POLITECNICO DI TORINO

Department of Mechanical and Aerospace Engineering

Master Degree in Automotive Engineering
A.Y. 2018-2019

Marco Agostini - 253190

POWERTRAIN
COMPONENTS DESIGN

Engine
Index I

Index

1. Crank Slider Mechanism 1

Centered Layout 1
Offset Layout 3
Dynamics 5
Stroke Discussion 6
Centrifugal Inertial Force 6
Forces on the Connecting Rod 7
Torque on the Single Crank 7
Forces and Moment on the Cylinder Block 8
Most Stressed Crank in Multicylinder Engine 8
Engine Degree of Irregularity 9

2. Wrist Pin 11
Design Guidelines 11
Verifications 12

3. Connecting Rod 15
Big Eye 16
Small Eye 16
Materials 16
Load Condition 17
Design Guidelines – Stem 17
Design Guidelines – Small Eye 21
Design Guidelines – Big Eye 22

4. Crankshaft 23
Material 23
Design Guidelines 24
Structural Verification 24
Static Analysis 26
Dynamic Analysis (VI Steps) 26
Dynamic Numerical Analysis (FEA-MBA) 30

5. Bearings 31
Classical Analysis 31
Numerical Coupled FEA-MBA
II Powertrain Engine Component

6. Piston 35
Material 35
Design Guidelines 36
Numerical Analysis 38
Piston Slap 40

7. Cylinder Head 43
Material 43
Cooling 44
Gasket 44
Cover 44
Design Guidelines 45
FEM Analysis 46

8. Cylinder Block 47
Material 49
Liners 49
Design Guidelines 51
Wall 51
Main Cap 52
Liner Support 52
Liner Wall 53
Liner Flange 54
Numerical Analysis (FEA) 54

9. Oil Pan 55
Numerical Optimization – Modal Analysis 55

10. Thermo-Mechanical Fatigue 57

Hysteresis 58
TMF Fatigue Damage 60
Residual Life Estimation 62
Damage Models 62
Basquin-Manson-Coffin 51
Neu-Sehitoglu 52
Chaboche, BMW 52
Skeleton 53
Multiaxial 54
Index III

11. Exhaust Manifold 65

Material 65
Design Guidelines 65
Working Condition on the Test Bench 66
Material Behavior 66
Residual Life Estimation – FEA Analysis 67
§ 1 – Crank Slider Mechanism 1

1. Crank Slider Mechanism

Start with crank slider mechanism of single cylinder to find the forces that load all the engine parts. The
kinematics studies the position 𝑥, velocity 𝑥̇ and acceleration 𝑥̈ , whereas the dynamics is related to forces and
torques.

The conversion of reciprocating movement of the piston in rotational motion of the crankshaft is obtained
through the so-called crank mechanism:

• The small end of the connecting rod is attached to the piston by means of the wrist pin,

• The big end of the connecting rod rotates with the crankpin

• The crank mechanism transforms the thermal energy of the cylinder charge into mechanical work of
the crankshaft.

Centered Layout

Position

Starting from the geometrical balance:

𝑟
𝑟 sin 𝜗 = 𝑙 sin 𝛽, 𝜆= Elongation factor
𝑙
sin 𝛽 = 𝜆 sin 𝜗

cos 𝛽 = ඥ1 − sin2 𝛽 = ඥ1 − 𝜆2 sin2 𝜗

The position 𝒙𝑷 is computed as:

𝑥𝑃 = 𝐴′ 𝑂 − 𝐴𝑂 = 𝐴′ 𝑂 − 𝐴𝐷 − 𝐷𝑂

𝑥𝑃 = ሺ𝑙 + 𝑟ሻ − 𝑟 cos 𝜗 − 𝑙 cos 𝛽

𝑥𝑃 = 𝑟 − 𝑟 cos 𝜗 + 𝑙ሺ1 − cos 𝛽ሻ

1
𝑥𝑃 = 𝑟 ൤1 − cos 𝜗 + − ሺ1 − cos 𝛽ሻ൨
𝜆

1
𝑥𝑃 = 𝑟 ൤1 − cos 𝜗 + ቀ1 − ඥ1 − 𝜆2 sin2 𝜗ቁ൨
𝜆

The higher the Elongation factor 𝜆, the higher

the piston displacement.
2 Powertrain Components Design

Velocity

In this way, according to the Elongation Factor 𝜆, the piston displacement increases as 𝜆 increases. Once the
position 𝑥𝑃 has been defined, then the velocity is the time derivative of the position:

𝜆 sin 2𝜗
𝑣𝑃 = 𝜔𝑟 ൤sin 𝜗 + ൨
2 √1 − 𝜆2 sin2 𝜗

As the term 𝜆2 sin2 𝜗 can be neglected with respect to the unit (very low), the centered piston velocity results:

𝜆
𝑣𝑃 = 𝜔𝑟 (sin 𝜗 + sin 2𝜗)
2

The maximum velocity is obtained for cos 𝜗 + 𝜆 cos 2𝜗 = 0 which is slightly towards the TDC.

The mean piston velocity is equal to:

𝑛
𝑢 = 2𝑠
60

where 𝑛 is the engine speed in rpm. This parameter is

important since it affects the fluid losses during the gas
exchange process.

Increasing 𝑢, inertia pressure increases!!

Acceleration

Again, by derivating the velocity, one obtain the instantaneous acceleration. By neglecting the term 𝜆2 sin2 𝜗,
one has the approximated piston acceleration:

𝑎𝑃 ≈ 𝜔2 𝑟ሺcos 𝜗 + 𝜆 cos 2𝜗ሻ

• The first-order term is linked to the crank rotation.

• The second-order term is produced by the

increase/decrease of the connecting rod obliquity
(angle 𝛽) with respect the cylinder axis.

• The second order has double the frequency than the

first-order term.
§ 1 – Crank Slider Mechanism 3

Offset Layout

Position

In the offset layout, the cylinder axis does not intersect the center of the crankshaft. The overall offset 𝑧𝑜 is the
sum of the displacement 𝑧𝑜,𝑐 of the crankshaft axis and the displacement 𝑧𝑜,𝑤𝑝 of the wrist pin axis:

𝑧𝑜 = 𝑧𝑜,𝑐 + 𝑧𝑜,𝑤𝑝

Again, starting from the geometrical balance:

𝐷′ 𝐵 = 𝐷′ 𝐷 + 𝐷𝐵

𝑟 sin 𝜗 = 𝑧𝑜 + 𝑙 sin 𝛽
𝑟
• 𝜆= Elongation factor
𝑙

𝑍𝑜
• 𝛿= Adimensional Offset
𝑙

sin 𝛽 = 𝜆 sin 𝜗 − 𝛿

cos 𝛽 = ඥ1 − sin2 𝛽 = ඥ1 − ሺ 𝜆 sin 𝜗 − 𝛿ሻ2

The position 𝒙𝑷 is computed as:

𝑥𝑃 = 𝐴′ 𝐸 − 𝐴𝐸 = 𝐴′ 𝐸 − 𝐴𝐷 − 𝐷𝐸

𝑥𝑃 = ሺ𝑙 + 𝑟ሻ cos 𝜑 − 𝑟 cos 𝜗 − 𝑙 cos 𝛽

𝑥𝑃 = 𝑟 − 𝑟 cos 𝜗 + 𝑙ሺ1 − cos 𝛽ሻ

𝛿 2 1
𝑥𝑃 = ሺ𝑙 + 𝑟ሻ√1 − ( ) − ඥ1 − ሺ 𝜆 sin 𝜗 − 𝛿ሻ2 − cos 𝜗
1+𝜆 𝜆

1 𝛿 2 1
𝑥𝑃 = 𝑟 [(1 + ) √1 − ( ) − ඥ1 − ሺ 𝜆 sin 𝜗 − 𝛿ሻ2 − cos 𝜗]
𝜆 1+𝜆 𝜆

In terms of behavior, there are significant changes compared to the centered layout: the higher the elongation
factor 𝜆, the higher the piston displacement.
4 Powertrain Components Design

Velocity

Once the position 𝑥𝑃 has been defined, then the velocity is the time derivative of the position:

𝑑𝑥𝑃 𝑑𝑥𝑃 𝑑𝜗 𝑑𝑥𝑃

𝑣𝑃 = = = 𝜔
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝜗 𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝜗

𝛿 cos 𝜗 𝜆 sin 2𝜗
𝑣𝑃 = 𝜔𝑟 [sin 𝜗 − + ]
ඥ1 − ሺ 𝜆 sin 𝜗 − 𝛿ሻ2 2 ඥ1 − ሺ 𝜆 sin 𝜗 − 𝛿ሻ2

As the term 𝜆2 sin2 𝜗 can be neglected with respect to the unit (very low), the centered piston velocity results:

𝜆
𝑣𝑃 = 𝜔𝑟 (sin 𝜗 + sin 2𝜗)
2

Acceleration

The piston velocity varies during the operative cycle of the engine and it is then possible to obtain the piston
acceleration deriving the piston velocity with respect to time:

sin 𝜗 ሺ𝜆 sin 𝜗 − 𝛿ሻ 𝜆 cos 2 𝜗 𝜆 cos 2 𝜗 ሺ𝜆 sin 𝜗 − 𝛿ሻ2

𝑎𝑃 = 𝜔2 𝑟 [ + + ]
ඥ1 − ሺ 𝜆 sin 𝜗 − 𝛿ሻ2 ඥ1 − ሺ 𝜆 sin 𝜗 − 𝛿ሻ2 ඥሺ1 − ሺ 𝜆 sin 𝜗 − 𝛿ሻ2 ሻ3
§ 1 – Crank Slider Mechanism 5

Dynamics

The force acting on the crank mechanism can be divided into two
contributes:
𝐹 = 𝐹𝑔 + 𝐹𝑎

• 𝐹𝑔 due to gas pressure inside the combustion chamber;

• 𝐹𝑎 due to the inertia of the moving parts

The force due to the gas pressure is given by:

𝜋𝐷2
𝐹𝑔 = [𝑝𝑔 ሺ𝜃ሻ − 𝑝0 ]
4

where 𝑝𝑔 ሺ𝜃ሻ is the gas pressure as function of the crank angle, and 𝑝0 is
the crankcase pressure.

For the inertia force 𝐹𝑎 , it is required to further split the force into two contributions: that caused by masses
with reciprocating motion (reciprocating forces) and that given by rotating masses (centrifugal forces):

• Reciprocating forces are directed along the cylinder axis;

• Centrifugal forces passes through the rotating center of the crank (do not influence engine torque).

The connecting rod is simplified as a system with two concentrated masses linked by a rod (with no mass):

• 𝑚𝑐𝑟,𝑎 is concatenated on the center of the small eye translational motion;

• 𝑚𝑐𝑟,𝑟 is concatenated on the center of the big eye rotational motion.

𝑚𝑐𝑟,𝑎 + 𝑚𝑐𝑟,𝑟 = 𝑚𝑐𝑟 𝑥2

𝑚𝑐𝑟,𝑎 = 𝑚𝑐𝑟
𝑙
𝑚𝑐𝑟,𝑎 𝑥1 = 𝑚𝑐𝑟,𝑟 𝑥2 𝑥1
⟹ 𝑚𝑐𝑟,𝑟 = 𝑚𝑐𝑟
𝑙
{ 𝑚𝑐𝑟,𝑎 𝑥12 + 𝑚𝑐𝑟,𝑟 𝑥22 + 𝐽0 = 𝐽𝑐𝑟 {𝐽0 = 𝐽𝑐𝑟 − 𝑚𝑐𝑟 𝑥1 𝑥2

The additional moment of inertia 𝐽𝑜 has no physical meaning (it is

always negative) but it is mandatory to guarantee the conservation of
the total moment of inertia. For this reason 𝐽0 has the same direction
of the angular velocity of the con-rod.

Once the total mass of reciprocating forces (piston group) is calculated, one can obtain the relative force
considering a centered crank mechanism and the approximated acceleration:

𝑚𝑎 = 𝑚𝑝 + 𝑚𝑤𝑝 + 𝑚𝑐𝑟,𝑎 → 𝐹𝑎 = −𝑚𝑎 𝑎𝑃 = −𝑚𝑎 𝜔2 𝑟ሺcos 𝜗 + 𝜆 cos 2𝜗ሻ = 𝐹𝑎′ + 𝐹𝑎 ′′

• 𝐹𝑎′ = −𝑚𝑎 𝜔2 𝑟 cos 𝜗 first-order term

• 𝐹𝑎′ = −𝑚𝑎 𝜔2 𝑟𝜆 cos 2𝜗 second-order term (double the frequency, proportional to 𝜆)

𝐹𝑎 is not a rotating vector: direction is fixed in time, amplitude and orientation are functions of the crank angle.
6 Powertrain Components Design

Stroke Discussion

• Short Stroke Bore > Stroke High spin speed, subjected to low reciprocating inertial force
Over-square Easy to fit bigger valves, lower overall height (motorcycles)

• Long Stroke Bore < Stroke Piston translational velocity reduces, low spin speed but high torque
Under-square at low regime (industrial application, diesel engines)

• Square Engine Bore = Stroke Most used in automotive industry

Centrifugal Inertial Force

Focusing on the crank group, the rotating parts are subjected to the centrifugal force 𝐹𝜔 :

𝐹𝜔 = 𝑚𝑟 𝜔2 𝑟

where 𝑚𝑟 is composed of the mass of the crankpin 𝑚𝑐𝑝 and of the two crankwebs 𝑚𝑤𝑏 . These last mass must
be reduced since they are placed at a distance 𝑟𝑐𝑤 with respect the crank axis whereas 𝑚𝑐𝑝 lies on the axis. To
reduce the crankweb mass, one exploits the equality of static moments:

𝑟𝑐𝑤
𝑚𝑐𝑤,𝑟𝑒𝑑 = 𝑚𝑐𝑤
𝑟

The total rotating mass is then:

𝑚𝑟 = 𝑚𝑐𝑝 + 2𝑚𝑐𝑤,𝑟𝑒𝑑 + 𝑚𝑐𝑟,𝑟

The correspondent inertial centrifugal force 𝐹𝜔 is a rotating vector with constant amplitude which passes
through the axis of rotation of the crank. The horizontal and vertical component are:

• 𝐹𝜔,ℎ = 𝐹𝜔 sin 𝜗

• 𝐹𝜔,𝑣 = 𝐹𝜔 cos 𝜗
§ 1 – Crank Slider Mechanism 7

Forces on the Connecting Rod

• 𝐹 is always directed along cylinder axis: 𝐹 = 𝐹𝑔 + 𝐹𝑎

• The inertia force 𝐹𝑎 is composed of the contribution of the

alternating mass, causing 𝐹𝑎 ′ and 𝐹𝑎 ′′, and rotational mass,
producing 𝐹𝜔 .

