INSTR F311: Electronic Instruments and Instrumentation Technology
Signal generators
BITS Pilani Dr. Sujan Yenuganti (office no: 5699 - O)
[email protected]Pilani Campus
Classification
Signal generators
Low Frequency RF Frequency Pulse generators Sweep frequency generators
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Basic principle
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Contd..
Ve Vs V f
V f V0
V0 AVe A(Vs V f ) A(Vs V0 )
V0 A
Af
(1 A )V0 AVs Vs 1 A
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Contd..
V0 A( s ) A( s )
A f (s) (s)
Vs 1 A( s ) ( s ) 1 T ( s )
A( j )
A f ( j )
1 T ( j )
At a specific frequency f0
T ( j ) A( j ) ( j )
T ( j0 ) A( j0 ) ( j0 ) 1
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Contd..
At this frequency, the closed loop gain will be infinite,
i.e. the circuit will have finite output for zero input
signal- oscillation
A( j0 )
A f ( j 0 )
1 A( j0 ) ( j0 )
Thus, the condition for oscillation of frequency f0 is
A( j0 ) ( j0 ) 1 Barkhausen criterion
The frequency of oscillation is solely determined by the phase characteristic of the feedback loop – the loop
oscillates at the frequency for which the phase is zero.
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Wien bridge
The Wien bridge is seen to be another combination of
series and parallel connected R and C components. The
bridge is balanced only at a particular supply frequency.
C1 and C2 are fixed equal value capacitors. R1 and R2 are
adjustable.
R3 R1 C2
R4 R2 C1
1
2
C1C2 R1 R2
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Wien bridge oscillator
Wien bridge oscillator gives a low distortion output waveform
with good frequency and amplitude stability.
Wien bridge when used in an oscillator forms a feedback
network between the output and input terminal of an amplifier.
The op amp together with R3 and R4 forms a non inverting
amplifier and R1,R2,C1 and C2 constitute the feedback network
R3 R1 C2
R4 R2 C1
1
f
2 R1C1 R2C2
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Wien bridge oscillator
R3 2R4
R1 R2 R and C1 C2 C
1
f
2RC
R3 R4 R3 2 R4 R4
Av 1 Av 3
R4 R4 R4
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Contd..
The amplifier gain must be slightly greater than 3 to sustain oscillations. With excess
gain the output amplitude tends towards saturation voltages and can introduce
distortion.
To avoid this problem R3 is split into two components R5 and R6 and diodes D1 and D2
are connected in parallel with R6.
When the output amplitude is small, the voltage drop across R6 is not large enough to
forward bias the diodes.
When the output amplitude is large enough to forward bias the diode, R6 is short
circuited and the gain is reduced to
R5 R6 R4 R5 R4
Av Av
R4 R4
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Contd..
The frequency of oscillations can be altered by adjustment of either R
or C.
R1 and R2 must be adjusted simultaneously to alter the value of R.
similarly C1 and C2 must be adjusted simultaneously to alter the value
of C.
Switching the capacitor values provides for frequency range changing.
The variation in R1 and R2 facilitates continuous frequency adjustment
over each range.
Frequency range changing
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Contd..
A sine wave generator should have its output
amplitude adjustable along with its output frequency.
The resistors R1, R2, and R3 form a voltage divider
that attenuates the oscillator output.
An op-amp is used as a voltage follower to provide a
low output impedance from the signal generator.
R3 is a potentiometer for adjustment of the output
amplitude, and switch S1 allows the output to be
switched between two amplitude ranges.
Output amplitude control
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Numerical
For the oscillator circuit shown in the below figure, find
(i) The oscillation frequency expression and
(ii) The condition to obtain sustained oscillations.
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RC phase shift oscillator
In a RC circuit, the phase shift is always <=90o and it is a
function of frequency
Thus if one RC network produces a phase shift of Φ
= 60° then to produce a phase shift of 180° such
three RC networks must be connected in cascade.
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Contd..
If an op-amp in inverting configuration
is used to build an oscillator, the
feedback network must introduce a
phase shift of 180° to obtain a total
phase shift around a loop of 360°.
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Contd..
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Contd..
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Contd..
At this frequency, the voltage gain of the RC network is V0/Vi =-1/29
V f V0
1 A 1 A 29
29
Rf
29 R f 29R1
R1
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Block diagram
An LF signal generator normally consists of a
sinusoidal oscillator, a sine to square wave
converter, and an attenuator output stage.
LF signal generator
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Function generator
Basic function generator circuit
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Function generator
The usual method of generating both square and triangular wave is
to use an integrator and a Schmitt trigger circuit.
