Thermodynamics

Lab Manual

SUBMITTED TO:
Engr. Waqas Tahir

SUBMITTED BY:
Meen221101071
Muhammad Siddique

INSTITUTE OF MECHANICAL AND MANUFACTURING

ENGINEERING (IMME)
Khwaja Fareed University of Engineering and Information
Technology, Rahim Yar Khan
List of Experiments

Sr. No. Lab Sessions Signature

1. To Draw the Layout of Thermodynamics Laboratory

2. To learn different terms and properties of a Thermodynamics system

3. To determine the Gauge pressure with a bourdon tube pressure gauge using
oil as a pressure transferring medium

4. To determine the Gauge pressure with a bourdon tube pressure gauge using
air as a pressure transferring medium

5. To determine the pressure with different pressure measuring devices and

then to compare the measured values

6. To perform the analysis on a single stage centrifugal compressor

7. To analyze the functions of various parts of a 4 stroke Diesel Engine and to

interpret its working strokes practically using 4 stroke Diesel Engine
Demonstration Model

8. To analyze the functions of various parts of a 4 stroke Petrol Engine and to

interpret its working strokes practically using 4 stroke Petrol Engine
Demonstration Model

9. To analyze the functions of various parts of a 2 stroke Petrol Engine and to

interpret its working strokes practically using 2 stroke Petrol Engine
Demonstration Model

10. To analyze the functions of various parts of a Turbojet Engine and tointerpret
its working cycle practically using Turbojet Engine Demonstration Model

11. To determine Jet speed at which air leaves a convergent nozzle using nozzle
performance study unit

12. To determine efficiency of a convergent using exit velocity of air from

Nozzle using nozzle performance study unit

13. To study about the dynamometer and its types

14. To study about different engine parameters

Safety Precautions
1. Always wear shoes before entering in the lab.
2. Do not touch anything without the permission of instructor/ lab assistant.
3. Read carefully the lab manual before performing experiments.
4. Do not tamper measuring instruments.
5. Do not open the casing of the equipment.
6. Switch off the power supply on completion of the experiment.
8. Do not leave experiments running unattended.
9. Use air plug for safety of ears where necessary
10. Wear gloves to remain protected from hot surface areas of the equipment.
11. Any injuries should be reported immediately for proper care.
Lab Session No. 01

Objective:
To draw the layout of Thermodynamics laboratory.
Legends of Layout

1 & 2. Dead Weight Tester.

Dead Weight Tester (DWT) is a pressure measurement instrument that calibrates pressure based on the
weight of force divided by the area the force is applied. DWT provides high accuracy in pressure gauge
calibration and prevents the occurrence of an error in pressure reading.

3. Turbo Jet Demonstration Model.

Turbojets work by compressing, combusting, and releasing air through a turbine. This model
expresses this method in a colorful, easy-to-understand way. Approximately 19"x9" at its base,
the turbojet is designed for use on a desktop as an educational demo.

4. 2 Stroke Petrol Engine.

A two-stroke (or two-stroke cycle) engine is a type of internal combustion engine that
completes a power cycle with two strokes (up and down movements) of the piston during one
power cycle, this power cycle being completed in one revolution of the crankshaft.
5. 4 Stroke Diesel Engine.

A four-stroke cycle engine is an internal combustion engine that utilizes four distinct piston
strokes (intake, compression, power, and exhaust) to complete one operating cycle. The piston
make two complete passes in the cylinder to complete one operating cycle.

6. 4 Stroke Petrol Engine.

Four Stroke Cycle Engines. A four-stroke cycle engine is an internal combustion engine that
utilizes four distinct piston strokes (intake, compression, power, and exhaust) to complete one
operating cycle. The piston make two complete passes in the cylinder to complete one operating
cycle.
7. Single Stage centrifugal Compressor.

A single-stage centrifugal compressor is defined as the combination of one impeller with its
associated inlet guide vane and diffuser. Velocity is converted into pressure within the diffuser
and then further increased as the gas passes through the volute.

8. Pressure Measurement Bench.

A bench top, panel mounted U tube and inclined tube manometer together with a positive
pressure Bourdon tube pressure gauge and compound (positive and negative) pressure gauge.
A means of creating measure able pressures is also provided.
9. Computer control Pressure Measurement Bench.

The Computer Controlled Nozzle Performance Test Unit, "TFTC", has been specially designed
to allow students to investigate and study the performance of a nozzle (kinetic energy and thrust.

10. Multi Cylinder Test Bed.

A multi-cylinder diesel engine, there are four cycles and per cycle for each cylinder: intake,
compression, work, and exhaust. In a work cycle, only one trip is doing work, and the other
three trips are the auxiliary trips that create conditions for the work trip.
11. Engine Performance Test Bed 4 Stroke.

A four-stroke cycle engine is an internal combustion engine that utilizes four distinct piston
strokes (intake, compression, power, and exhaust) to complete one operating cycle. The piston
make two complete passes in the cylinder to complete one operating cycle.

12. Engine performance Test bed for 2 stroke petrol Engine.

A two-stroke engine is a type of internal combustion engine that completes a power cycle with
two strokes of the piston during only one crankshaft revolution. This is in contrast engine that
requires four strokes of the piston to complete a power cycle during two crankshaft revolutions.
CLO-01

To perceive Thermodynamics and its properties, the functions of different parts and basic
working principles of petrol, diesel and turbojet engines

Rubric 01

Marks CLO1 – Level P1 mapped to PLO2 (Problem Analysis)

Analysis and perception of the meanings and purpose of a Layout correctly

9-10 and precisely; sketching of correct and neat layout, understanding about
lab equipment and legends of layout

Analysis and perception of the meanings and purpose of a Layout correctly

and precisely; sketching of correct and neat layout, understanding about
7-8 lab equipment and legends of layout with some small mistakes like
incorrect door, windows and other related symbols used in layout

Analysis and perception of the meanings and purpose of a Layout correctly

but not precisely i.e. inclusion of superfluous information in layout;
5-6 sketching of correct layout, understanding about lab equipment and
legends of layout with some major mistakes like missing of some
necessary information from layout

Analysis and perception of the meanings and purpose of a Layout

incorrectly i.e. Use of Incorrect symbols, missing of necessary information
0-3
from layout, sketching of rough layout without distinction of legends and
symbols etc.
Lab Session No: 02

Objective:
To learn different terms and properties of a Thermodynamics system

Thermodynamics:
It is the branch of engineering-sciences which deals with the energies associated with the gases
and vapors and also conversion of these energies into mechanical work.

Thermodynamics System:

It is the area or space in which some thermodynamics process takes place. Each
thermodynamics system has some boundaries in which a thermodynamics process takes place.
Anything outside the boundary is called its surroundings.

Types of Thermodynamics System:

There are three main types of Thermodynamics system;

1) Closed System 2) Open System 3) Isolated System

1) Closed System
A system of fixed mass is known as a closed system. In this system, the working substance
cannot cross the boundary of the system. Heat or work may cross he boundary of system.

2) Open System:
A system in which working substance crosses the boundary of the system is called an open
system. In this system, heat and work may also cross the boundary of the system.

3) Isolated System:
A system of fixed mass and no heat or work cross the boundary of the system is called an
isolated system.

Thermodynamics Properties:
Thermodynamics properties are divided into two types;

1) Extensive Properties 2) Intensive Properties

1) Extensive Properties:

These are the properties of a Thermodynamics system whose sum for the individual parts of a
Thermodynamics system is equal to the properties of the whole system. These include mass,
volume and total energy etc.
2) Intensive Properties:

These are the properties of a Thermodynamics system whose sum for the individual parts of a
Thermodynamics system is not equal to the properties of the whole system. These include
pressure, temperature, density etc.

Laws of Thermodynamics:
Laws of thermodynamics are classified as;

1) Zeroth Law of Thermodynamics

2) 1st Law of Thermodynamics

3) 2nd Law of Thermodynamics

4) 3rd Law of Thermodynamics

1) Zeroth Law of Thermodynamics:

It states that;

“When two bodies are in thermal equilibrium with a third body, they are also in thermal
equilibrium with each other”.

Thermal equilibrium:

When a hot body is connected to a cold body, then heat flows from hot body to a cold body at
faster rate. The rate of heat transfer decreases with the time. The hot body begins to cool and
the cold body begins to hot. A time reaches when no heat flows from hot body to cold body
and the temperature of both the bodies becomes equal. This condition in which no heat flows
from hot body to cold body and temperature of both bodies becomes equal is named as thermal
equilibrium.