• 𝐹 can be decomposed into a normal component 𝐹𝑛 and a

component along the con-rod 𝐹𝑐𝑟 .

• 𝐹𝑛 represents the thrust force on the wall of the liner whereas

𝐹𝑐𝑟 is the thrust force on the connecting rod. Force 𝐹𝑐𝑟 is actually
generating the engine torque.

𝐹 𝐹
𝐹𝑐𝑟 = =
cos 𝛽 √1 − 𝜆2 sin2 𝜗

Torque on the Single Crank

The force 𝐹𝑐𝑟 acting along the con-rod has an arm 𝑑 with respect the crankshaft axis, so that the developed
torque is:
𝐹
𝑀 = 𝐹𝑐𝑟 𝑑 = 𝐹𝑐𝑟 𝑟 sinሺ𝜗 + 𝛽ሻ = 𝑟 sinሺ𝜗 + 𝛽ሻ
cos 𝛽

The torque can also be rewritten as function of the force 𝐹 by substituting the 𝛽 functions:

𝜆 sin 𝜗 cos 𝜗
𝑀 = 𝐹𝑟 (sin 𝜗 + )
√1 − 𝜆2 sin2 𝜗

As usual, by neglecting 𝜆2 sin2 𝜗 with respect the unit, the torque on the single crank reduces to:

𝜆
𝑀 = 𝐹𝑟 (sin 𝜗 + sin 2𝜗)
2
8 Powertrain Components Design

Forces and moment on the Cylinder Block

The gas pressure inside the cylinder and the inertial forces
transfer forces to engine block.

These forces are countered by engine mounts. At the center of

the Big Eye (point B), the force 𝐹𝑐𝑟 hits the line of action of the
centrifugal force 𝐹𝜔 that acts on the rotating mass.

Thus, here 𝐹𝑐𝑟 and 𝐹𝜔 generate an horizontal and vertical force,

𝐹ℎ and 𝐹𝑣 , acting on the main bearing and consequently on the
cylinder block.

• 𝐹ℎ = 𝐹𝑐𝑟 sin 𝛽 + 𝐹𝜔 sin 𝜗

• 𝐹𝑣 = 𝐹𝑐𝑟 cos 𝛽 + 𝐹𝜔 sin 𝜗

Considering also the normal force (oriented horizontally) and
the gas pressure (oriented vertically), then the overall load on the engine block is:

• 𝐹𝐻 = 𝐹ℎ − 𝐹𝑛 = 𝐹𝜔 sin 𝜗 Only depends on centrifugal force

• 𝐹𝑉 = 𝐹𝑣 − 𝐹𝑔 = 𝐹𝑎 − 𝐹𝜔 cos 𝜗 Depends on both reciprocating and centrifugal forces.

Also, the block is balanced by a counterclockwise equilibrium moment:

𝑀𝑒 = 𝐹𝑛 𝑥ሺ𝜗ሻ = 𝐹𝑛 ሺcos 𝛽 + 𝑟 cos 𝜗ሻ

By developing this expression and neglecting 𝜆2 sin2 𝜗, one obtains:

𝜆
𝑀𝑒 = 𝐹𝑟 (sin 𝜗 + sin 2𝜗)
2

This is equal and opposite to the instantaneous single crank torque and it is proportional to the reciprocating
inertial force and the gas pressure (since it depends on 𝐹)

Most Stressed Crank in Multicylinder Engine

In multi-cylinder engines, the trend of each force and moment computed for the single-cylinder engine has to
be superimposed by respecting the engine firing order (FO) to obtain the correct time and space.

The stress on a specific crank is not solely due by the stress due to the piston connected with that specific crank
but also by the presence of the other cranks.

To identify the most stressed crank, the engine torque acting on each “single-cylinder” has to be computed,
and the trends of all cylinders have to be added starting from the first cylinder until the last one indicated by
the FO:

1. the engine torque acting on each “single-cylinder” is computed and reported on the same graph,
respecting the given FO
§ 1 – Crank Slider Mechanism 9

2. by respecting the FO, the engine torques related to each “single-cylinder” are added together starting
from the first cylinder (1) until the last one

3. Finally, as the curve given by the sum of the engine torques of cylinders reaches the maximum highest
value, the most stressed crank is that for which the curve reaches the maximum, cylinder 4 in this case.

Engine Degree of Irregularity

The engine degree of irregularity is the ratio between the maximum and the average engine torque. The higher
the number of cylinders, the lower the irregularity.

The crankshaft acceleration is not constant, the power is fluctuating: the objective of the flywheel is to smooth
down the acceleration of the crankshaft.

The Kinematic Irregularity 𝜹 parameter is defined as:

𝜔𝑚𝑎𝑥 − 𝜔𝑚𝑖𝑛 𝜔𝑚𝑎𝑥 + 𝜔𝑚𝑖𝑛

𝛿 ≝ ≤ 1%, 𝜔𝑎𝑣𝑔 =
𝜔𝑎𝑣𝑔 2

This value of the kinematic irregularity set the limit to the maximum allowed speed fluctuation.

The dimensioning analysis of the flywheel is based upon the engine shaft dynamic equilibrium equation:

𝑑𝜔
𝑀𝑠 ሺ𝜃ሻ − 𝑀𝑟 ሺ𝜃ሻ = 𝒥
𝑑𝑡
where:

• 𝑀𝑠 ሺ𝜃ሻ shaft momentum as function of crank angle 𝜃,

• 𝑀𝑟 ሺ𝜃ሻ resistant momentum as function of crank angle 𝜃,

• 𝒥 overall engine inertia: = 𝒥engine + 𝒥flywheel + 𝒥transmission + 𝒥user ,

• 𝜔 engine angular velocity.

The integration of the momentum along the engine cycle is equal to the work, thus:

2
𝜔𝑚𝑎𝑥 − 𝜔02
𝑊𝑠 ሺ𝜗𝑚𝑎𝑥 ሻ − 𝑊𝑟 ሺ𝜗𝑚𝑎𝑥 ሻ = 𝒥
2
10 Powertrain Components Design

𝐽
I Irregularity Parameter – Kinematic ∆𝑊𝑚𝑎𝑥 = maxሺ𝑊𝑠 − 𝑊𝑟 ሻ = 2
∙ ሺ𝜔𝑚𝑎𝑥 − 𝜔02 ሻ
2

In the same way, considering the minimum crankshaft speed 𝜗𝑚𝑖𝑛 = 𝜗ሺ𝜔 = minሻ, one has:

𝐽 2
II Irregularity Parameter – Kinematic ∆𝑊𝑚𝑖𝑛 = minሺ𝑊𝑠 − 𝑊𝑟 ሻ = ∙ ሺ𝜔𝑚𝑖𝑛 − 𝜔02 ሻ
2

The dynamic irregularity 𝜉 is defined as:

𝒥 ሺ𝜔𝑚𝑎𝑥 + 𝜔𝑚𝑖𝑛 ሻሺ𝜔𝑚𝑎𝑥 − 𝜔𝑚𝑖𝑛 ሻ

𝜉= ∙
imep ∙ 𝑉 2

To satisfy the kinematic irregularity requirements, the velocity term considers the parameter 𝛿:

𝜔𝑚𝑎𝑥 − 𝜔𝑚𝑖𝑛 = 𝛿 ∙ 𝜔𝑎𝑣𝑔

III Irregularity parameter – Dynamics

2
𝒥𝛿𝜔𝑎𝑣𝑔
𝜉=
imep ∙ 𝑉
§ 2 – Wrist Pin 11

2. Wrist Pin
The wrist pin is the connecting element between the piston and the connecting rod. To reduce its mass, its
geometry is a hollow cylinder with tapered ends, and thicker in the middle. It is kept in position by snap metal
rings inserted into grooves of the piston hub.

Two different configuration can be adopted:

• Fixed pin Low stressed engine, fixed with respect the small eye of the conrod.

• Floating pin Medium to high stressed engine, free to rotate compared to the small eye by means
of bushings.

Suitable materials must face high fatigue resistance and good surface hardness:

• NiCr 𝑅𝑚 = 1500 MPa, hardness up to 240 HB

• Croma hardness up to 270 HB

Design Guidelines

The pin is modeled as a beam with 3 distributed load: one external load and t he two constraint reactions.

The value of the external force 𝐹 depends on the type of verification:

• Static 𝐹 is given by the maximum gas compression, inertial force are neglected

• Fatigue 𝐹 is a function ranging between 𝐹𝑚𝑎𝑥 and 𝐹𝑚𝑖𝑛

12 Powertrain Components Design

First attempt design

First consider a sample pin with:

• Pin length is equal to the Bore 𝑙𝑤𝑝 = 𝐷

• Outer diameter equal to 35% of the bore 𝐷𝑤𝑝 = 0.35 𝐷

• Inner diameter equal to 40% of the bore 𝑑𝑤𝑝 = 0.40 𝐷

• Thickness 50% of the inner diameter 𝑡 = 0.5 𝑑𝑤𝑝

Then, one has to find lengths 𝑎 and 𝑏 by superimposing a contact pressure of 65 MPa

𝐹 𝑞𝑏 𝑞
= = ≤ 𝑝𝑎𝑑𝑚, bushing = 65 𝑀𝑃𝑎
𝐴bushing 𝑏𝐷𝑤𝑝 0.35 ⋅ 𝐷

𝐹/2 𝑞𝑏 𝑞
= = ≤ 𝑝𝑎𝑑𝑚, piston = 65 𝑀𝑃𝑎
𝐴hub 2𝑎𝐷𝑤𝑝 𝑎 ⋅ 0.7 ⋅ 𝐷

{ 𝑙𝑤𝑝 = 𝐷 = 2𝑎 + 𝑏

Verifications

The properties to be verified are bending, shear and ovalization.

Bending
Maximum bending moment 𝑀𝑏 is in the wrist pin midspan:

𝐹 𝑎 𝑏 𝐹 𝑏
𝑀𝑏 = ( + ) − ⋅
2 2 2 2 4
𝐹 2𝑎 + 𝑏
𝑀𝑏 = ( )
2 4
𝐹 𝑞𝑏
𝑀𝑏 = 𝑙 = 𝑙
8 𝑤𝑝 8 𝑤𝑝

The corresponding bending stress is:

𝑀𝑏
𝜎𝑏 =
𝑊𝑏,𝑤𝑝

Shear
Indicating with 𝑆𝑤𝑝 the static moment of area of the wrist pin, the shear stress is:

𝐹 ⋅ 𝑆𝑤𝑝
𝜏=
2𝑏𝐼𝑤𝑝

where 𝐼𝑤𝑝 is the moment of inertia of the pin in its inflection plane.
§ 2 – Wrist Pin 13

Ovalization
For the ovalization analysis, the wrist pin is modeled as an arc loaded by a pressure distribution acting on the
semi-circumference:

𝑝 = 𝑝0 sin2 𝜑 , 0<𝜑<𝜋

and the piston hubs are assumed rigid.

