LABORATORY

MANUAL
EXPERIMENTS IN

POWER SYSTEM OPERATION AND

CONTROL

FACULTY OF ENGINEERING

UNIVERSITY OF CENTRAL PUNJAB

LIST OF AUTHORS

Sr. Name Date Contributions

# Modified
1 Prof. Arslan Ashraf 24th Feb 2018 Initial Draft
2 Dr. Ali Ahmad 24th Feb 2022 Final Draft
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10

ii
LABORATORY MANUAL

EXPERIMENTS IN

POWER SYSTEMS OPERATION AND

CONTROL

Prof. Arslan Ashraf & Dr. Ali Ahmad

Electrical Engineering Department

University of Central Punjab, Lahore

iii
EXPERIMENTS IN

POWER SYSTEMS OPERATION AND

CONTROL

Copyrights © Reserved with the Electrical Engineering Department (EED)

This manual or parts, thereof, may not be reproduced in any from without Permission
of the EED.

iv
PREFACE
Arslan Ashraf is an Assistant Professor of Electrical Engineering at the University of Central
Punjab (UCP), Lahore, Pakistan. He was born in Lahore (Punjab) and got his Bachelor’s
degree B.Eng. in Electrical Engineering with specialization in Electric Power Systems
from National University of Sciences and Technology, Pakistan in 2006 and MSc in
Electric Power Engineering from Chalmers University of Technology, Sweden in 2012.

Before joining the teaching profession, Arslan Ashraf had extensive experience in
Industrial/Company as a Field Application engineer. He had started his teaching carrier from
University of Central Punjab, Lahore in 2013 and served as a Lecturer in Faculty of
Engineering for three years.

Currently he is working in Faculty of Engineering – University of Central Punjab as Assitant

Professor since 2017 till now and also had completed course work of PhD in Electrical
engineering and heading towards his research in his field of Power/Renewable
resources/Electrical.

Arslan Ashraf’s areas of Specialization are in the following fields of Engineering:

❖ Electrical Machines and Drives

❖ Power Electronics/Advance Power Electronics/Power Converters
❖ Power System Analysis
❖ Power System Operation, Stability and Control
❖ Power System Protection
❖ Renewable Energy Resources / Wind Energy Systems
Ali Ahmad received B.Sc. in Electrical Engineering degree from University of Central Punjab
(UCP) in 2012. He received M.Sc. degree in Electrical (Power) Engineering from University
of Engineering and Technology (UET), Lahore, Pakistan in 2015. He is currently pursuing PhD
degree in Electrical Engineering from UET Lahore, Pakistan.

He has joined Faculty of Engineering, University of Central Punjab (UCP) as a Teaching

Assistant in November 2012. Currently he is working as Lecturer in Electrical Engineering
Department, UCP, Lahore, Pakistan. His area of specialization is Electric Power Engineering
and research interests includes economics of HVDC & AC power systems, energy efficiency,
power quality, energy tariffs.

v
INTRODUCTION

Power System Operation and Control is concerned with the optimal and economical operation
of power systems. All the major steps of Power System Operational Planning (i.e. Unit
Commitment, Economic Dispatch, Optimal Power Flow, Hydro- thermal Scheduling) and
Power System Control (Load Frequency Control, Automatic Voltage Regulator) are covered
in this manual.

This Manual, presents a series of experiments dealing with all the major aspects of power
system operational planning and power system control. Each experiment is accompanied by a
set of objectives, a detailed discussion of the theoretical concepts and Mathematical
Formulation that are investigated or verified through manual calculation and MATLAB
Simulations. Most of the question require students to compare experimental with theoretical
concepts to speculate on reasons for discrepancies, and to learn from deductive resonating.

The sequence and scope of the experiments in this manual is parallel to the material covered in
the text book. These experiments are basically implementation of lessons covered in theory
through Software Simulation to verify the results. At the end of each experiment students have
to submit a separate report which should include the analysis of results of the experiment.

I wish to thank Engr. Ali Ahmad, who made constructive suggestions and changes while
teaching this laboratory course and created final draft.

vi
POWER SYSTEMS OPERATION AND CONTROL LABORATORY

TABLE OF CONTENTS

EXP # NAME OF EXPERIMENT PAGE #

Study and Plot of different types of load curves from given
1 9
data using MATLAB
Analysis and Plot of Convex and Non-Convex Characteristics
2 19
of Thermal Generation Units Using MATLAB
Economic Dispatch of Thermal Generating Units Using
3 27
Analytical Method
Economic Dispatch of Thermal Power Systems Using
4 34
Lambda Iteration Method Considering Generation Limits
Economic Dispatch of Thermal Power Systems with
5 41
Transmission Line Losses
Solution of Economic Dispatch problem by Newton method
6 49
and Gradient method
Solution of Unit Commitment Problem by Enumeration
7 60
Method
Solution of Unit Commitment Problem by Priority List
8 68
Scheme
Solution of Short-Term Hydrothermal Scheduling Problem
9 75
Using Classical Iterative Method

10 Formation of Bus Admittance matrix Using MATLAB 83

11 Power Flow Solution Using Gauss-Seidal Method 90

12 Power Flow Solution Using Newton Raphson Method 97

Modelling of Different Components of Load Frequency
13 Control for Thermal Generating Unit and Simulation of Single 106
Area Power System
14 Automatic Generation Control of Single Area Power System 114

15 Automatic Generation Control for Multi-Area Power System 120

Modelling of Different Components of Automatic Voltage
16 Regulator (AVR) System for Thermal Generating Unit and 128
Simulation of Given Test System

7
17 Design Problem: Power System Operations and Control 136

18 Appendix A: Lab PLO – CLO – Taxonomy Level Mapping 139

19 Appendix B: Lab Evaluation Rubrics 140

20 Appendix C: Guidelines on Preparing Lab Report 142

21 Appendix D: Lab Evaluation Criteria 145

22 Appendix E: Lab Safety Rules 146

8
Experiment – 1
STUDY AND PLOT OF DIFFERENT TYPES OF LOAD CURVES
FROM GIVEN DATA USING MATLAB
OBJECTIVES:

To learn:

1. To build a load curve, load duration curve and integrated load

duration for a given data
2. Extraction of valuable information from these load curves

SOFTWARE:

1. MATLAB

INTRODUCTION:
The demand for power has increased exponentially over the last century. This has increased
the emphasis on the performance and efficiency of power supplies used in everyday electronics
as well as sophisticated electronic and communication systems. A power supply is a
component, subsystem, or system that converts electrical power from one form to another. In
power system, it is important to know the daily-load curve that consists of demand pattern by
various classes of users.

Load Curve:

A graphical plot showing the variation in demand for energy of the consumers on a source of
supply with respect to time is known as the load curve.

If this curve is plotted over a time period of 24 hours, it is known as daily load curve. If it’s
plotted for a week, month, or a year, then it’s named as the weekly, monthly or yearly load
curve respectively.

From out of the load connected, a consumer uses different fractions of the total load at various
times of the day as per his/her requirements. Since a power system has to supply load to all
such consumers, the load to be supplied varies continuously with time and does not remain
constant. If the load is measured (in units of power) at regular intervals of time, say, once in an
hour (or half- an-hour) and recorded, we can draw a curve known as the load curve.

9
Load Duration Curve:
The load–duration curve is a plot of the load demands (in units of power) arranged in a
descending order of magnitude (on the y-axis) and the time in hours (on the x-axis). A load
duration curve enables us to determine the number of hours per year, when the load is greater
or lesser than any given amount. Similarly it also shows the loads that are carried for more or
lesser than particular direction.

Information obtained from load curves:

It helps in selection of the rating and number of generating units required. Also, to further
assess the usefulness of the generating plants from these curves, various factors are also
computed. Some of them are:

𝑈𝑛𝑖𝑡𝑠 𝑔𝑒𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑑 = 𝐴𝑟𝑒𝑎 𝑢𝑛𝑑𝑒𝑟 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑙𝑜𝑎𝑑 𝑐𝑢𝑟𝑣𝑒

𝑀𝑎𝑥𝑖𝑚𝑢𝑚 𝐷𝑒𝑚𝑎𝑛𝑑 = 𝐻𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑒𝑠𝑡 𝑝𝑜𝑖𝑛𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑐𝑢𝑟𝑣𝑒

𝐴𝑟𝑒𝑎 𝑈𝑛𝑑𝑒𝑟 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝐶𝑢𝑟𝑣𝑒

𝐴𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑔𝑒 𝐿𝑜𝑎𝑑 =
𝑇𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑁𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟 𝑜𝑓 𝐻𝑜𝑢𝑟𝑠

𝐴𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑔𝑒 𝐿𝑜𝑎𝑑
𝐿𝑜𝑎𝑑 𝐹𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑜𝑟 =
𝑀𝑎𝑥𝑖𝑚𝑢𝑚 𝐷𝑒𝑚𝑎𝑛𝑑
𝑀𝑎𝑥𝑖𝑚𝑢𝑚 𝐷𝑒𝑚𝑎𝑛𝑑
𝐷𝑒𝑚𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝐹𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑜𝑟 =
𝐶𝑜𝑛𝑛𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑒𝑑 𝐿𝑜𝑎𝑑
𝐴𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑔𝑒 𝐿𝑜𝑎𝑑
𝑃𝑙𝑎𝑛𝑡 𝐶𝑎𝑝𝑎𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝐹𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑜𝑟 =
𝑃𝑙𝑎𝑛𝑡 𝐶𝑎𝑝𝑎𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦

PROCEDURE:

Generally load curves are built by recording the values of load demands for every instant during
a certain time interval and plot a graph of load demands against a time for which it occurs. The
procedure for plotting Load Curves in MATLAB is as:

1. Open a new M-file in MATLAB.

2. A function is initialized that takes input variable data and in output we obtain plot of
load cycle for a given interval by typing in the M-file:

function[]=loadcurve(data)

3. Now type the following commands at M-file window:

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L=length(data)
tt=[data(:,1) data(:,2)]
t=sort(reshape(tt,1,2*L));
pp=data(:,3);
for n=1:L
P(2*n-1)=pp(n);
P(2*n)=pp(n);
end
plot(t,P)
grid on

4. Save the commands above in your thumb drive directory, save as loadcurve.m
5. Now define the demand interval and load in the Command Window of MATLAB by
the variable data in a three column matrix given as:
data =[ 0 2 6
2 6 5
6 9 10
9 12 15
12 14 14
14 16 13
16 18 14
18 20 18
20 22 16
22 23 12
23 24 6]

The first two columns are the demand interval and third column is load value. The
demand interval may be minutes, hours, and months in ascending order and load
values are generally in KW or MW. In above example first row of data variable shows
that for first two hours (00-02) load demand is 6 MW.
6. Now execute the above function by typing the following command in MATLAB
Command Window:
loadcurve(data)
7. The load curve plot shown if Figure 1 will be obtained.

However the procedure for plotting a load duration curve is different from load curves that is
given below:

a. Determine the peak load and duration for which it occurs.

b. Then take the next lower load and find the total time during the year when this and
the previous greater load occurs.
c. Plot the load against the number of hours during the year, month or day for which
it occurs, or against the percentage of time during the year.

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The procedure to plot the load duration curve using MATLAB is as:

8. Add the following commands at the end of loadcurve.m file that was saved earlier:
[pp,I]=sort(pp,'descend')
t1=data(:,1)
t2=data(:,2)
dt=t2(I)-t1(I)
i=1;
k=1;
while(i<=2*L)
if(i==1)
t(i)=0;
else
if(rem(i,2)==0)
t(i)=t(i-1)+dt(k);
k=k+1;
else
t(i)=t(i-1)
end
end
i=i+1;
end
for n=1:L
P2(2*n-1)=pp(n);
P2(2*n)=pp(n);
end

figure(2)
plot(t,P2)
grid on

9. A load duration curve will be obtained as shown in Figure 2.

Figure 1: Load Curve

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10. Further information can also be extracted from these curves. i.e. Total Energy (E also
called units generated), Average Load (Pavg), Peak load (Peak also called maximum
demand), Load Factor (LF) by typing the following commands to at the end of
loadcurve.m file saved earlier:

E=pp'*(t2-t1)
Pavg=E/sum(t2-t1)
Peak=max(pp)
LF=(Pavg/Peak)*100

Note: These values will appear in the command window of MATLAB.

Figure 2: Load duration curve

EXERCISES:

Perform the following and fill in the results.

EXERCISE 1:

For the load on a particular power plant of 100 MW capacity on a particular day given in
Error! Reference source not found.Error! Reference source not found.. Plot the Load
Curve and the Load Duration Curve using MATLAB. Also, find the Units generated,

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Average Load, Maximum Demand, Load Factor, Demand Factor and Plant Capacity Factor.
Note: All the values should be generated automatically using MATLAB.

Table 1: Load data for a particular plant on a particular day

Time 12 a.m. to 4 a.m. to 8 a.m. to 6 p.m. to 8 p.m. to 10 p.m. to

4 a.m. 8 a.m. 6 p.m. 8 p.m. 10 p.m. 12 a.m.

Load (MW) 15 35 70 80 90 15

Results:

Now fill in the following table and sketch the load curve along with load duration curve:

MEASUREMENT MANUAL CALCULATION MATLAB RESULT

Units generated in 24 hours

Average Load

Maximum Demand

Load Factor

Demand Factor

Plant Capacity Factor

Load Curve:

14
Load Duration Curve:

EXERCISE 2:

A consumer has a connected load of 12 lamps each of 100 W at his/ her premises. His/ her
load demand is as follows:

From midnight to 5 A.M.: 200 W.

5 A.M. to 6 P.M.: no load.

6 P.M. to 7 P.M.: 700 W.

7 P.M. to 9 P.M.: 1,000 W.

9 P.M. to midnight: 500 W.

15
Draw the load curve and calculate the (i) energy consumption during 24 hours, (ii) demand
factor, (iii) average load, (iv) maximum demand, and (v) load factor

Results:

Now fill in the following table and sketch the load curve along with load duration curve:

MEASUREMENT MANUAL CALCULATION MATLAB RESULT

Units consumed in 24 hours

Average Load

Maximum Demand

Load Factor

Demand Factor

Load Curve:

Load Duration Curve:

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Task:

Write a comprehensive lab report (See Appendix: C) on space provided below.

Lab Report:
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Teacher / Supervisor’s signature: ____________ Date: ____________

18
Experiment – 2
TO STUDY THE CONVEX AND NON-CONVEX CHARACTERISTICS
OF THERMAL UNITS USING MATLAB
OBJECTIVES:

To learn:

1. Analysis and plot of convex characteristics of thermal units.

2. Analysis and plot of non-convex characteristics of thermal units.
3. To analyze the effect of cost coefficients on the convex and non -
convex characteristics.

SOFTWARE:

1. MATLAB

INTRODUCTION:
In analyzing the problems associated with the operation of power system, there are many
possible parameters of interest. Fundamental is the basic cost data and set of input-output
characteristics of generation units. Different types of fuel are used in thermal power plants.
Depending on the types of turbine such as single value or multi value, the characteristic differs.
Although the operating cost of these units consists of both fuel and maintenance costs, only the
fuel cost varies directly with the units and also with the level of generation. The fuel cost is
incurred during the running (either at no-load or at any load), start-up and sometimes shutdown
conditions of the steam units.
Steam turbines with single valve operation usually exhibit smooth operations in comparison
with multivalve machine. Multi-inlet valves are opened and closed in sequence by the turbine
governor controlling the flow of steam to a separate group of nozzles. These valves are opened
and closed to minimize losses at partial loads allowing higher efficiencies to be maintained
under all load conditions but unfortunately their cost curves are not exactly convex rather they
exhibit discontinuities at valve opening and closing points making cost characteristics non
convex as discussed below.

Input-Output Fuel Cost Characteristics:

Unit (Boiler, turbine and generator) input-output curve establishes the relationship between
energy input to the driving system and the net energy output from the generator.

19
(i) Convex Characteristics:
These characteristics are obtained for single valve thermal generating units.
They are given by the following equations:

𝑀𝐵𝑡𝑢
𝐻(𝑃) = 𝑎 + 𝑏𝑃 + 𝑐𝑃2 ( )
ℎ𝑟
𝑅
𝐹(𝑃) = 𝑎 + 𝑏𝑃 + 𝑐𝑃2 ( )
ℎ𝑟

Where a, b and c are the thermal coefficients of generating unit. The convex
characteristic is shown in Figure 3

Figure 3: Input output characteristics of a Convex Thermal Generating Unit

(ii) Non-Convex Characteristics:

Non convex characteristic results due to valve point effect, multiple fuels and
prohibited operating zones. The valve point effects produce a ripple, which is
highly non-smooth and discontinuous as represented by the following
equations.