1st Law of Thermodynamics:

It states that;

“Energy can neither be created nor be destroyed, but it only changes from one from to
another form”.

It can also be stated as; “Heat and work are convertible quantities”.

When a gas in a container is heated, then this heat will be converted into the internal energy
and the work done.

If

Q = Heat supplied to the system

W = Work done by the expansion of the gas

E = Internal energy of the gas

So, according to 1st law of Thermodynamics;

Q = W+E

The phenomenon of the expansion of gas is shown in the figure below;

2nd law of Thermodynamics:

It states that;

“There is a limit on the amount of mechanical work that can be obtained from a given amount
of heat”.

It can also be stated as;

“It is not possible for a self-acting machine to transfer heat from cold body to hot body,
without the aid of external energy”.

It can also be stated as;

“It is not possible for an engine, to convert whole heat into work”.

This law is also known as “law of degradation of energy”.

3rd law of Thermodynamics:

It states that;

“The entropy of a system at absolute zero is exactly zero”.

Perfect Gas:
A state of a substance whose evaporation from its liquid state is complete is known as a
perfect gas. In other words, superheated vapours are known as perfect gas.

Vapours:
A state of a substance whose evaporation from its liquid state is partial i.e. it contains some
suspended liquid particles in it is called vapour.
Laws of perfect Gases:
Following are the laws of perfect gases;

Boyle’s Law:

It states that;

“The absolute pressure of a given mass of a perfect gas is inversely proportional to its volume
at constant temperature”.

Mathematically;

P α 1/V (At Constant T)

P = Constant/V

PV = Constant

Where;

P = Absolute pressure of the gas

T = Absolute temperature of the gas

V = Volume of the gas

Charles’s Law:

It states that;

“The volume of the given mass of a perfect gas is directly proportional to its absolute
temperature at constant pressure”.

Mathematically;

Vα T (At constant P)

V = Constant*T

V/T = Constant

Where;

P = Absolute pressure of the gas

T = Absolute temperature of the gas

V = Volume of the gas

General Gas Equation:
According to Boyle‟s Law

Vα1/P (Keeping T constant) (1)

According to Charles‟s Law

VαT (Keeping P constant) (2)

Combining (1) and (2)

VαT/P

V = Constant*T/P

PV = Constant*T (for unit mass of the gas)

PV = Constant *m*T (for mass „m‟ of the gas)

PV = m*R*T

Where R = General Gas constant

For atmospheric air, the value of R = 287J/Kg-K.

Avogadro’s Law:

It states that;

“Equal volumes of all the gases at same temperature and pressure contain equal number of
molecules”.

Joule’s Law:

It states that;

“The change in internal energy of a perfect gas is directly proportional to the change of
temperature”.

Mathematically;

dU α dT

dU = Constant*dT ( for unit mass of the gas)

dU = m* C*dT (for mass „m‟ of the gas)

Where;

dU = Change in Internal Energy of the gas

dT = Change in absolute temperature of the gas

C = Constant of proportionality known as specific heat of the gas

Specific Heat:
The amount of heat required to increase the temperature of unit mass of a gas through 10C is
known as specific heat of a gas.

Molar Specific Heat:

The amount of heat required to increase the temperature of one mole of a gas through 10C is
known as molar specific heat of a gas.

Specific Heat at Constant Pressure:

The amount of heat required to increase the temperature of unit mass of a gas through 10C at
constant pressure is known as specific heat of a gas at constant pressure. It is denoted by „Cp‟.

Specific Heat at Constant Volume:

The amount of heat required to increase the temperature of unit mass of a gas through 10C at
constant volume is known as specific heat of a gas at constant volume. It is denoted by „Cv‟.

Adiabatic Index:
It is the ratio of Cp and Cv. It is denoted by „γ‟.

γ = Cp / C v

Its value is 1.4 for air.

Also

Cp - Cv = R

Where R = General Gas Constant

CLO-01
To perceive Thermodynamics and its properties, the functions of different parts and basic
working principles of petrol, diesel and turbojet engines

Rubric 01

Marks CLO1 – Level P1 mapped to PLO2 (Problem Analysis)

Analysis and perception of terms and properties of Thermodynamics

9-10 correctly and precisely; correct understanding about Thermodynamics
laws, Specific Heat and Adiabatic Index and other related terms

Analysis and perception of terms and properties of Thermodynamics

correctly and precisely; correct understanding about Thermodynamics
7-8 laws, Specific Heat and Adiabatic Index with some small mistakes like
lack of understanding of difference between some major terms and
properties of a Thermodynamics system

Analysis and perception of terms and properties of Thermodynamics

correctly but without understanding of minor details of Thermodynamics
4-6 properties; incorrect understanding about Thermodynamics laws, Specific
Heat and Adiabatic Index and inability to differentiate among these
properties

Analysis and perception of terms and properties Thermodynamics

incorrectly and without understanding of minor details of
0-3 Thermodynamics properties; incorrect understanding about
Thermodynamics laws, Specific Heat and Adiabatic Index and inability
to differentiate among these properties
Lab Session No: 03

Objective:
To determine the Gauge pressure with a Bourdon tube pressure gauge using oil as a pressure
transferring medium

Apparatus:
Dead Weight Tester (with oil as a pressure transferring medium)

Figure:

Piston

Weights

Pressure gauge

Valve 2
Valve 1

Cylinder

Procedure:
1. First of all remove the piston from the unit, open the valve V2 and close the valve V1.

2. Fill the cylinder with oil and close the valve V2.

3. Now place the piston back at its position and with both valves V1 and V2 closed.

4. Apply weights on the piston and calculate the theoretical value of pressure.

5. This applied pressure will be transferred to the gauge through oil.

6. Note the experimental value of the pressure from gauge reading.

7. Repeat the same procedure by decreasing the weights.

8. Compare the theoretical and experimental values of the pressures and draw the graphs
between the gauge pressure (Y-axis) and true pressure (X-axis). Also draw the graph between
% age error (Y-Axis) and Gauge Pressure (X-axis).

Observations & Calculations:

Diameter of the piston = d = 0.018m

Mass of the piston = m = 0.5 Kg.

Area (m2) = A = [π/4]*d2

Total Weight Applied (kg) = M = mass of the piston (kg) + Mass applied (Kg)

Total Force (N) = F = Mg

Where

g = 9.81m/s2

Theoretical (True) Pressure (N/m2) = P = F/A

Graphs:
CLO-2
To evaluate gauge pressure measured by pressure measurement devices and to assess
efficiency of nozzle and centrifugal compressor experimentally

Rubric 02

Marks CLO2 – Level C6 mapped to PLO4 (Investigation)

Correct understanding of the term pressure, correct investigation of different types

of pressure and working principle of a Bourdon Tube Pressure Gauge. Correct
9-10 understanding of how to measure the gauge pressure with Bourdon Tubepressure
Gauge, drawing of neat and accurate the graph using experimental data and
correct investigation and evaluation of graph of the experiment

Correct understanding of the term pressure, correct investigation of different types

of pressure and working principle of a Bourdon Tube Pressure Gauge. Correct
understanding of how to measure the gauge pressure with Bourdon Tube pressure
7-8
Gauge, drawing of neat and accurate graph using experimental data but missing
of some major details from graph, correct investigation and evaluation of graph
of the experiment

Correct understanding of the term pressure, correct investigation of different types

of pressure and working principle of a Bourdon Tube Pressure Gauge but lack of
understanding of the pressure transferring medium of the equipment. Correct
4-6
understanding of how to measure the gauge pressure with Bourdon Tube pressure
Gauge, drawing of inaccurate graph excluding major details and thus wrong
investigation and evaluation of graph of the experiment

Incorrect understanding of the term pressure, incorrect investigation of different

types of pressure and working principle of a Bourdon Tube Pressure Gauge.
0-3 Wrong understanding of how to measure the gauge pressure on Bourdon Tube
pressure Gauge, drawing of inaccurate graph excluding major details and thus
wrong investigation and evaluation of graph of the experiment
Lab Session No: 04

Objective:
To determine the Gauge pressure with a Bourdon tube pressure gauge with air as a pressure
transferring medium

Apparatus:
Dead Weight Tester (with air as a pressure transferring medium)

Figure:

Dead
Weights Scale for
Pressure
Readings

Procedure:
1. First of all measure the weight of plunger and platform if not given.