The analysis is performed according to the Curved Beam Theory of a quarter of arc loaded by the external force
𝐹/4 and constrained by reactions. The ovalization moment is:

𝐹𝑟̅𝑤𝑝 1 𝜋
𝑀𝑜𝑣(𝜋/2) = , 𝜑=
2 𝜋 2

𝐹𝑟̅𝑤𝑝 1 1
𝑀𝑜𝑣(0,𝜋) = ( − ), 𝜑 = 0, 𝜋
2 2 𝜋

The correspondent ovalization stress is then:

𝑀𝑜𝑣 24 ⋅ 𝑀𝑜𝑣
𝜎𝑜𝑣 = =
𝑊𝑤𝑝 𝑙 (𝐷 − 𝑑 )2
𝑤𝑝 𝑤𝑝 𝑤𝑝

Equivalent Stress
Now it is possible to compute 𝜎𝑒𝑞 according to Von Mises in the midspan section of the wrist pin as the
combination of the shear and ovalization stresses:

2 2
𝜎𝑒𝑞 = √𝜎𝑜𝑣 (0,𝜋) + 3𝜏

We compare 𝜎𝑒𝑞 with 𝜎𝑏 and the final inner and outer diameters of the pin are computed according to the
maximum between 𝜎𝑒𝑞 and 𝜎𝑏 :

max(𝜎𝑒𝑞 , 𝜎𝑏 ) ≤ 𝜎𝑎𝑑𝑚,𝑤𝑝 → 𝐷𝑤𝑝 , 𝑑𝑤𝑝

Ovalization also faces lubrication problem, therefore it is required to verify the ovalization also in these limits.
These verifications are performed over the longitudinal and transversal deformation.
14 Powertrain Components Design

Longitudinal displacement
The wrist pin maximum longitudinal displacement is computed through Structural Mechanics Theory:

𝑏 (𝑎 + 𝑏)3 𝐹
𝑓 = (1 − ) ≤ 𝑓𝑎𝑑𝑚
2(𝑎 + 𝑏) 48𝐸𝐼𝑤𝑝

where 𝑓𝑎𝑑𝑚 is given by CFD computations.

Transversal displacement
The wrist pin maximum transversal displacement is:

3
4𝐹𝑟̅𝑤𝑝
𝑓𝑜𝑣 = 3 ≤ 𝛿𝑚𝑖𝑛
𝑙𝑤𝑝 (𝐷𝑤𝑝 − 𝑑𝑤𝑝 ) 𝐸

where 𝛿𝑚𝑖𝑛 is the minimum tolerance assumed for the bushing.

§ 3 – Connecting Rod 15

3. Connecting Rod
The con-rod is the element that actually converts the alternating motion of the piston group into the rotary
motion of the crankshaft. Its design also deeply affects the overall dynamic behavior of the engine. Indeed, the
conrod limits the maximum engine speed and creates important transversal load on the liner. The con-rod is
composed of:

The most stressed part is the stem: it must react to bending and compressive action. Its cross section is usually
optimized in terms of weight and stress distribution by using a T geometry. The two possible layout are:

I-Rod Stem H-Rod Stem

- The stem face is placed in the plane of reciprocating - The stem face is placed perpendicularly to the
motion. reciprocating motion

- Low cost solution, high production numbers - High cost solution

- Obtained through molding or casting - Obtained through machining

- Good response to whiplash (high moment of - Great response in whiplash for high speed engine
inertia) (short length of the stem)

- Not comfortable housing of the nuts, meaning high - Housing of nuts is simplified and stress
stress concentration due to the countersink. concentration is reduced.
16 Powertrain Components Design

Big Eye

The main characteristic of the big eye is the face junction which can be orthogonal or inclined.

Orthogonal Face Junction Inclined Face Junction

- The plane of separation between head and cap is - To reduce the transversal dimension of the big eye,
place at 90° with respect the longitudinal stem axis. the cap is inclined of 30-45° (used for V-engines).

- Most used solution. - Maximum stress is concentrated on the cap.

In both solution it is fundamental to avoid shear stress on the screws! For this purpose, the screws are centered
with calibrated diameters, dowel or serration.

Small Eye

The small eye is a pipe drilled perpendicular to the axis of the wrist pin that
also includes the lubricant oil adduction. The sides of the small eye can be:

• parallel in medium stressed engines,

• converging in high stress engines so to allow thermal expansion.

Further benefits are obtained from the lower reciprocating masses
and hence the stress on the con-rod.

Materials

The material choice depends on the overall mass and strength but also on the manufacturing process:

• Cast Iron most economical solution, high production numbers

• Hardened alloy expensive since require hot forging. Used for high stressed engines

• Ti-alloy for racing application

• Al-alloy for low stressed engines only

On the finished component, a shot-peen treatment is done to increase residual stress and improve fatigue up
to 25%
§ 3 – Connecting Rod 17

Load Conditions

The loads acting on the con-rod are gas pressure and inertial forces. However, it is preferable to consider:

• Starting condition gas pressure @ maximum torque only

• Operating condition inertial forces @ maximum speed only (maximum tensile force at TDC)

In the following, consider specific loads:

• Tensile load due to the inertial forces evaluated when pointing towards TDC

• Buckling load due to the maximum compressive force of the gas pressure at TDC or BDC

• Bending load due to the whiplash from the acceleration in the roto-translational motion.
Fundamental for sizing the bushes in the eyes.

Tensil Buckling Bending

Design Guidelines - Stem

1. Define the cross section of the stem as the area under which the maximum compressible load is acting:

𝐹⋅𝑆
𝐴𝑐𝑟 =
𝑅𝑝0.2

• 𝐹 max force between as at TDC and inertial force at BDC

• 𝑆 safety factor, commonly 1.5

• 𝑅𝑝0.2 yield strength

2. Verify the tensile load on the evaluated area:

𝐹𝑎,𝑚𝑎𝑥 𝑚𝑎 ⋅ 𝑎𝑝,𝑚𝑎𝑥
𝜎𝑡 = = ≤ 𝑅𝑝0.2 , 𝑚𝑎 = 𝑚𝑝 + 𝑚𝑤𝑝 + 𝑚𝑐𝑟,𝑎
𝐴𝑐𝑟 𝐴𝑐𝑟
18 Powertrain Components Design

3. Verify the buckling elastic instability condition by modeling the conrod as a beam undergoing a
compressive load. The buckling planes are two both parallel to the con-rod axis:

• one passes for the big eye axis

• the other is perpendicular to the previous one.

Since the buckling planes are two, then also the models are two. Considering 𝑦 as the axis of the con-rod and
𝑧 the axis of the big eye, then the reference planes are:

• 𝑧𝑦 containing the wrist pin axis

• 𝑥𝑦 frontal plane perpendicular to the wrist pin axis

𝒛𝒚 plane 𝒙𝒚 plane

- Model with one free axial degree of freedom. - Model with one support and connected to a hinge
on the other end.

- Free length 𝐿0 is equal to half the distance between - Free length 𝐿0 is equal to the distance between the
the center of the two eyes, that is the half length of center of the two eyes, that actually the length of the
the con-rod. con-rod.

- Since 𝐿0 = 𝑙 than the plane 𝑥𝑦 is most dangerous

for the instability! Use Euler Equation to compute the
critical buckling load:

𝜋 2 𝐸𝐼𝑐𝑟
𝑃𝑐 =
𝑙2

For the verification, the maximum force on the stem

has to be lower than the critical load:

𝐹 < 𝑃𝑐

- By imposing this verification, it is possible to get

the best 𝐴𝑐𝑟 /𝐼𝑐𝑟 ratio of the stem cross section.
§ 3 – Connecting Rod 19

4. Verify the stem bending due to whiplash effect. The acceleration of the con-rod has triangular distribution
with null value at the center of the small eye and maximum value at the center of the big eye. From the crank-
slider mechanism, the maximum angular acceleration is obtained for 𝜗 = 90°

𝜔2 𝜆
Maximum angular acceleration: 𝜔̇ 𝑐𝑟,𝑚𝑎𝑥 =
√1 − 𝜆2

𝜔2 𝜆
Maximum load 𝑞𝑚𝑎𝑥 = 𝜌𝐴𝑐𝑟 𝑙
√1 − 𝜆2

𝑙2
Maximum bending moment 𝑀𝑤𝑝𝑙 = 𝑞𝑚𝑎𝑥
9√3

𝑀𝑤𝑝𝑙
Whiplash stress 𝜎𝑤𝑝𝑙 =
𝑊𝑐𝑟

Where 𝑊𝑐𝑟 is the bending resistance modulus of the most stressed section of the stem.

5. Verify the bending due to the seizure of bushing in the big eye. The bending moment is approximated to
a triangular distribution with maximum value in the big eye.

The correspondent stress is computed as:

𝑓𝐹𝑐𝑟 𝑅
𝜎𝑠𝑧𝑟 = , 𝑓 = friction coefficient, 𝑅 = bushing radius
𝑊𝑐𝑟 √3

6. Verify that the total equivalent stress is lower than the admissible:

𝜎𝑒𝑞 = 𝜎𝑡 + 𝜎𝑤𝑝𝑙 + 𝜎𝑠𝑧𝑟 ≤ 𝜎𝑎𝑑𝑚

where 𝜎𝑎𝑑𝑚 is given by the connecting rod material.

7. For Fatigue, use Haigh Diagram without considering the seizure.

20 Powertrain Components Design

To sum up, the stem design is made of 7 steps:

𝐹⋅𝑆
1. Find the cross section of the stem 𝐴𝑐𝑟 𝐴𝑐𝑟 =
𝑅𝑝0.2

𝐹𝑎,𝑚𝑎𝑥
2. Verify the tensile stress 𝜎𝑡 𝜎𝑡 = ≤ 𝑅𝑝0.2
𝐴𝑐𝑟

𝜋 2 𝐸𝐼𝑐𝑟
3. Verify the buckling in 𝑥𝑦 plane 𝑃𝑐 𝑃𝑐 = , 𝐹 < 𝑃𝑐
𝑙2

𝑀𝑤𝑝𝑙
4. Compute the whiplash stress 𝜎𝑤𝑝𝑙 𝜎𝑤𝑝𝑙 =
𝑊𝑐𝑟

Compute the bending stress due to 𝑓𝐹𝑐𝑟 𝑅

5. 𝜎𝑠𝑧𝑟 𝜎𝑠𝑧𝑟 =
seizure 𝑊𝑐𝑟 √3

6. Verify the total equivalent stress 𝜎𝑒𝑞 𝜎𝑒𝑞 = 𝜎𝑡 + 𝜎𝑤𝑝𝑙 + 𝜎𝑠𝑧𝑟 ≤ 𝜎𝑎𝑑𝑚

7. Verify Fatigue though Haigh Diagram

§ 3 – Connecting Rod 21

Design Guidelines – Small Eye

The small eye is modeled as thin tube which is

subjected to the alternate inertial force. Usually, only
the circumferential stress are considered, however, for
small verifications, also the force fitting the bushing
and the curvature of the small eye must be considered

1. Circumferential stress 𝜎𝑐𝑖𝑟𝑐 𝜎𝑐𝑖𝑟𝑐 =

𝐹𝑎,𝑚𝑎𝑥
2𝑏𝑡

𝐷𝑒2 + 𝐷𝑐2
𝜎𝑓𝑖𝑡 = 𝑝
𝐷𝑒2 − 𝐷𝑐2

𝑝 is the interference pressure,

2. Force fitting the bushing
𝜎𝑓𝑖𝑡
𝐷𝑒 and 𝐷𝑐 are respectively the
small eye outer and inner
diameter (pitch)

𝑀𝑚𝑎𝑥
𝜎𝑐𝑢𝑟𝑣 =
𝑊𝑠𝑒

𝑀𝑚𝑎𝑥 is the maximum bending

3. Curvature of the small eye
𝜎𝑐𝑢𝑟𝑣 moment,

𝑊𝑠𝑒 is the bending resistance

modulus of the small eye.

The total equivalent stress acting in the most stressed section of the small eye is the summation of
circumferential, bushing fitting force and curvature stresses:

𝜎𝑒𝑞 = 𝜎𝑐𝑖𝑟𝑐 + 𝜎𝑓𝑖𝑡 + 𝜎𝑐𝑢𝑟𝑣 ≤ 𝜎𝑎𝑑𝑚

where 𝜎𝑎𝑑𝑚 is given by the connecting rod material.

22 Powertrain Components Design

Design Guidelines – Big Eye

The big Eye is divided into cap and head.

CAP
The cap can be modeled as a supported beam subjected to a
concentrated force in the middle, equal to the maximum inertial force.

𝐹𝑎 = (𝑚𝑝 + 𝑚𝑤𝑝 + 𝑚𝑐𝑟,𝑎 )𝜔2 𝑟(1 + 𝜆) + 𝑚𝑐𝑟,𝑟 𝜔2 𝑟

The corresponding maximum bending stress is:

𝐹𝑎 𝐿𝑐𝑎𝑝
⋅
𝜎𝑐𝑎𝑝 = 2 2
𝑊𝑐𝑎𝑝

where 𝐿𝑐𝑎𝑝 is the distance between screws and 𝑊𝑐𝑎𝑝 is the bending
resistance modulus of the cap middle section.

As usual the cap verification is:

𝜎𝑐𝑎𝑝 ≤ 𝜎𝑎𝑑𝑚

where 𝜎𝑎𝑑𝑚 is given by the connecting rod material.

HEAD

The head can be modeled as a curved beam subjected to the same

inertial force. Through the Curved Beam Theory, the involved forces
are:

𝐹𝑎
𝑁= sin 𝜉
2

𝐹𝑎
𝑀= 𝐿
2

The total equivalent stress acting in the most stressed section of the
head is the summation of the tensile and bending stress:

𝑁 𝑀
𝜎𝑒𝑞,ℎ𝑒𝑎𝑑 = + ≤ 𝜎𝑎𝑑𝑚
𝐴ℎ𝑒𝑎𝑑 𝑊ℎ𝑒𝑎𝑑

where 𝐴ℎ𝑒𝑎𝑑 is the are of the most stressed parts (related to tensile)
and 𝑊ℎ𝑒𝑎𝑑 is the bending resistance modulus of the head.