𝑀𝐵𝑡𝑢
𝐻(𝑃) = 𝑎 + 𝑏𝑃 + 𝑐𝑃2 + |𝑒𝑆𝑖𝑛𝑓(𝑃𝑚𝑖𝑛 − 𝑃)| ( )
ℎ𝑟
𝑅
𝐹(𝑃) = 𝑎 + 𝑏𝑃 + 𝑐𝑃2 + |𝑒𝑆𝑖𝑛𝑓(𝑃𝑚𝑖𝑛 − 𝑃)| ( )
ℎ𝑟

Where a, b, c and e are the coefficients of the thermal generating unit. The non
– convex characteristic is shown in Figure 4.

20
Figure 4: Input Output Characteristics of a Non-Convex Thermal Generating Unit

INCREMENTAL HEAT RATE CHARACTERISTICS:

This incremental heat rate characteristic is the slope (the derivative) of the input-output
characteristic (dH/dP or dF/dP). The data shown on this curve are in terms of Btu per kilowatt
hour (or $ per kilowatt hour) versus the net power output of the unit in megawatts. This
characteristic is widely used in economic dispatching of the unit. It is converted to an
incremental fuel cost characteristic by multiplying the incremental heat rate in Btu per kilowatt
hour by the equivalent fuel cost in terms of $ per Btu. Frequently this characteristic is
approximated by a sequence of straight-line segments. The incremental heat rate characteristic
for a unit of Convex Characteristics type is shown in Figure 5.

Figure 5: Incremental Heat Rate Characteristic

21
NET HEAT RATE CHARACTERISTICS:
The last important characteristic of a steam unit is the unit (net) heat rate characteristic shown
in Figure 6. This characteristic is H/P or F/P versus P. It is proportional to the reciprocal of the
usual efficiency characteristic developed for machinery. The unit heat rate characteristic shows
the heat input per kilowatt hour of output versus the megawatt output of the unit.

Figure 6: Net Heat Rate Characteristic

PROCEDURE:

The procedure of plotting the convex and non-convex characteristics of thermal generating
stations is given below:

For Convex Characteristics:

1. For a given generating unit, write down the characteristic equation of machine in
following form:
𝑅
𝐹(𝑃) = 𝑎 + 𝑏𝑃 + 𝑐𝑃2 ( )
ℎ𝑟

2. Plot the graph between fuel cost and power generated by taking power output at y-
axes and input fuel cost at x-axes on graph paper. This equation gives the relation
between powers generated and input heat rate or fuel cost.
3. To plot incremental heat rate or incremental cost curve, take a derivative of above
mentioned quadratic characteristic curve.
𝑑𝐹 𝑅
= 𝑏 + 2𝑐𝑃 ( )
𝑑𝑃 𝑀𝑊ℎ

22
𝑑𝐻 𝑑𝐹
4. Plot the graph between 𝑑𝑃 or 𝑑𝑃 against power generated P. This graph is the slope of
input-output characteristics of generating unit.
5. Now to determine the net heat rate characteristics, a graph is plotted between 𝐻/𝑃 or
𝐹/P versus Power output P. The unit heat rate characteristics shows the heat input per
kilowatt hour of output versus the megawatt output of units.

𝐹(𝑃) 𝑎 𝑅
= + 𝑏 + 𝑐𝑃 ( )
𝑃 𝑃 𝑀𝑊ℎ

6. Now these characteristics are also demonstrated through MATLAB. Open a new
Mfile in MATLAB and type the following code:

a=550; b=8.1 ; c=.00028;

p=10:10:100;
t=a+b*p+c*(p).^2;
title ('Convex X-tics');
xlabel('Output (MW)');
ylabel('MBTU/hr or Rs./hr');
plot(p,t);
hold on;
a=309; b=8.1 ; c=.00056;
p=10:10:100;
t=a+b*p+c*(p).^2;
plot(p,t,'-r.');
hold on;
a=307; b=8.1 ; c=.00056;
p=10:10:100;
t=a+b*p+c*(p).^2;
plot(p,t,'-g*');
hold on;

For Non - Convex Characteristics:

7. For a given generating unit, write down the characteristic equation of machine in
following form:
𝑅
𝐹(𝑃) = 𝑎 + 𝑏𝑃 + 𝑐𝑃2 + |𝑒𝑆𝑖𝑛𝑓(𝑃𝑚𝑖𝑛 − 𝑃)| ( )
ℎ𝑟

8. Plot the graph between fuel cost and power generated by taking power output at y-
axes and input fuel cost at x-axes on graph paper. This equation gives the relation
between powers generated and input heat rate or fuel cost.
9. To plot incremental heat rate or incremental cost curve, take a derivative of above
mentioned quadratic characteristic curve.

𝑑𝐹 𝑅
= 𝑏 + 2𝑐𝑃 + |𝑒𝐶𝑜𝑠𝑓(𝑃𝑚𝑖𝑛 − 𝑃) − 𝑓| ( )
𝑑𝑃 𝑀𝑊ℎ
𝑑𝐻 𝑑𝐹
10. Plot the graph between 𝑑𝑃 or 𝑑𝑃 against power generated P. This graph is the slope of
input-output characteristics of generating unit.

23
11. Now to determine the net heat rate characteristics, a graph is plotted between 𝐻/𝑃 or
𝐹/P versus Power output P. The unit heat rate characteristics shows the heat input per
kilowatt hour of output versus the megawatt output of units.

𝐹(𝑃) 𝑎 |𝑒𝑆𝑖𝑛𝑓(𝑃𝑚𝑖𝑛 − 𝑃)| 𝑅

= + 𝑏 + 𝑐𝑃 + ( )
𝑃 𝑃 𝑃 𝑀𝑊ℎ

12. Now these characteristics are also demonstrated through MATLAB. Open a new
Mfile in MATLAB and type the following code:

a=550; b=8.1 ; c=.00028; e=300; f= 0.035;

p=10:10:100;
t=a+b*p+c*(p).^2+abs(e*sin(f*(10-p)));
plot(p,t);
title ('Non-Convex X-tics');
xlabel('Output (MW)');
ylabel('MBTU/hr or Rs./hr');
hold on;
a=309; b=8.1 ; c=.00056; e=200; f= 0.042;p=10:10:100;
t=a+b*p+c*(p).^2+abs(e*sin(f*(10-p)));
plot(p,t,'-r.');
hold on;
a=307; b=8.1 ; c=.00056; e=150; f= 0.042;p=10:10:100;
t=a+b*p+c*(p).^2+abs(e*sin(f*(10-p)));
plot(p,t,'-g*')

EXERCISE:

The fuel cost functions for three thermal plants in $/h are given by:

𝐹1 (𝑃1 ) = 500 + 5.3𝑃1 + 0.004𝑃12

𝐹2 (𝑃2 ) = 400 + 5.5𝑃2 + 0.006𝑃22

𝐹3 (𝑃3 ) = 200 + 5.8𝑃1 + 0.009𝑃32

Where P1, P2 and P3 are in MW.

For the given system plot the input-output fuel cost curve, incremental cost curve and net fuel
rate curve. Perform the following and fill in the results.

Note: The above mentioned MATLAB code is only written for the input output characteristics.
The code is to be modified by the students themselves for plotting incremental cost curve and
net fuel rate curve.

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Task:

Write a comprehensive lab report (See Appendix: C) on space provided below.

Lab Report:
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26
Experiment – 3
ECONOMIC DISPATCH OF THERMAL GENERATING UNITS USING
ANALYTICAL METHOD
OBJECTIVES:

To learn:

1. Mathematical formulation of economic dispatch problem

2. Equal incremental cost criteria to solve simplified economic
dispatch problem (without considering generation limits and
losses)

SOFTWARE:

1. MATLAB

INTRODUCTION:

Economic Dispatch Problem (EDP) is the process of calculating the generation allocation to
the machines at minimum cost while satisfying the constraints. It is a generation allocation
problem.

The objective of the economic dispatch problem may be defined as to minimize:

𝑁

𝐹𝑇 = ∑ 𝐹𝑖 (𝑃𝑖 )
𝑖=1

Where FT is total fuel cost and Fi (Pi) is fuel cost function. The fuel cost functions for convex
systems is given below:

𝑅
𝐹𝑖 (𝑃𝑖 ) = 𝑎𝑖 + 𝑏𝑖 𝑃𝑖 + 𝑐𝑖 𝑃𝑖2 ( )
𝑀𝑊ℎ
Subject to the following equality constraint:
𝑁

∅ = 𝑃𝐷 − ∑ 𝑃𝑖
𝑖=1

Along with the following inequality constraints:

27
𝑃𝑖 − 𝑃𝑖 (max) ≤ 0
} 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑖 = 1,2,3 … . . 𝑁
𝑃𝑖 − 𝑃𝑖 (min) ≥ 0

Where, 𝐹𝑇 = 𝐹1 + 𝐹2 + ⋯ + 𝐹𝑁 is the total fuel input to the system. While Fi = Fuel input to
the ith unit.

Equal Incremental Cost Criteria states that total cost of generation will be minimum if all the
machines are operating at same incremental cost while satisfying the constraints. It means that
cost for generation of next unit form a point is same for all machines.

Analytical method is used to find the value of lambda λ for the Equal Incremental Cost Criteria
to solve EDP. It is a single iteration method for EDP, which gives λ and Pi, for which cost is
minimum.

Equal Incremental Cost Criteria:

The working philosophy of this method is that constrained problem can be converted into an
unconstrained problem by forming the Lagrange, or augmented function.

𝐿 = 𝐹𝑇 + 𝜆∅

i.e.
𝑁

𝐿 = 𝐹𝑇 + 𝜆 (𝑃𝐷 − ∑ 𝑃𝑖 )
𝑖=1

Optimum is obtained by using necessary conditions given as:

𝜕𝐿
=0
𝜕𝑃𝑖

𝜕𝐿
=0
𝜕𝜆
Condition 1:

The first condition implies that:

𝜕𝐿 𝜕𝐹𝑇
= + 𝜆(0 − 1) = 0
𝜕𝑃𝑖 𝜕𝑃𝑖

𝜕𝐹𝑇
=> = 𝜆
𝜕𝑃𝑖

Where, 𝐹𝑇 = 𝐹1 + 𝐹2 + ⋯ + 𝐹𝑁 . This means that the above equation implies:

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𝑏𝑖 + 2𝑐𝑖 𝑃𝑖 = 𝜆

Condition 2:

The second condition implies that:

𝑁
𝜕𝐿
= 𝑃𝐷 − ∑ 𝑃𝑖 = 0
𝜕𝜆
𝑖=1

=> 𝑃𝐷 = ∑ 𝑃𝑖
𝑖=1

For most economical operation, all plants must operate at equal incremental production cost
while satisfying the equality constraint equation given above:

𝜆 − 𝑏𝑖
𝑃𝑖 =
2𝑐𝑖

The relation given above are known as coordination equations. They are function of 𝜆. An
analytical solution for 𝜆 is given by substituting the values of Pi in equality constraint:
𝑁
𝜆 − 𝑏𝑖
∑( ) = 𝑃𝐷
2𝑐𝑖
𝑖=1

Solving it for λ gives:

𝑏𝑖
𝑃𝐷 + ∑𝑁
𝑖=1 (2𝑐 )
𝑖
𝜆=
1
∑𝑁
𝑖=1 (2𝑐 )
𝑖

PROCEDURE:

The procedure for implementation of equal incremental cost criteria to solve economic dispatch
problem is given below:

1. Identify cost coefficients (ai, bi, ci), power demand (Pd) and its constraints from the
given problem.
2. Calculate the Lamda (R/MWh) by using following equation:
𝑏𝑖
𝑃𝐷 + ∑𝑁𝑖=1 (2𝑐 )
𝑖
𝜆=
1
∑𝑁𝑖=1 (2𝑐 )
𝑖
3. Now calculate generation sharing of individual generators using the equation:

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𝜆 − 𝑏𝑖
𝑃𝑖 =
2𝑐𝑖
4. After computing the individual power calculate the individual cost of each generator by
substituting the value of power (obtained in step-3) in the respective fuel cost equations.
5. Calculate total cost of generation by adding up the individual costs as:
𝑁 𝑁

𝐹𝑇 = ∑ 𝐹𝑖 (𝑃𝑖 ) = ∑(𝑎𝑖 + 𝑏𝑖 𝑃𝑖 + 𝑐𝑖 𝑃𝑖2 )

𝑖=1 𝑖=1
6. Write down the calculated results in the Table
Now the obtained results are to be verified by the MATLAB. Whereas, the procedure for
writing the MATLAB code is as follows:
7. Open a new M-file in MATLAB.
8. Type the following code

function [P,Lamda,Cost]=analytical(Pd,A)
n=length(A);
for i = 1:n
a(i,1)=A(i,1);
b(i,1)=A(i,2);
c(i,1)=A(i,3);
end
Lamda = (Pd +sum( b./(2*c)))/sum( 1./(2*c) );
P=(Lamda-b)./(2*c);
Cost=sum( [sum(a) sum(b.*P) sum(c.*(P.^2))] );

9. Now define the Power demand in the command window of MATLAB by the variable
name Pd as:

Pd = 100

10. Also, define the fuel cost function of all the generating units in the Command Window
of MATLAB by the variable A in a three column matrix given as:
A =[ 700 5.9 0.004
500 4.7 0.008
300 6.1 0.007]

The first, second and third column of matrix A define the coefficients ai, bi and ci for
each generating unit.
11. Call the function from command window of MATLAB by typing:

[P,Lamda,Cost]=analytical (Pd,A)

12. Write down the MATLAB result in Table.

13. Compare both the results to verify that the calculated results are in accordance with
MATLAB.

EXERCISE:

30
The fuel cost functions for three thermal plants in $/h are given by:

𝐹1 (𝑃1 ) = 500 + 5.3𝑃1 + 0.004𝑃12

𝐹2 (𝑃2 ) = 400 + 5.5𝑃2 + 0.006𝑃22

𝐹3 (𝑃3 ) = 200 + 5.8𝑃1 + 0.009𝑃32

Where P1, P2 and P3 are in MW. The Total load PD is 800 MW, neglecting the line losses
and generation limits, find the optimal dispatch and the total cost $/h using Analytical
Method.

OBSERVATIONS AND CALCULATIONS:

After compilation of MATLAB program, write down the obtained results in following table
and compare it with the manual calculations.

λ P1 P2 P3 F1 F2 F3 FT
($/MWh) (MW) (MW) (MW) ($/hr) ($/hr) ($/hr) ($/hr)

Calculated
Value

MATLAB
Result

Task:

Write a comprehensive lab report (See Appendix: C) on space provided below.

Lab Report:
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33
Experiment – 4
ECONOMIC DISPATCH OF THERMAL GENERATING UNITS USING
lAMBDA ITERATION METHOD

OBJECTIVES:
To learn

1. To become familiar with λ-iteration Method

2. To construct and implement an algorithm for λ-iteration method of solving Economic
Dispatch Problem and write its code in MATLAB.

SOFTWARE USED: MATLAB

INTRODUCTION:
Economic Dispatch Problem (EDP) is the process of calculating the generation
allocation to the machines at minimum cost while satisfying the constraints. It is a generation
allocation problem.
The economic dispatch problem mathematically may be defined as:

Iterative Method:

λ-iteration method is an iterative procedure in which EDP is repeated until a certain

level of accuracy is achieved. Initial value of λ is specified in the start of procedure. Value of

34
λ is used to find generation allocation Pi for all the units which are then used to find new value
of λ.
The equality constraint in economic dispatch problem is given as:
𝑁

∑ 𝑃𝑖 = 𝑃𝐷
𝑖=1
In equal incremental cost criteria method, we derived the relation of 𝑃𝑖 as:
𝜆 − 𝑏𝑖
𝑃𝑖 =
2𝑐𝑖
By substituting the value of 𝑃𝑖 in equality constraint, we get
𝑁
𝜆 − 𝑏𝑖
∑( ) = 𝑃𝐷
2𝑐𝑖
𝑖=1
The above equation can be expressed as:
𝑓(𝜆) = 𝑃𝐷
Expanding by Taylor’s series about an operating point 𝜆𝐾 and neglecting higher order terms
results in
𝐾
(𝐾) 𝑑𝑓(𝜆)
𝑓(𝜆) +( ) Δ𝜆(𝐾) = 𝑃𝐷
𝑑𝜆

𝑃𝐷 − 𝑓(𝜆)(𝐾)
Δ𝜆(𝐾) = 𝐾
𝑑𝑓(𝜆)
( )
𝑑𝜆

(𝐾) Δ𝑃(𝐾)
Δ𝜆 = 𝐾
𝑑𝑓(𝜆)
( )
𝑑𝜆

Δ𝑃(𝐾)
Δ𝜆(𝐾) =
𝑑𝑃 𝐾
( 𝑖)
𝑑𝜆
or
(𝐾) Δ𝑃(𝐾)
Δ𝜆 =
1
∑
2𝑐𝑖

and therefore
𝜆(𝐾+1) = 𝜆(𝐾) + Δ𝜆(𝐾)
Where

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𝑁

Δ𝑃(𝐾) = 𝑃𝐷 − ∑ 𝑃𝑖
𝑖=1
The process is continued until Δ𝑃(𝐾) is less than a pre-specified accuracy.
PROCEDURE:
The procedure of implementation of Lamda-iteration method to solve economic dispatch
problem is given below:

Note:

The problem must be solved by hand and the obtained results must be verified
using MATLAB

1. Identify cost coefficients (ai, bi, ci), power demand (PD) and its constraints from the
given problem.

2. Assume an initial value of lambda a little higher than bi coefficients of fuel cost
equations.

3. Calculation generation of individual generators by substituting that assumed value of

lambda into the following equation:
 − bi
Pi =
2ci
4. Check whether the value of Pi of each generating unit calculated in above step is within
the prescribed limits. If the calculated value violates the maximum limit put P equal to
Pmax and if P violates lower limit put it equal to Pmin.