2. Find out the diameter of the piston and then from diameter, find pout the area of the piston
if not provided.

3. Apply weights on the piston and calculate the theoretical value of pressure.

4. This applied pressure will be transferred to the gauge through air.

5. Note the experimental value of the pressure from gauge reading.

6. Repeat the same procedure by decreasing the weights.

7. Compare the theoretical and experimental values of the pressures and draw the graphs
between the gauge pressure (Y-axis) and true pressure (X-axis). Also draw the graph between
% age error (Y-Axis) and Gauge Pressure (X-axis).

Observations & Calculations:

Mass of the piston = m = 1 Kg.

Area (m2) of the piston = A = [π/4]*d2 = 0.000315m2 (Given)

Total Weight Applied (kg) = M = mass of the piston (kg) + Mass applied (Kg)

Total Force (N) = F = Mg

Where

g = 9.81m/s2

Theoretical (True) Pressure (N/m2) = P = F/A

Graphs:
CLO-2
To evaluate gauge pressure measured by pressure measurement devices and to assess
efficiency of nozzle and centrifugal compressor experimentally

Rubric 02

Marks CLO2 – Level C6 mapped to PLO4 (Investigation)

Correct understanding of the term pressure, correct investigation of different types

of pressure and working principle of a Bourdon Tube Pressure Gauge. Correct
9-10 understanding of how to measure the gauge pressure with Bourdon Tubepressure
Gauge, drawing of neat and accurate the graph using experimental data and
correct investigation and evaluation of graph of the experiment

Correct understanding of the term pressure, correct investigation of different types

of pressure and working principle of a Bourdon Tube Pressure Gauge. Correct
understanding of how to measure the gauge pressure with Bourdon Tube pressure
7-8
Gauge, drawing of neat and accurate graph using experimental data but missing
of some major details from graph, correct investigation and evaluation of graph
of the experiment

Correct understanding of the term pressure, correct investigation of different types

of pressure and working principle of a Bourdon Tube Pressure Gauge but lack of
understanding of the pressure transferring medium of the equipment. Correct
4-6
understanding of how to measure the gauge pressure with Bourdon Tube pressure
Gauge, drawing of inaccurate graph excluding major details and thus wrong
investigation and evaluation of graph of the experiment

Incorrect understanding of the term pressure, incorrect investigation of different

types of pressure and working principle of a Bourdon Tube Pressure Gauge.
0-3 Wrong understanding of how to measure the gauge pressure on Bourdon Tube
pressure Gauge, drawing of inaccurate graph excluding major details and thus
wrong investigation and evaluation of graph of the experiment
Lab Session No: 05

Objective:
To determine the pressure with different pressure measuring devices and then compare the
measured values

Apparatus:
Humidity (Pressure Measurement Bench)

Figure:

Procedure:
1. First of all attach compressor with the pressure regulator and pressure regulator to the
desired gauges.

2. Fill up the U-tube manometer and inclined manometer up to half of the height of the tube
with water.

3. For comparison of pressures, a three way valve is used. One side of valve is attached to the
pressure regulator output and other two to the desired gauges.

4. Keep on increasing the pressure by pressure regulator and note down the pressure readings
from respective gauges and compare these values with each other.

Observations & Calculations:

U-tube manometer pressure will be given by the formula given below;
Pgauge = Punknown –Patm = ρgh;

Where;

ρ (Kg/m3) = Density of liquid in tube

g (m/sec2) = Acceleration due to gravity = 9.81

h (m) = Difference between the heights of the liquid in each limb

The pressure measured by the inclined manometer is given by the formula given below;

Pgauge = Punknown –Patm = ρgd ( A2/A1 + sinϴ)

Where;

Ρ (kg/m3) =Density of liquid in tube

g (m/sec2) = Acceleration due to gravity = 9.81

d (m) = distance of the liquid moved along the inclined limb

A2 (m2) = Cross sectional area of the reservoir = π/4*d22

d2 (m) = Diameter of the reservoir (Vertical limb)

A1 (m2) = Cross sectional area the inclined limb = π/4*d12

d1 (m) = Diameter of the inclined limb

ϴ = Angle of the inclined from the horizontal = 45o (Given)

As d1 = d2, So; A1 = A2; therefore; A2/A1 = 1;

So;

Pgauge = Punknown –Patm = ρgd ( 1 + sinϴ)

CLO-2

To evaluate gauge pressure measured by pressure measurement devices and to assess

efficiency of nozzle and centrifugal compressor experimentally

Rubric 02

Marks CLO2 – Level C6 mapped to PLO4 (Investigation)

Correct understanding of the term pressure, correct investigation of different types

of pressure and working principles of different available pressure measuring
9-10 devices. Correct understanding of how to measure the gauge pressure with these
pressure measuring devices, evaluating a good comparison between the
performance of all these pressure measuring devices

Correct understanding of the term pressure, correct investigation of different types

of pressure and working principles of different available pressure measuring
devices. Correct understanding of how to measure the gauge pressure with these
7-8 pressure measuring devices, evaluating a good comparison between the
performance of all these pressure measuring devices but inability to differentiate
between parameters used for their comparison like accuracy, precision of each
pressure measuring device

Correct understanding of the term pressure, correct investigation of different types

of pressure and working principles of different available pressure measuring
4-6 devices. Wrong understanding of how to measure the gauge pressure with one or
all of these pressure measuring devices, inability to develop a good comparison
between the performance of all these pressure measuring devices

Wrong understanding of the term pressure, incorrect investigation of different

types of pressure and working principle of different available pressure measuring
0-3 devices. Wrong understanding of how to measure the gauge pressure with one or
all of these pressure measuring devices without evaluation of the comparison of
their performance
Lab Session No: 06

Objective:
To perform the analysis on a single stage centrifugal compressor

Apparatus:
Single Stage Centrifugal Compressor Apparatus

Figure:

Pressure Transmitter RPM Meter

Temperature, Flow Rate,

Knob for Damper Positioning Pressure Controllers

Damper Power Meter

Frequency Modulator

Emergency Switch

Compressor Air Inlet

Procedure:
1. First of all switch on the main supply and press the Run button on the modulator.

2. Increase the speed by turning the variable potentiometer.

3. Set the desired speed and note down the different parameters (readings) with the damper
condition partially opened.

4. Note down the different parameters by changing the speed.

5. Using readings, calculate the volume flow rate of air, pressure ratios, and efficiency of the
compressor.

6. Draw the graphs between the RPM (x-axis) and compressor efficiency (y-axis).
Observations & Calculations:
Flowrate of air across the compressor = Qa = Cf *π*D22 2∆P1
4 ρ(1-d4)
Where;
Qa = Flowrate of air; (m3/sec)d
= D2/D1 (D1˃ D2)
D1 = 70mm = 0.070m;
D2 = 40mm = 0.040m;
Cf = 0.63 (Coefficient of flow);
ρ = Density of Air = 1.14 kg/m3;
∆P1 = Differential pressure across orifice; (N/m2)
Hydraulic Power of Compressor = Phyd = ∆P2*Qa ; (Watt)And
∆P2 = Differential pressure across compressor; (N/m2)
Efficiency of the Compressor = ηc = Work Done on Air per Second
Work Done on Compressor
*100

ηc = ∆P2*Qa
Pc *100

ηc = Phyd
*100
Pc
Where

Pc = Electrical Power Supplied to the Compressor; (Watt)

Graph:

Graph:
CLO-2
To evaluate gauge pressure measured by pressure measurement devices and to assess
efficiency of nozzle and centrifugal compressor experimentally

Rubric 02

Marks CLO2 – Level C6 mapped to PLO4 (Investigation)

Correct understanding of performance parameters associated with a compressor,

correct understanding about different types of compressors and their basic
9-10 working principles. Correct evaluation of different parameters acquired from the
experiment. Drawing of neat and accurate graph and correct investigation and
evaluation of experimental graph

Correct understanding of performance parameters associated with a compressor,

correct understanding about different types of compressors and their basic
working principles. Correct evaluation of different parameters acquired from the
7-8
experiment. Drawing of neat and accurate graph, correct investigation and
evaluation of experimental graph but missing of some major details from the
graph

Correct understanding of performance parameters associated with a compressor,

correct understanding about different types of compressors but lack of
understanding about their basic working principles. Wrong evaluation of different
4-6
parameters acquired from the experiment. Drawing of neat and accurate graph,
correct investigation and evaluation of experimental graph but missing of some
major details from the graph

Wrong understanding of performance parameters associated with a compressor,

incorrect understanding about different types of compressors and lack of
0-3 understanding about their basic working principles. Wrong evaluation of different
parameters acquired from the experiment. Drawing of inaccurate graph and thus
wrong investigation and evaluation of the data
Lab Session No: 07

Objective:
To analyse the functions of various parts of a 4 stroke Diesel Engine and to interpret its
working strokes practically using 4 stroke Diesel Engine Demonstration Model

Apparatus:
4 Stroke Diesel Engine Model or 4 Stroke Diesel Engine (Sectioned)

Figure:

Rocker Arm
Air Cleaner Exhaust Valve

Intake valve
Fuel Inlet Line Injection Line
Suction Manifold Exhaust Manifold
Inject
Injection Pump Cylinder
Delivery Valve Spring Piston
Delivery valve Connecting Rod
Control Rack Water Jacket
Piston Spring Spring Valve
Cam Follower Flywheel

Oil Pan
Geared Sector Cam Shaft Timing System Gears

Basement
Crankshaft
Cooling Fins
Functions of Different Parts:
Functions of different parts of a 4 stroke diesel engine are explained below;

Injection Pump:

It pressurizes the fuel to the required level and injects it correctly into the fuel injector at the
end of compression stroke during each cycle of operation of engine.