Again, 𝜎𝑎𝑑𝑚 is given by the connecting rod material.

§ 4 – Crankshaft 23

4. Crankshaft
The crankshaft is a sequence of cranks (crankpin journal), each crank carrying one connecting rod. Between
two main journals there the cheeks. At one end there is the nose for the pulley of the timing system, at the
other end there is the flange for the flywheel mounting. Counterweights are commonly added to the cheeks
to balance and reduce the load on the main bearing. From the bending perspective, the critical point are
curvature radii on main journals and crankpin journals.

About lubrication, depending on the scheme to feed oil from the main journal to the crankpin journals, there
are three different solutions:

• Single diagonal channel very simple, almost correct

• Double diagonal channels solution adopted for crank journals with lubricant groove
only on one half of the bushing

• Three cross channels abandoned solutions, problems about lubrication oil

positioning

In the picture below, each crank has 2 counterweights, but it is also possible to have 1 counterweight for each
crank which is a low cost solution.

Material

The crank material is chosen according to the application:

• Cast iron low-medium stressed engine

• Steel high stressed engine

To further reduce the rotating masses, the crankshaft can be longitudinally drilled (very expensive).
24 Powertrain Components Design

Design Guidelines

The scheme of a generic crank is reported below.

As a first approximation, the main journal and
the crankpin journal diameters are assumed
equal:
𝑑𝑚𝑗 = 𝑑𝑐𝑝𝑗

The crankpin journal diameter 𝑑𝑐𝑝𝑗 and the

cheek width 𝑏 are computed through semi-
empirical formulas obtainable form literature.

The crankpin journal length 𝐿𝑐𝑝𝑗 and main

journal length 𝐿𝑚𝑗 are computed taking into account:

• resultant force 𝐹 acting along the piston axis

• maximum admissible pressure 𝑝𝑎𝑑𝑚 on the main bearing (about 18 ÷ 25 MPa)

𝐹 𝐹
𝐿𝑐𝑝𝑗 = , 𝐿𝑚𝑗 =
𝑑𝑐𝑝𝑗 ⋅ 𝑝𝑎𝑑, 2𝑑𝑐𝑝𝑗 ⋅ 𝑝𝑎𝑑,

Structural Verification

The structural verification of the most stressed crank takes into account two different configurations. This
because the source of the tangential effect on the most stressed crank is different
,

• maximum tangential force 𝐹𝑡,𝑚𝑎𝑥 configuration due to gas pressure,

,

• TDC configuration, due to torque 𝑀 from other cranks.

In both configurations, the equivalent stresses in the crankpin journal, main journal and cheek must lower
than the admissible.
§ 4 – Crankshaft 25

𝑭𝒕,𝒎𝒂𝒙 configuration

Element Loads Stresses

Bending Moment 𝑀𝑦 𝐹𝑡 𝑎 √𝑀𝑥2 + 𝑀𝑦2

𝑀𝑦 = 𝜎𝑏 =
22 𝑊𝑏

𝐹𝑟 𝑎 𝑀𝑧
Crankpin Journal Bending Moment 𝑀𝑥 𝑀𝑥 = 𝜏=
22 𝑊𝑡
𝐹𝑡
Torque 𝑀𝑧 𝑀𝑧 = 𝑟 𝜎𝑒𝑞 = √𝜎𝑏2 + 3𝜏 2 ≤ 𝜎𝑎𝑑𝑚
2

Bending Moment 𝑀𝑦 𝐹𝑡 √𝑀𝑥2 + 𝑀𝑦2

𝑀𝑦 = 𝑒 𝜎𝑏 =
2 𝑊𝑏

𝐹𝑟 𝑀𝑧
Main Journal Bending Moment 𝑀𝑥 𝑀𝑥 = 𝑒 𝜏=
2 𝑊𝑡
𝐹𝑡
Torque 𝑀𝑧 𝑀𝑧 = 𝑟 𝜎𝑒𝑞 = √𝜎𝑏2 + 3𝜏 2 ≤ 𝜎𝑎𝑑𝑚
2

Normal force 𝑁 𝐹𝑟
𝑁=
2 𝑁 𝑀𝑥 𝑀𝑧
𝜎= + +
𝐴 𝑊𝑏𝑥 𝑊𝑏𝑧
𝐹𝑟
Cheek Bending Moment 𝑀𝑥 𝑀𝑥 = 𝑒
2

𝐹𝑡 𝜎𝑒𝑞 = 𝜎 ≤ 𝜎𝑎𝑑𝑚
Bending Moment 𝑀𝑧 𝑀𝑧 = 𝑟
2

𝑻𝑫𝑪 configuration

Element Loads Stresses

𝐹𝑟 𝑎 𝑀𝑥 𝑀𝑧
Bending Moment 𝑀𝑥 𝑀𝑥 = 𝜎𝑏 = , 𝜏=
22 𝑊𝑏 𝑊𝑡
Crankpin Journal
𝐹𝑡
Torque 𝑀𝑧 𝑀𝑧 = 𝑟 𝜎𝑒𝑞 = √𝜎𝑏2 + 3𝜏 2 ≤ 𝜎𝑎𝑑𝑚
2

𝐹𝑟 𝑀𝑥 𝑀𝑧
Bending Moment 𝑀𝑥 𝑀𝑦 = 𝑒 𝜎𝑏 = , 𝜏=
2 𝑊𝑏 𝑊𝑡
Main Journal
𝐹𝑡
Torque 𝑀𝑧 𝑀𝑧 = 𝑟 𝜎𝑒𝑞 = √𝜎𝑏2 + 3𝜏 2 ≤ 𝜎𝑎𝑑𝑚
2

Normal force 𝑁 𝐹𝑟
𝑁=
2 𝑁 𝑀𝑥 𝑀𝑧
𝜎= + +
𝐴 𝑊𝑏𝑥 𝑊𝑏𝑧
𝐹𝑟
Cheek Bending Moment 𝑀𝑥 𝑀𝑥 = 𝑒
2

𝐹𝑡 𝜎𝑒𝑞 = 𝜎 ≤ 𝜎𝑎𝑑𝑚
Bending Moment 𝑀𝑧 𝑀𝑧 = 𝑟
2
26 Powertrain Components Design

Static Analysis

About the static analysis, the crankshaft is modeled as a standstill beam, with load defined at a specific time (i.e.
specific crank angular position 𝜗). The goal of the static analysis is to evaluate the bending moment acting on
each crank and the relative stresses. The methodology consists of:

1. Compute the gas pressure and inertial forces from the crank-slider mechanism,

2. Compute the forces acting on the main journal

3. Compute the reactions and polar plots (load evolution in the kinematic pair crankshaft-conrod) of the
main bearings assuming two different schemes:

• Isostatic crankshaft is considered as the assembly of n cranks not linked together,

• Hyperstatic crankshaft is considered as a continuous beam on n supports.

4. Compute the static bending moments acting on each crank

5. Compute the correspondent stresses

6. Static verification comparing Von Mises equivalent stress with that admissible of the material.

Dynamic Analysis

1. Lumped Parameter

Analytically, we can only find torsional bending (90% of the stresses), for all the other stresses one must refer
to FEM. To compute the torsional stiffness, it is required to exploit a lumped parameter system torsionally
equivalent to the considered crankshaft (𝐽 = inertia, 𝐾 = stiffness). Each crank is modeled as a stiff disk with
equivalent moment of inertia 𝐽𝑒𝑞 and a massless bar with equivalent torsional stiffness 𝐾𝑒𝑞 . Note that 𝐽𝑝 stands
for pulley inertia, whereas 𝐽𝑓 stands for flywheel inertia.

The methodology consists of:

1. Definition of the equivalent lumped parameter system,

2. Compute the natural frequencies and mode shapes of a free single-cylinder engine.

3. Fourier decomposition of gas torque harmonics that are in resonant condition (Campbell diagram)

4. Identification of engine harmonics which are in resonant condition

5. Shift the analysis to the multicylinder engine

• Phase diagram of the cranks,

• Phase diagram of the harmonics,

§ 4 – Crankshaft 27

6. Computations of the forced response under resonant condition and corresponding torsional dynamic
stresses (to add to stresses deriving from the static analysis).

Some approximations and assumptions are needed for the dynamic analysis:

• stress intensification at radii between cheek and crankpin is semi-empirical from literature,

• interactions between torsional, bending and axial modes are not considered,

• clearances and lubricant are not considered,

• interaction between crankshaft and cylinder block is not considered,

• constraint effect of the journals is not considered.

To study the dynamic behavior of the system, one must solve the equation of motion (free behavior + forced
response):
[ 𝐽 ]{Φ̈} + [ 𝐾 ]{Φ} = {𝑀(𝜗)}
where:

• [𝐽] Diagonal inertia matrix 𝑣 × 𝑣,

• {Φ} Torsional dof,

• [𝐾] Tridiagonal symmetric stiffness matrix 𝑣 × 𝑣,

• {𝑀(𝜗)} Engine torque,

• 𝑣 Number of torsional dof , 𝑣 = #cylinders + 2 (flywheel and pulley)

The inertia matrix [ 𝐽 ] has constant coefficients over time. The equivalent moment of inertia 𝐽𝑒𝑞 is considered
average on the engine cycle and constant in time. The equivalent stiffness 𝐾𝑒𝑞 of a torsional bar is instead
computed semi-empirical through literature: Carter, Tuplin, Timoshenko, Zimanenko, etc.

2. Free response

The free response of the unloaded system is:

[ 𝐽 ]{Φ̈} + [ 𝐾 ]{Φ} = 0

Torsional natural frequencies (eigenvalues) and corresponding vibration modes (eigenvectors) are solved by:

{Φ} = {Φ0 }𝑒 𝑖𝜆𝑛𝑡 ⟹ det(−𝜆2𝑛 [ 𝐽 ] + [ 𝐾 ]) = 0

where:

• 𝜆𝑛𝑖 i-th torsional natural frequency (𝑖 = 1 represents 𝑣 with 𝜆𝑛1 = 0 rigid mode),

• {Φ}𝑖 i-th torsional mode,

Since 𝐽𝑒𝑞 coefficients are constant over time, then the

natural frequencies are constant and independent both
from crank angle 𝜗 and the engine speed 𝜔.
Consequently, these natural frequencies are represented
by horizontal lines in the Campbell diagram (𝜆 vs 𝜔).
28 Powertrain Components Design

3. Harmonic Analysis of Engine Torque

To study forced response of the system, one must face the harmonic analysis of the engine torque (gas +
inertia). Indeed, the engine torque generated by gas pressure and inertia forces can be developed in a Fourier
series as sum of harmonics:

𝑀(𝜗) = 𝑀𝑔 (𝜗) + 𝑀𝑎 (𝜗)

where:
𝜋𝐷2
• Engine gas term 𝑀𝑔 (𝜗) = 𝑝𝑔 (𝜗) ⋅ 𝑓1 (𝜗) ⋅ 𝑟 20 harmonics are sufficient
4

• Inertia term 𝑀𝑎 (𝜗) = −𝑚𝑎 𝜔2 𝑟 ⋅ 2(𝜗) ⋅ 𝑟 8 harmonics are sufficient

In the gas term development, we have a static contribution 𝐴0 which provides power but does not cause
torsional oscillation, whereas all other terms only cause torsional oscillation of the crankshaft.

In the same way, in the inertia term development, it is possible to recognize the terms that cause torsional
oscillation of the crankshaft.

The Fourier series of the overall engines considers the combination of vectors that represents the harmonics of
the gas and inertial reciprocating forces. Each vector has amplitude and phase for the k-th harmonic.

4. Resonant Harmonics

The resonance of one of the natural mode of the crankshaft is the result of the interaction between:

• engine torque harmonics, 𝜆𝑛𝑖 Eigenvalues of the free response

𝜔
• crankshaft natural frequencies. 𝜆𝑘 = 𝑘 ⋅ 𝜔 ′ , 𝑘 = 1 … 20, 𝜔′ = for 4T engine
2

To identify the harmonics of the engine torque that are resonant, use the Campbell diagram (𝜆 vs 𝜔). Since
torsional natural frequencies are a straight line, but the pulsation of the generic engine torque do not (they are
time dependent), then, for a specific engine speed 𝜔work , the resonant harmonics are those near the intersection
between the crankshaft natural frequencies and the vertical line of 𝜔𝑤𝑜𝑟𝑘 . To sum up:

• horizontal line crankshaft natural frequencies 𝜆𝑛𝑖 time-independent

• oblique line engine torque harmonics 𝜆𝑘 time dependent

• vertical line engine working speed 𝜔work

§ 4 – Crankshaft 29

5. Multi-cylinder engine

In the analysis of the multi-cylinder engine, it is required to introduce the phase shift 𝜹𝒌,𝒋 (k-th harmonics of
the j-th cylinder) between the engine torque harmonics. To identify the phase shift 𝛿𝑘,𝑗 between the harmonics,
it is required to refer to the phase (stellar) diagrams. In a multicylinder engine the angular phase shift is
indicated by Ψ:
4𝜋
for 4T engine
𝑧
Ψ= , 𝑧 = #cylinders
2𝜋
{ 𝑧 for 2T engine

By knowing the Firing Order and the angular phase shift, then one can draw the phase (stellar) diagram of
cranks.