5. Calculate residual power by subtracting power demand from generated power as:
n
P = Pd −  Pi
i =1

6. Next ∆λ can be calculated as:

7. New value of λ is found as

8. Repeat steps 3, 4 and 5 using the new values of lambda.

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9. Repeat steps 3, 4 and 5 until a certain level of accuracy is achieved such as (∆λ<0.0001)
10. Calculate the individual cost of each generator by substituting the value of final power
in the respective fuel cost equations.
11. Calculate total cost of generation by adding up the individual costs as:
n n
FTotal =  Fi =  (ai + bi Pi + ci Pi 2 )
i =1 i =1

1. Write down the calculated results in the Table-1.

Now obtained results are also verified through MATLAB Program.

2. Open a new M-file in MATLAB.

3. Type the following code:
MATLAB CODE:

%g= initial guess of lamda; A= co-efficients of cost equations; pd= power demand;
function [cost,lamda,p]=iter_lamb(pd,A,g)
n=length(A);
dg=10;
for i=1:n
a(i,1)=A(i,1);
b(i,1)=A(i,2);
c(i,1)=A(i,3);
end
while ( abs(dg)>0.0001 )
p=(g-b)./(2*c);
for k=1:n
if p(k) > pmax(k)
p(k)=pmax(k);
elseif p(k)< pmin(k)
p(k)=pmin(k);
else, end
end
dp=pd-sum(p);
dg = dp/sum(1./(2*c));
g=g+dg;
lamda=g;
end
cost=sum([sum(a) sum(b.*p) sum(c.*(p.^2))])

4. Write down the MATLAB result in Table-1.

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5. Compare both the results to verify that the calculated results are in accordance with
MATLAB.

EXERCISE:

The fuel cost functions for three thermal plants in $/h are given by:
F1 = 500 + 5.3P1 + 0.004 P12

F2 = 400 + 5.5 P1 + 0.006 P12

F1 = 200 + 5.8 P1 + 0.009 P12

With following generation limits
200  P1  450

150  P2  350

100  P3  225
Where P1, P2 and P3 are in MW. The Total load PD is 800 MW, neglecting the line losses and
generation limits, find the optimal dispatch and the total cost $/h using Lambda Iteration
Method.
RESULTS:
After compilation of MATLAB Program, write down the obtained results in following table
and compare it with the manual calculations.

Table-4.1

Lambda(λ) P1 P2 P3 F1 F2 F3 Total
Cost($/hr)
($/MWhr) (MW) (MW) (MW) ($/hr) ($/hr) ($/hr)

Calculated

Values

MATLAB

results

CONCLUSION:

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λ-iteration method is an accurate iterative method of solving ED Problem. In this
experiment a simplified version of ED problem with generation limits is effectively solved
through iterative method. However iterative method is unable to solve ED problem with non-
convex fuel cost function.

Task:

Write a comprehensive lab report (See Appendix: C) on space provided below.

Lab Report:
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40
Experiment – 5
ECONOMIC DISPATCH OF THERMAL POWER SYSTEM WITH
TRANSMISSION LINE LOSSES

OBJECTIVES:
To learn
1. Formulation of economic dispatch problem with transmission losses.
2. To construct and implement an algorithm to solve dispatch problem with
transmission line losses using iterative approach.

SOFTWARE USED:
MATLAB

INTRODUCTION:
Economic Dispatch Problem (EDP) is the process of calculating the
generation allocation to the machines at minimum cost while satisfying the constraints. It is a
generation allocation problem. The economic dispatch problem mathematically may be defined
as:
𝑁

𝐎𝐛𝐣𝐞𝐜𝐭𝐢𝐯𝐞 𝐅𝐮𝐧𝐜𝐭𝐢𝐨𝐧: 𝑇𝑜 𝑀𝑖𝑛𝑖𝑚𝑖𝑧𝑒 𝐹𝑇 = ∑ 𝐹𝑖 (𝑃𝑖 )

𝑖=1

Subjected to:

Equality Constraint: 𝑃𝐷 + 𝑃𝐿 − ∑𝑁
𝑖=1 𝑃𝑖 = 0

In-equality Constraint: 𝑃𝑖 − 𝑃𝑖𝑚𝑎𝑥 ≥ 0

𝑃𝑖𝑚𝑖𝑛 − 𝑃𝑖 ≤ 0

Where 𝑖 = 1,2, … . . 𝑁. and 𝑃𝐿 is transmission line losses.

One common practice for including the effect of transmission line losses is to express the total
transmission line losses as a quadratic function of the generator power outputs. The simplest
quadratic form is:
𝑁 𝑁

𝑃𝐿 = ∑ ∑ 𝑃𝑖 𝐵𝑖𝑗 𝑃𝑗
𝑖=1 𝑗=1

A more general formula containing a linear term and a constant term, referred to Kron’s Loss
formula is:

41
𝑁 𝑁 𝑁

𝑃𝐿 = ∑ ∑ 𝑃𝑖 𝐵𝑖𝑗 𝑃𝑗 + ∑ 𝐵0𝑖 𝑃𝑖 + 𝐵𝑜𝑜

𝑖=1 𝑗=1 𝑖=1

The coefficient 𝐵𝑖𝑗 are called loss coefficients or B-coefficients. B-coefficients are assumed
constant and reasonable accuracy is expected providing the actual operating conditions are
close to the base case where the B-constants are computed.

The Langrange function for this problem is:

𝐿 = 𝐹𝑇 + 𝜆𝜑
𝑁

𝐿 = 𝐹𝑇 + 𝜆 [𝑃𝐷 + 𝑃𝐿 − ∑ 𝑃𝑖 ]
𝑖=1
The necessary conditions for constrained local minima of L are the following:
𝜕𝐿
=0
𝜕𝑃𝑖
𝜕𝐿
=0
𝜕𝜆
Condition 1:

First condition gives:

𝜕𝐿 𝜕𝐹𝑇 𝜕𝑃𝐿
= + 𝜆 (0 + − 1) = 0
𝜕𝑃𝑖 𝜕𝑃𝑖 𝜕𝑃𝑖
And therefore the condition for economic dispatch is:
𝜕𝐹𝑇 𝜕𝑃𝐿
+𝜆( )=𝜆
𝜕𝑃𝑖 𝜕𝑃𝑖
Or
1 𝑑𝐶𝑖
=𝜆
𝜕𝑃𝐿 𝑑𝑃𝑖
(1 − )
𝜕𝑃𝑖
And
𝑛
𝜕𝑃𝐿
= 2 ∑ 𝐵𝑖𝑗 𝑃𝐽 + 𝐵𝑜𝑖
𝜕𝑃𝑖
𝑖=1
𝜕𝐹𝑇
= 𝑏𝑖 + 2𝑐𝑖 𝑃𝑖
𝜕𝑃𝑖
𝜕𝑃𝐿 𝜕𝐹𝑇
Substitute the value of and in optimality equation for condition 1and solve it for 𝑃𝑖 :
𝜕𝑃𝑖 𝜕𝑃𝑖
(𝑘)
(𝑘) 𝜆 (1 − 𝐵𝑜𝑖 ) − 𝑏𝑖 − 2𝜆(𝑘) ∑𝑗≠𝑖 𝐵𝑖𝑗 𝑃𝑗
𝑃𝑖 =
2(𝑐𝑖 + 𝜆(𝑘) 𝐵𝑖𝑖 )

42
If following simplified loss equation is used for transmission line losses calculation then the
value of 𝑃𝑖 .
𝜆 − 𝑏𝑖
𝑃𝑖 =
2(𝑐𝑖 + 𝜆𝐵𝑖𝑖 )

Condition 2:
Second condition results in:
𝑁

𝑃𝐷 + 𝑃𝐿 = ∑ 𝑃𝑖
𝑖=1

PROCEDURE:
The procedure to solve economic dispatch problem with transmission line losses for a given
system is given below:

Note:

The problem must be solved by hand and the obtained results must be verified
using MATLAB

1. Identify cost coefficients (ai, bi, ci), power demand (Pd) and its constraints from the
given problem.

2. Assume an initial value of lambda a little higher than bi coefficients of fuel cost
equations.

3. Calculation generation of individual generators by substituting that assumed value of

lambda into the following equation:
𝜆 − 𝑏𝑖
𝑃𝑖 =
2(𝑐𝑖 + 𝜆𝐵𝑖𝑖 )
4. Check whether the calculated value of 𝑃𝑖 in above step is within the prescribed limits.
If the P calculated violates the minimum limit put P equal to Pmin and if P violates
upper limit put it equal to Pmax.
5. Calculate Power loss by using Kron’s Loss formula by substituting the values of
calculated powers in the following formula:

6. Calculate ∆P by using following equation:

43
n
P = PD + PL −  Pi
i =1

7. Next ∆λ can be calculated as:

𝑁 𝑛
𝜕𝑃𝑖 𝑐𝑖 + 𝐵𝑖𝑖 𝑏𝑖
∑( ) = ∑
𝜕𝜆 2(𝑐𝑖 + 𝜆𝐵𝑖𝑖 )2
𝑖=1 𝑖=1

8. New value of λ is calculated as:

 K +1 =  K +  K
9. Repeat above steps (3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8) until a certain level of accuracy is achieved such as
(∆λ<0.0001).
10. Calculate the individual cost of each generator by substituting the value of final power
in the respective fuel cost equations.
11. Calculate total cost of generation by adding up the individual costs as:
n n
FTotal =  Fi =  (ai + bi Pi + ci Pi 2 )
i =1 i =1

12. Now open MATLAB and create a new M-file.

13. Type the following code:
MATLAB CODE:
%g= initial guess of lamda; A= co-efficients of cost equations; pd= power
%demand; pmin=min limits of generation; pmax= max limits of generation. ;
%B= B co-efficient matrix
function [cost,lamda,p]=iter_lamb_loss(pd,A,g,B,pmax,pmin)
n=length(A);
dg=10;
for i=1:n
a(i,1)=A(i,1);
b(i,1)=A(i,2);
c(i,1)=A(i,3);
end
while ( abs(dg)>0.0001 )
for u=1:n
den(u,1)=(2*(c(u)+g*B(u,u)));
den1(u,1)=(2*(c(u)+g*B(u,u)).^2);

44
num1(u,1)=(c(u)+B(u,u)*b(u));
end
p=(g-b)./den;
for k=1:n
if p(k) > pmax(k)
p(k)=pmax(k);
elseif p(k)< pmin(k)
p(k)=pmin(k);
else, end
end
pl=sum((B)*(p.^2));
dp=pd-sum(p)+pl;
s=num1./den1;
dg = dp/sum(s);
g=g+dg;
lamda=g;
end
cost=sum([sum(a) sum(b.*p) sum(c.*(p.^2))]);

14. Write down the MATLAB result in Table-1.

15. Compare both the results to verify that the calculated results are in accordance with
MATLAB.

EXERCISE:
The fuel cost functions for three thermal plants in $/h are given by:
F1 = 200 + 7.0 P1 + 0.008 P12

F2 = 180 + 6.3P2 + 0.009 P22

F3 = 140 + 6.8 P3 + 0.007 P32

With following generation limits
10  P1  85

10  P2  80

10  P3  70
The transmission loss is given by the following expression:

PL = 0.000218P12 + 0.000228P22 + 0.000179P32

45
Where P1, P2 and P3 are in MW. The Total load PD is 150 MW, considering generation limits
and line losses, find the optimal dispatch and the total cost $/h using Lambda Iteration
Method.

RESULTS:
After compiling the MATLAB Program, write down the obtained result in following table and
compare it with the manual calculations:

Table-5.1
Lambda(λ) P1 P2 P3 F1 F2 F3 Total
Cost($/hr)
($/MWhr) (MW) (MW) (MW) ($/hr) ($/hr) ($/hr)

Calculated

Values

MATLAB

results

CONCLUSION:
Lambda iteration method is an effective method to solve ED Problem. In this
experiment we have also included generation limits and transmission losses and we came to
know that it takes large number of iterations to solve the problem than the iterations required
in case of simple ED problem (i.e. in case of neglecting the limits & losses or only including
the generation limits).

Task:

Write a comprehensive lab report (See Appendix: C) on space provided below.

Lab Report:
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48
Experiment – 6
SOLUTION OF ECONOMIC DISPATCH PROBLEM BY NEWTON
METHOD AND GRADIENT METHOD

OBJECTIVES:
To learn

1. To construct an algorithm to solve Economic Dispatch Problem using Gradient Method

and Newton Method.
2. To Implement algorithm in MATLAB and solve ED Problem for given test system

SOFTWARE USED:
MATLAB

INTRODUCTION:
(i) Gradient Method:
Note that the lambda search technique always requires that one be able to find the power output
of a generator, given an incremental cost for that generator. In the case of a quadratic function
for the cost function, or in the case where the incremental cost function is represented by a
piecewise linear function, this is possible. However, it is often the case that the cost function is
much more complex, such as the one below:
(P − E)
F ( P) = A + BP + CP 2 + D exp[ ]
F
In this case, we shall propose that a more basic method of solution for the optimum be found.
Gradient method works on the principle that the minimum of a function, f(x), can be found by
a series of steps that always take us in a downward direction. From any starting point, xo, we
may find the direction of “steepest descent” by noting that the gradient off.
In this method new value of a variable x is found from the relation:

Where

49
Where f(x) is objective function to be minimized and x is vector of variables.

This process is continued until f =0.  is acceleration factor.

For EDP, gradient method is applied as follows:

Objective function to be minimized and constraints are:

Subjected to:

Lagrange function for this problem is:

And the gradient of this function is:

The economic dispatch requires a starting value of λ and Pl, P2,….The new values of λ, Pl,
P2,…, etc., are found from:

Where,

50
PROCEDURE:
The procedure of finding solution of economic dispatch problem using Gradient Method is
given below:

Note:

The problem must be solved by hand and the obtained results must be verified
using MATLAB

1. Identify cost coefficients (ai, bi, ci), power demand (Pd) and its constraints from the
given problem.

2. Calculate initial value of Lambda by first supposing the initial values of Pi using
following equation:
1 n d
 =  Fi ( Pi 0 )
0

n i =1 dp
3. Form a vector of initial values of power and lambda as:

4. Calculate by using gradient function:

51
5. Compute new values of powers and lambda by the equation:

6. Repeat steps 3, 4 and 5 until gets equal to zero.

7. Calculate the individual cost of each generator by substituting the value of final power
in the respective fuel cost equations.
8. Calculate total cost of generation by adding up the individual costs as
n n
FTotal =  Fi =  (ai + bi Pi + ci Pi 2 )
i =1 i =1

9. The obtained results are also verified through MATLAB Program. Open a new M-file
in MATLAB and type the following code:
MATLAB CODE:

function [p,sump,lamda,cost]=gradient_method(cost,pd,p,alpha,iter)
%cost=[561 7.92 0.001562;310 7.85 0.00194;78 7.97 0.00482];
%pd=800;
%p=[300 200 300];
%alpha=1;
%iter=10;
n=length(cost);
nlang=50;
j=1;
for i=1:n
a(i,1)=cost(i,1);
b(i,1)=cost(i,2);
y(i,1)=cost(i,3);
end
lamda =(1/3)*sum(b+2*y.*p');
while(j<iter);
x=p';
x(4,1)=lamda;
nlang=b+2*y.*p'-lamda;
nlang(4,1)=pd-sum(p');
x=x-(alpha*nlang);
p=x(1:3);
p=p';
lamda=x(4,1);
sum(p);
j=j+1;
end

52
p=p';
sump=sum(p);
lamda;
cost=sum([sum(a) sum(b.*p) sum(y.*p.*p)]);

10. Write down the MATLAB result in Table-1.

11. Compare both the results to verify that the calculated results are in accordance with
MATLAB.

EXERCISE:
The fuel cost functions for three thermal plants in $/h are given by:
F1 = 561 + 7.92 P1 + 0.001562 P12

F2 = 310 + 7.85 P2 + 0.00194 P22

F3 = 78 + 7.97 P3 + 0.00482 P32

With following generation limits
150  P1  600

100  P2  400

50  P3  200

Where P1, P2 and P3 are in MW. The Total load PD is 800 MW, considering generation limits
and line losses, find the optimal dispatch and the total cost $/h using Gradient Method.
RESULTS:
After compiling the MATLAB, write down the MATLAB results here and compare it with the
manual calculations:

Table 6.1
Lambda(λ) P1 P2 P3 F1 F2 F3 Total
Cost($/hr)
($/MWhr) (MW) (MW) (MW) ($/hr) ($/hr) ($/hr)

Calculated

Values

MATLAB

results

53
(ii) NEWTON METHOD:
Newton Method is also an iterative procedure but it uses a technique other than used in λ-
iteration method.