Delivery Valve:

Its function is to deliver fuel (Diesel) from high pressure pump to the combustion engine
without loss of pressure.

Fuel Inlet Line:

It is a passageway of fuel injection system.

Delivery Valve Spring:

It just helps in opening and closing the delivery valve.

Cylinder:

It is the place or space in which piston reciprocates or travels.

Piston:

In an engine the function of piston is to transfer force from expanding gas in the cylinder to the
crankshaft by means of connecting rod. It also transfers force from crankshaft to the inside of
cylinder for the purpose of compressing the fluid in the cylinder.

Wrist Pin:

Its function is to connect piston with connecting rod. It is also called gudgeon pin or piston pin.

Cylinder Head:

The top of a cylinder is covered with the cylinder head. It contains holes for the valves.

Crankcase:

It is used to cover the crankshaft of the engine. Generally cover of crankshaft is called
crankcase.

Crankshaft:

It converts linear motion of piston into rotational motion that is transmitted to the load.
Connecting Rod:

It connects the piston to the crankshaft.

Camshaft:

The camshaft makes it possible for the valves to open and close. The lobes (cam) of the
camshaft correspond to the engine‟s valves.

Flywheel:

A flywheel is used to store rotational energy. The power stroke of the engine provides the
power to the engine. The power for the remaining strokes is provided by the flywheel which
gives the stored energy to the engine during idle strokes.

Fuel Injector:

It is a small nozzle into which liquid fuel is injected at high pressure. Its function is to spray
atomized fuel into the combustion chamber of the engine.

Pre-Combustion Chamber:

It is an auxiliary space in which combustible gases are ignited and combustion started ahead of
main combustion chamber.

Pre-heating Plug:

These plugs or heaters are mounted on pre-combustion chamber and their function is to heat
fuel in order to get better engine ignition. It is a pencil shaped piece of metal with a heating
element at the tip. These plugs also help to start diesel engines especially in cold weather, when
high speed diesel engines can be difficult to start.

Air Cleaner:

It is a device composed of fibrous materials which removes solid particulates such as dust,
mould and bacteria from air.

Intake Manifold:

The function of inlet manifold (suction manifold) is to deliver air and in some case recirculated
exhaust gas (in modern diesel engine) to engine‟s cylinder.

Exhaust manifold:

The function of exhaust manifold is to collect and contain cylinder end gases (exhaust gases)
and deliver them to the exhaust piping.

Oil Pan:

It is used to collect engine‟s lubricating oil. It is situated below the engine crankshaft. It is also
called sump.
Rocker Arm:

It is used to convert the radial movement from the camshaft lobe to the linear motion at the
valve to open it. One end of the rocker arm is attached to the camshaft lobe while other end
acts as the valve stem.

Timing Gears:

These gears are responsible for the movement of camshaft and most of the engine‟s
accessories.

Inlet Valve:

It is used to allow/disallow the air into the cylinder by opening/closing.

Exhaust Valve:

Its function is to expel the exhaust burnt gases into the exhaust piping.

Water Jacket:

It is used in water-cooled engines. It is a water-filled casing surrounding the engine‟s cylinder

to keep the temperature of the cylinder at a moderate level.

Working Principle:
A 4 stroke compression ignition engine completes one cycle of events in two revolutions of
crankshaft or four piston strokes. The four phases of these strokes are;

1) Induction of fresh air 2) Compression and heating of this air

3) Expansion of fuel and its burning and expansion 4) Expulsion of products of combustion

Before knowing the working cycle of a 4 stroke diesel engine, we must know the following
basic terms;

Top Dead Centre (TDC):

It is the position of the piston in which it is farthest from crankshaft.

Bottom Dead Centre:

It is the position of the piston in which it is nearest to the crankshaft.

Stroke:

A stroke is referred to as full travel of the piston along the cylinder in either direction.

Working Cycle:
There are four strokes in the working cycle of a 4 stroke diesel engine;
1) Intake/Induction 2) Compression 3) Expansion/Power 4) Exhaust

1. Intake/Induction Stroke:

This stroke starts at top dead centre (TDC) and ends at bottom dead centre (BDC) or in other
words, in this stroke piston moves from TDC to BDC. This movement of the piston establishes
a depression or vacuum in the cylinder. The inlet valve opens and the pressure difference
established between outside and inside of the cylinder will induce the fresh air at atmospheric
pressure to enter and fill up the cylinder. In diesel engine only pure air is introduced into the
cylinder during intake stroke.

2. Compression Stroke:

In this stroke, piston moves from BDC to TDC. Both inlet and exhaust valve will remain closed
during this stroke. The air enclosed in the cylinder will be compressed into a much smaller
space. This compression of air generates heat which will increase the charge temperature.

3. Expansion/Power Stroke:

At the end of compression stroke, when both inlet and exhaust valve are closed, the fuel oil
(diesel) is injected into dense and heated air by fuel injector in the form of high pressure spray
of fine particles. These atomized and tiny droplets of liquid fuel, when distributed throughout
the air, are vaporized and ignited by the heat of compression. This highly compressed mixture
pushes the piston from TDC to BDC and expansion occurs. So, during this stroke, piston moves
from TDC to BDC.

4. Exhaust Stroke:

During this stroke, the piston again moves from BDC to TDC and exhaust valve opens at the
end of power stroke. This sudden opening of exhaust valve releases the exhaust burnt gases
or products of combustion to the atmosphere.
CLO-01
To perceive Thermodynamics and its properties, the functions of different parts and basic
working principles of petrol, diesel and turbojet engines

Rubric 01

Marks CLO1 – Level P1 mapped to PLO2 (Problem Analysis)

Analysis and perception of functions of various parts of a 4 stroke diesel

engine and its working cycle correctly and precisely; correct understanding
9-10
about basic engine terms like stroke, TDC, BDC, Swept Volume and
clearance volume etc.

Analysis and perception of functions of various parts of a 4 stroke diesel

engine and its working cycle correctly but lack of ability to grasp the
7-8 concept of engine working cycle deeply; correct understanding about basic
engine terms like stroke, TDC, BDC, Swept Volume and clearance volume
etc.

Analysis and perception of functions of various parts of a 4 stroke diesel

engine and its working cycle correctly but lack of ability to grasp the
4-6 concept of engine working cycle deeply; incorrect understanding about
basic engine terms like stroke, TDC, BDC, Swept Volume and clearance
volume etc.

Analysis and perception of functions of various parts of a 4 stroke diesel

engine and its working cycle incorrectly; incorrect understanding about
0-3
basic engine terms like stroke, TDC, BDC, Swept Volume and clearance
volume etc.
Lab Session No: 08

Objective:
To analyse the functions of various parts of a 4 stroke Petrol Engine and to interpret its
working strokes practically using 4 stroke Petrol Engine Demonstration Model

Apparatus:
4 Stroke Petrol Engine Model or 4 Stroke Petrol Engine (Sectioned)

Figure:

Air Cleaner
Carburettor

Fuel Intake
Spark Plug
Float
Cup
Starter
Valve Closing Spring
Intake Manifold
Exhaust manifold

Exhaust Valve
Throttle Valve
Intake Valve
Capacitor
Water Circulation
Space
Distributor
Piston
Cup
Camshaft

Flywheel
Automatic Spark Connecting Rod
Advance
Coil

Sump Driving Shaft

Crankcase Cooling Fins (Crankshaft)
Timing Gears Cooli
Basement

Coil Ignition
Functions of Different Parts:
Functions of different parts of a 4 stroke petrol engine are explained below;

Carburetor:

The main function of a carburetor is to mix air and gasoline (petrol) in correct ratio to ensure
proper engine function. If the carburetor is not tuned properly, the engine receives poor air-
fuel ratio which can lead to poor performance of the engine.