6 Cylinders, 4T
FO: 1 5 3 6 2 4
Ψ = 120°

After, the phase shift between the harmonics 𝛿𝑘,𝑗 is then computed as the product between the

𝑘
for 4T engine
• Harmonic order 𝑜𝑟𝑑 = {2 𝑘
Ψ for 4T engine
𝑘 for 2T engine 𝛿𝑘,𝑗 = 𝑜𝑟𝑑 ⋅ Ψ = {2
𝑘Ψ for 2T engine
• Angle between cranks Ψ

Finally, with the phase shifts of the harmonics, it is possible to draw the stellar diagram of the harmonics
(which is different from the previous that was the stellar diagram of the cranks).

When the harmonics order is a multiple integer of 𝑧/2, all the vectors have same direction. The corresponding
engine orders are called major order and the relative harmonics are dangerous for NVH. The forced dynamic
response (to evaluate torsional stress level) then must be computed for:

• resonant harmonics of the engine torque (Campbell Diagram, point 4 of the analysis),

• resonant harmonics related to major orders.

30 Powertrain Components Design

6. Forced Response

In resonant condition, it can be assumed that the forced response amplitude is proportional to the system
resonant mode:
{Φ}𝑘 = 𝛼𝑘 {Φ}𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑜𝑛𝑎𝑛𝑡

where 𝛼𝑘 is a proportionality factor which consider a viscous damping equivalent to the actual damping of
the crankshaft.

For each of the dangerous harmonics, the output of this analysis is the total shear stress 𝝉𝒔 acting on each
crank.
𝜏𝑠 = 𝜏𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑡,𝑠 + 𝜏𝑑𝑦𝑛,𝑠

Dynamic Numerical Analysis (FEA-MBA)

Through the Finite Element Analysis (FEA) it is possible to:

• consider actual geometry, loads and forces,

• verify the coupling between modes.

The cylinder block is considered a rigid or deformable body, the constraints between crankshaft and cylinder
block are modeled as spring and finally the conrods and pistons are modelled as concentrated mass that
contributes to the force acting on the main journals.

However, FEA does not allow to simulate the behavior of the crankshaft that is interfering with others
component of the powertrain. Also, gyroscopic effect is neglected, and inertial forces are stationary load.

To obtain a more detail of the behavior, is it required to perform a MultiBody Analysis (MBA) in order to:

• compute and apply inertial forces,

• consider the variability of the moment of inertia,

• consider the hydro-dynamic interaction with the oil (regulated by Reynolds equation),

• consider the local gyroscopic effect.

The simulation results are obtained in terms of displacements, angular velocities and angular accelerations (of
the condensed nodes, i.e. master dofs), forces and moments on the nodes required at the MB model set up.

Waterfall Diagram (3D) and Order Chart (2D)

The Waterfall Diagram and the Order Chart can be obtained by post-processing the MB simulation results:

• Waterfall Diagram 3D Magnitude vs Frequency,

• Order Chart 2D Magnitude vs Engine Speed,

These diagrams represent the “dynamic identity card” of the crankshaft and they are useful to identify its
critical regimes and because , the crankshaft responds to the external loads in different way depending on the
operating condition, then regimes it is necessary to verify the stress state of the crankshaft in order to evaluate
its most critical condition.
§ 5 – Bearings 31

5. Bearings
Crankshaft journals rotate on two half-shells (bushing or bearings) inserted into the main caps and walls of
the cylinder block, and into the big eye of the conrods. Each half-shell is composed of structural steel layer
and by one or two additional layers (bi-metallic or tri-metallic solution) of anti-friction material (bronze alloy).
The purpose of the bearings are:

• support the load generated by the crank mechanism transmitted to the oil film,
• guarantee wear resistance
• absorb geometrical inaccuracies of the journals

Block Side Conrod Side

Usually one of the to half-shell has a groove to collect the oil coming from the channels needed to continuously
feed the crankshaft and the conrod. If the crank is heavily stressed (diesel engine), then the central groove is
eliminated in favor of a diagonal drilling solution.

The crankshaft is also provided with a thrust bearing to counteract axial loads and the clutch axial force.

Also, a tapered side is present in the contact are of the two half-shells to prevent damages to the bushing
material (compression force tends to deform the tapered ends).

Classical Analysis

The force that load the bearings comes from the crank-slider mechanism:

𝜆
𝐹𝐻 = 𝐹𝜔 sin 𝜗 , 𝐹𝑉 = 𝐹𝑎 − 𝐹𝜔 cos 𝜗 , 𝑀𝑒 = 𝐹𝑟 (sin 𝜗 + sin 2𝜗)
2

Since these forces are time-dependent (depends on crank angle 𝜗), then the bearing reaction is also time-
varying leading to dangerous vibrations.

It is then crucial to get polar plots of these reactions to analyze the criticalities: in the analysis the crankshaft
is considered both isostatic and hyperstatic to embrace all kinds of solution that is:

• the total reaction is the sum of vectorial reaction for each crank

• the total reaction comes from hyperstatic problem solutions.

Since the coupling between main journal and cylinder block, and between crankshaft crankpin journal and big
eye of the conrod is by means of oil film, then the analytical solution is provided by the Reynolds Equation
which is based on the following assumptions:

• no misalignment between bearing and journal,

• loads on journal constant in magnitude and direction,
• crankshaft, cylinder block and conrod as rigid bodies,
• constant oil viscosity.
32 Powertrain Components Design

The main parameters are:

• Radial clearance 𝛿 = 𝑅−𝑟 Difference between journal/bearing radii

• Eccentricity 𝑒 = ̅̅̅̅̅̅̅
𝑂2 𝑂1 Difference between journal/bearing centers
• Oil thickness ℎ(𝛼) Maximum oil thickness is ℎ𝑚𝑎𝑥
• Angular coordinate 𝛼 Ranges in the maximum oil thickness region

According to the geometry, the oil thickness can be

written as:
ℎ(𝛼) = 𝛿(1 + 𝜀 cos 𝛼)

where 𝜀 is the ratio between the eccentricity 𝑒 and the

radial clearance 𝛿.

The solution of the hydrodynamic problem (in terms

of pressure 𝑝) is given by the Reynolds Equation:

𝑑𝑝 6𝑅𝜇𝑣 2𝑞
= 2 [1 − ]
𝑑𝛼 ℎ (𝛼) 𝑣ℎ(𝛼)

where:

• 𝑝 Oil film pressure

• 𝑞 Oil flow rate
• 𝜇 Oil dynamic viscosity
• 𝑣 Relative velocity between the lubricated surfaces (journal and bearing)
• 𝑅 Bearing radius

Note that the analytical solution of the Reynolds Equation is possible only if no pressure is considered at the
point of maximum oil thickness: 𝑝(ℎ𝑚𝑎𝑥 ) = 0. Other supplementary parameters to describe the bearing
behavior are:

• Sommerfeld number 𝑆
• Bearing axial length 𝐵
• Elongation 𝐵/(2𝑅) Useful to identify the load capacity
• Friction coefficient 𝑓𝑐 = 𝑀/𝐹𝑅 Depends on 𝜇, 𝑝𝑠 and 𝜔
• Characteristic pressure 𝑝𝑠 = 𝐹/(2𝐵𝑅)
• Adimensional flow rate 𝑞 = 2𝑄/(𝜔𝐵𝛿𝑅)

By solving the Reynolds Equation, we obtain the maximum pressure 𝒑𝒎𝒂𝒙 and the minimum oil thickness
𝒉𝟎 at temperature 𝑻; as function of the diametral clearance 𝑔 = 2𝛿 or of the elongation. Low value of the
elongation leads to oil leakages, but too high value of the elongation may cause misalignment between bearing
and journal.

Note that by increasing the load 𝐹 or decreasing the engine speed, the oil film thickness decreases. The
minimum oil thickness must be at least to the sum of the peak-valley roughness of the coupled surfaces
(journal-bearing).
§ 5 – Bearings 33

Numerical Coupled FEA-MBA

Since the Reynold Equation provides solutions for infinitely short/long bearing, the FEA-MBA analysis gives
back the solution for the actual configuration of the bearing. Numerical simulations consider:

• actual length of the bearing,

• time-dependent forces,
• misalignment,
• elasticity of the components.

The verifications for the MB model validation uses the same criteria of the MB of the crankshaft:

• correctness of the Firing Order (FO),

• cyclic trend of the flywheel angular velocity,
• correct trend of the radial forces on the main bearing.

The target of the MB model is to provide the crankshaft dynamic behavior and the corresponding dynamic
response of the bearings. Starting from the FE model and then the MB model, one obtains:

• elasto-hydrodynamic solution,
• 3D distribution of oil fil pressure and thickness,
• oil flow rate computation.

Different model complexity may be adopted in the investigation:

- Rigid main Journal

CR - No misalignment All rigid components, no FE model are required

- No crankshaft dynamics

- Rigid main Journal and elastic bearing

- No misalignment FE model of single wall and cap
CE
- No crankshaft dynamics

- Elastic crankshaft and rigid cylinder block

BR - Yes misalignment FE model of crankshaft

- Yes crankshaft dynamics

- Elastic crankshaft and rigid cylinder block

- Yes misalignment
BE FE model of crankshaft and cylinder block
- Yes crankshaft dynamics
- Yes Cylinder Block dynamics
34 Powertrain Components Design
§ 6 – Piston 35

6. Piston
The main purposes of the piston are:

• transfer gas pressure to the conrod,

• discharge of exhaust gases,
• support the small eye of the conrod,
• provide good sealing to avoid blowby,
• reduce friction.

The piston top is shaped to optimize the combustion chamber (the bowl in diesel engines) and valve seats are
directly machined on the top. The skirts works as a guide for the reciprocating motion and contributes for the
25% to the heat flow between piston and liner. The inner part of the piston may present a cooling gallery to
cool down the interior. In case of high stressed engine, bronze bushings are inserted in the hubs.

Piston rings ensure tightness of the combustion chamber avoiding the blow-
by phenomenon of the gas. They also control oil amount that lubricates the
liner surface that is in contact with the piston. In general, three rings are
adopted:

• 1st ring, sealing ring to avoid blow-by,

• 2nd and 3rd ring, oil scraper rings to control lubrication.

Material

The material for pistons must have high mechanical strength , high heat resistance and low thermal expansion.
Passenger engine pistons are made of:

• Al alloys AlSiMg, AlCuMgSi gasoline engines,

• Eutectic Al alloys, AlSi12, AlSi10 diesel engines,
• Cast iron industrial engines.

On the contrary, piston rings are made of cast irons with Cr-plating and Mo-plating to increase resistance to
wear and high temperatures.

Production technologies are die cast (economic but low mechanical resistance) and metal forming (expensive
but high mechanical resistance). To avoid crack propagation, the surface finishing are grinding and diamond
machining. Also, an alumina coat is performed on the top to increase the adiabatic condition of the bowl.
36 Powertrain Components Design

Design Guidelines

Piston

Starting from the bore 𝐷 and the target (estimated)

weight 𝑊, one can find the apparent density 𝑲, and
consequently the geometrical ratio 𝑟𝑃 which is the
compression height 𝑯𝒄 over the bore. Thus, 𝐻𝑐 is
obtained.

𝑊
𝐾= ⟹ 𝐻𝑐
𝐷3

Considering the top pf the piston as a circular plate, one compute the thickness 𝑠
of the piston to according to the literature formula (verified by FEA):

𝐷 𝑝𝑚𝑎𝑥
𝑠= √
2 𝜎𝑎𝑑𝑚

Alternatively, one can enter suitable tables. Note that the top thickness 𝑠 highly
influences the bowl shape in diesel engines, thus it is required to perform
kinematic simulation about the valve interference at TDC.

With these geometrical values, one must verify that the compressive stress on the top is lower than the
admissible stress:

𝑝𝑚𝑎𝑥 𝐷2
𝜎𝑐 = ⟹ 𝜎𝑐 ≤ 𝜎𝑎𝑑𝑚
𝐷𝑐2 − 𝐷𝑖2
where:

• 𝐷𝑐 groove diameter (diameter of the bowl),

• 𝐷𝑖 piston inner diameter,

Finally, the length of the skirt 𝐿 is limited by the normal

force depending on the material as shown in the table
aside.