For EDP, newton method is applied as follows:

Objective function to be minimized and constraints are:

Subjected to:

The Langrange function for this problem is:

And gradient of above function is same as we computed in Gradient Method, However in

Newton Method Hessian Matrix is also computed by taking 2nd derivative of gradient function:

Generally, Newton's method will solve for the correction that is much closer to the minimum
generation cost in one step than would the gradient method.

PROCEDURE:

54
The procedure to find solution of Economic Dispatch (ED) problem through Newton’s
Method is given below:

Note:

The problem must be solved by hand and the obtained results must be verified
using MATLAB

1. Identify cost coefficients (ai, bi, ci), power demand (Pd) and its constraints from the
given problem.
2. Take initial value of lambda equal to zero.
3. Form a vector of initial values of power and lambda as:

4. Calculate and Hessian Matrix by using following relation:

5. Compute the correction matrix by using following equation:

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6. Add the correction matrix in the matrix of step 3.
7. Repeat steps 4, 5 and 6 until gets equal to zero.
8. Calculate the individual cost of each generator by substituting the value of final power
in the respective fuel cost equations.
9. Calculate total cost of generation by adding up the individual costs as:
n n
FTotal =  Fi =  (ai + bi Pi + ci Pi 2 )
i =1 i =1

10. Record the final result in Table-1.

11. The obtained results are also verified through MATLAB Program. Open a new M-file
in MATLAB and type the following code:
MATLAB CODE:

function [p,sump,lamda,cost]=gradient_method(cost,pd,p,iter)
cost=[561 7.92 0.001562;310 7.85 0.00194;78 7.97 0.00482];
pd=800;
p=[300 200 300];
iter=10;
n=length(cost);
nlang=50;
j=1;
for i=1:n
a(i,1)=cost(i,1);
b(i,1)=cost(i,2);
y(i,1)=cost(i,3);
end
lamda =0;
H=[0.003124 0 0 -1;0 0.00388 0 -1;0 0 0.00964 -1;-1 -1 -1 0];
while(j<iter);
x=p';
x(4,1)=lamda;
nlang=b+2*y.*p'-lamda;
nlang(4,1)=pd-sum(p');
x=x-(inv(H)*nlang);
p=x(1:3);
p=p';

56
lamda=x(4,1);
sum(p);
j=j+1;
end
p=p';
sump=sum(p);
lamda;
cost=sum([sum(a) sum(b.*p) sum(y.*p.*p)]);

12. Write down the MATLAB result in Table-1.

13. Compare both the results to verify that the calculated results are in accordance with
MATLAB.

EXERCISE:
The fuel cost functions for three thermal plants in $/h are given by:
F1 = 561 + 7.92 P1 + 0.001562 P12

F2 = 310 + 7.85 P2 + 0.00194 P22

F3 = 78 + 7.97 P3 + 0.00482 P32

With following generation limits
150  P1  600

100  P2  400

50  P3  200

Where P1, P2 and P3 are in MW. The Total load PD is 800 MW, considering generation
limits and line losses, find the optimal dispatch and the total cost $/h using Newton Method.

RESULTS
After compiling the MATLAB, write down the MATLAB results here and compare it with the
manual calculations:

Table 6.2
Lambda(λ) P1 P2 P3 F1 F2 F3 Total
Cost($/hr)
($/MWhr) (MW) (MW) (MW) ($/hr) ($/hr) ($/hr)

Calculated

57
Values

MATLAB

results

CONCLUSION:
Newton and gradient method converge in fewer number of iterations than
conventional lambda iterative techniques but these methods are more complex as compared
to lambda iterative techniques.

Task:

Write a comprehensive lab report (See Appendix: C) on space provided below.

Lab Report:
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Teacher / Supervisor’s signature: ____________ Date: ____________

59
Experiment – 7
SOLUTION OF UNIT COMMITMENT PROBLEM BY
ENUMERATION METHOD

OBJECTIVES:
To learn

1. Mathematical formulation of Unit Commitment (UC) problem

2. Solution of Unit Commitment problem using Enumeration Method

SOFTWARE USED:
MATLAB

INTRODUCTION:
The Unit Commitment (UC) is an important research challenge and vital optimization
task in the daily operational planning of modern power systems due to its combinatorial nature.
Because the total load of the power system varies throughout the day and reaches a different
peak value from one day to another, the electric utility has to decide in advance which
generators to start up and when to connect them to the network and the sequence in which the
operating units should be shut down and for how long. The computational procedure for
making such decisions is called unit commitment, and a unit when scheduled for connection
to the system is said to be committed.
In general, the UC problem may be formulated as a non-linear, large scale, mixed-integer
combinatorial optimization problem with both binary (unit status variable) and continuous (unit
output power) variables.

Objective Function:
The principal objective is to prepare on/off schedule of the generating units in every sub-period
(typically 1h) of the given planning period (typically 1 day or 1 week) in order to serve the load
demand and spinning reserve at minimum total production cost (fuel cost, startup cost, and shut
down cost), while meeting all unit, and system constraints.
The following costs are considered.
(i) Fuel Cost
The quadratic approximation is mostly used for fuel cost function and it is mathematically
represented as:
F(𝑃𝑖 ) = 𝑎𝑖 + 𝑏𝑖 𝑃𝑖 + 𝑐𝑖 𝑃𝑖2 … … . . (𝑅⁄ℎ)
(ii) Start-up Cost
Start-up cost is warmth-dependent. Mathematically it is represented as a step function:

60
𝑂𝑓𝑓
𝑆𝑇𝑖ℎ = 𝐻𝑜𝑡 − 𝐶𝑜𝑠𝑡: 𝑇𝑖𝐷𝑜𝑤𝑛 ≤ 𝑋𝑖 (ℎ) ≤ (𝑇𝑖𝐷𝑜𝑤𝑛 + 𝐶𝑜𝑙𝑑 − 𝑆𝑡𝑎𝑟𝑡 𝐻𝑜𝑢𝑟𝑠)
𝑂𝑓𝑓
𝑆𝑇𝑖ℎ = 𝐶𝑜𝑙𝑑 − 𝐶𝑜𝑠𝑡: 𝑋𝑖 (ℎ) > (𝑇𝑖𝐷𝑜𝑤𝑛 + 𝐶𝑜𝑙𝑑 − 𝑆𝑡𝑎𝑟𝑡 𝐻𝑜𝑢𝑟𝑠)
(iii) Shut down Cost
The typical value of the shut down cost is zero in the standard systems. This cost is considered
as a fixed cost:
𝑆𝐷𝑖ℎ = 𝐾𝑃𝑖ℎ … … … (𝑅⁄ℎ)
Where K is the incremental shut-down cost.

Thus objective function of the unit commitment problem is to minimize the total production
cost and is mathematically formulated as:
𝐻 𝑁

𝑀𝑖𝑛𝑖𝑚𝑖𝑧𝑒 𝑇𝑃𝐶 = ∑ ∑[𝐹𝑖 (𝑃𝑖ℎ ) + 𝑆𝑇𝑖ℎ + 𝑆𝐷𝑖ℎ ]

ℎ=1 𝑖=1
The UC Problem is subjected to many constraints that include:
o The total power generated must meet the load demand.
o There must be enough spinning reserve to cover any shortfalls in generation.
o The loading of each unit must be within its minimum and maximum allowable rating
(limits).
o The minimum up and down times of each unit must be observed.
o Unit availability constraint is either unit is available / not available, out aged/Must out,
o Must run, and Fixed Output Power (F.O.P).
o Unit initial status +/- either already up or already down.
The constraints which are taken into consideration in this experiment are power balance
equation, spinning reserve and loading limits only.

ENUMERATON METHOD:
This method takes all the combinations (2N– 1)H and then calculated the economic dispatch of
each unit. Where N = number of units, H = number of hours (24). For a total period of H
interval, the maximum number of possible combinations is (2N-1)H. For example, take a 24-h
period (e.g. 24 one hour intervals) and consider with 5, 10, 20 and 40 units. The value of (2N-
1)H becomes the following:

61
These very large numbers are the upper bounds for the numbers of enumerations required. The
constraints on the units and the loading capacity of the units limit the search space. Never the
less, the real practical barrier in the UCP is the high dimensionality of the possible search space.

PROCEDURE:
The procedure to find solution of unit commitment problem for a given power system is given
below:
1. Write down all the possible combinations of generation units using the relation (2N-1).
2. Calculate the minimum and maximum generation capacity of each combination by
using the given loading limits.
3. Find out the feasible combinations among all combinations that can satisfy the given
power demand. (Those combinations whose maximum generation capacity as
calculated in step-2 is greater than given load demand)
4. For every feasible combination, calculate lambda (λ) using analytical method by
considering only the units that are in the ON state.
n
bi
PD + 
2ci
Lamda ( ) = n
i =1

1
 2ci =1 i

2. Calculate generation sharing of individual generators using the equation

 − bi
Pi =
2ci
3. Calculate the individual cost of each generator by substituting the value of power
(obtained in step-3) in the respective fuel cost equations and write down in Table-1.
4. Calculate total cost of generation by adding up the individual costs as
n n
FTotal =  Fi =  (ai + bi Pi + ci Pi 2 )
i =1 i =1

And record the results in Table-1

5. Select the combination with the lowest cost which is the most feasible combination.
6. Now obtained results are verified through MATLAB. Open a new M-file in
MATLAB and type the following code:
MATLAB CODE:

function [p1,lamda1,cost1]=lamda_iteration(cost1,pu1,pl1,pd1,lamda1)
n1=length(pl1);
dp1=500;

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for i1=1:n1
a1(i1,1)=cost1(i1,1);
b1(i1,1)=cost1(i1,2);
y1(i1,1)=cost1(i1,3);
end
while(abs(dp1)>5)
p1=(lamda1-b1)./(2*y1);
for j1=1:n1
if(p1(j1,1)>pu1(1,j1))
p1(j1,1)=pu1(1,j1);
end
if(p1(j1,1)<pl1(1,j1))
p1(j1,1)=pl1(1,j1);
end
end
dp1=pd1-sum(p1);
dlamda1=dp1/sum(1./(2*y1));
lamda1=lamda1+dlamda1;
end
cost1=sum( [sum(a1) sum(b1.*p1) sum(y1.*p1.*p1)]);
end

function [p]=unit_commitment(cost,pu,pl,pd,lamda)
%cost= [500 5.3 0.004;400 5.5 0.006;200 5.8 0.009;500 4.7 0.007];
%pu=[450 350 225 400];
%pl=[200 150 100 150];
%pd=800;
%lamda=6;
n=length(pl);
com=2^n;
com=com-1;
for i=1:com
a=dec2bin(i);
g=log2(i);
g=fix(g);
for j=0:g
p(i+1,g+1-j)=str2num(a(1,j+1));
end
end
for t=1:(com+1)
p(t,n+1)=0;

63
p(t,n+2)=0;
end
for k=1:(com+1)
for q=1:n
if p(k,q)==1
p(k,n+1)=p(k,n+1)+pl(1,q);
p(k,n+2)=p(k,n+2)+pu(1,q);
end
end
end
for v=1:(com+1)
f=1;
if p(v,n+2)>=pd
for u=1:n
if p(v,u)==1
e(f,1)=cost(u,1);
e(f,2)=cost(u,2);
e(f,3)=cost(u,3);
pl1(1,f)=pl(1,u);
pu1(1,f)=pu(1,u);
f=f+1;
end
end
[p1,lamda1,cost1]=lamda_iteration (e,pu1,pl1,pd,lamda);
r=1;
for x=1:n
if p(v,x)==1
p(v,n+2+x)=p1(r,1);
r=r+1;
end
end
end
end
n2=length(pl);
for i2=1:n2
a2(i2,1)=cost(i2,1);
b2(i2,1)=cost(i2,2);
y2(i2,1)=cost(i2,3);
end
for z=1:n
for b=1:(com+1)

64
if p(b,n+2+z)>0
p(b,2*n+2+z)=a2(z,1)+b2(z,1)*p(b,n+2+z)+y2(z,1)*p(b,n+2+z)*p(b,n+2+z);
end
end
end
for d=1:(com+1)
p(d,3*n+3)=0;
for h=1:n
p(d,3*n+3)=p(d,2*n+2+h)+p(d,3*n+3);
end
end

EXERCISE:
3-machine system given for the Unit Commitment Problem is as:
𝐻1 (𝑃1 ) = 510 + 7.2𝑃1 + 0.00142𝑃1 2 ; 150 ≤ 𝑃1 ≤ 600 F.C = 1.1 $ / MBtu
2
𝐻2 (𝑃2 ) = 310 + 7.85𝑃2 + 0.00194𝑃2 ; 100 ≤ 𝑃2 ≤ 400 F.C = 1.0 $ / MBtu
2
𝐻3 (𝑃3 ) = 78 + 7.94𝑃3 + 0.00482𝑃3 ; 50 ≤ 𝑃3 ≤ 200 F.C = 1.2 $ / MBtu
Pd = 550 MW
Solve it using Enumeration Method.
RESULTS:
After compiling the MATLAB program write down the obtained results in following table
and compare it with manual calculations.

Table 7.1
Combinations Pmax Pmin Lambda P1 P2 P3 C1 C2 C3 CT

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CONCLUSION:
Unit Commitment is a problem on broad basis i.e. to select units from a no. of available stations
to meet forecasted load on the system during certain period. Economic Dispatch Problem is a
step within UC which is performed for all possible combinations. Also economic dispatch is
performed later when UC has already been done to minimize the cost.

Task:

Write a comprehensive lab report (See Appendix: C) on space provided below.

Lab Report:
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Experiment – 8
SOLUTION OF UNIT COMMITMENT PROBLEM BY PRIORITY LIST
SCHEME

OBJECTIVES:
To learn

1. Constraints associated with Unit Commitment Problem

2. Computation of Full-load average production cost for each generating unit
3. Development and implantation of an algorithm to solve UC problem using priority list
scheme based on FLAPC.

SOFTWARE USED:
MATLAB

INTRODUCTION:
The Unit Commitment (UC) is an important research challenge and vital optimization
task in the daily operational planning of modern power systems due to its combinatorial nature.
Because the total load of the power system varies throughout the day and reaches a different
peak value from one day to another, the electric utility has to decide in advance which
generators to start up and when to connect them to the network and the sequence in which the
operating units should be shut down and for how long. The computational procedure for
making such decisions is called unit commitment, and a unit when scheduled for connection to
the system is said to be committed.
Here the commitment of fossil-fuel units has been considered which have different
production costs because of their dissimilar efficiencies, designs, and fuel types. Unit
commitment plans for the best set of units to be available to supply the predict forecast load of
the system over a future time period. The problem of unit commitment involves finding the
least-cost dispatch of available generation resources to meet the electrical load. The key
decision variables that are decided by the computer program are:

1. Generation level (in megawatts)

2. Number of generating units on

The principal objective is to prepare on/off schedule of the generating units in every sub-period
(typically 1h) of the given planning period (typically 1 day or 1 week) in order to serve the load
demand and spinning reserve at minimum total production cost (fuel cost, startup cost, shut
down cost), while meeting all unit, and system constraints. Thus the objective function of the

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unit commitment problem is to minimize the total production cost and is mathematically
formulated as:

where STih and SDih are start-up cost and shut-down costs respectively.

The UC Problem is subjected to many constraints that include:

o The total power generated must meet the load demand.
o There must be enough spinning reserve to cover any shortfalls in generation.
o The loading of each unit must be within its minimum and maximum allowable rating
(limits).
o The minimum up and down times of each unit must be observed.
o Unit availability constraint is either unit is available / not available, out aged/Must out,
o Must run, and Fixed Output Power (F.O.P).
o Unit initial status +/- either already up or already down.
The constraints which are taken into consideration in this experiment are power balance
equation, spinning reserve and loading limits only.