The components of a carburetor are float chamber, diaphragm chamber, venturi, throttle valve,
choke valve etc. The functions of these parts of a carburetor are given below;

a) Float Chamber:

It is used to hold the fuel (Petrol) at atmospheric pressure. The fuel supply is refilled by a float
driven controller. When there is fuel drop in the chamber, float opens the inlet valve to permit
fuel pump to transfer extra fuel to the chamber.

b) Diaphragm Chamber:

In any orientation of the engine when float chamber is not suitable, then a diaphragmchamber
is used in place of float chamber. Function of diaphragm is same as that of a float in a float
chamber i.e., to regulate the fuel flow into the carburetor fuel chamber. The advantageof the
diaphragm is that it can be mounted in virtually any position.

c) Venturi:

A carburetor consists of a pipe which is in the form of a venturi through which the air passes
into the intake manifold of the engine. It widens in section and then narrows again. It causes
an increase in air flow speed in the narrowest section of the venturi.

d) Throttle Valve (Butterfly Valve):

Below the venturi, a butterfly valve also called throttle valve is present. It is in the form of a
rotating disc. This valve controls the quantity of air-fuel mixture that will enter into the engine
cylinder and thus regulating the engine power and speed.

e) Choke Valve:

In cold weather, when engine is cold, the fuel vaporizes less and began to condense on the
walls of intake manifold making the engine difficult to start. Hence a rich air-fuel mixture is
needed to start engine in this situation. To provide extra fuel, a choke is usually used. It is a
valve that restricts the flow of air at the entrance to the carburettor before the venturi. With this
restriction, extra vacuum is produced in the carburettor which pulls the extra fuel to enter into
the carburettor. It provides the rich mixture. Choke can be connected to the cam or other such
device, which prevents the throttle plate from closing fully, when the choke is in operation.
Different parts of a carburettor are shown in the figure below;

Air Filter

Choke Valve
Fuel

Float
Gas and Air Mixture

Venturi

Throttle Valve

Float Chamber

Fig.(Float Type Carburetor)

Ignition System:

The coil ignition of a petrol engine consists of following components;

a) Battery b) Ignition coil c) Distributor d) Capacitor e) Spark Plug. Their functions are
given below;

a) Battery:

It provides a constant source of electricity i.e., current and voltage supply.

b) Ignition Coil:

It acts as a transformer. It is used to step the voltage up to the required needs of the ignition.

c) Distributor:

It is used to distribute the ensuing pulse to correct spark plug at correct time.
d) Capacitor:

It makes a parallel resonant circuit with the ignition coil. With this resonance, the duration of
spark is sustained and provides a good flame in air-fuel mixture. It is usually used to store
electric charge.

e) Spark Plug:

It is used to ignite air-fuel mixture. The electric pulse in spark plug provided by the distributor
is used to ignite air-fuel mixture. Different components of the coil ignition system are shown
in the figure below;

Direction of current flow

Ignition Key

+ -

Capacitor

Spark Plug

Battery Coil

Distributor

Fig.(Coil ignition system schematic diagram)

Cylinder:

It is the place or space in which piston reciprocates or travels.

Piston:

In an engine the function of piston is to transfer force from expanding gas in the cylinder to the
crankshaft by means of connecting rod. It also transfers force from crankshaft to the inside of
cylinder for the purpose of compressing the fluid in the cylinder.
Wrist Pin:

Its function is to connect piston with connecting rod. It is also called gudgeon pin or piston pin.

Cylinder Head:

The top of a cylinder is covered with the cylinder head. It contains holes for the valves.

Crankcase:

It is used to cover the crankshaft of the engine.

Crankshaft:

It converts linear motion of piston into rotational motion that is transmitted to the load.

Connecting Rod:

It connects the piston to the crankshaft.

Camshaft:

The camshaft makes it possible for the valves to open and close. The lobes (cams) of the
camshaft correspond to the engine‟s valves.

Flywheel:

A flywheel is used to store rotational energy. The power stroke of the engine provides the
power to the engine. The power for the remaining strokes is provided by the flywheel which
gives the stored energy to the engine during idle strokes.

Air Cleaner:

It is a device composed of fibrous materials which removes solid particulates such as dust,
mould and bacteria from air.

Intake Manifold:

The function of inlet manifold (suction manifold) is to deliver air fuel mixture to engine‟s
cylinder.

Exhaust manifold:

The function of exhaust manifold is to collect and contain cylinder end gases (exhaust gases)
and deliver them to the exhaust piping.

Oil Pan:

It is used to collect engine’s lubricating oil. It is situated below the engine crankshaft. It is also
called sump.
Timing Gears:

These gears are responsible for the movement of camshaft and most of the engine‟s
accessories.

Inlet Valve:

It is used to allow the air fuel mixture to enter into the cylinder.

Exhaust Valve:

Its function is to expel the exhaust burnt gases into the exhaust piping.

Water Jacket:

It is used in water-cooled engines. It is a water-filled casing surrounding the engine‟s cylinder

to keep the temperature of the cylinder at a moderate level.

Working Principle:
A 4-stroke spark ignition engine completes one cycle of events in two revolutions of crankshaft
or four piston strokes. The four phases of these strokes are;

1) Induction of fresh air/fuel mixture

2) Compression and heating of this air/fuel mixture

3) Expansion of air fuel mixture and its burning

4) Expulsion of products of combustion

Working Cycle:
There are four strokes in the working cycle of a 4 stroke Petrol engine;

1) Intake/Induction 2) Compression 3) Expansion/Power 4) Exhaust

1. Intake/Induction Stroke:

This stroke starts at top dead center (TDC) and ends at bottom dead center (BDC) or in other
words in this stroke piston moves from TDC to BDC. In this stroke inlet valve opens and allows
the air-fuel mixture to enter into the cylinder. It is done by vacuum pressure which is created
by the difference of pressure between outside and inside of the engine’s cylinder. Exhaust valve
ill remain closed during this stroke.

2. Compression Stroke:

In this stroke, piston moves from BDC to TDC. In this stroke, the piston compresses the air-
fuel mixture to prepare it for ignition during power / expansion stroke. This compression will
increase the temperature inside the cylinder. At the end of the compression stroke, spark
plug ignites the air-fuel mixture. Both inlet and exhaust valves remain closed during this stroke.

3. Expansion/Power Stroke:

At the end of compression stroke, the compressed air-fuel mixture is ignited/burns by heat
generated by the spark plug, forcefully returning the piston from TDC to BDC. This movement
of the piston by ignited air-fuel mixture from TDC to BDC is the expansion stroke.

4. Exhaust Stroke:

During this stroke, the piston again moves from BDC to TDC and exhaust valve opens. Exhaust
valve is opened at the end of expansion stroke. This opening of the exhaust valve expels the
exhaust/spent or burnt gases out of engine‟s cylinder.
CLO-01
To perceive Thermodynamics and its properties, the functions of different parts and basic
working principles of petrol, diesel and turbojet engines

Rubric 01

Marks CLO1 – Level P1 mapped to PLO2 (Problem Analysis)

Analysis and perception of functions of various parts of a 4 stroke petrol

engine and its working cycle correctly and precisely; correct understanding
9-10
about basic engine terms like stroke, TDC, BDC, Swept Volume and
clearance volume etc.

Analysis and perception of functions of various parts of a 4 stroke petrol

engine and its working cycle correctly but lack of ability to grasp the
7-8 concept of engine working cycle deeply; correct understanding about basic
engine terms like stroke, TDC, BDC, Swept Volume and clearance volume
etc.

Analysis and perception of functions of various parts of a 4 stroke petrol

engine and its working cycle correctly but lack of ability to grasp the
4-6 concept of engine working cycle deeply; incorrect understanding about
basic engine terms like stroke, TDC, BDC, Swept Volume and clearance
volume etc.
Lab Session No: 09

Objective:
To analyse the functions of various parts of a 2 stroke Petrol Engine and to interpret its
working strokes practically using 2 stroke Petrol Engine Demonstration Model

Apparatus:
2 Stroke Petrol Engine Model or 2 Stroke Petrol Engine (Sectioned)

Figure:

Spark Plug

Fuel Tank

Carburettor
Cylinder

Cooling Fins

Piston
Fuel Line

Flywheel
Air Filter

Basement
Functions of Different Parts:
Functions of different parts of a 2 stroke petrol engine are explained below;

Spark Arrestor:

It prevents the fire and ignition of combustible carbon deposits and thus prevents the engine
from unwanted explosion.