Therefore, basing on the value of the admissible pressure, the length of the skirt
can be computed as:

𝐹𝑛,𝑚𝑎𝑥 𝐹𝑛,𝑚𝑎𝑥
𝑝𝑎𝑑𝑚 = ⟹ 𝐿=
𝐿⋅𝐷 𝑝𝑎𝑑𝑚 ⋅ 𝐷

However, as a first attempt to define the length 𝐿, one can consider a uniform
pressure distribution, as the pin axis should be half of the piston compression 𝐻𝑐 ,
then:
𝐿 = 2 ⋅ 𝐻𝑐
§ 6 – Piston 37

Piston ring

About piston rings, all forces acting on the ring must be considered together with radial and tangential load
distributions. During mounting, the ring must be expanded since it must pass through the top pf the piston
crown. In this condition the inner ring diameter is assumed to be equal to the bore 𝐷. Starting from this
assumption, a preliminary dimension of the piston ring follows the below table:

Radial wall thickness 𝑎 0.029𝐷 − 0.033𝐷

Axial width ℎ 0.1𝑎 − 0.6𝑎
Free gap 𝑚 (uncompressed ring) 0.08𝐷 − 0.12𝐷

The piston ring is then modeled as a curved beam loaded by a concentrated force 𝐹 which is function of the
maximum admissible pressure:
𝑃𝑎𝑑𝑚 𝐷𝑚 ℎ
𝐹=
2

Once the value of the force 𝐹 is obtained, it is required to compute the radial displacement 𝑢 and the maximum
bending stress 𝜎𝑏 in the ring:
3
• 𝑢 radial displacement 3𝜋 𝐹𝐷𝑚
𝑢= ≈ 8𝑎
8 𝐸𝐼

• 𝜎𝑏 bending moment 𝐹𝐷𝑚 𝑎

𝜎𝑏 = ⟹ 𝜎𝑏 ≤ 𝜎𝑎𝑑𝑚
2𝐼

Through the radial displacement, it is required to compute two additional stresses related to the mounting
procedures, the expansion for the fitting in the groove and the compression for the mounting in the liner:

• 𝜎′ stress due to reduction of the ring diameter to working value (bore)

• 𝜎′′ stress related to opening displacement

𝐸 𝑚 ′ 𝐸 (8𝑎 − 𝑚)
𝜎′ = 2 , 𝜎′ = 2
3𝜋 𝐷𝑚 𝑎 3𝜋 𝐷𝑚 𝑎
( − 1) ( − 1)
4 𝑎 4 𝑎

′
The static ring verification requires that max(𝜎 ′ , 𝜎 ′ ) ≤ 𝜎𝑎𝑑𝑚 .
38 Powertrain Components Design

Numerical Analysis

About piston group, the thermal behavior is crucial because the thermal field acting on the piston deforms
more the hub zone than the lower part of the piston.

To ensure a good fitting between the piston and the liner, the design of the lower part of the piston must take
into account this thermal deformation of the piston skirt (usually different materials are used for top and
bottom of the engine, and also barrel shape are exploited for counteracting the thermal expansion).

Just one part (25-30%) of the fuel thermal capacity is transformed into mechanical power because another
important amount (about 40%) goes to stress the piston and the liner. The heat is transferred:

• convection to the cooling fluid,

• conduction to the body of the piston,
• radiation to the top op the piston in the combustion chamber.

Considering all the thermal power exchanged (40% of the overall) the
subdivision with the other part is:

• 24% to the cooling gallery,

• 31% to the liner through the rings
• 21% to the piston hub,
• 24% to the skirt

In thermal analysis the convection coefficient and the heat transfer coefficient are function of the swirl and
squish motion, therefore very complicated to compute! To target of numerical analysis is to get temperature
map and heat transfer coefficient in various points of the piston.

STATIC THERMAL THERMO-STRUCTURAL

Property MAT01 MAT04 MAT01 + MAT04

Mesh 3D Tetra – 2D Tria 3D Tetra – 2D Tria 3D Tetra – 2D Tria

Convective surfaces
Pin with RBE2
Nodal Temperatures
Ring with RBE3 Piston hub with RBE2
Constraints Top - 180 °C
Virtual Spring for ring/liner Temperature
Skirts - 120 °C
Contact surface piston/pin
Interior - 100 °C

Loads Gas pressure (compression) Thermal Flux Output Thermal + Static

The load condition to be taken into account in the post-processing are temperature field, pressure in the bowl
and inertial forces. These loads are studied individually and then superimposed to evaluate the stress state.
§ 6 – Piston 39

Piston Static Thermal Analysis

The initial condition for the static thermal analysis is represented by the imposed heat flux from the
combustion. This heat flux is imposed only on the exchanges surfaces that is the piston top.

Then, assign the thermal coefficient from the numerical analysis, or literature, and calibrate them through
iterative procedure.

Provided the material characteristics and the correct mesh,

verify that all the power entering the piston is equal to the heat
power outgoing the piston external surfaces.

The result of the static thermal analysis are:

• thermal unbalance between the sides of the piston,

• isothermal zones,
• thermal gradient,
• nodal thermal analysis

Piston Thermo-Structural Analysis

In the thermo-structural analysis, the loads are the thermal load

computed by the static thermal analysis and the mechanical load
(𝑝𝑚𝑎𝑥 at the beginning of the expansion). On the contrary, the
boundary conditions are the nodal temperatures resulting from
the static thermal analysis, and the material properties.

The considered load cases are:

• Temperature field,
• Pressure in the bowl,
• Inertial forces.

The result of each load is superimposed to evaluate the overall stress state. The result in terms of thermal and
mechanical deformation (deformation due to thermal field and due to inertial forces) provide the guide for
the choice of the design phase of the piston. Finally, this analysis provides results in terms of strain and
stresses.
40 Powertrain Components Design

Piston Slap

Although the reduced gap between piston and liner, the piston can
still move in the liner, because the thrust force 𝐹𝑛 change in sign
several times during the cycle. The movements of the piston then
result:

• translation perpendicular to cylinder axis,

• rotation around pin axis (tilting),

These movements are named piston slap movements which cause noise and wear, especially in diesel engines.

The study of the piston slap is based on the free body diagram. The simplified and full free body diagram
allows to write the equation of motion and evaluate the forces in every time instant. However it is not sufficient
to compute the energy dissipated during the impact piston-liner. The forces acting during the slap are:

• 𝐹𝑔 gas force,
• 𝐹𝑛 thrust force exerted by the conrod through the pin,
• 𝐹𝑙 reaction force of the liner,
• 𝐹𝑓 friction force 𝐹𝑓 = 𝜇𝑐 ⋅ 𝐹𝑙

• 𝑀 torque due to the piston-pin contact 𝑀 = 𝜇𝑠 𝑑𝑠 /2 √𝐹𝑛2 + 𝐹 2

Piston Slap Effect

The piston slap effects are relevant in particular in diesel engines due to the high pressure combustion
pressure. The effects of the piston slap phenomenon are:

• emission of sound waves,

• cavitation of the coolant fluid,
• sub-superficial fatigue, repeated impacts cause Hertzian fatigue leading to internal cracks.

Note that the crankcase is the main component that transmit engine noise through vibrations (about 30%).
Critical conditions are at idle and low spins speed and the maximum peak is obtained at cranking.

Also, high pressure wave can cause cavitation of the coolant fluid (localized boiling).
§ 6 – Piston 41

Methods to decrease Slap Effect

Three different methods can be adopted to decease piston slap:

• piston offset,
• piston offset + vertical shift of the piston center of gravity,
• increase the number of oil scraper ring.

Piston Offset
The pin axis is moved towards the major thrust side by a quantity 𝑒1 ,
consequently the piston center of gravity shifts towards the minor
thrust side by a quantity 𝑒2 .

The moment 𝑀0 causes a rotation of the piston relaxing the impact on

the major thrust force (higher dissipation of the kinetic energy).

𝑀0 = 𝐹𝑔 𝑒1 + (𝑔 − 𝑥̈ 𝐺 )𝑚𝑝 (𝑒1 + 𝑒2 ))

Best benefits are obtained for 𝑒1 ≤ 0.125𝐷 (12% of the bore).

Piston Offset + vertical shift of the piston center of gravity

The centre of gravity of the piston is moved upwards along the
vertical axis by the quantity 𝑏 with respect the pin axis.

The lateral inertial force changes its arm and the moment 𝑀𝑦 causes
a further rotation of the piston and favors a specific impact
configuration.
𝑀𝑦 = 𝑚𝑝 𝑦̈ 𝐺 ⋅ 𝑏

Additional Oil Scraper ring

The additional oil scraper ring are positioned at the bottom of the
piston skirt. The main advantages are:

• damping and lift effect of the oil film,

• decrease of impact force between piston and liner,
• better hydrodynamic lubrication.

However, the disadvantages are Three different methods can be adopted to decease piston slap:

• higher power friction,

• increase of piston mass and so inertial forces
42 Powertrain Components Design
§ 7 – Cylinder Head 43

7. Cylinder Head
The main purposes of the cylinder head are:

• hosts intake and exhaust ports,

• control the mechanism of the valve,
• support the component for combustion (injection and sparking),
• supply pipes and volumes for oil and coolant circulation,
• define the shape of the combustion chamber together with the head of the piston.

The cylinder head structure is mainly constituted by two plates

connected together along their outer edge in a prismatic solid.

The cylinder head is connected to the engine block by studs or screws

whose position determine the mechanical stresses.

The sealing with the block is guaranteed by the gasket which avoids
the passage of exhaust gases from the combustion chamber to
lubricant circuits.

For stiffness reason, the integral solution (cam carrier

+ cylinder head) is preferable, however, for mounting
reason usually the head is split in two different parts.
In diesel engines, the cylinder head geometry is
defined by the combustion type: indirect (mainly
industrial engines) and direct injection (passenger
cars).

The positioning the of the intake and exhaust port is driven by the following criteria:

Exhaust manifold in front of driving side Intake manifold in front of driving side

- Better temperature control on manifold and turbo - Close-coupled catalyst with large dimensions
- Better fuel protection in case of frontal bump - lower light-off time of the catalyst (no wind)
- Possibility to have flexible point to damp down - Simpler exhaust pipe design
vibration
- Simpler and stiffer oil pan (no interference with
exhaust)

Material

Usually, the cylinder head is obtained:

• by casting Al-alloy with Si high performance engines AlSi7, AlSi9,

• by casting secondary Al-alloy gasoline engines
• cast irons industrial diesel engines
44 Powertrain Components Design

Cooling

The cooling circuit into the cylinder head must avoid

dangerous overheating especially between the housing of
the valves. For this purpose, the design of the cooling
path is manly defined through CFS numerical analysis.

Good results are achieved when the coolant flows near

hot surfaces at specific adequate speeds. A uniform
working condition of the cylinder head is obtained if the
temperature is maintained almost constant.

To allow proper cooling, the roughness of the internal surfaces (critical zone) must be in the range of 2 ÷ 4 𝜇𝑚.

Gasket

The gasket must seal the head from the block. It has to resist to high temperature, high pressure and corrosion
by gas, water and lubricant. The most common solution is a multi-layer metal sheet with proper metal forming
for increase stiffness property.

The external layer is made of harmonic steel, whereas the internal layers
(carriers) are made by common or laminated steel to improve structural
stiffness and supply the correct value of general thickness. Finally an
external rubber coating cover the whole gasket. Also, the gasket is
provide of stoppers in the most stressed points (maximum pressure of
compression).

To verify the sealing capability, it is required to perform numerical FE simulation (Fuji film test).

Cover

The head cover is needed to close the cylinder head but is can also be functional for:

• splitting volume between lubricant and blow-by gas,

• sealing of part of the intake ports,
• define the capacity of the air filter.

Usually it is made by:

• Steal cheap solution, potentially noisy

• Al-alloy stiffer solution, potentially noisy
• Plastic cheap and quiet solution, less stiff

• Mg-alloy light and quiet solution, expensive

To avoid that engine vibrations are transmitted up to the head,

rubber rings are usually exploited in between the screws and the
head.
§ 7 – Cylinder Head 45

Design Guidelines

The first attempt considers only half cylinder head. The initial loading condition
is only provided by the pre-load of the fixing screw (or studs). The gasket sealing
force is given by:
𝜋𝑑𝑔2
𝐹 ∗ = 𝑝𝑚𝑎𝑥
4

in which 𝑑𝑔 is the mean diameter of the cylinder head gasket.

The screws (or studs) fixing pre-load is taken into account multiplying the force
𝐹 ∗ by (1 + 𝑘) where 𝑘 coefficient is commonly assumed equal to 0,5.

In assembly (static) condition, the gasket reacts to the input force (fixing pre-load) with a reaction located at
the center of mass located at 𝑑𝑔 /𝜋 from the central cross section. According to these forces, the bending
moment and stress:

𝐹 ∗ (1 + 𝑘) 𝐿 𝐹 ∗ (1 + 𝑘) 𝑑𝑔 ′
𝑀𝑏,𝑠𝑡
𝑀𝑏,𝑠𝑡 = ⋅ − ⋅ ⟹ 𝜎𝑏,𝑠𝑡 =
2 2 2 𝜋 𝑊𝐼−𝐼

However, in operating (working) condition, one must also consider the gas force which acts in the center of
mass at a distance 2𝑑𝑔 /3𝜋 from the central cross section. Certainly, this additional force increases the reaction
force of the gasket. Thus, the bending moment and stress in working condition are:

𝐹 ∗ (1 + 𝑘) 𝐿 𝑘𝐹 ∗ 𝑑𝑔 𝐹 ∗ 2𝑑𝑔 ′
𝑀𝑏,𝑜𝑝
𝑀𝑏,𝑑𝑦𝑛 = ⋅ − ⋅ − ⋅ ⟹ 𝜎𝑏,𝑑𝑦𝑛 =
2 2 2 𝜋 2 3𝜋 𝑊𝐼−𝐼

Since the cylinder head is in contact with the gas exhaust, then also a temperature gradient is present leading
to a further thermal stress 𝜎𝑇 . In conclusion, the final verification in working condition is such that:

𝐸𝛼∆𝑇 ′
𝜎𝑇 = ⟹ 𝜎𝑏,𝑑𝑦𝑛 + 𝜎𝑇 ≤ 𝜎𝑎𝑑𝑚
2(1 − 𝜈)
46 Powertrain Components Design

Screw Design

The first critical parameter is the assembly pre-load 𝐹𝑣,𝑙𝑖𝑚 . Considering the parameter 𝑖 as the number of screws
or stud used for each cylinder, then one obtains:

𝐹 ∗ (1 + 𝑘)
𝐹𝑣,𝑙𝑖𝑚 =
𝑖

By knowing the deformability of the screw 𝛿𝑣 and that of the cylinder head 𝛿𝑝 , one can compute the axial
displacement of the screw (extension) and that of the component (compression). The interference diagram is
obtained as reported below.