PRIORITY LIST SCHEME:

This approach is based on conventional priority list method. A priority order is created
based on the Full Load Average Production Cost (FLAPC). The UC schedule is based on
FLAPC and ED is based on Lambda Iteration Method. In this method, units are committed to
service by observing their heat rate values. Units with the lowest heat rate are put into operation
first. For shutting down the reserve order is followed, i.e. the units with the highest heat rate is
withdrawn first. The load dispatcher takes into account the hourly forecasted load and spinning
reserve requirement, and then schedules the units to match the load and spinning reserve. The
industry, however, still mostly used the simple "merit order" method.
Priority List Scheme is a method of solving Unit Commitment Problem.

PROCEDURE:
The procedure of implementation of priority list scheme to find solution of unit commitment
problem for a given system is given below:

1. Calculate full load average production cost (FLAPC) of each generating unit
according to following equation:
(FLAPC)𝒊 = (𝒂𝒊 + 𝒃𝒊 𝑷𝒎𝒂𝒙 𝒊 + 𝒄𝒊 𝑷𝒎𝒂𝒙
𝒊 ) / 𝑷𝒎𝒂𝒙
𝒊
max
Where 𝑎𝑖 , 𝑏𝑖 and 𝑐𝑖 are fuel cost coefficients and Pi is maximum generation capacity
of respective unit.
2. Arrange the units in the ascending order according to their FLAPC in Table-1

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3. Select the combination of highest priority which makes use of the plants with
minimum FLAPC.
4. Calculate lamda for that particular combination using the formula.
n
bi
PD + 
2ci
Lamda ( ) = n
i =1

1
 2ci =1 i

5. Calculate generation sharing of individual generators using the equation

 − bi
Pi =
2ci
6. Calculate the individual cost of each generator by substituting the value of power
(obtained in step-5) in the respective fuel cost equations and write down in Table-2.
7. Calculate total cost of generation by adding up the individual costs as:
n n
FTotal =  Fi =  (ai + bi Pi + ci Pi 2 )
i =1 i =1

And record the results in Table-2.

8. This approach is also demonstrated through MATLAB. Open a new M-file in
MATLAB and type the following code
MATLAB CODE:

function [p,cost]=Pri_list(h,f,pl,pu,pd)
h=[510 7.2 0.00142;310 7.85 0.00194;78 7.97 0.00482];
f=[1.1 1.0 1.2];
pl=[150 100 50];
pu=[600 400 200];
pd=500;
n=length(pl);
for i=1:n
cost(i,:)=h(i,:)*f(1,i);
end
for i=1:n
a(i,1)=cost(i,1);
b(i,1)=cost(i,2);
y(i,1)=cost(i,3);
end
for i=1:n
fla(i,1)=(a(i,1)+b(i,1)*pu(1,i)+y(i,1)*pu(1,i)^2)/pu(1,i);

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end
p=fla;
p(:,2)=pl';
p(:,3)=pu';
p=sortrows(p);
p(1,4)=p(1,2);
p(1,5)=p(1,3);
for i=1:n-1
p(i+1,4)=p(i+1,2)+p(i,4);
p(i+1,5)=p(i+1,3)+p(i,5);
end
for i=1:n
if pd>=p(i,5)
p(i,6)=p(i,3);
end
if pd<p(i,5)
g=0;
for j=1:i-1
g=g+p(j,3);
end
p(i,6)=pd-g;
end
end
for i=1:n
if p(i,6)<0
p(i,6)=0;
end
end
c=p(:,6);
cost=sum( [sum(a) sum(b.*c) sum(y.*c.*c)]);
end

9. Record the MATLAB result in Table-3

EXERCISE:
3-machine system given for the Unit Commitment Problem is as:
𝐻1 (𝑃1 ) = 510 + 7.2𝑃1 + 0.00142𝑃1 2 ; 150 ≤ 𝑃1 ≤ 600 F.C = 1.1 $ / MBtu
2
𝐻2 (𝑃2 ) = 310 + 7.85𝑃2 + 0.00194𝑃2 ; 100 ≤ 𝑃2 ≤ 400 F.C = 1.0 $ / MBtu
2
𝐻3 (𝑃3 ) = 78 + 7.94𝑃3 + 0.00482𝑃3 ; 50 ≤ 𝑃3 ≤ 200 F.C = 1.2 $ / MBtu
Pd = 500 MW
Solve it by using Priority List Scheme.

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RESULTS:
After compiling the MATLAB program, write the obtained results in following tables and
compare it with the manual calculations.

Table-8.1: PRIORITY LIST

UNITS FLAPC

TABLE-8.2: MANUAL CALCULATIONS:

COMBINATION LAMBDA P1 P2 P3 C1 C2 C3 CT

TABLE-8.3: MATLAB RESULTS

COMBINATION LAMBDA P1 P2 P3 C1 C2 C3 CT

CONCLUSION:
Unit Commitment is a problem on broad basis i.e. to select units from a no. of available stations
to meet forecasted load on the system during certain period. Economic Dispatch Problem is a
step within UCP which is performed for all possible combinations. Also EDP is performed
later when UC has already been done to minimize the cost.

Task:

Write a comprehensive lab report (See Appendix: C) on space provided below.

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Experiment – 9
SOLUTION OF SHORT-TERM HYDROTHERMAL SCHEDULING
PROBLEM USING CLASSICAL ITERATIVE METHOD

OBJECTIVES:
To learn

1. Mathematical formulation of Short-term Hydrothermal Scheduling Problem.

2. Solution of Short term fixed head hydrothermal scheduling using Classical iterative
method.

INTRODUCTION:
HYDRO THERMAL COORDINATION:

The systematic coordination of the operation of a system of hydroelectric generation

plants is usually more complex than the scheduling of an all-thermal generation system. The
reason is both simple and important. That is, the hydroelectric plants may very well be coupled
both electrically (i.e., they all serve the same load) and hydraulically (i-e., the water outflow
from one plant may be a very significant portion of the inflow to one or more other, downstream
plants).
A large number of inter connected power systems in the world have both thermal and
Hydroelectric power. In a hydro-thermal power system, the operating objective is to release the
Limited quantity of hydro energy available in such a way that it displaces the thermal
generation with the highest cost. Basically there are two type of coordination long range
problem, and short range problem in this lab we discuss only short range problem.

The optimal scheduling problem in a hydro-thermal system stated as to minimize the

fuel cost of thermal plants under the constraint of water availability for hydro-generation over
a given period of operation. Hydrothermal coordination is classified mainly into following
types:

1) Long term co-ordination – The coordination of the operation of hydroelectric plants

involves, of course, the scheduling of water releases. The long-range hydro-scheduling
problem involves the long-range forecasting of water availability and the scheduling of
reservoir water releases (i.e., “drawdown”) for an interval of time that depends on the reservoir
capacities. one week to one year or several years. Unknown such as load, hydraulic inflows,
and unit availability (i.e. steam and hydro-plants).
2) Short term co-ordination –one day or one week, which involves the hour-by-hour
scheduling. The load, hydraulic inflows, and unit availabilities are assumed to be known. In
such a scheduling problem, the load, hydraulic inflows, and unit availabilities are assumed

75
known. A set of starting conditions (e.g., reservoir levels) is given, and the optimal hourly
schedule that minimizes a desired objective, while meeting hydraulic steam, and electric
system constraints, is sought.

MATHEMATICAL FORMULATION:

To mathematically formulate the optimal scheduling, the following assumptions are to be

made for a certain period of operation:

i. Storage of a hydro-reservoir at the beginning and end of period T are specified.

ii. After accounting for the irrigation purpose, water inflow to the reservoir and load
demand on the system are known deterministically as functions of time with certainties.
The optimization problem here is to determine the water discharge rate q(t) so as to minimize
the cost function of thermal generation. Objective function is:

To Minimize total Fuel Cost

Subjected to following constraints:

(i) Real Power balance constraint

(ii) Water Availability
(iii) Real Power hydro generation
To implement the iterative method for the solution of short-term hydrothermal scheduling
problem, first following method is applied to compute initial guess values of different variables.

Initial Guess:

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PROCEDURE:
The procedure to find solution of short-term hydrothermal scheduling problem using classical
iterative method is given below:

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Now obtained results are also verified through MATLAB Program. Open a new M-file in
MATLAB and type the following code:

Matlab Code:

M=1;N=1;
% thermal unit
a=0.01;b=0.1;c=100;ptmax=50;ptmin=10;
% hydro unit
x=0.05;y=20;z=140;
phmax=200;phmin=200;v1=25000;
pd1=250;pd2=300;
% Computing the initial guess
pt1=(pd1/(M+N))
pt2=(pd2/(M+N))
ph1=(pd1/(M+N))
ph2=(pd2/(M+N))
lumbda0=2*a*pt1+b;
vj1=(lumbda0/(2*x*ph1+y))
delV=1;
iter = 0;
while abs(delV)>=0.01
v1=25000;

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iter=iter+1;
f=(((b/a)+(y/x))/(2));
g=((1/a)+(1/(x*vj1)));
lumbda1=2*((pd1+f)/(g))
p11=((lumbda1-b)/(2*a))
p21=((lumbda1-(y*vj1))/(2*x*vj1))
lumbda2=2*((pd2+f)/(g))
p12=((lumbda2-b)/(2*a))
p22=((lumbda2-y*vj1)/(2*x*vj1))
V=6*(((x*p21)+y)*p21+z+((x*p22)+y)*p22+z)
delV=V-v1;
vj1=(vj1+((0.0955*delV)/(v1)))
end
t=2;
Ct=((a*(p11^2)+b*(p11)+c)+(a*(p12^2)+b*p12+c))*6

EXECERCISE
The characteristics of thermal plant is given by:

The characteristics of hydel plant is given by:

The upper and lower limits are given as:

The volume of reservoir is:

The demand curve is given as:

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RESULTS:
After compiling the MATLAB Program, write down the obtained results here and compare it
with the manual calculations.

CONCLUSION:
A large number of inter connected power systems in the world have both thermal and
hydroelectric power. In a hydro-thermal power system, the operating objective is to release the
limited quantity of hydro energy available in such a way that it displaces the thermal generation
with the highest cost. In this experiment only the short-term hydrothermal scheduling problem
is solved through iterative method because large-term and mid-term scheduling problem cannot
be solved through this approach due to their complex mathematical formulation.

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Task:

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Lab Report:
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Experiment – 10
FORMULATION OF BUS-ADMITTANCE MATRIX USING MATLAB

OBJECTIVES:
To learn

1. Formulation of bus admittance matrix for the given power system network using
MATLAB
2. Formulation of bus impedance matrix for the given power system network using
MATLAB

SOFTWARE USED:
MATLAB

INTRODUCTION:
The bus admittance matrix is often used in power system studies to solve
power flow equations. Y-bus can be formed by inspection method only if there is no mutual
coupling between the lines. Every transmission line should be represented by π- equivalent.
Shunt impedance are added to diagonal element corresponding to the buses at which these are
connected.
The performance equation for an n-bus system in terms of admittance matrix can be written as:

𝐼1 𝑌11 𝑌12 … … 𝑌1𝑛 𝑉1

𝐼2 𝑌21 𝑌22 … … 𝑌2𝑛 𝑉2
. = ………………… ∗ .
. ………………… .
[𝐼𝑛 ] [𝑌𝑛1 𝑌𝑛2 … … 𝑌𝑛𝑛 ] [𝑉𝑛 ]

or
𝐼 = 𝑌𝐵𝑢𝑠 𝑉
The admittances 𝑌11 , 𝑌22, 𝑌33 … . 𝑌𝑛𝑛 are called the self-admittances at the nodes and all other
admittances are called the mutual admittance of the nodes.
The main diagonal element in Y-bus matrix= ∑𝑛𝑗=1 𝑌𝑖𝑗 + 𝐵𝑖𝑗
Where 𝐵𝑖𝑗 is the half line shunt admittance in mho. 𝑌𝑖𝑗 is the series admittance in mho.
Off-diagonal element in Y-bus matrix, 𝑌𝑖𝑗 = −𝑌𝑖𝑗

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Where 𝑌𝑖𝑗 is the series admittance in mho.

PROCEDURE:
The procedure for formulation of bus admittance matrix is given below:
1. Read the values of number of buses and the number of lines of the given system.
2. Read the self-admittance of each bus and the mutual admittance between the buses.
3. Calculate the diagonal element term called the bus driving point admittance, Y which
is the sum of the admittance connected to bus i.
𝑛

∑ 𝑌𝑖𝑗 + 𝐵𝑖𝑗
𝑗=1
4. The off-diagonal term called the transfer admittance, Y which is the negative of the
admittance connected from bus i to bus j.
𝑌𝑖𝑗 = −𝑌𝑖𝑗
5. Form the bus admittance matrix by placing the elements according to their index.
6. To form the bus admittance matrix, invert the matrix obtained in step 5 by any matrix
inversion technique.
7. Write the bus admittance matrix in the space provided below each exercise.
8. To input bus data in MATLAB, it must be written in the following format
[S E R X]
Where S=starting bus
E=ending bus
R=resistance
X=reactance
9. After writing the bus data in the above mentioned format, type the following source
code to verify your manual calculations with MATLAB.
MATLAB CODE:
The following is a program for building the bus admittance matrix is:

Function[Y]=ybus(zdata)

n1=zdata(;,1);

nr= zdata(;,2);

R=zdata(;,3);

X= zdata(;,4);

nbr=length(zdata(;,1));

nbus=max(max(n1),max(nr));

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Z=R+j*X;

y=ones(nbr,1)./Z;

Y=zeros(nbus,nbus)

for k=1:nbr;

if(n1(k)>0 & nr(k)>0)

Y(n1(k), nr(k))=Y(n1(k),nr(k))-y(k);

Y(nr(k),n1(k))=Y(n1(k),nr(k));

end

end

for n=1:nbus

for k=1:nbr

if n1(k)==n | nr(k)==n

Y(n,n)=Y(n,n)+y(k);

else

end

end

EXERCISE 1:
Find the bus admittance matrix and bus impedance matrix for following power system network:

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Y-BUS Z-BUS

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EXERCISE 2:
Find the bus admittance matrix and bus impedance matrix for following power system network:

Y-BUS Z-BUS

CONCLUSION:
Thus the bus Impedance and admittance matrix for the given power system network are
determined using developed algorithm and results are also verified using MATLAB Program.

Task:

Write a comprehensive lab report (See Appendix: C) on space provided below.

Lab Report:
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Experiment – 11
SOLUTION OF POWER FLOW PROBLEM USING GAUSS-SEIDAL
METHOD

OBJECTIVES:
To learn

1. Mathematical formulation of power flow model in complex form

2. Solution of Power flow equation using Gauss-Seidal Method in MATLAB

SOFTWARE USED:
MATLAB

INTRODUCTION:
Load flow analysis is the most frequently performed system study by electric utilities.
This analysis is performed on a symmetrical steady-state operating condition of a power system
under ‘normal’ mode of operation and aims at obtaining bus voltages and line/transformer
flows for a given load condition. This information is essential both for long term planning and
next day operational planning. In long term planning, load flow analysis helps in investigating
the effectiveness of alternative plans and choosing the ‘best’ plan for system expansion to meet
the projected operating state. In operational planning, it helps in choosing the ‘best’ unit
commitment plan and generation schedules to run the system efficiently for them next day’s
load condition without violating the bus voltage and line flow operating limits.
The Gauss seidal method is an iterative algorithm for solving a set of non- linear
algebraic equations. The relationship between network bus voltages and currents may be
represented by either loop equations or node equations. Node equations are normally preferred
because the number of independent node equation is smaller than the number of independent
loop equations. The non-linear load flow equation in complex form is given below:
𝑃𝑖𝑆𝑐ℎ − 𝑗𝑄𝑖𝑆𝑐ℎ (𝑘)
∗(𝑘) + ∑ 𝑦𝑖𝑗 𝑉𝑗
(𝐾+1) 𝑉𝑖
𝑉𝑖 = 𝑗≠𝑖
∑ 𝑦𝑖𝑘

𝑛 𝑛
(𝑘+1) (𝑘+1) ∗(𝑘) (𝑘) (𝑘)
𝑃𝑖 + 𝑄𝑖 = {𝑉𝑖 [𝑉𝑖 ∑ 𝑦𝑖𝑗 − ∑ 𝑦𝑖𝑗 𝑉𝑗 ]} 𝑗≠𝑖
𝑗=0 𝑗=1

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PROCEDURE:
1. Find out the admittance matrix of the given system.
2. Choose the flat voltage profile 1+j0 for all buses except slack bus.
For load buses:

1. For load buses, real and reactive power are given whereas voltage magnitude and
angle is to be found.
2. To find the voltage magnitude and angle, apply the following formula on all the load
buses one by one
𝑃𝑖𝑆𝑐ℎ − 𝑗𝑄𝑖𝑆𝑐ℎ (𝑘)
∗(𝑘) + ∑ 𝑦𝑖𝑗 𝑉𝑗
(𝐾+1) 𝑉𝑖
𝑉𝑖 = 𝑗≠𝑖
∑ 𝑦𝑖𝑘
3. Remember to substitute the updated values of voltage in every calculation.
4. Repeat the iterations till the voltages are same up to at least two decimal places.
5. Write down the calculated results in Table-1.
For voltage- controlled buses:

2. For voltage controlled buses, real power and voltage magnitude are given and reactive
power and voltage angle are to be found
3. Calculate the reactive power flow through the bus by using the following formula”
𝑛 𝑛
(𝑘+1) ∗(𝑘) (𝑘) (𝑘)
𝑄𝑖 = −𝐼𝑚 {𝑉𝑖 [𝑉𝑖 ∑ 𝑦𝑖𝑗 − ∑ 𝑦𝑖𝑗 𝑉𝑗 ]} 𝑗≠𝑖
𝑗=0 𝑗=1

4. Substitute the value of reactive power in the following equation to get the voltage
magnitude and angle

𝑃𝑖𝑆𝑐ℎ − 𝑗𝑄𝑖𝑆𝑐ℎ (𝑘)

∗(𝑘) + ∑ 𝑦𝑖𝑗 𝑉𝑗
(𝐾+1) 𝑉𝑖
𝑉𝑖 = 𝑗≠𝑖
∑ 𝑦𝑖𝑘

5. Fix the imaginary part of the result obtained in step3 and calculate the new voltage
magnitude as

Where fi is the imaginary part of the obtained voltage and Vi is the given voltage
magnitude

6. Remember to substitute the updated values of voltage in every calculation.

7. Repeat the iterations till the voltages are same up to at least two decimal places.

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8. Write down the calculated results in Table-1.
9. Calculate the slack bus real and reactive power.
10. Now the power flow solution by Gauss-Seidal method is demonstrated through
MATLAB. Open the new M-file in MATLAB and type the following code to verify
the obtained reults in previous steps.