It is seen that the integrator input voltage is derived from the
Schmitt trigger output and also the integrator output is applied as an
input to the Schmitt trigger circuit.
Assume that the Schmitt output V3 is at +14V and the integrator
output at ground level.
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Contd..
Since V1 is positive, I2 is charging C1. Thus the integrator output
V2 is decreasing linearly from ground level. When V2 arrives at
LTP of the Schmitt, the output voltage of the Schmitt changes to
V3=-14V.
This causes V1 to reverse polarity and C1 commences to discharge
in opposite polarity and V2 increases linearly from the LTP.
When V2 arrives at UTP of the Schmitt, the output voltage of the
Schmitt trigger changes to V3=+14V once again.
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Contd..
I t C V
C t
V I
C1 V
t V UTP LTP
I2
Half time period of the output wave form
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Sine wave conversion
If the diodes D1 and D2 and resistors R3 and R4 are not present in the circuit, R1 and R2 would simply
behave as voltage divider.
R2
V0 Vi
R1 R2
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Contd..
With D1 and R3 in the circuit, R1 and R2 still behave as a simple voltage divider until VR2 exceeds V1.
When VR2 exceeds V1, D1 becomes forward bias and R3 will come in parallel to R2.
Output voltage levels above V1 are attenuated to a greater extent than levels below V1.
R2 // R3
V0 Vi
R1 ( R2 // R3 )
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Contd..
During the negative half cycle, with D2 and R4 in the circuit, R1 and R2 still behave as a simple voltage
divider until VR2 is less than -V1.
When VR2 is less than -V1, D2 becomes forward bias and R4 will come in parallel to R2.
R2 // R4
V0 Vi
R1 ( R2 // R4 )
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Contd..
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Block diagram
The integrator output is fed to the Schmitt trigger and
sine wave converter.
The integrator should have a square wave input from
the Schmitt trigger.
A switch is provided for selecting sine, triangular and
square wave at the output attenuator stage.
Function generator
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Pulse generator
A basic pulse generator has a square wave generator, a
monostable multivibrator and an attenuator output stage.
The monostable multivibrator is triggered by the
negative going edge of the square wave, to produce a
constant width pulse that is applied to the output stage.
The square wave frequency controls the pulse repetition
frequency and the monostable pulse width (PW)
determines the output PW.
The attenuator facilitates the output amplitude control
and dc level shifting.
Basic block diagram
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Astable multivibrator
The circuit is an op-amp astable multivibrator. It has no stable states, it oscillates continuously between
the conditions of output high and output low.
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Astable multivibrator
The op amp together with the resistors R2 and R3 constitute an
inverting type Schmitt trigger circuit. The capacitor C1 is charged
from the op-amp output via resistor R1.
The frequency of the output wave depends on the time (t) for the
capacitor to charge between LTP and UTP.
Time (t) can be adjusted by making the charging resistor R1
variable, So R1 is a frequency control.
Frequency range can be changed by selecting various capacitor
values of C1.
V0 LTP R3 f
1
t RC ln | LTP || UTP | V0
V0 UTP R2 R3
2t
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Monostable multivibrator
The circuit is an op-amp based monostable multivibrator. It has one stable state, when a triggering input voltage
is applied, the output changes state for a fixed period of time and then reverts back to its initial condition.
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Monostable multivibrator
The circuit is similar to astable multivibrator with the addition of a diode D1 and a triggering signal Vi.
The normal stable state of the circuit is V- =+VD1 , V+ =+ VR3 >VD1 and V0= +V0(sat)
The circuit produces a negative going pulse each time the circuit is triggered. The PW depends on the
capacitance C1, resistor R1 and the voltage VR3.
There is a recovery time for C1 to recharge to VD1 This is the minimum time between the trigger pulses.
If a variable resistor is used for R1, it becomes pulse width control. The range of the PW can be changed
by selecting various capacitor values of C1 in the circuit.
V0 LTP R3
PW RC ln | LTP || VR 3 | V0
V0 VD1 R2 R3
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Output attenuator
The op-amps A1 and A2, all the resistors
together constitute an output attenuator.
Op-amp A2 with resistors R4, R5 and R6
provide dc level shifting at the output.
A2 is a voltage follower and its dc output
voltage is set by the potentiometer R5.
When the moving contact of R5 is at ground level, A2 output is also at ground. This gives an output pulse
from A1 that is symmetrical above and below ground level.
When the moving contact of R5 is at +5V.This gives an output pulse from A1 that is symmetrical above and
below +5V level.
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RF signal generator
The RF oscillator has a continuous frequency control and a frequency range switch to set the output to a desired
frequency.
The amplifier has a set level amplitude control to allow the voltage applied to the attenuator to reset to a
calibration point on the output level meter.