In the diagram all possible interference

losses must be taken into account:

• fixing uncertainty
• slack
• possible thermal expansion

Finally, one must perform static and fatigue

verification of the screw.

FEM Analysis

The FE model must consider:

• loads due to gas pressure,

• dynamic loads due to distribution system,
• tightening loads which worsen the pressure load on the gasket,
• static load due to assembly with housing and valves,
• thermal load (steady state and transient)

The targets of the simulation are:

• structural analysis: von Mises stresses due to screws, pressure and thermal load,
• fatigue safety factor,
• temperature field,
• interference analysis.

Structural Safety Factor Thermal Field Interference

§ 8 – Cylinder Block 47

8. Cylinder Block
The cylinder block is the engine foundation and it can be designed as
a single component mounted on engine vibration absorber to the
chassis of the vehicle. It accommodates the liners, main bearings and
all accessories.

The cylinder block includes an upper part named block and a lower
part called crankcase:

• Block, a single rigid assembly made up of liners and upper

and lower gaskets,

• Crankcase, an open structure made up of skirts, walls and

main bearing caps.

The geometry of the cylinder block is functional to the torsional stiffness. Different solutions are used to
increase this stiffness:

• short or deep skirts,

• bearing beams,
• bedplate including all main caps

The bedplate solution provides the stiffest block structure, but it is more expensive; it is generally used in high
pressure die case cylinder blocks to simplify the casting process. All this solution are resultant of a trade-off
including stiffness, lightness and costs.

Bedplate Main caps

48 Powertrain Components Design

The skirts are positioned 5-6 mm far from the guitar so to accommodate the envelope of the crank rod
revolution and to avoid oil pumping effect during crank rotation.

Short Skirt Long Skirt

- End at the center line of the crankshaft - Extend 60-70 mm below the center line
- Low problems about NVH - Problems about NVH (behave as loudspeakers)
- Oil pan is deep and can be resonant - Oil pan is short and less resonant
- Bedplate solution make the structure stiffer

Another important design solution is the deck, which is the path of the coolant fluid circuit.

Open Deck Close Deck

- The coolant can freely flow up to the sealing surface - The coolant cannot freely flow up to the sealing
- Commonly obtained by low cost casting (HPDC) - Requires expendable water jackets core (no HPDC)
- Difficulties to guarantee continuous sealing - Expensive if modified die casting process are used
- Simplest solution if coupled with wet liners - Solution with cast-in liners are cheap
- Noise - Higher structural stiffness
- Perfect sealing is guaranteed
§ 8 – Cylinder Block 49

Material

Usually, the material for the cylinder block are:

• Cast iron with Al-alloy bedplate,

• Hypereutectic Al-alloy (Si > 12%),
• Magnesium with Al-alloy inserts.

Magnesium structure allows to be 25% lighter than the conventional Al-alloy solution.

Liners

Cylinder block can be with or without liners according to whether the liners are physically present (wet, dry or
cast-in solution) or obtained by processing the internal part of the cylinder block itself. The difference between
wet and dry liners stands in the direct contact with the coolant. Dry liners can also be built separately through
cast-in and then inserted in the block housing.

The two most important parameters about the good functionality of the liner are:

• internal surface finishing since a good result highly reduce internal friction and
increase the sealing effect with the piston,

• deformation of the longitudinal that can be caused by high mechanical and thermal stresses
cylindrical surface

Plateau Finishing

Plateau finishing uses spindle with diamond stone. The basic finishing creates
pockets in the order of 8-9 𝜇𝑚 useful for the lubricant fluid.

Smaller pockets, 2-3 𝜇𝑚, constitute the supporting surface on which the piston slides
with respect the liner.

Laser Finishing

Laser finishing uses laser to obtain a rifling with the desired dimensions and position of the pockets to achieve
a desired lubrication structure. Different rifling and designed lubrication structure can be obtained.

Experimental analysis shows that laser finishing decreases the friction coefficient up to 60 % compared to
Plateau. A further friction reduction can be achieved by decreasing the tangential load on the piston.
50 Powertrain Components Design

Cooling

The liner cooling is guaranteed by the circulation of the coolant fluid around the liners
along the water jacket that is located at the ring-land level of the piston. To stiffen the
deck and to decrease the engine weight, the water jacket must be placed in lower
position (increasing 𝑎), while the length ℎ must be reduced. A numerical CFD
investigation is then needed to avoid engine warm-up problems.

The length support of the liner affects its performance. The

design of the deck imposes certain solution; closed deck
cylinder block admits upper collar support on the top, on the
contrary the open deck liners have a lower collar support on the
bottom. In high performance engines, wet liners are supported
on the middle.

The optimal cooling solution is obtained with a circulation of the

coolant fluid all around the liner circumference. However, this
imposes an increasing of the distance between two adjacent liners
(due to the presence of the liner material thickness + the water jacket).
Because of the increase in longitudinal length, the cast-in liners are
linked each other in the so-called twinned solution to save space.

Mechanical Deformation

The liner transversal profile may deform under the action of screw forces. The deformation of the liner is
experimentally measured (with a specific tool named Talyrond). An acceptable circumferential deformation is
in the order of 20-30 𝜇𝑚. Through the Fourier transform, one can identify the different order of deformation:

• 1st order circle

• 2nd order ellipse
• 3rd order tri-lobed shape…

The mechanical deformation is affected by the position and depth of the threaded holes for the cylinder head
fixing screws. To reduce this deformation, the cylinder head fixing screws are moved as outside as possible
with respect to the liners.

Types of Liners

Liners are produced in different type:

• Cast-in made of Al-alloy with galvanic coating or hypereutectic Al-alloy

• Sintered low dispersion of material and high material compositions
• Bi-layer made of a lamellar cast iron in the internal and Al-alloy externally

• Metal Matrix Composite casting technique with forms filled in laminar flow regime

• Plasma coated plasma is sprayed to increase mechanical and tribological properties

• Ceramic coated Low Temperature Iron Titanate is applied to improve anti-friction

§ 8 – Cylinder Block 51

Design Guidelines

Wall

The wall and the main caps form the structure that support the
crankshaft. Thus, the input force is the maximum resultant force
𝐹 transmitted by the crankshaft. The force 𝐹 can be assumed
proportional to 𝐹𝑔,𝑚𝑎𝑥 or to 𝐹𝑎,𝑚𝑎𝑥 depending on the time instant.
Also, one must consider the force of the screws (or studs) in the
most stressed section.

𝜋𝐷2
𝐹𝑔,𝑚𝑎𝑥 = 𝑝𝑚𝑎𝑥
𝐹= 4

{ 𝐹𝑎,𝑚𝑎𝑥 = 𝑚𝑎 𝜔2 𝑟(1 + 𝜆)

About the wall design, 3 different cross sections must be considered depending on how it is fixed.

Wall Fixed by Screws Wall Fixed by Studs

𝐹 𝐹𝑡
𝐹𝑡 = cos 𝛼 ⟹ 𝜎𝑡𝐼 =
2 𝐴𝐼−𝐼 The cylinder head generates a force 𝐹 ∗ such that:

𝐹 𝑀𝑏
𝑀𝑏 = sin 𝛼 ⋅ 𝐿 ⟹ 𝜎𝑏𝐼 = 𝜋𝑑𝑔2
2 𝑊𝐼−𝐼 𝐹 ∗ = 𝑝𝑚𝑎𝑥
4

𝜎𝑒𝑞 = 𝜎𝑡𝐼 + 𝜎𝑏𝐼 ≤ 𝜎𝑎𝑑𝑚 As for the cylinder head, the studs fixing pre-load
must be multiply by (1 + 𝑘), where the coefficient 𝑘
is commonly equal to 0,5.

The compressive stress has to be limited to the

admissible compressive stress of the material:

𝐹 ∗ (1 + 𝑘)
𝜎𝑐𝐼𝐼𝐼 = ≤ 𝜎𝑎𝑑𝑚
𝐴𝐼𝐼𝐼−𝐼𝐼𝐼

𝐹 𝑀𝑏
𝑀𝑏 = 𝐿 ⟹ 𝜎𝑏𝐼𝐼 =
2 1 𝑊𝐼−𝐼

𝜎𝑒𝑞 = 𝜎𝑏𝐼𝐼 ≤ 𝜎𝑎𝑑𝑚

52 Powertrain Components Design

Main Cap

The main caps are fixed to the wall. The load on the main caps depends on the arrangement in the engine
architecture. Still, the maximum load that acts on each cap is proportional to the maximum gas force:

𝜋𝐷2
𝐹 = 𝐹𝑔,𝑚𝑎𝑥 = 𝑝𝑚𝑎𝑥
4

Also the main cap is fixed to the corresponding wall by means of screws with tightening load 𝑃 which as usual
must be corrected by the term (1 + 𝑘). The resistance force 𝑅 then results:

𝐹𝑘
𝑅=
2

On the most stressed section (I-I), the bending moment is such that:

𝐿 1 𝐷𝑐
𝑀𝑏 = (𝑃 − 𝑅) − 𝐹
2 2 4

in which the term 𝐹𝐷𝑐 /4 is the bending moment produced by the elementary forces (generated by 𝐹) acting
on the half-circumference with diameter 𝐷𝐶 . The consequent bending stress has to be limited to the admissible:

𝑀𝑏
𝜎𝑏𝐼 = ≤ 𝜎𝑎𝑑𝑚
𝑊𝐼−𝐼

Liner Support

In case of press-fitted wet liners, the support and the liner are schematized in order to make the analytical
calculation. The part highlighted in red is the flange.
§ 8 – Cylinder Block 53

Also depending on the fixing system, the liner support undergoes to different stresses:

Liner Support Fixed by Screws Liner Support Fixed by Studs

Subjected to Tensile in section I-I Subjected to Tensile in section I-I

𝐹 𝐷2 𝐹 ∗ (1 + 𝑘) 𝑑𝑔2 (1 + 𝑘)
𝜎𝑡𝐼 = = 𝑝𝑚𝑎𝑥 2 𝜎𝑡𝐼 = = 𝑝𝑚𝑎𝑥 2
𝐴𝐼−𝐼 (𝐷1 − 𝐷22 ) 𝐴𝐼−𝐼 (𝐷1 − 𝐷22 )

Subjected to Shear in section II-II

𝐹 ∗ (1 + 𝑘) 𝑑𝑔2 (1 + 𝑘)
𝜏 𝐼𝐼 = = 𝑝𝑚𝑎𝑥
𝜋𝐷2 ℎ 4𝐷2 ℎ

Liner Wall

The liner wall is the liner internal surface and it can be studied as a thin pipe loaded by an internal pressure
equal to the maximum gas pressure. From the Thin Tube Theory, the stress state on the liner wall is:

𝑝𝑖 𝑟𝑖 𝐷
𝜎𝑐𝑖𝑟𝑐 = = 𝑝𝑚𝑎𝑥
𝑠 2𝑠

𝜎𝑟𝑎𝑑 = −𝑝𝑖 = −𝑝𝑚𝑎𝑥

𝐸𝛼∆𝑇
𝜎𝑎𝑥 =
{ 2(1 − 𝜈)

The equivalent stress (computed though Tresca or Von Mises) has to be lower than the admissible stress of the
liner material: 𝜎𝑒𝑞 ≤ 𝜎𝑎𝑑𝑚 .

Because of the normal force 𝐹𝑛 transmitted by the piston, it is also required to verify the bending stress. The
distance 𝑥 represents the distance from the TDC in which 𝐹𝑛 is maximum. This distance 𝑥 can be evaluated in
the crank-slider mechanism. From the equilibrium to rotation around point A, the analysis is:

𝑥−𝐿+𝑎
𝑅𝐵 = 𝐹𝑛,𝑚𝑎𝑥
𝑎

𝑀𝑏 = 𝑅𝐵 (𝐿 − 𝑥)

𝑀𝑏
𝜎𝑏 =
𝑊𝐼−𝐼

𝜎𝑏 ≤ 𝜎𝑎𝑑𝑚
54 Powertrain Components Design

Liner Flange

The liner flange is loaded by:

• tightening force produced by the cylinder head screws

• bending generated by misalignment between the gasket and the liner support

Considering the contact pressure 𝑝 with the support collar equal to:

𝐹(1 + 𝑘) 𝑑𝑔 (1 + 𝑘)
𝑝= = 𝑝𝑚𝑎𝑥
𝐴 4ℎ1

Thus, in section I-I, the shear and bending stresses are:

𝐹 ∗ (1 + 𝑘) 𝑑𝑔2 (1 + 𝑘)
𝜏𝐼 = = 𝑝𝑚𝑎𝑥 2
𝐴𝐼−𝐼 (𝐷2 − 𝐷32 )

𝐹 ∗ (1 + 𝑘) ⋅ 𝑒 3𝑑𝑔 (1 + 𝑘)𝑒
𝜎𝑏𝐼 = = 𝑝𝑚𝑎𝑥
𝑊𝐼−𝐼 2ℎ12

Numerical Analysis (FEA)

In the FE model, the stresses on the cylinder block and the characteristics to analyze are:

• dynamic load from crank mechanism fatigue, especially on main bearings,,

• dynamic load from balance system fatigue, especially on bearings of the balance shaft,
• thrust load on the liner wear,

• tightening of head screw liners distortion and incorrect pressure distribution,

• thermal load liner distortion due to high thermal gradient.