MATLAB CODE:
%Gauss Sedial

clc;
data=[1 1 2 10-j*20
2 1 3 10-j*30
3 2 3 16-j*32]
elements=max(data(:,1));
bus=max(max(data(:,2)),max(data(:,3)));
y=zeros(bus,bus);
for p=1:bus,
for q=1:elements,
if(data(q,2)==p|data(q,3)==p)
y(p,p)=y(p,p)+data(q,4);
end
end
end
for p=1:bus,
for q=1:bus,
if (p~=q)
for r=1:elements
if((data(r,2)==p&data(r,3)==q)|(data(r,2)==q&data(r,3)==p))
y(p,q)=-(data(r,4));
end
end
end
end
end
a1=input('enter p2 in MW:');
b1=input('enter q2 in MVAR:');
a2=input('enter p3 in MW:');
b2=input('enter q3 in MVAR');
pu=input('enter the base value in MVA');
p2=(a1/pu);
q2=(b1/pu);

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p3=(a2/pu);
q3=(b2/pu);
dx1=1+j*0;
dx2=1+j*0;
v1=1.05;
v2=1+j*0;
v3=1+j*0;
iter=0;
disp('iter v2 v3');
while(abs(dx1)&abs(dx2)>=0.00001)&iter<7;
iter=iter+1;
g1=(((p2-j*q2)/conj(v2))+(-y(1,2)*v1)+(-y(2,3)*v3))/y(2,2);
g2=(((p3-j*q3)/conj(v3))+(-y(1,3)*v1)+(-y(2,3)*g1))/y(3,3);
dx1=g1-v2;
dx2=g2-v3;
v2=v2+dx1;
v3=v3+dx2;
fprintf ('%g',iter),disp([v2,v3]);
end
11. Record the MATLAB results in Table-1 and verify that the calculated results are in
accordance with MATLAB.

EXERCISE:

93
Figure 11.1: A three bus power system network

RESULTS:
After compilation of MATLAB program, write down the obtained results in following table
and compare it with manual calculations/

Table 11.1
Parameters V2 𝜹𝟐 V3 𝜹𝟑 P1 Q1

Calculations

MATLAB

CONCLUSION:
Load flow solution for the given problem are solved using Gauss-Seidal method and
results are verified through MATLAB program. The main drawback go Gauss-Seidal Method
is that it required large number of iterations to obtain optimum results.

Task:

Write a comprehensive lab report (See Appendix: C) on space provided below.

Lab Report:
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96
Experiment – 12
POWER FLOW SOLUTION USING NEWTON-RAPHSON METHOD

OBJECTIVES:
To learn

1. Mathematical formulation of Power Flow problem

2. Solution of Power flow equation using newton Raphson to find unknown parameters

INTRODUCTION:

The Newton Raphson method of load flow analysis is an iterative method which approximates
the set of non-linear simultaneous equations to a set of linear simultaneous equations using
Taylor’s series expansion and the terms are limited to first order approximation.

Because of quadratic convergence, Newton’s method is mathematical superior to the Gauss-

Seidal Method and it is less prone to divergence with ill-conditioned problems. For large power
systems, the newton Raphson method is found to be more efficient and practical. The number
of iterations required to obtain a solution is independent of system size, but more functional
evaluations are required at each iteration. Since in the power flow problems real power and
voltage magnitude are specified for the voltage controlled buses, the power flow equations are
formulated in polar form. For the typical bus of power system the current entering bus i can
be represented by following relation:

N
I i =  YijV j (12.1)
j =1

In above equation j includes bus i. expressing this equation in polar form, we have

N
I i =  | Yij | | V j | (ij +  j ) (12.2)
j =1

The complex power at bus i

Pi − jQi = Vi* Ii (12.3)

Substitute the value of Ii in this equation;

97
N
Pi − jQi = (| Vi |  −  i )| V j || Yij |(ij +  j ) (12.4)
j =1

Separating the real and imaginary parts,

n
Pi =  | Vi || V j || Yij | Cos(ij −  i −  j )
j =1

n (12.5)
Qi = − | Vi || V j || Yij | Sin(ij −  i −  j )
j =1

The above equations constitute a set of non-linear algebraic equations in terms of the
independent variables, voltage magnitude in per unit and phase angle in radians. We have two
equations for each load bus given by (12.5) and one equation for each voltage controlled bus.
Expanding these equations in Taylor series about the initial estimate and neglecting higher
order terms result in the following set of linear equations.

(12.6)

In the above equation bus 1 is assumed to be the slack bus. The Jacobean matrix gives the
(𝑘)
linearized relationship between small changes in voltage angle ∆𝛿𝑖 and voltage magnitude
(𝑘) (𝑘) (𝑘)
∆|𝑉𝑖 | with the small changes in real and reactive power ∆𝑃𝑖 and ∆𝑄𝑖 . Elements of
(𝑘) (𝑘)
Jacobean matrix are the partial derivatives of equation (12.5) evaluated at ∆𝛿𝑖 and ∆|𝑉𝑖 |.
In short form it can be written as:

∆𝑃 𝐽 𝐽2 ∆𝛿
[ ]=[1 ][ ] (12.7)
∆𝑄 𝐽3 𝐽4 ∆𝑉

Compute the Jacobean Matrix by using following equations:

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For 𝒊 ≠ 𝒋 (where i and j is number of buses in network)

Pi
J 1ij = = ViYijV j Sin(ij −  i +  j )
 j

Pi
J 2ij = = ViYij Cos(ij −  i +  j )
V j
(12.8)
Q
J 3ij = i = −ViYijV j Cos(ij −  i +  j )
 j

Qi
J 4ij = = ViYij Sin(ij −  i +  j )
V j

For i=j

Pi N
J 1ii = = −Vi  YijV j Sin(ij −  i +  j )
 i j =1
j i

Pi N
J 2ii = = ViYii Cos(ii ) +  YijV j Cos(ij −  i +  j )
Vi n =1
(12.9)
Qi N
J 3ii = = Vi  (YijV j Cos(ij −  i +  j ))
 i n =1
j i

Qi N
J 4ii = = −ViYii Sin ii +  YijV j Sin(ij −  i +  j )
Vi n =1

(𝑘) (𝑘)
The terms ∆𝑃𝑖 and ∆𝑄𝑖 are the differences between the scheduled and calculated values
known as power residuals, given by:

 P (i )   Pi − Pi 
Sch Cal

 = 
   Sch 
 Q (i )  Qi − Qi 
Cal

(12.10)

Where Pi
Sch
= Pi g − Pi d , QiSch = Qig − Qid

Substitute the above computed elements of Jacobean matrix in following set of equations and
∆𝜹(𝒊)
solve it for [ ]:
∆𝑽(𝒊)

99
𝐽1(𝑖) 𝐽2(𝑖) ∆𝛿(𝑖) ∆𝑃(𝑖)
[ ][ ]= [ ]
𝐽3(𝑖) 𝐽4(𝑖) ∆𝑉(𝑖) ∆𝑄(𝑖)
(12.11)

And the new estimate for bus voltages are:

δ(i + 1) δ(i) ∆δ(i)

x(i + 1) = [ ]=[ ]+[ ]
V(i + 1) V(i) ∆V(i)
(12.12)

PROCEDURE:
The procedure for power flow solution by the Newton-Raphson Method is as follows:

1. For load buses, where 𝑃𝑖𝑆𝑐ℎ and 𝑄𝑖𝑆𝑐ℎ are specified, voltage magnitudes and phase
angles are set equal to slack bus values, 1.0 and 0.0, i.e., |𝑉𝑖0 | = 1.0 𝑎𝑛𝑑 |𝛿𝑖0 | =0.0.
2. For voltage regulated buses, where |𝑉𝑖0 | and 𝑃𝑖𝑆𝑐ℎ are specified, phase angles are set
equal to the slack bus angle, 0, i.e., |𝛿𝑖0 | =0.0.
3. For load buses 𝑃𝑖𝐾 and 𝑄𝑖𝐾 are calculated from equation () and ∆𝑃𝑖𝐾 and ∆𝑄𝑖𝐾 are
calculated from equation (12.5)
3. For voltage controlled buses 𝑃𝑖𝐾 and ∆𝑃𝑖𝐾 are calculated from equation (12.5) and
(12.10) respectively.
4. The elements of the Jacobean matrix (𝐽1 , 𝐽2, 𝐽3 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝐽4 ) are calculated from equations
(12.8) and (12.9).
5. Now the linear simultaneous equation given in (12.7) is solved directly by optimally
ordered triangular factorization and Gaussian elimination.
6. The new voltage magnitudes and phase angles are computed from equation (12.12).
7. The process is continued until the residuals ∆𝑃𝑖𝐾 and ∆𝑄𝑖𝐾 are less than specified
accuracy, i.e.,
∆𝑃𝑖𝐾 ≤ 𝜀
∆𝑄𝑖𝐾 ≤ 𝜀
8. Now the power flow solution by the NR-method is demonstrated through MATLAB.
Open the new M-file and type the following code to verify the obtained results in
previous steps:
MATLAB CODE:

%NEWTON RAPHSON METHOD

clc;
gbus = [1 2.0 1.0 0.0 0.0
2 0.0 0.0 0.5 1.0

100
3 1.5 0.6 0.0 0.0];
ybus = [5.882-j*23.528 -2.941+j*11.764 -2.941+j*11.764
-2.941+j*11.764 5.882-j*23.528 -2.941+j*11.764
-2.941+j*11.764 -2.941+j*11.764 5.882-j*23.528];
t= 0.001
v1=1.04+j*0;
v2=1+j*0;
v3=1.04+j*0;
del3=angle(v3);
del1=angle(v1);
del2=angle(v2);
%abs(ybus(2,1))
%abs(v2)
for i=1:10
p2=(abs(v2)*abs(v1)*abs(ybus(2,1))*cos((angle(ybus(2,1)))+del1-del2))+abs(v2)*
abs(v2)*abs(ybus(2,2))*cos((angle(ybus(2,2))))+(abs(v2)*abs(v3)*
abs(ybus(2,3))*cos((angle(ybus(2,3))+del3-del2));
q2=-(abs(v2)*abs(v1)*abs(ybus(2,1))*sin((angle(ybus(2,1)))+del1-del2))-
abs(v2)*abs(v2)*abs(ybus(2,2))*sin((angle(ybus(2,2))))-(abs(v2)*abs(v3)*
abs(ybus(2,3))*sin((angle(ybus(2,3)))+del3-del2));
p3=(abs(v3)*abs(v1)*abs(ybus(3,1))*cos((angle(ybus(3,1)))+del1-
del3))+abs(v3)*abs(v3)*abs(ybus(3,3))*cos((angle(ybus(3,3))))+(abs(v2)*abs(v3)*
abs(ybus(3,2))*cos((angle(ybus(3,2)))+del2-del3));
delp20=gbus(2,4)-gbus(2,2)-p2;
delp30=gbus(3,4)-gbus(3,2)-p3;
delq20=gbus(2,5)-gbus(2,3)-q2;
J(1,1)=(abs(v2)*abs(v1)*abs(ybus(2,1))*sin((angle(ybus(2,1)))+del1-
del2))+(abs(v2)*abs(v3)*abs(ybus(2,3))*sin((angle(ybus(2,3)))+del3-del2));
J(1,2)=-(abs(v2)*abs(v3)*abs(ybus(2,3))*sin((angle(ybus(2,3)))+del3-del2));
J(1,3)=(abs(v1)*abs(ybus(2,1))*cos((angle(ybus(2,1)))+del1-
del2))+2*(abs(v2)*abs(ybus(2,2))*cos((angle(ybus(2,2))))+(abs(v3)*abs(ybus(2,3))*
cos((angle(ybus(2,3)))+del3-del2));
J(2,1)=-(abs(v3)*abs(v2)*abs(ybus(3,2))*sin((angle(ybus(3,2)))+del2-del3));
J(2,2)=(abs(v3)*abs(v1)*abs(ybus(3,1))*sin((angle(ybus(3,1)))+del1-
del3))+(abs(v3)*abs(v2)*abs(ybus(3,2))*sin((angle(ybus(3,2)))+del2-del3));
J(2,3)=(abs(v3)*abs(ybus(3,2))*cos((angle(ybus(3,2)))+del2-del3));
J(3,1)=(abs(v2)*abs(v1)*abs(ybus(2,1))*cos((angle(ybus(2,1)))+del1-
del2))-(abs(v2)*abs(v3)*abs(ybus(2,3))*cos((angle(ybus(2,3)))+del2-del3));
J(3,2)=(abs(v2)*abs(v3)*abs(ybus(2,3))*cos((angle(ybus(2,3)))+del2-del3));
J(3,3)=-(abs(v2)*abs(ybus(2,1))*sin((angle(ybus(2,1)))+del1-
del2))-2*(abs(v2)*abs(ybus(2,2))*sin((angle(ybus(2,2))))-(abs(v3)*abs(ybus(2,3))*

101
sin((angle(ybus(2,3)))+del3-del2));
end
J
inv(J);
A=[del2;del3;abs(v2)];
delA0=[delp20;delp30;delq20];
delA1=inv(J)*delA0;
delA1;
b0=abs(v2);
A1=[del2;del3;b0]+delA1;
A1-delA0;
if((A1-delA0)<=t)
break;
del2=A1(1,1);
del3=A1(2,1);
abs(v2)=A1(3,1);
end
A1

EXERCISE:
Consider the 3 bus system each of the 3 line bus a series impedance of 0.02 + j0.08 p.u and
a total shunt admittance of j0.02 p.u. The specified quantities at the bus are given below:

102
Figure 12.1: A three bus power system network

INPUT DATA:

Real load Reactive Load Real power Reactive Power Voltage

Bus
demand, PD demand, QD Generation, PG Generation, QG Specified
1 2 1 - - V1=1.04
2 0 0 0.5 1 Unspecified
3 1.5 0.6 0 QG3 =  V3 = 1.04

RESULTS:

After compilation of MATLAB Program, write down the obtained result here and compare it
with Manual Calculations

CONCLUSION:
The power flow solution for the given problem was solved using Newton Raphson
method and verified using MATLAB software and it is evident from results that NR method is
capable to produce quality solution with fewer iterations.