Muffler:

It helps to decrease the noise level produced by exhaust emissions of the engine.

Ignition Coil:

It transforms the low voltage into high voltage required to create an electric spark in spark plug
to ignite air-fuel mixture.

Fuel Line:

It is a pipe from which fuel is transferred from fuel tank to the carburettor.

Carburetor:

It is a device in which air-fuel mixture is prepared in correct ratio in order to make it possible
for ignition.

Spark Plug:

It is used to ignite compressed air-fuel mixture by an electric spark. Or in other words, it is a

device used to transfer electric current from ignition system to the combustion chamber of the
spark ignition engine.

Fuel Tank:

It is used to store and keep the fuel i.e. petrol in this engine.

Cooling Fins:

These are the projections made around the combustion chamber or cylinder of the engine.
These fins increase the surface area and this increase in surface area helps to remove heat from
the cylinder at a much faster rate. They are most commonly made in air-cooled engines.

Cylinder:

It is the place or space in which piston reciprocates or travels.

Piston:

In an engine the function of piston is to transfer force from expanding gas in the cylinder to the
crankshaft by means of connecting rod. It also transfers force from crankshaft to the inside of
cylinder for the purpose of compressing the fluid in the cylinder.

Wrist Pin:

Its function is to connect piston with connecting rod. It is also called gudgeon pin or piston pin.

Crankcase:

It is used to cover the crankshaft of the engine.

Crankshaft:

It converts linear motion of piston into rotational motion that is transmitted to the load.

Connecting Rod:

It connects the piston to the crankshaft.

Magneto Ignition System:

This ignition system provides current for ignition without any external source of electricity. It
is mostly used in small powered engines like lawn movers etc. The flywheel contains a magnet
and outside the magnet, there is a coil which has primary and secondary windings. The
secondary coil has larger number of turns than primary coil. As the flywheel rotates, the magnet
attached to it produces a magnetic flux. This magnetic flux produces the electromotive force
and induces a current into the surrounding coil according to Faraday‟s law of electromagnetic
induction. From the primary windings, the induced current is transferred to the secondary
windings. As the secondary windings has larger number of turns, and according to Faraday’s
law the current induced is directly proportional to the number of turns, so secondary coil will
have larger current than the primary coil. This larger current is then transferred to the spark
plug and through this current, spark plug ignites air-fuel mixture.A set of contact breaker points
travelling over a cam lobe regulates the electrical impulse to set the timing. These points allow
a fixed charge to enter the secondary coil circuit. A condenser acts as a ground to disperse the
primary‟s magnetic charge until the next armature rotation. The faster the speed of flywheel,
firing the primary windings will be more often. A magneto ignition system is shown in the fig.
below;
Air Gap (Spark Plug)

Condenser

Primary Windings

Secondary Windings
Points
Armature
Coil

Flywheel Magnets
Magnetic Field

Fig.(Magneto ignition system schematic diagram)

Figure:

Cylinder Head Spark Plug

Cooling Fins

Exhaust Port Piston

Inlet Port Transfer Port

Connecting Rod

Crankcase
Crankshaft

Working Principle:
A 2 stroke petrol engine completes one cycle of events in only one revolution of crankshaft or
2 piston strokes. It has following 2 strokes
1) Intake of air fuel mixture in crankcase and compression of air-fuel mixture in cylinder

2) Expansion of air-fuel mixture in cylinder and exhaust of burnt gases through exhaust port

These strokes are explained as;

1st Stroke:

In this stroke, piston moves from BDC to TDC. The top of the piston covers the exhaust port
and bottom of the piston uncovers the inlet port. This opening of the inlet port allows the fresh
charge of air-fuel mixture to enter into the crankcase. Also the upward movement of thepiston
compresses the air-fuel mixture above it i.e. in the cylinder. At the end of thiscompression,
spark plug ignites the air-fuel mixture in the cylinder creating high temperature or heat and
pressure.

2nd Stroke:

In this stroke, the piston moves from TDC to BDC. The high pressure created by the spark plug
ignition forces the piston to move downwards. During downward movement, the top of the
piston uncovers the exhaust port thus expels the burnt gases of the cylinder out of exhaust port.
Also top of the piston uncovers the transfer port and thus transfer air-fuel mixture from
crankcase to the cylinder. For this purpose, the pistons are usually made special shaped to direct
the air-fuel mixture from crankcase to the cylinder and prevents this mixture to go out of the
exhaust port. The downward movement of the piston also compresses the air-fuel mixture in
the crankcase that has been entered into the crankcase by inlet port during 1st stroke.

CLO-01
To perceive Thermodynamics and its properties, the functions of different parts and basic
working principles of petrol, diesel and turbojet engines

Rubric 01

Marks CLO1 – Level P1 mapped to PLO2 (Problem Analysis)

Analysis and perception of functions of various parts of a 2 stroke petrol

engine and its working cycle correctly and precisely; correct understanding
9-10
about basic engine terms like stroke, TDC, BDC, Swept Volume and
clearance volume etc.

Analysis and perception of functions of various parts of a 2 stroke petrol

7-8 engine and its working cycle correctly but lack of ability to grasp the
concept of engine working cycle deeply; correct understanding about
basic engine terms like stroke, TDC, BDC, Swept Volume and clearance
volume etc.

Analysis and perception of functions of various parts of a 2 stroke petrol

engine and its working cycle correctly but lack of ability to grasp the
4-6 concept of engine working cycle deeply; incorrect understanding about
basic engine terms like stroke, TDC, BDC, Swept Volume and clearance
volume etc.

Analysis and perception of functions of various parts of a 2 stroke petrol

engine and its working cycle incorrectly; incorrect understanding about
0-3
basic engine terms like stroke, TDC, BDC, Swept Volume and clearance
volume etc.
Lab Session No. 10

Objective:
To analyze the functions of various parts of a Turbojet Engine and to interpret its working
cycle practically using Turbojet Engine Demonstration Model

Apparatus:

Turbo Jet Demonstration Model

Figure:
Compressor Combustion Chamber

Turbine Nozzle

Turbojet Engine:
Gas turbines are particularly suited for aircraft propulsion because of their favourable power
to weight ratio. The turbojet engine is commonly used for this purpose as shown in fig.
below;

Air In Gas out

Diffuser Nozzle

C Combustion Chamber T
T = Turbine; C = Compressor

This type of engine consists of three main sections, diffuser, gas generator and the nozzle. The
diffuser placed before the compressor decelerates the incoming air relative to engine. A
pressure rise known as ram effect is associated with this deceleration. The gas generator section
consists of a compressor, combustion chamber and the gas turbine. In compressor this high
pressure air coming from the diffuser is compressed. This compressed air is then heated by the
fuel in the combustion chamber. This heated air is then expanded in the turbine. The gases
leave the turbine at a pressure significantly higher than atmospheric pressure and expand
through the nozzle at a high velocity. The overall change of velocity of gases relative to the
engine gives rise to the propulsive force or thrust to the engine. Some turbojets are equipped
with an afterburner. Afterburner is a reheat device in which additional fuel is injected into the
gas exiting the turbine and burned producing a high temperature at the nozzle inlet which will
increase its inlet velocity resulting in increased thrust.

Cycle of Operation:
3

T 5

Explanation:
a-1: Isentropic compression in diffuser

1-2: Isentropic compression in compressor

2-3: Constant pressure heat addition in combustion chamber

3-4: Isentropic expansion in gas turbine

4-5: Isentropic expansion in nozzle

5-a: Constant pressure heat rejection in atmosphere (Open cycle gas turbine)

If the burned gases after the turbine or nozzle reject heat in the atmosphere then it is called
open cycle gas turbine. If the hot exhaust rejects heat in the heat exchanger and then enters
again to the compressor after cooling, then it is a closed cycle gas turbine.

CLO-01
To perceive Thermodynamics and its properties, the functions of different parts and basic
working principles of petrol, diesel and turbojet engines

Rubric 01

Marks CLO1 – Level P1 mapped to PLO2 (Problem Analysis)

Analysis and perception of functions of various parts of a turbojet engine

9-10 correctly and precisely; correct understanding about jet engine‟s cycle of
operation and processes involved in cycle of operation

Analysis and perception of functions of various parts of a turbojet engine

correctly but lack of ability to grasp the difference between various parts
7-8
of the engine accurately; correct understanding about jet engine‟s cycle
of operation and processes involved in cycle of operation

Analysis and perception of functions of various parts of a turbojet engine

correctly but lack of ability to grasp the difference between various parts
4-6
of the engine accurately; incorrect understanding about jet engine‟s cycle
of operation and processes involved in cycle of operation

Wrong analysis and perception of functions of various parts of a turbojet

0-3 engine; incorrect understanding about jet engine‟s cycle of operation and
processes involved in cycle of operation
Lab Session No. 11

Objective:
To determine Jet speed at which air leaves a convergent nozzle using nozzle performance
study unit.