The output level must always be reset to this calibration point every time the frequency is changed.
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Oscillator circuits
Colpitts oscillator
Hartley oscillator
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Oscillator circuits
To get the required sustained oscillations, the loop gain should be made equal to 1 and the loop phase
shift should be at 360o
Each circuit consists of an amplifier and a phase shifting feedback network. The amplifier amplifies the
input signal ad also introduces phase shift of 180o. The amplified signal is attenuated and phase shifted
further by 180o by the feedback network before it is applied to the amplifier input terminals.
The frequency of oscillation in both circuits will be the resonance frequency of the feedback networks
1
f
2 CT LT
For Hartley oscillator CT=C and LT is the total inductance of L1 and L2 including mutual inductance
For Colpitts oscillator LT =L and CT is the total capacitance C1 and C2 in series.
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Numerical
A capacitive type displacement transducer consists of two fixed triangular plates, placed
side by side, with a negligible gap between them and a rectangular plate moving laterally
with a uniform air gap of 1mm between the fixed plates and the moving plate. The
movable plate reached a specific position, as shown in the figure, for a particular input
displacement. Design a suitable BJT based RF frequency oscillator that will convert the
measured capacitance C1 and C2 from the capacitive transducer at this specific position to
frequency output. Consider the permittivity of free space ε0 as 8.854×10 F/m (Assume
-12
suitable values as required in the design).
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Numerical
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Amplitude modulation
The amplifier gain would be R3/R4 when FET
Q2 is not present in the circuit.
With Q2 the gain will be R3/(RD//R4). Where
RD is the drain resistance of the FET Q2.
A low frequency signal is applied to the gate
of the FET which varies its drain resistance
and thus varies the gain of the amplifier.
In this way the amplitude of RF output is
increased and decreased in phase with the low
frequency output.
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Frequency modulation
Frequency modulation is usually performed at the oscillator stage of an RF signal generator.
One method of frequency modulating the oscillator output is to use a voltage variable capacitance
(VVC) diode. This is a special diode operates in reverse bias. By varying the reverse bias voltage on a
VVC diode alters its capacitance.
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Contd..
The transistor Q1 and all other components in the circuit are employed in such a way to vary the voltage
across the VVC diode (D1) by applying a low frequency input signal.
The capacitor C3 couples the diode D1 to the LC tank circuit of the oscillator.
The tank circuit capacitance will be the diode capacitance in parallel with C4 and the resonance
frequency is given by
1
f
2 (C D // C4 ) L
As the capacitance of D1 is varied, the resonance frequency of the tank circuit varies.
Thus the oscillator output frequency is modulated by the low frequency signal.
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Detailed block diagram
A detailed block diagram is presented
which includes FM and AM
modulating sources.
Switches S1 and S2 are provided to
select no modulation, as well as
internal or external FM and AM
modulation.
Shielding is provided for each system
and as well as whole system to
prevent RF interference.
RF signal generator
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Sweep frequency generator
A simplified block diagram is presented which includes a ramp
generator which applies a ramp voltage to the input of a voltage tuned
oscillator (VTO). The basic circuit of a VTO is similar to the
frequency modulation circuit.
As the ramp voltage level increases, the reverse bias on the VVC
diode increases, and this causes its capacitance to decrease.
Thus the resonance frequency of the tank circuit increases as the ramp
voltage grows.
When the ramp voltage returns to zero level, the diode capacitance
and the oscillator frequency return to their starting levels.
Block diagram
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Contd..
Sweep frequency generator
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Detailed block diagram
The ramp waveform is amplified and applied to VTO. The VTO output is applied to a discriminator, which
produces an output voltage in proportional to its input frequency
The discriminator input is a swept frequency from VTO, The output will be a ramp voltage similar to the ramp
from ramp generator.
If the VTO output frequency is lower than the expected, the output voltage from the discriminator drops below
the level of the ramp voltage from the ramp generator. This results in an increase in the differential amplifier
output, which causes the VTO output frequency to increase.
The output voltage is stabilized by the action of automatic level control (ALC) circuit and a variable gain
amplifier.
The ALC produces a voltage proportional to the output of the variable gain amplifier. This voltage is compared
with an internal reference voltage in the ALC circuit and the difference between the two is applied to the
variable gain amplifier.
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Numerical
Design a circuit that generates 10 kHz square and triangular waveform simultaneously which is to be used in a
basic function generator. (Given data: Supply voltage is VCC=±15V, Schmitt trigger has ±4V trigger points and
its saturation voltages are ±(+VCC-1V) respectively.) Assumptions can be made as required.
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Numerical
Sketch the output waveforms V1 and V0 for the circuit shown in the figure
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