Task:

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Lab Report:
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Teacher / Supervisor’s signature: ____________ Date: ____________

105
Experiment – 13
MODELLING OF DIFFERENT COMPONENTS OF LOAD
FREQUENCY CONTROL FOR THERMAL GENERATING UNIT AND
SIMULATION OF SINGLE AREA POWER SYSTEM

OBJECTIVES:
To learn

1. Mathematical Modelling of different components of Load Frequency Control (LFC)

using transfer function approach
2. Simulation of LFC mechanism for an isolated power system in MATLAB

INTRODUCTION:
Active power control is one of the important control actions to be perform to be normal
operation of the system to match the system generation with the continuously changing system
load in order to maintain the constancy of system frequency to a fine tolerance level. This is
one of the foremost requirements in proving quality power supply. A change in system load
cases a change in the speed of all rotating masses (Turbine – generator rotor systems) of the
system leading to change in system frequency. The speed change form synchronous speed
initiates the governor control (primary control) action result in the entire participating generator
– turbine units taking up the change in load, stabilizing system frequency. Restoration of
frequency to nominal value requires secondary control action which adjusts the load - reference
set points of selected (regulating) generator – turbine units. The primary objectives of
automatic generation control (AGC) are to regulate system frequency to the set nominal value
and also to regulate the net interchange of each area to the scheduled value by adjusting the
outputs of the regulating units. This function is referred to as load – frequency control (LFC).
MATHEMATICAL MODELLING OF LFC:
The first step in the analysis and design of a control system is mathematical modelling of the
system. The two common methods are the transfer function method and state variable
approach. The state variable approach can be applied to portray linear as well as non-linear
system. In order to use the transfer function and linear state equations the system has to be
linearized. Proper assumption and approximation are made to linearize the mathematical
equations describing the system and a transfer function is obtained for the following
components:
(a) Generator Model
With the use of swing equation of a synchronous machine to small perturbation, we have

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Or in terms of small change in speed

Laplace Transformation gives,

Mathematical Block diagram for a generator

(b) Load Model
The load on a power system consists of variety of electrical drives. The load speed
characteristic of the load is given by:
ΔPe = ΔPL + D Δω
Where ΔPL is the non-frequency sensitive change in load,
DΔω is the load change that is frequency sensitive.
D is expressed as % change in load divided by % change in frequency.

Mathematical Block Diagram of Load

(c) Prime Mover Model
The source of power generation is the prime mover. It can be hydraulic turbines near waterfalls,
steam turbine whose energy come from burning of coal, gas and other fuels. The model of
turbine relates the changes in mechanical power output ΔPm and the changes in the steam valve
position ΔPv:

107
Where the turbine constant is in the range of 0.2-20 second.
(d) Governor Model
When the electrical load is increased suddenly then the electrical power exceeds the input
mechanical power. This deficiency of power in the load side is compensated from the kinetic
energy of the turbine. Due to this reason the energy that is stored in the machine is decreased
and the governor sends signal for supplying more volumes of water, steam or gas to increase
the speed of the prime mover to compensate deficiency in speed.

In s-domain

The command ΔPg is transformed through amplifier to the steam valve position command ΔPV.
We assume here a linear relationship and considering simple time constant we get this s-domain
relation:

Combining all the above block diagrams, for an isolated area system we get the following:

Figure 13.1: Block diagram of LFC

The open loop transfer function of the block diagram shown in above figure is:
1
𝐾𝐺 (𝑠)𝐻(𝑠) =
𝑅(2𝐻𝑠+𝐷)(1+𝜏𝑔𝑠)(1+𝜏𝑇𝑠)
(13.1)

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The closed loop transfer function that relates the load change ΔPL to the frequency deviation
ΔΏ is:
∆Ω(𝑠) (1+𝜏𝑔 𝑠)(1+𝜏𝑇 𝑠)
= (2𝐻 1
−∆𝑃𝐿 𝑠 +𝐷)(1+𝜏𝑔 𝑠)(1+𝜏𝑔 𝑠)+ ⁄𝑅
(13.2)

or
∆Ω(𝑠) = −∆𝑃𝐿 (𝑠)𝑇(𝑠)
(13.3)
∆𝑃𝐿
The load change is a step input i.e. ∆𝑃𝐿 (𝑠) = . Utilizing the final value theorem, the
𝑠
steady state value of ∆𝑤 is:
1
∆𝑤𝑠𝑠 = lim 𝑠∆Ω(𝑠) = (−∆𝑃𝐿 ) 1
𝑠→0 (𝐷+𝑅)
(13.4)
It is clear that for the case with no frequency sensitive load (D=0), the steady state deviation
in frequency is determined by governor speed regulation and is
∆𝑤𝑠𝑠 = (−∆𝑃𝐿 )𝑅
(13.5)
With several generators with governor speed regulations R2, R3, R4,…, Rn are connected to
the system, the steady state deviation in frequency is given by:
1
∆𝑤𝑠𝑠 = (−∆𝑃𝐿 ) 1
𝐷+ ⁄𝑅1+1⁄𝑅2+⋯+1⁄𝑅𝑛
(13.6)
PROCEDURE:
The procedure of implementing Load Frequency Control (LFC) mechanism is given here:
1. For the given isolated power system network, read the value of following parameters
of LFC components; Turbine time constant, Governor time constant, governor inertia
constant, governor speed regulation.
2. Put these parameters into equation to find the closed loop transfer function of LFC
block diagram.
3. Now find the steady state frequency deviation by using the relation (13.5).
4. The computed steady state frequency deviation is also verified by finding the frequency
deviation step response in MATLAB. Open a new M-file in MATLAB and type the
following code:
Pl=0.2;
numc=[0.1 0.7 1];
denc=[1 7.08 10.56 20.8];
t=0:0.2:10;
c=-Pl*step(num,den,c)

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plot(t,c)
xlabel(‘t,sec’);
ylabel(‘pu’)
title(‘Frequency deviation step response’)
5. To verify the obtained result, the frequency deviation step response can also determine
by simulating the LFC block diagram in MATLAB Simulink. For given test system the
following block diagram is implemented in MATLAB Simulink.

SIMULINK MODEL:

Figure 13.2: Simulink Model

EXERCISE:

An isolated power station has the following parameters

Turbine time constant = 0.5 s
Governor time constant = 0.2 s
Governor inertia constant = 5 s
Governor speed regulation = R per unit
The load varies by 0.8 per cent for a 1 per cent change in frequency (D=0.8)
The governor speed regulation is set to R = 0.05 per unit. The turbine rated output is 250 MW
at nominal frequency 50 Hz. A sudden load change of 50 MW (𝝙PL=0.2 P.U) occurs.
(a) Find steady state Frequency deviation in Hz. Also obtain time domain performance
specifications and the frequency deviation step response.
(b) Construct the Simulink block diagram and obtain the frequency deviation response.

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RESULTS:
(i) MANUAL CALCULATIONS:

(ii) MATLAB RESULTS:

CONCLUSION:
Changes in real power affect mainly the system frequency, while reactive power is less
sensitive to changes in frequency and it is mainly dependent on changes in voltage magnitude.
The operation objectives of LFC are to maintain reasonably uniform frequency, to divide the
load between generators and to control the tie-line interchange schedules. In this experiment
LFC mechanism for an isolated power system is simulated and simulation result shows that the
steady state deviation in frequency is determined by the governor speed regulation.

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Task:

Write a comprehensive lab report (See Appendix: C) on space provided below.

Lab Report:
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Teacher / Supervisor’s signature: ____________ Date: ____________

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Experiment – 14
AUTOMATIC GENERATION CONTROL OF SINGLE AREA POWER
SYSTEM
OBJECTIVES:
To learn
1. Determination of frequency deviation of Automatic Generation Control (AGC) system
for isolated power system using transfer function approach
2. Simulation of AGC mechanism for a given isolated power system network in
MATLAB

INTRODUCTION:
If the load on the system is increased, the turbine speed drops before the governor can adjust
the input of the steam to new load. As the change in the value of speed diminishes, the error
signal becomes smaller and position of fly ball governor gets closer to the point required to
maintain a speed. However constant speed will not be the set point and there will be an offset.
One way to restore the speed or frequency is to its nominal value is to add an integrator. The
integral unit monitors the average error over the period of time and will overcome the offset.
Thus as the system load changes continuously, the generation is adjusted automatically to
restore the frequency to nominal value. This scheme is known as the automatic generation
control.
AGC IN SINGLE AREA SYSTEM:
With the primary LFC loop, a change in the system load will result in a steady state frequency
deviation, depending on the governor speed regulation. In order to reduce the frequency
deviation to zero, we must provide a rest action. The rest action can be achieved by introducing
an integral controller to act on the load reference setting to change the speed test point. The
LFC system, with the addition of the secondary loop is shown in following figure.

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Figure 14.1: Block diagram of AGC for single area power system

The integral controller gain KI must be adjusted for a satisfactory transient response. The
equivalent block diagram is shown below:

The closed loop transfer function for above system is given below:
∆Ω(s) 𝑠(1+𝜏𝑔 𝑠)(1+𝜏𝑇 𝑠)
= 𝑠
−∆𝑃𝐿 (𝑠) 𝑠(2𝐻𝑠 +𝐷)((1+𝜏𝑔 𝑠)(1+𝜏𝑇 𝑠)+𝐾𝐼+
𝑅
(14.1)
Or
∆Ω(𝑠) = −∆𝑃𝐿 (𝑠)𝑇(𝑠)
(14.2)
Where T(s) is transfer function.

∆𝑃𝐿
The load change is a step input i.e. ∆𝑃𝐿 (𝑠) = . Utilizing the final value theorem, the
𝑠
steady state value of ∆𝑤 is:
∆𝑤𝑠𝑠 = lim 𝑠∆Ω(𝑠) = (−∆𝑃𝐿 )(0) = 0
𝑠→0
(14.3)
Thus, it shows that with the addition of Integral Controller, the steady state error reaches to
zero.

PROCEDURE:
The procedure of implementing Automatic Generation Control (AGC) mechanism in single
area power system is given here:
1. For the given isolated power system network, read the value of following parameters
of AGC components; Turbine time constant, Governor time constant, governor inertia
constant, governor speed regulation, Integral Controller gain.
2. Put these parameters into equation to find the closed loop transfer function of AGC
block diagram.
3. Now find the steady state frequency deviation by using the relation (14.3).

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4. The computed steady state frequency deviation is also verified by finding the frequency
deviation step response in MATLAB. Open a new M-file in MATLAB and type the
following code:
Pl=0.2;
KI=7;
numc=[0.1 0.7 1 0];
denc=[1 7.08 10.56 20.8 KI];
t=0:0.2:10;
c=-Pl*step(num,den,c)
plot(t,c)
xlabel(‘t,sec’);
ylabel(‘pu’)
title(‘Frequency deviation step response’)
5. To verify the obtained result, the frequency deviation step response can also determine
by simulating the AGC block diagram in MATLAB Simulink. For given test system
the following block diagram is implemented in MATLAB Simulink.

SIMULINK MODEL:

Figure 14.2: Simulink Model

EXERCISE:

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An isolated power station has the following parameters
Turbine time constant = 0.5 s
Governor time constant = 0.2 s
Governor inertia constant = 5 s
Governor speed regulation = R per unit
The load varies by 0.8 per cent for a 1 per cent change in frequency (D=0.8)
The governor speed regulation is set to R = 0.05 per unit. The turbine rated output is 250 MW
at nominal frequency 50 Hz. A sudden load change of 50 MW (𝝙PL=0.2 P.U) occurs.
The LFC system is equipped with the secondary integral control loop for AGC,
(a) Find the frequency deviation step response using MATLAB step function. Set the
integral control gain to KI=7
(b) Construct the Simulink block diagram and obtain the frequency deviation response for
same conditions.
RESULTS:
(i) MANUAL CALCULATIONS:

(ii) MATLAB RESULTS:

CONCLUSION:
If the load on the system is increased, the turbine speed drops before the governor can adjust
the input of the steam to new load. One way to restore the speed or frequency to its nominal
value is to add an integrator. In this experiment Load frequency control mechanism is simulated

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with the addition of integral controller and it is evident from simulation results that frequency
deviation reduced to zero with the addition of integral controller.
Task:

Write a comprehensive lab report (See Appendix: C) on space provided below.

Lab Report:
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Teacher / Supervisor’s signature: ____________ Date: ____________

119
Experiment – 15
AUTOMATIC GENERATION CONTROL FOR MULTI-AREA POWER
SYSTEM
OBJECTIVES:
To learn
1. Mathematical formulation of AGC problem for two or multi-area power systems
2. Simulation of AGC mechanism for given two area power system in MATLAB
Simulink

INTRODUCTION:
If the load on the system is increased, the turbine speed drops before the governor can adjust
the input of the steam to new load. As the change in the value of speed diminishes, the error
signal becomes smaller and position of fly ball governor gets closer to the point required to
maintain a speed. However constant speed will not be the set point and there will be an offset.
One way to restore the speed or frequency is to its nominal value is to add an integrator. The
integral unit monitors the average error over the period of time and will overcome the offset.
Thus as the system load changes continuously, the generation is adjusted automatically to
restore the frequency to nominal value. This scheme is known as the automatic generation
control.
AGC in Multi-Area System:
In many cases, a group of generators are closely coupled internally and swing in a unison.
Furthermore, the generator turbines tend to have the same response characteristics. Such a
group of generators are coherent. Then it is possible to let the LFC loop to represent the whole
system which is referred to as control area. The AGC of multi-area system can be realized first
the AGC for two area system,
Consider two areas represented by an equivalent generated unit interconnected by lossless tie-
line with reactance Xtie. Each area is represented by a voltage source behind an equivalent
reactance is shown below:

Figure 15.1: Reactance diagram for two-area system

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During Normal operation, the real power transferred over the tie line is given below:

|𝐸1 ||𝐸2 |
𝑃12 = 𝑆𝑖𝑛𝛿12 (15.1)
𝑋12

Where X12= X1 + X2 + Xtie.

For a small deviation in the tie-line flow 𝝙P2 from the nominal value i.e.
𝑑𝑃
∆𝑃12 = 𝑑𝛿12 ∆𝛿12 (15.2)
12

∆𝑃12 = 𝑃𝑆 ∆𝛿12
(15.3)

The quantity Ps can be defined as:

𝑑𝑃 |𝐸1 ||𝐸2 |
𝑃𝑠 = 𝑑𝛿12 = 𝐶𝑜𝑠𝛿120
12 𝑋12
(15.4)
The tie-line power deviation then takes the form:
∆𝑃12 = 𝑃𝑆 (∆𝛿1 − ∆𝛿2
(15.5)
The tie line power flow appears as a load increase in one area and load decrease in other area,
depending on the direction of flow.
Let us consider a load change 𝝙PL1 in area 1, in the steady state, both areas will have the same
steady-state frequency deviation i.e.
∆𝑤 = ∆𝑤1 = ∆𝑤2
and
∆𝑃𝑚1 − ∆𝑃12 − ∆𝑃𝐿1 = ∆w𝐷1
∆𝑃𝑚2 + ∆𝑃12 = ∆𝑤𝐷2
A block diagram represented the two-area system with LFC only containing the primary loop
is given below:

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Figure 15.2: Block diagram of AGC mechanism

The change in mechanical power is determined by governor speed characteristics, given by:
−∆𝑤
∆𝑃𝑚1 =
𝑅1
−∆𝑤
∆𝑃𝑚2 =
𝑅2
Solving for 𝝙w, we have
−∆𝑃𝐿1
∆𝑤 = 1 1
(𝑅 +𝐷1 )+(𝑅 +𝐷2 )
1 2
(15.6)
−∆𝑃𝐿1
∆𝑤 =
𝐵1 +𝐵2
(15.7)
Where
1
𝐵1 = 𝑅 + 𝐷1 (15.8)
1

1
𝐵2 = 𝑅 + 𝐷2 (15.9)
2

B1, B2 are known as frequency bias factors. The change in the tie-line power is

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1
( +𝐷2 )∆𝑃𝐿1
𝑅2
∆𝑃12 = 1 1
( +𝐷1 )( +𝐷2 )
𝑅1 𝑅2
(15.10)

𝐵2
∆𝑃12 = (−∆𝑃𝐿1 )
𝐵1 +𝐵2
(15.11)

PROCEDURE:
The procedure of implementing Automatic Generation Control (AGC) mechanism in two area
power system is given here:
1. For the given two area power system network, keep the value of following parameters
of AGC components for both area 1 and area 2; Turbine time constant, Governor time
constant, governor inertia constant, governor speed regulation.
2. Using these values, find the frequency bias factors for both areas as given in equation
(15.8) and (15.9).
3. After that compute the steady state frequency deviation (Δw) using the relation
mentioned in equation (15.7).
4. Also find the power transferred over the tie line from area 2 to area 1 by using the
relation (15.11).
5. These obtained results (Steady state frequency deviation, Tie Line Power) can also be
verified by simulating the AGC block diagram in MATLAB Simulink. The Simulink
block diagram for example test system is given below:

SIMULINK MODEL:

123
EXERCISE:
A two area system connected by a tie line has the following parameters on a 1000MVA
common base

Area 1 2

Speed Regulation R1=0.05 R2=0.0625

Frequency –sens.load coeff. D1=0.6 D2=0.9

Inertia Constant H1=5 H2=4

Base Power 1000MVA 1000MVA

Governor Time Constant g1 = 0.2sec g1 = 0.3sec

Turbine Time Constant T1 =0.5sec T1 =0.6sec

The units are operating in parallel at the nominal frequency of 60Hz. The synchronizing power
coefficient is computed from the initial operating condition and is given to be P s = 2 p.u. A
load change of 187.5 MW occurs in area1.

(a) Determine the new steady state frequency and the change in the tie-line flow.