Apparatus:
Computer Controlled Nozzle Performance Test Unit

Figure:
System Diagram:

Explanation:
1. SP-1: Pressure at the entries to the chamber (Adjustable)

2. SP-2: Pressure in the chamber (Adjustable)

3. ST -1, ST-2: Air temperature at the entries of the chamber

4. ST-3: Temperature in the chamber

5. SC-1: Air volume

6. SF-1: Force Sensor to measure jet force on nozzle

Installation of Nozzle in Equipment:

1. Close the air inlet valve.

2. Remove the exhaust ducts from the chamber in its upper part.

3. Unscrew the screws with cap to remove the upper lid of the chamber.
4. Once the chamber is open, screw in the nozzle to the upper part of the chamber. If, instead

of it, a blind cap is screwed in, remove first the latter.

5. Screw in the blind cap in the lowest part of the chamber, in the rod that contains the force
sensor.

6. Put again the chamber lid, making it safe with screws with cap.

7. Finally, put on again the air exhaust ducts on the chamber lid.

8. Make sure that the air inlet control valve is regulated, to make possible the air pass towards
the upper part of the chamber, and not towards the lowest part.

Experimental Procedure:
1. Set the nozzle inlet pressure P1 on a constant value, with the chamber pressure valve fully
closed.
2. Notice the pressures, the air flux rate, temperatures and the readings of the force sensor.
3. Increase the chamber pressure P2 to any desired value by keeping the inlet pressure P1
constant.
4. Keep on increasing the chamber pressure P2 and by keeping the inlet air pressure P1
constant and note down the different parameters.
5. At the end, draw a graph between rp (X-axis) and jet velocity C (Y-axis).

Observations & Calculations:

P2
Pressure Ratio = rp = ;
P1

Where;

P2 = Chamber Pressure (kNm-2); P1= Air Inlet Pressure (kNm-2);

F
Jet Speed = C = (m/s);
m

Where;

F = Impact force taken from force measurer (N) ; ṁ = Mass flux rate (kg/s)

ṁ = Volume flow rate (m3/sec) * Density of air (1.225 kg/m3)

Graph:
CLO-2
To evaluate gauge pressure measured by pressure measurement devices and to assess
efficiency of nozzle and centrifugal compressor experimentally

Rubric 02

Marks CLO2 – Level C6 mapped to PLO4 (Investigation)

Correct understanding of performance parameters associated with a nozzle,

correct understanding about different types of nozzles and their basic working
9-10 principles. Correct evaluation of different parameters acquired from the
experiment. Drawing of neat and accurate graph and correct investigation and
evaluation of experimental graph

Correct understanding of performance parameters associated with a nozzle,

correct understanding about different types of nozzles and their basic working
principles. Correct evaluation of different parameters acquired from the
7-8
experiment. Drawing of neat and accurate graph, correct investigation and
evaluation of experimental graph but missing of some major details from the
graph

Correct understanding of performance parameters associated with a nozzle,

correct understanding about different types of nozzles but lack of understanding
about their basic working principles. Wrong evaluation of different parameters
4-6
acquired from the experiment. Drawing of neat and accurate graph, correct
investigation and evaluation of experimental graph but missing of some major
details from the graph

Wrong understanding of performance parameters associated with a nozzle,

incorrect understanding about different types of nozzles and lack of understanding
0-3 about their basic working principles. Wrong evaluation of different parameters
acquired from the experiment. Drawing of inaccurate graph and thus wrong
investigation and evaluation of the data
Lab Session No. 12

Objective:
To determine efficiency of a convergent using exit velocity of air from Nozzle using nozzle
performance study unit

Apparatus:
Computer Controlled Nozzle Performance Test Unit

Figure:
System Diagram:

Explanation:
1. SP-1: Pressure at the entries to the chamber (Adjustable)

2. SP-2: Pressure in the chamber (Adjustable)

3. ST -1, ST-2: Air temperature at the entries of the chamber

4. ST-3: Temperature in the chamber

5. SC-1: Air volume

6. SF-1: Force Sensor to measure jet force on nozzle

Installation of Nozzle in Equipment:

1. Close the air inlet valve.

2. Remove the exhaust ducts from the chamber in its upper part.

3. Unscrew the screws with cap to remove the upper lid of the chamber.
4. Once the chamber is open, screw in the nozzle to the upper part of the chamber. If, instead

of it, a blind cap is screwed in, remove first the latter.

5. Screw in the blind cap in the lowest part of the chamber, in the rod that contains the force
sensor.

6. Put again the chamber lid, making it safe with screws with cap.

7. Finally, put on again the air exhaust ducts on the chamber lid.

8. Make sure that the air inlet control valve is regulated, to make possible the air pass towards
the upper part of the chamber, and not towards the lowest part.

Experimental Procedure:
1. Set the nozzle inlet pressure P1 on a constant value, with the chamber pressure valve fully
closed.
2. Notice the pressures, the air flux rate, temperatures and the readings of the force sensor.
3. Increase the chamber pressure P2 to any desired value by keeping the inlet pressure P1
constant.
4. Keep on increasing the chamber pressure P2 and by keeping the inlet air pressure P1
constant and note down the different parameters.
5. At the end, draw a graph between rp (X-axis) and jet velocity η (Y-axis).

.Observations & Calculations:

Efficiency of the Nozzle:

Efficiency of the nozzle is defined as;

Kinetic energy of the jet exhausting from the nozzle
5=
Change of isentropic enthalpy through the nozzle

5= C2
2(h − h )
1 2

P2
Pressure Ratio = rp = ;
P1

Where;

P2 = Chamber Pressure (kNm-2); P1= Air Inlet Pressure (kNm-2);

F
Jet Speed = C = (m/s);
m
Where;

F = Impact force taken from force measurer (N) ; ṁ = Mass flux rate (kg/s)

ṁ = Volume flow rate (m3/sec) * Density of air (1.225 kg/m3)

C2
Specific Kinetic Energy = ke = (J/kg);
2
y−1
𝗒
Isentropic Enthalpy Change = ∆h =
𝗒−1
RT1 [1 − ( rp) y] (J/kg);

Where;

γ = Isentropic Index = 1.4 (for air); T1 = Inlet Air Temperature (K);

R = General Gas Constant = 287 Kkg-1K-1;

Specific Kinetic Energy
Nozzle Efficiency = η = *10= Ke *100
Change of Isentropic Enthalpy ∆h
Graph:
CLO-2
To evaluate gauge pressure measured by pressure measurement devices and to assess
efficiency of nozzle and centrifugal compressor experimentally

Rubric 02

Marks CLO2 – Level C6 mapped to PLO4 (Investigation)

Correct understanding of performance parameters associated with a nozzle,

correct understanding about different types of nozzles and their basic working
9-10 principles. Correct evaluation of different parameters acquired from the
experiment. Drawing of neat and accurate graph and correct investigation and
evaluation of experimental graph

Correct understanding of performance parameters associated with a nozzle,

correct understanding about different types of nozzles and their basic working
principles. Correct evaluation of different parameters acquired from the
7-8
experiment. Drawing of neat and accurate graph, correct investigation and
evaluation of experimental graph but missing of some major details from the
graph

Correct understanding of performance parameters associated with a nozzle,

correct understanding about different types of nozzles but lack of understanding
about their basic working principles. Wrong evaluation of different parameters
4-6
acquired from the experiment. Drawing of neat and accurate graph, correct
investigation and evaluation of experimental graph but missing of some major
details from the graph

Wrong understanding of performance parameters associated with a nozzle,

incorrect understanding about different types of nozzles and lack of understanding
0-3 about their basic working principles. Wrong evaluation of different parameters
acquired from the experiment. Drawing of inaccurate graph and thus wrong
investigation and evaluation of the data
Lab Session No. 13
Objective:

To study about the dynamometer and its types

Dynamometer:

A dynamometer is a machine or setup which is used to measure power or torque of a rotating shaft.
Suppose a shaft is rotating and we want to measure how much is the power of shaft; so that power
of the shaft can be measured by a machine called dynamometer. A dynamometer works on the
similar principal as that of a brake. Because when we will see the types of dynamometer, some
kinds of dynamometers first stop the rotating shaft and then measure the power. So they work on
the principal of braking.

