Electronic Devices and Circuit 73

Diode
A diode is a device that conducts
current only in one direction. It
is formed by doping a one part
of an intrinsic semiconductor by
a trivalent material and the
other part by a pentavalent
material. The boundary between
the two extrinsic part is called
the PN junction.
Basic Construction of a DIODE

Semiconductor Basics Electronic Devices and Circuit 74

The Depletion Region
At the instant that a PN junction is
formed, the free electrons near the
junction in the n region begins to diffuse
across the junction into the p region
where they combine with the holes near
the junction. The n region loses free
electrons creating a layer of positive
charge near the junction while the p
region loses holes as the electrons and
holes combine creating a layer of
negative charge near the junction. This
two layers form the depletion region.
Semiconductor Basics Electronic Devices and Circuit 75
Barrier Potential
The depletion region contains ions of
opposite charges and there is a force
acting on them stated by Coulomb’s
Law. The forces between the layers
form a field of force called an electric
field. The electric field is a barrier to
the free electrons in the n region.
Barrier Potential or Threshold Voltage
is the amount of voltage required to
move a free electron towards the
electric field.

Semiconductor Basics Electronic Devices and Circuit 76

Energy at the PN Junction
N region has slightly lower energy
level than P region.
At the instant the PN junction is
formed, the free electrons from
the conduction band of the n
region diffuses across the junction
and temporarily become a free
electron of the p region but
quickly losses energy and fall into
the hole in the p region.

Semiconductor Basics Electronic Devices and Circuit 77

Energy at the Depletion Region
The conduction band of the n
region decreases energy level due
to the diffusion of higher energy
electron across the junction. The
junction will be at equilibrium
when the depletion region is
complete and the diffusion stops.
The energy gradient across the
depletion region acts as an energy
hill.

Semiconductor Basics Electronic Devices and Circuit 78

Biasing Diodes
Knowing the operating conditions

Semiconductor Basics Electronic Devices and Circuit 79

Bias
Bias refers to the use of DC
voltage to establish the operating
condition of an electronic device.

Semiconductor Basics Electronic Devices and Circuit 80

Forward Bias
Forward Bias or ON
condition is the condition
that allows current to flow
through the PN junction.

The positive terminal of the

dc source must be connected
to the p region and the bias
voltage must be greater than
the barrier potential for the
forward bias condition.

Semiconductor Basics Electronic Devices and Circuit 81

Forward Bias Currents
N Region
Majority Carriers are Free Electron
Minority Carriers are Holes

P Region
Majority Carriers are Holes
Minority Carriers are Free Electrons

Semiconductor Basics Electronic Devices and Circuit 82

Effect on the Depletion Region
At Equilibrium During Forward Bias

As more free electrons flow into the depletion region, the

number of positive ions is reduced so as more holes flow to
the depletion region, the number of negative ions is
reduced. This result to the narrowing of the depletion
region.
Semiconductor Basics Electronic Devices and Circuit 83
Barrier Potential
During forward bias condition the free
electrons in the n region gains enough
energy to climb the energy hill and
cross the depletion region. After
crossing the depletion region the free
electron gives off energy and combines
with the holes in p region. The energy
loss results in a voltage drop in the PN
junction and is equal to the barrier
potential depending on the
semiconductor used. An additional
voltage drop occurs in the p and n
regions due to internal resistance
called dynamic resistance and can be
neglected.

Semiconductor Basics Electronic Devices and Circuit 84

Reverse Bias
Reverse Bias or OFF
condition is the condition of
the diode that prevents
current through the diode.
The negative terminal of the
dc source must be connected
to the p region or the bias
voltage is less than the
barrier potential for the
reverse bias condition.

Semiconductor Basics Electronic Devices and Circuit 85

Reverse Bias Condition
In the n region the positive
potential pulls the free electrons
away from the PN junction and
creating additional positive ions. In
the p region the electrons from the
voltage source enters as valence
electrons moving from hole to hole
creating additional negative ions.
The additional ions results in
widening of the depletion region.

Semiconductor Basics Electronic Devices and Circuit 86

Reverse Currents
The extremely small reverse
current in a diode called
saturation current (IS) is due to
the minority carriers from
thermally generated electron-
hole pairs.

NOTE: An increase in reverse

voltage will not affect the
reverse saturation current

Semiconductor Basics Electronic Devices and Circuit 87

Reverse Currents
Surface Leakage Current
A small reverse current that flows on
the surface of the crystal which is
caused by surface impurities and
imperfection on the crystal structure.
The surface leakage current is directly
proportional to the reverse voltage.

Semiconductor Basics Electronic Devices and Circuit 88

Zener Effect
It is a condition in the semiconductor
PN junction when the reverse bias
exceeds a certain value creating an
electric field strong enough to
dislodge charge carriers from an atom
and these carriers flow freely across
the PN junction in the opposite
direction.

Semiconductor Basics Electronic Devices and Circuit 89

Avalanche Effect
The phenomenon in semiconductors
operated at high reverse bias voltage,
whereby carriers acquire sufficient
energy to produce electron-hole pairs
as they collide with other atoms. This
action causes the reverse current to
increase rapidly.

Semiconductor Basics Electronic Devices and Circuit 90

Forward Bias Diode Current
The forward bias diode
current can be computed
by the formula

🡪🡪🡪🡪🡪🡪🡪
where:
ID – diode current
IS – reverse saturation current
VD – diode voltage
VT – thermal voltage
k – Boltzmann’s constant
T – temperature in Kelvin
q – charge of an electron
n = 1 for Ge and 2 for Si at low levels of diode
current
n = 1 for Ge and Si at high levels of diode
current

Semiconductor Basics Electronic Devices and Circuit 91

Diode Structure and Symbol

The p region is called the anode.