124
(b) Construct the SIMULINK block diagram and obtain the frequency deviation response
for the condition in part (a).

RESULTS:

(i) MANUAL CALCULATIONS:

(ii) MATLAB RESULTS:

CONCLUSION:
In an interconnected system consisting of several power pools, the role of automatic generation
control is to divide the load among system, stations, and generators so as to achieve maximum
economy and correctly control the scheduled interchanges of tie-line power while maintaining
a uniform load frequency.

Task:

Write a comprehensive lab report (See Appendix: C) on space provided below.

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127
Experiment – 16
MODELLING OF DIFFERENT COMPONENTS OF AUTOMATIC
VOLTAGE REGULATOR (AVR) SYSTEM FOR THERMAL
GENERATING UNIT AND SIMULATION OF GIVEN TEST SYSTEM
OBJECTIVES:
To learn
1. Mathematical Modelling of different components of Automatic Voltage Regulator
(AVR) System
2. Simulation of AVR mechanism for a given test system
INTRODUCTION:
The generation exciter system maintains generator voltage and controls the reactive power
flow. The sources of reactive power are generators, capacitors and reactors. The generator
reactive powers are controlled by field excitation. Other supplementary methods of improving
voltage profile on electric transmission systems are transformer load-tap changers, switched
capacitors, step voltage regulators and static VAR control equipment. The primary means of
generator reactive power control is the generation excitation control using Automatic Voltage
Regulator (AVR). The role of AVR is to hold the terminal voltage magnitude of a synchronous
generator at a specified level. The schematic diagram and mathematical modelling of different
components involved in AVR system is given below:

Figure 76.1: Schematic block diagram of AVR

MATHEMATICAL MODELLING OF AUTOMATIC VOLTAGE

REGULATOR (AVR):

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(a) Amplifier model
The excitation system amplifier may be a magnetic amplifier, rotating amplifier, or modern
electronic amplifier. The amplifier is represented by a gain KA and a time constant. The transfer
function is given below:

𝑉𝑅 (𝑠) 𝐾𝐴
=
𝑉𝐸 (𝑠) 1 + 𝜏𝐴 𝑠
𝑽𝑬 (𝒔) 𝑲𝑨 𝑽𝑹 (𝒔)
𝟏 + 𝝉𝑨 𝒔

(b) Exciter model

A reasonable model of a modern exciter is a linearized model, which takes into account the
major time constant and ignores the saturation or other nonlinearities. In the simplest form the
transfer function of a modern exciter may be represented by a single time constant and a gain
KE.

𝑉𝐹 (𝑠) 𝐾𝐸
=
𝑉𝑅 (𝑠) 1 + 𝜏𝐸 𝑠

𝑲𝑬
𝑽𝑹 (𝒔) 𝑽𝑭 (𝒔)
𝟏 + 𝝉𝑬 𝒔

(c)Generator model
The synchronous machine generated emf is a function of the machine magnetization curve and
its terminal voltage is dependent on generator load. In the linearized model, the transfer
function relating the generator terminal voltage to its field voltage can be represented by a gain
KG and a time constant and the transfer function is:

𝑉𝑡 (𝑠) 𝐾𝐺
=
𝑉𝐹 (𝑠) 1 + 𝜏𝐺 𝑠

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𝑲𝑮
𝑽𝑭 (𝒔) 𝑽𝒕 (𝒔)
𝟏 + 𝝉𝑮 𝒔

(d) Sensor model

The voltage is sensed through a potential transformer and in one form it is rectified through a
bridge rectifier. The sensor is modeled by a simple first order transfer function, given by

𝑉𝑆 (𝑠) 𝐾𝑅
=
𝑉𝑡 (𝑠) 1 + 𝜏𝑅 𝑠

𝑲𝑹
𝑽𝒕 (𝒔) 𝑽𝑺 (𝒔)
𝟏 + 𝝉𝑹 𝒔

Utilizing the above models results in AVR block diagram

The open loop transfer function is given below:

𝐾𝐴 𝐾𝐸 𝐾𝐺 𝐾𝑅
𝐾𝐺(𝑠)𝐻(𝑠) = (16.1)
(1+𝜏𝐴 𝑠)(1+𝜏𝐸 𝑠)(1+𝜏𝐺 𝑠)(1+𝜏𝑅 𝑠)

The closed loop transfer function related to generator terminal voltage and reference voltage
is:

𝑉𝑡 (𝑠) 𝐾𝐴 𝐾𝐸 𝐾𝐺 𝐾𝑅 (1+𝜏𝑅 𝑠)
= (1+𝜏 (16.2)
𝑉𝑟𝑒𝑓 (𝑠) 𝐴 𝑠)(1+𝜏𝐸 𝑠)(1+𝜏𝐺 𝑠)(1+𝜏𝑅 𝑠)+𝐾𝐴 𝐾𝐸 𝐾𝐺 𝐾𝑅

𝑉𝑇 (𝑠) = 𝑇(𝑠)𝑉𝑟𝑒𝑓 (𝑠) (16.3)

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1
For a step input 𝑉𝑟𝑒𝑓 (𝑠) = 𝑆 , using the final value theorem, the steady state response is

𝐾
𝑉𝑡(𝑠𝑠) = lim 𝑠𝑉𝑡 (𝑠) = 1+𝐾𝐴
𝑠→0 𝐴

(16.4)

PROCEDURE:
The procedure for simulating Automatic Voltage Regulator (AVR) system on a generating
unit is given below:
1. From a given system data, keep the values of gain and time constants of following four
components of AVR; Amplifier, Exciter, Sensor and generator.
2. By using these values, find the closed loop transfer function of AVR block diagram as
given in equation (16.2).
3. With the application of final value theorem, find the steady state step response of above
mentioned system according to the equation (16.4).
4. The obtained response in step 3 can also be verified through MATLAB. Open the new
M-file and type the following code to find steady state step response of the AVR system.
KA=10;
numc=KA*[25 500];
denc=[1 33.5 307.5 775 500+500*KA];
t=0:.05:20;
c=step(numc,denc,t);
plot(t,c);
grid
timespec(numc,denc)
5. The obtained result are further verified by simulating the AVR system in MATLAB
Simulink. For example test system the following block diagram will be simulated in
MATLAB Simulink.
SIMULINK MODEL:

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Figure 16.2: Simulink Model

EXERCISE:
The AVR system of a generator has the following parameters:

(a) The amplifier gain is set to KA=10. Find the steady state step response and time-
domain performance specifications.
(b) Construct the Simulink block diagram and obtain the step response.
RESULTS:
(i) MANUAL CALCULATIONS:

(ii) MATLAB RESULTS:

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CONCLUSION:
Changes in reactive power load demand effects the voltage magnitude. It is concluded from
this experiment that AVR mechanism helps to maintain constant voltage despite of changes in
reactive power load demands. Moreover the steady state response can be further improved by
adding stabilizer.

Task:

Write a comprehensive lab report (See Appendix: C) on space provided below.

Lab Report:
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Design Problem: Power System Operation and Control
Introduction:
The IEEE 14 Bus Test Case represents a portion of the American Electric Power System (in the
Midwestern US) as of February, 1962. A hardcopy data was provided by Iraj Dabbagchi of AEP and
entered in IEEE Common Data Format by Rich Christie at the University of Washington in August
1993.
This test case consists of 14 buses, 2 generators, 3 synchronous compensators and 11 loads. The 14 bus
test case does NOT have line limits. Compared to 1990's power systems, it has low base voltages and
an overabundance of voltage control capability.
The Single Line Diagram of a 14 bus system is given below:

Figure 8: IEEE 14 bus system Benchmark

The system data is taken from [1]. The data given in the following tables is on 100MVA base. The
minimum and maximum limits of voltage magnitude and phase angle are considered to be 0.95p.u. to
1.05p.u. and -45 to +45 degrees respectively.

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Q1: What are the different types of Buses in Power System? Briefly explain their significance. Also,
from the 14 bus data mentioned above identify the type of each bus. (5 Marks)
Q2: What are Synchronous Compensators? Can we regard them as system Loads or generators?
Motivate your answer. (5 Marks)
Q3: Considering the data mentioned in Table A.2 formulate an Economic Load Dispatch problem
Statement along with the Lagrange Function. (5 Marks)
Q4: Design a lambda iteration program that can solve the Lagrange function you have formulated in
Q3 to find the incremental cost and the power generated by each plant. (10 Marks)
Q5. Compute the Transmission Line Loss Coefficients, reformulate the Economic Load Dispatch
problem along with the Lagrange function and use lambda iterative method to find the new set of
generated powers. (20 Marks)

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Appendix A

Power System Operation and Control Lab

Course Learning Outcomes (CLO)

Taxonomy
CLO NO CLO STATEMENT PLO LEVEL*

Follows MATLAB instructions to produce optimal

1 results of economic dispatch, unit commitment and 5 P3
automatic generation control.

* C – Cognitive ; A – Affective ; P – Psychomotor

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Appendix B

Lab Evaluation Rubrics

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Appendix C

Guidelines on Preparing Lab Reports

Each student will write a separate lab report for each experiment. However, students can use space
provided at the end of each experiment. A format has been developed for writing these lab reports.
Hardware Lab Report Format
For hardware-based labs, the format of the report will include:
1. Introduction and Objective Clarity: Introduce area explored in the experiment and What are
the learning goals of the experiment?
2. Measurements: In your own words write how the experiment is performed (Do not
copy/paste the procedure).
a. Calculations: Add recommended calculations
b. Results Analysis and/or Graphs (if any)
c. Issues: Which technical issues were faced during the performance of the experiment
and how they were resolved?
3. Discussion & Conclusions: Discuss the findings and what conclusions can be drawn from the
measurements?
a. Applications: Suggest a real-world application where this experiment may apply.
b. Answers to post lab questions (if any).

Sample Lab Report: Hardware Experiments

Objective:
To study transient response of a series RC circuit.
Introduction
An RC circuit is a first order circuit that utilizes a capacitor as an energy storage element
whereas a resistor as an energy wastage element. RC circuits are building blocks of electronic devices
and their thorough understanding is important in comprehending advance engineering systems such
as transistors and transmission lines.
An RC circuit can be operated with both DC and AC sources. In this lab we study transient
response of RC circuits with a square wave as a DC source. During the DC operation of an RC circuit

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the voltage across the capacitor or the resistor show energy storing (capacitor charging) and
dissipating (capacitor discharging via resistor) mechanisms of the circuit. The capacitor charging or
discharging curves then lead to determine time constant of the circuit where the time constant
signifies time required by the RC circuit to store or waste energy.
Measurements and Results Analysis:
The circuit used for the experiment is shown in Fig. 1. Both input (a square wave) and output
(voltage across capacitor) waveforms are monitored on an oscilloscope. The capacitor charging is
observed during "on" part of the square waveform whereas the capacitor discharging is observed
during "off" part of the square waveform (Fig. 2). We measure the time constant from the capacitor
charging or discharging curve. While keeping the capacitor value constant, we also measure time
constants with various resistor values (Table 1).

Fig.1. The circuit used in the experiment

Issues:
Mention any issue(s) you encountered during the experiment and how they were resolved.
Discussion and Conclusions:
From the measurements following conclusions can be drawn:
a. The capacitor charging and discharging curves are exponential.
b. The time constant is directly proportional to the resistor value.
Both of the above conclusions are also easily verifiable by solving differential equation for the
RC circuit.
Applications:
An RC circuit can be employed for a camera flash. The capacitor discharges through the flash
light during a picture taking event.

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INPUT VOLTAGE VOLTAGE ACROSS A CAPACITOR

Fig. 2. Input and Output waveforms

TABLE I. Time constant as a function of the resistor values

Resistance
270 Ω 330 Ω 470 Ω 1 kΩ 2.2 kΩ 3.3 kΩ
(Nominal)
Resistance
(Measured)
Time constant
(Calculated)
Time constant
(Measured)
Capacitance
(Measured)

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Appendix D

Lab Evaluation Criteria

Labs with projects
1. Lab Sessional 60%
a. Experiment Performance 20%
b. Lab reports 20%
c. Mid Term 20%
2. Final evaluation 40%
a. Lab Performance/Viva 20%
b. Lab Project/Presentation 20%
Labs without projects
1. Lab Sessional 60%
a. Experiment Performance 20%
b. Lab reports 20%
c. Mid Term 20%
2. Final evaluation 40%
a. Lab Performance/Viva 20%
b. Lab Presentation 20%
Notice:
Copying and plagiarism of lab reports is a serious academic misconduct. First instance of
copying may entail ZERO in that experiment. Second instance of copying may be reported to DC. This
may result in awarding FAIL in the lab course.

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Appendix E

Safety around Electricity

In all the Electrical Engineering (EE) labs, with an aim to prevent any unforeseen accidents
during conduct of lab experiments, following preventive measures and safe practices shall be adopted:

• Remember that the voltage of the electricity and the available electrical current in EE labs has
enough power to cause death/injury by electrocution. It is around 50V/10 mA that the “cannot
let go” level is reached. “The key to survival is to decrease our exposure to energized circuits.”
• If a person touches an energized bare wire or faulty equipment while grounded, electricity will
instantly pass through the body to the ground, causing a harmful, potentially fatal, shock.
• Each circuit must be protected by a fuse or circuit breaker that will blow or “trip” when its safe
carrying capacity is surpassed. If a fuse blows or circuit breaker trips repeatedly while in normal
use (not overloaded), check for shorts and other faults in the line or devices. Do not resume use
until the trouble is fixed.
• It is hazardous to overload electrical circuits by using extension cords and multi-plug outlets.
Use extension cords only when necessary and make sure they are heavy enough for the job.
Avoid creating an “octopus” by inserting several plugs into a multi-plug outlet connected to a
single wall outlet. Extension cords should ONLY be used on a temporary basis in situations where
fixed wiring is not feasible.
• Dimmed lights, reduced output from heaters and poor monitor pictures are all symptoms of an
overloaded circuit. Keep the total load at any one time safely below maximum capacity.
• If wires are exposed, they may cause a shock to a person who comes into contact with them.
Cords should not be hung on nails, run over or wrapped around objects, knotted or twisted. This
may break the wire or insulation. Short circuits are usually caused by bare wires touching due
to breakdown of insulation. Electrical tape or any other kind of tape is not adequate for
insulation!
• Electrical cords should be examined visually before use for external defects such as: Fraying
(worn out) and exposed wiring, loose parts, deformed or missing parts, damage to outer jacket
or insulation, evidence of internal damage such as pinched or crushed outer jacket. If any defects
are found the electric cords should be removed from service immediately.

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• Pull the plug not the cord. Pulling the cord could break a wire, causing a short circuit.
• Plug your heavy current consuming or any other large appliances into an outlet that is not shared
with other appliances. Do not tamper with fuses as this is a potential fire hazard. Do not overload
circuits as this may cause the wires to heat and ignite insulation or other combustibles.
• Keep lab equipment properly cleaned and maintained.
• Ensure lamps are free from contact with flammable material. Always use lights bulbs with the
recommended wattage for your lamp and equipment.
• Be aware of the odor of burning plastic or wire.
• ALWAYS follow the manufacturer recommendations when using or installing new lab
equipment. Wiring installations should always be made by a licensed electrician or other
qualified person. All electrical lab equipment should have the label of a testing laboratory.
• Be aware of missing ground prong and outlet cover, pinched wires, damaged casings on
electrical outlets.
• Inform Lab engineer / Lab assistant of any failure of safety preventive measures and safe
practices as soon you notice it. Be alert and proceed with caution at all times in the laboratory.
• Conduct yourself in a responsible manner at all times in the EE Labs.
• Follow all written and verbal instructions carefully. If you do not understand a direction or part
of a procedure, ASK YOUR LAB ENGINEER / LAB ASSISTANT BEFORE PROCEEDING WITH THE
ACTIVITY.
• Never work alone in the laboratory. No student may work in EE Labs without the presence of
the Lab engineer / Lab assistant.
• Perform only those experiments authorized by your teacher. Carefully follow all instructions,
both written and oral. Unauthorized experiments are not allowed.
• Be prepared for your work in the EE Labs. Read all procedures thoroughly before entering the
laboratory. Never fool around in the laboratory. Horseplay, practical jokes, and pranks are
dangerous and prohibited.
• Always work in a well-ventilated area.
• Observe good housekeeping practices. Work areas should be kept clean and tidy at all times.
• Experiments must be personally monitored at all times. Do not wander around the room,
distract other students, startle other students or interfere with the laboratory experiments of
others.

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• Dress properly during a laboratory activity. Long hair, dangling jewelry, and loose or baggy
clothing are a hazard in the laboratory. Long hair must be tied back, and dangling jewelry and
baggy clothing must be secured. Shoes must completely cover the foot.
• Know the locations and operating procedures of all safety equipment including fire extinguisher.
Know what to do if there is a fire during a lab period; “Turn off equipment, if possible and exit
EE lab immediately.”

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