Types of dynamometer:

Following are the main types of a dynamometer.

1) Absorption Type Dynamometer

2) Transmission Type Dynamometer

1) Absorption Type Dynamometer:

In absorption type dynamometers, the shaft whose power is to be measured is to be stopped by

the dynamometers. In other words, absorption type dynamometers measure the torque of the rotating
shaft by creating a constant restraint to the turning of shaft either by fluid friction, mechanical friction
or electromagnetic induction. They are called absorption type dynamometers because they absorb
the power of the rotating shaft and then measure how much power it is. The power which is absorbed
is dissipated in the form of heat or some other means. These include Prony brake dynamometers,
Rope brake dynamometers, Eddy current dynamometers, Hydraulic dynamometers etc.

2) Transmission Type Dynamometer:

In case of transmission type dynamometers, the shaft whose power is to be measured is

rotating continuously. Unlike absorption type dynamometers, in which the shaft is stopped and then
power is measured, in transmission type dynamometers, the shaft is rotating continuously and the
power is measured. Also, power given by the shaft to the dynamometer is not wasted/dissipated in
friction but used for doing work. The power produced by the engine is transmitted through the
These dynamometers usually utilize the devices that measure torque in terms of elastic twist of the
shaft. Therefore, they are also known as torque meters. These include Epicyclic-Train Dynamometers,
Belt Transmission Dynamometers and Torsion Dynamometers etc.
Some important types of dynamometers are explained below;
a) Prony Brake Dynamometer:

It is an absorption type dynamometer. i.e, it first stops the shaft and then measures its power. It consists
of a pulley which is attached to the shaft whose power is to be measured. There are two wooden
blocks which are mounted just above the pulley. To adjust the gap between the pulley and the
wooden blocks, nuts and bolts are provided. The upper wooden block has a lever attached to it, and
carries a weight W at its outer end. The distance between the centre of the shaft and the centre of the
weights applied is the length of the lever i.e. L. Two stoppers are provided to stop or restrict the
motion of the lever from going to the extreme condition. i.e. Stoppers S1 and S2 are used here to limit
the motion of the lever. It means that the lever should not move in extreme upward or downward
direction. A counterweight is also present to avoid the vibrations of the lever. In initial position, the
applied weight and the counterweight balance the lever. A helical spring is provided between nut and
the upper block to adjust the pressure on the pulley to control its speed. As the shaft rotates, the brake
drum or pulley attached to it will also rotate. As the shaft rotates, we increase the weights W at the
outer end of the lever. This weight will push the lever and then the wooden block in downward
direction. i.e, upper block will move in downward direction by increasing weights on the lever. Now
when the value of applied load or weight reached to a value at which the wooden block comes just in
contact with the brake drum or pulley, the pulley will stop. And when the pulley stops, we will note
the value of applied weight W and length of the lever L and can calculate the power of the rotating shaft
by the following formula;
P = [2πN/60] *W*L

Where

W = Load applied at the outer end of the lever to stop the pulley

L = Length of the lever

N = Speed of the shaft in rpm

A Prony Brake dynamometer is shown in the figure below;

Fig.5 (Prony Brake Dynamometer)

b) Rope Brake Dynamometer:

It is also an absorption type dynamometer. Both Rope brake and Prony brake dynamometers stop the
shaft by applying mechanical friction to the motion of the shaft. It consists of the rotating shaft
whose power is to be measured over which brake drum or pulley is mounted. Over the brake drum, rope
is wounded that’s why it is called rope brake dynamometer. One end of the rope is attached to a
spring balance while the other end of the rope is kept in position by applying deadweight. Wooden
blocks are placed at intervals around the circumference of the pulley to avoid the slipping of the rope
over the pulley. When we apply weights at the lower end of the rope, the rope gets tightened along
the pulley (brake drum). i.e., as we increase the loads, the rope gets wound along the brake drum and
finally, the rope would be stopping the brake drum. Now, when the brake drum has stopped, we will
be getting some reading on spring balance. By knowing the reading of the spring balance and
weights applied at the lower end of the rope and diameter of the brake drum, we can measure the power
of the shaft by the following formula,
P = [2πN/60] *(W-S)* R

Where,

W = Weight attached at the lower end of the rope to stop the shaft

S = Spring balance reading when the shaft has stopped

R = Radius of brake drum + radius of rope

N = Shaft revolution in rpm

A rope brake dynamometer is shown in the figure below,
Fig.6 (Rope Brake Dynamometer)

c) Eddy Current Dynamometer:

It is also an absorption type dynamometer. It consists of the rotor which is actually the shaft whose
power is to be measured. It also has the stator which is a stationary member and contains a number of
poles or teeth. D.C supply is given to the stator. Cooling water arrangement is provided to dynamometer
as a lot of heat is generated in eddy current dynamometer. An arm is attached to the stator to
which a pointer is attached to give the value of torque. When the current is supplied to the stator,
magnetic field is produced around the rotor because the stator which is surrounding the rotor contains
some electromagnetic materials. As the rotor rotates (passes) through this magnetic field eddy current
will be produced or induced. And when that eddy current is generated, the torque is measured with the
help of torque arm and given to the pointer. This eddy current is basically the resistance to the
movement of the shaft called electromagnetic induction resistance and also these current produces a
lot of heat. So, to remove this heat, water or air cooling arrangement should be supplied to eddy
current dynamometer. It also shows that load or weight to this dynamometer is the electrical
load (current). As there is no contact between rotor and stator, so friction is reduced in this

type of dynamometer and this is the advantage of the eddy current dynamometer. Other advantages of
eddy current dynamometer include that they are faster in operation, and light in weight. Disadvantages
of eddy current dynamometer are that they require external power supply, eddy current loss, chances
of short circuiting; a lot of heat is generated. An eddy current dynamometer is shown in the figure
below;

Fig.7 (Eddy Current Dynamometer)

d) Hydraulic Dynamometer:

It is an absorption type dynamometer. When we use water or oil as a medium of power measurement
in a dynamometer, then it becomes hydraulic dynamometer. It consists of a rotating disc which is
attached to the shaft whose power is to be measured and this rotating disc is mounted inside the
casing. When the shaft rotates, water is derived into the grooves present in the rotating disc. This
moving water inside the grooves tries to move the casing as well. But on casing we have the brake
bands which apply brakes to the casing. It means that when the water tries to move the casing, at the
same time the braking action takes place and from that, the amount of braking torque can be
measured. Water moves inside the grooves (Chambers) in the form of vortices. Because of these
vortices, circulation will be produced. So, we can say that in this dynamometer, the shaft motion
will be resisted by the hydraulic friction of water in the grooves (chamber). A hydraulic dynamometer
is shown in the figure below;
Fig.8 (Hydraulic Dynamometer)
Lab Session No. 14

Objective:

To study about different engine parameters

Indicated Power:

The power actually developed by the engine is called indicated power.

Brake Power:

The power available at the crankshaft is known as brake power of the engine. It is usually measured
with the help of braking mechanisms (dynamometers).

Efficiency:

The ratio of work done by the engine to the energy supplied to the engine is called efficiency of
engine.

Mechanical Efficiency:

It is the ratio of brake power to the indicated power.

Volumetric Efficiency:

It is the measure of effectiveness of the engine to take the intake air inside the cylinder during the
intake stroke. It is measured as the ratio of volume of the air drawn into the cylinder during intake
stroke to its swept volume.

Brake Mean Effective pressure

The average pressure exerted on the piston from top to bottom during each power stroke to
produce measured brake power (output) is called mean effective pressure. It is measured as the
ratio of work done per unit displacement volume.

Fuel Consumption:

It is the amount of fuel which is used by a vehicle to travel a particular distance at a particular speed.

Specific Fuel Consumption:

It is the amount of fuel consumed by a vehicle to produce particular (specific) amount of brake
power (output). It is usually measured as the ratio of fuel consumption to the brake power of the engine.
Engine Torque:

It is the rotational effect of a force or it is the tendency of the force to rotate the output shaft.

Air to Fuel Ratio:

It is the ratio of air flow rate to the fuel flow rate.

Engine Test Bed:

It is the setup or facility used to test the engine. It is used to measure different parameters of an engine
like speed, torque, brake power etc. using a dynamometer. An engine test bed is usually consisted of a
dynamometer and its control panel. We install different engines on the test bed and connect the output
shaft of the engine to the shaft of the dynamometer in test bed. Engine is run by fuel and different
parameters are noted by the control panel of the test bed.