The n region is called the cathode.
The arrow symbol points the direction of conventional current
flow.
Semiconductor Basics Electronic Devices and Circuit 92
V-I Characteristics

Semiconductor Basics Electronic Devices and Circuit 93

Zener Region
The maximum reverse-bias
potential that can be applied
before entering the Zener
region is called the peak
inverse voltage (referred to
simply as the PIV rating) or
the peak reverse voltage
(denoted by PRV rating).

Semiconductor Basics Electronic Devices and Circuit 94

Silicon vs. Germanium
Silicon Diode Germanium Diode
• PIV rating: 1000 V • PIV rating: 400 V
• Temperature • Temperature
range: 200 °C range: 100 °C
• Threshold voltage: • Threshold voltage:
0.7 V 0.3 V

Threshold Voltage = Firing Potential = Offset Voltage = Barrier Potential

Semiconductor Basics Electronic Devices and Circuit 95

Silicon vs. Germanium

Semiconductor Basics Electronic Devices and Circuit 96

Effects of Temperature
Forward Region Reverse Region
The threshold voltage The reverse saturation
will decrease by an current will double for
amount of 2.5 mV for every 10 °C increase in
Germanium diodes and temperature.
2.0 mV for Silicon The Zener breakdown
diodes for every degree voltage will increase as
Celsius increase in the temperature
temperature. increases.

Semiconductor Basics Electronic Devices and Circuit 97

Effects of Temperature

Semiconductor Basics Electronic Devices and Circuit 98

Resistance Levels
Opposing current

Semiconductor Basics Electronic Devices and Circuit 99

Operating Point
The application of a DC voltage to a
semiconductor device will result in an
operating point on the characteristic
curve that will not change with time.
Quiescent point or Q-point

Semiconductor Basics Electronic Devices and Circuit 100

DC or Static Resistance

Semiconductor Basics Electronic Devices and Circuit 101

AC or Dynamic Resistance

Effect of a small
input voltage to the
instantaneous
operating point.

Semiconductor Basics Electronic Devices and Circuit 102

AC or Dynamic Resistance

Semiconductor Basics Electronic Devices and Circuit 103

Average AC Resistance

Semiconductor Basics Electronic Devices and Circuit 104

Diode Equivalent
Circuit
Representing a diode

Semiconductor Basics Electronic Devices and Circuit 105

Equivalent Circuit
An equivalent circuit is a combination
of elements chosen to best represent
the actual terminal characteristic of a
device, system, or such in a particular
operating region.

Semiconductor Basics Electronic Devices and Circuit 106

Ideal Diode Model
Forward Bias Reverse Bias

Semiconductor Basics Electronic Devices and Circuit 107

Ideal Diode Model
Characteristics Ideal Diode

Semiconductor Basics Electronic Devices and Circuit 108

Simplified Model
Characteristics Simplified Model

Semiconductor Basics Electronic Devices and Circuit 109

Piecewise-Linear Model
Characteristics Piecewise-Linear Model

Semiconductor Basics Electronic Devices and Circuit 110

Diode Specification
Identity of one diode

Semiconductor Basics Electronic Devices and Circuit 111

Diode Specification Sheet

Semiconductor Basics Electronic Devices and Circuit 112

Diode Specification Sheet

Semiconductor Basics Electronic Devices and Circuit 113

Diode Specification Sheet
The more one is exposed to
specification sheets, the “friendlier”
they will become, especially when the
impact of each parameter is clearly
understood for the application under
investigation.

Semiconductor Basics Electronic Devices and Circuit 114

Capacitance Levels
In the reverse-bias region we have
the transition- or depletion-region
capacitance (CT), while in the
forward-bias region we have the
diffusion (CD) or storage
capacitance.

Semiconductor Basics Electronic Devices and Circuit 115

Capacitance Levels
During Forward Bias During Reverse Bias

Semiconductor Basics Electronic Devices and Circuit 116

Capacitance Levels

As the depletion layer

widens the capacitance level
decreases.

Semiconductor Basics Electronic Devices and Circuit 117

Capacitance
Levels
Including the effect of the
transition or diffusion
capacitance to a diode.

🡪🡪🡪🡪🡪🡪🡪

Semiconductor Basics Electronic Devices and Circuit 118

Reverse Recovery Time

Semiconductor Basics Electronic Devices and Circuit 119

Diode Packages
Typical Packages

Semiconductor Basics Electronic Devices and Circuit 120

Typical Diode Packages

Semiconductor Basics Electronic Devices and Circuit 121

Typical Diode Packages

Semiconductor Basics Electronic Devices and Circuit 122

Typical Diode Packages

Semiconductor Basics Electronic Devices and Circuit 123

Diode Testing
How will I know if a diode works?

Semiconductor Basics Electronic Devices and Circuit 124

Using a Curve Tracer

Semiconductor Basics Electronic Devices and Circuit 125

Using a Curve Tracer

Semiconductor Basics Electronic Devices and Circuit 126

Using a VOM

Semiconductor Basics Electronic Devices and Circuit 127

Using a VOM

Semiconductor Basics Electronic Devices and Circuit 128

Using a DMM

Semiconductor Basics Electronic Devices and Circuit 129

Using DMM

For a functioning diode

Semiconductor Basics Electronic Devices and Circuit 130

Using DMM

For a defective diode

Semiconductor Basics Electronic Devices and Circuit 131

THE END
Thank You!

Engr. Sarah T. Mesiona Batangas State University

ECE No. 0057463 ECE/ICE/MEXE Department