In cylinder block FEA is possible to consider:

• Mechanical and thermal loads
• Static and dynamic loads
• Viscos-elastic sliding condition of material

The Static analysis allows to estimate stress condition, in particular on areas with important variation of
geometry (potential cracks development), and fatigue behavior.

Dynamic analysis allows to verify the presence of coupled modes (bending, axial and torsional) and study the
cylinder block behavior from NVH perspective.
§ 9 – Oil Pan 55

9. Oil Pan
The oil pan can be a simple holder, but it can also have structural function:

• to increase the bending natural frequencies of the powertrain,

• to stiffen the link between engine and gearbox.

In case of structural function, the oil pan presents

stiffening ribs that complicate the geometry.

The most used materials are steel sheet, double steel

sheet or sandwich solution to minimize the panel
acoustic emission. Al-alloy is mainly used for
complex geometries, while mixed solution Al-alloy/
Mg-alloy with steel sheet are focused on weight
saving.

In oil pan design two conflicting goals can be highlighted: NVH performance and engine weight saving. In
fact, the more the oil pan is stiff the more it is heavy.

Numerical Optimization – Modal Analysis

The proposal is useful to design a new oil pan, still with the same dynamics (natural frequencies) of the original
and also improve weight saving. The optimum design follows this procedure:
56 Powertrain Components Design

The Multi Input Multi Output (MIMO) modal analysis is performed in Test-Lab with suitable software. For
example the experimental natural frequencies up to 1000 Hz obtained through an Experimental Modal
Analysis (EMA) are:

This result gives the target frequencies for the optimization design. The Numerical Modal Analysis is then
performed on the FE model to compare the first design model with the original.

If the natural frequencies are lower, then it is required to optimize the model. To increase the natural
frequencies, usually one increase the density material (thickness). In this way the material in zones in which
is not useful about natural frequencies can be cut off and save weight.

Assume that, despite the density increment, the frequencies are still lower. In this case, one must place the last
obtained frequencies 𝜆𝑖 in a Campbell Diagram. Then one must choose the frequency to optimize (note that
the oblique lines are the engine harmonics).

Once the process is validated (no intersection between oil pan natural frequency and engine harmonics at
maximum engine speed), one can use this methodology to design a new oil pan with the same initial FE model.
Usually using different material is the first step of a new design.

The final target of optimization is: save weight and increase natural frequency. The ultimate validation is
given by the Campbell Diagram, that is: no intersection between natural frequency, max engine speed, and
engine harmonics.
§ 10 – Thermo-Mechanical Fatigue 57

10. Thermo-Mechanical Fatigue

When dealing with fatigue phenomenon, it is necessary to distinguish between different cases:

• Mechanical fatigue Isothermal

o High Cycle Fatigue (HFC), the test goes from thousands to millions cycles but the
material remains in the elastic range (High Diagram),

o Low Cycle Fatigue (LCF) the test goes from up to 104 cycles and the loads overcome
the yield strengths of the material (Wö lher Diagram),

• Thermal Fatigue Temperature varies cyclically decreasing mechanical properties. If the

material is not able to deform, the stresses are similar to those of mechanical
fatigue.

The Thermo-Mechanical Fatigue (TMF) cycle is a loading condition in which temperature and strain fields act
simultaneously on a component. Therefore, in the TMF, thermal and mechanical cycles are superimposed in
several combination: in phase (IP) or in phase opposition (OP). The factors to be considered for estimating
TMF life are:

• material properties,

• mechanical deformation and deformation rate,

• temperature range,

• phase condition (IP, OP) between mechanical and thermal.

The main goal of TMF analysis are:

• prediction of material behavior under thermal and mechanical loads,

• definition of the main parameters involved in the component failure,

• estimation of the component residual life.

In test-lab the equipment needed to perform all kinds of analysis are:

• Vibrofore HCF test,

• Servohydraulic machine LCF test,

• Oven Isothermal test,

• Induction heater Thermal cyclic tests.

58 Powertrain Components Design

Back to the mechanical fatigue, the relations needed to describe the tests are as follows:

High Cycle Fatigue (HFC) Low Cycle Fatigue (LFC)

Stress-controlled and strain-controlled tests give Strain-controlled tests characterize much better the
almost the same result. behavior of the component.

Usually represented in Haigh Diagram. Usually represented in Wö lher Diagram.

Basquin relation correlates the stress ∆𝜎 to the Manson-Coffin relation correlates the stress ∆𝜀 to
number of cycle 𝑁. the number of cycle 𝑁.

𝐵 = ∆𝜎 𝑘 ⋅ 𝑁 𝐶 = ∆𝜀 𝛽 ⋅ 𝑁

The total strain range is the sum of thermal and mechanical strain:

∆𝜀𝑡𝑜𝑡 = ∆𝜀𝑡ℎ + ∆𝜀𝑚𝑒𝑐ℎ

In which ∆𝜀𝑚𝑒𝑐ℎ is made up of the elastic contribution ∆𝜀𝑒𝑙 and the plastic contribution ∆𝜀𝑝𝑙 . The general
behavior is given by the empirical Basquin-Manson-Coffin curve, in which the damage is computed as
function of the strain only. Still, creep and oxidation are neglected.

Hysteresis

Starting with the isothermal condition, the testing temperature is constant and equal to the maximum
temperature achievable 𝑇𝑚𝑎𝑥 . The strain rate is imposed, thus obtaining the stress rate.

The hysteresis loop (𝜀𝜎 graph) is obtained by combining together the strain and stress ranges. If the imposed
strain is symmetric, then also the hysteresis loop is also symmetric with respect the origin of the 𝜀𝜎 axes.
§ 10 – Thermo-Mechanical Fatigue 59

On the contrary, in thermo-mechanical fatigue, the testing temperature varies cyclically between two fixed
values. Here, strain cycles are independent from temperature. Thus, depending on the type of combination
between the two cycles, one can obtains:

• In-Phase (IP) TMF tests max temperature and max strain are in the same time instant,

• Out-of-Phase (OP) TMF tests temperature is maximum when strain is minimum.

Usually, IP tests show a compressive mean stress (𝜎 negative) , whereas the OP tests show a tensile mean stress
(𝜎 positive).

Since in OP TMF is compressed when the temperature 𝑇 is minimum, then this condition is more sensitive to
oxidation effect because the oxide layer is formed at high temperature during the phase of mechanical
compression. When the temperature decreases, the oxide layer becomes brittle and the subsequent phase of
mechanical traction rapidly breaks the oxidized layer exposing new material to the subsequent oxidation.

The actual tend of the material shows an hysteresis loop shifted towards the compression field in IP and tensile
field in OP. Definitely, OP condition is the most dangerous for the material failure. The related damages are:

• mechanical deformation; mechanical fatigue damage is due to hysteresis caused by loading condition,

• creep; viscos-plastic deformation at high temperature.

• oxidation.
60 Powertrain Components Design

TMF Fatigue Damage

Baushinger Effect

The Baushinger effect is a material behavior relate to the first loading cycle:
the yield stress of the material at the first load application is usually higher
than the yield stress shown by the material during the successive hysteresis
cycles.

Thus the consequence is a decrease of the compressive elastic limit after the
first loading. Physically, the component remain permanently deformed at
crystalline level and this generates material anisotropies.

At macroscopic level, these anisotropies decrease the elastic limit of the

material.

Cyclic Hardening/Softening

In general, the material hysteresis loops changes with the

increase of the accumulated number of cycles up to reaching
a stable level that persist until failure.

In symmetrical strain-controlled tests (zero mean stress), the

material can show two different behaviors in the not-
stabilized-phase:

• cyclic hardening; the stress required to reach the imposed strain increases, as well as the elastic limit,

• cyclic softening; the stress required to reach the imposed strain decreases, as well as the elastic limit.

Material that suffer hardening are usually those without heat treatments whereas on the contrary, material
that undergoes heat treatments or heavy plastic deformation, tend to soften cyclically.

Shakedown Effect

In non-symmetrical strain-controlled
tests (non-zero mean stress) in which
the load exceeds the yield strength,
when the load cycles have a positive
mean stress, resultant the hysteresis
loop tends to decrease the mean stress
value towards zero. This is named
relaxation of the mean stress.

High plasticization leads to a complete

relaxation of he mean stress, whereas in
low plasticization, the relaxation can be
only partial.
§ 10 – Thermo-Mechanical Fatigue 61

Ratchetting

Ratchetting is an accumulation of plastic deformation that occurs in non-symmetrical strain-controlled test in

which the load exceeds the material yield strength.

The effect is that the hysteresis loops are not closed

but are constantly moving on the 𝜀𝜎 plane towards
increasing the value of the deformation in the
direction of the applied mean stress. Certainly,
ratcheting is a not stable behavior of the material.

In material that soften cyclically, ratcheting rate

tends to increase, on the opposite, it tends to
decrease in material that harden cyclically.

After a certain number of cycles, the phenomena stabilizes, and the hysteresis loop get closed (ratchetting rate
goes to zero).

Creep and Oxidation

Creep is a time-dependent plastic deformation under constant load and temperature. Microstructures get
rearranged by dislocation, aging and cavitation. Main causes of creep damage are:

• necking phenomena reduction of the resisting area,

• grain boundaries cavities and cracks,

• microstructural instability.

Empirical models provide simple formulas that correlate creep rate, stress, temperature and time for the
estimation of the material behavior. These models are useful in the early step of design process.

Oxidation reactions are instead based on diffusion mechanism:

• vacancy mechanism,

• interstitial mechanisms.
62 Powertrain Components Design

Residual Life Estimation

The component life (in terms of number of cycles to failure) depends on material and damage mechanism and
can be estimated through the ∆𝜀 − 𝑁 curves, or the corresponding mathematical methods. Any model to
estimate the residual life is made of three parts:

1. material constitutive law it correlates stress and strain,

2. damage model describes the phenomena that cause damages,

3. failure criterion express the limit value for the damage expression.

The thermo analysis computes the nodal temperatures which are then imposed to the structural analysis. This
estimates the stresses and deformation caused by the superimposition of the temperature map and the
mechanical cyclic load.

To get more details, the thermal load may be stationary or transient. The combination of the two gives the
evolution in time of the component temperature field.

At the end of the simulation, the output is represented by the stress, strain, displacement, temperature and
heat flow for each node of the FE model.

Damage Models

The problem is that it is not clear how plastic deformation (fatigue), creep and oxidation interact each other
and which is the predominant factor. Only with a correct damage model calibration it is possible to compute
a correct estimation of the residual life of the component. Damage models are classified in general and empirical:

• General based on physics of crack nucleation and propagation (complex),

• Empirical based on experimental and microstructural observations (simpler).

Another important classification is based on the direction of the load:

• Uniaxial single axial stress,

• Multiaxial 3D application with stresses in different locations.

All the models are a combination of General/Empirical and Uniaxial/Multiaxial analysis. The most known
uniaxial TMF literature damage and failure criterion are reported in the table below:

Empirical Damage is computed as a function of strain only.

Basquin-Manson-Coffin
Uniaxial Failure criterion is the experimental curve.

General Damage is the sum of creep and oxidation.

Neu-Sehitoglu
Uniaxial Failure is based on cumulative damage assumption.

Empirical Damage is the sum of mechanical fatigue and creep.

Chaboche, BMW
Uniaxial Failure is based on cumulative damage assumption.

Empirical Damage is function of the energy dissipated.

Skeleton
Uniaxial Failure is based on a limit value of the dissipated energy.

Several Multiaxial models (Von Mises, ASME code…) are based on the Basquin-Manson-Coffin relation.
§ 10 – Thermo-Mechanical Fatigue 63

Basquin-Manson-Coffin Model

The Basquin-Manson-Coffin model is the simplest uniaxial

damage model used both in LCF and in TMF with zero mean
stress. Since this model neglects the contribution of creep and
oxidation, then it is suitable for “not high temperatures” and “not
long working time”.

The material is modeled according to a elasto-plastic hardening

type (Hooke law in elastic range and Ramberg-Osdgood law in
plastic range). The total strain is the damage parameter:

1
∆𝜎 ∆𝜎 𝑛′
∆𝜀 = ∆𝜀𝑒𝑙 + ∆𝜀𝑝𝑙 = +( ′ )
𝐸 𝐾

The parameters to be calibrated are the

coefficients and exponents of strength and
ductility to fatigue through experimental data
from LCF and HCF tests. The failure criterion is
directly defined by the experimental limit curve:

1 𝑏−𝑐 𝜀𝑓′ 𝐸
𝑁𝑇 = ( √ ′ )
2 𝜎𝑓

The residual life prediction is performed by

imposing ∆𝜀 (computed with FEA) and obtaining
the number of cycles to failure 𝑁𝑓 .

Neu-Sehitoglu Model

Neu-Sehitoglu model is suitable for load histories with superimposed mechanical and thermal cycles. Thus, it
is suitable from TMF application provided the experimental calibration of the parameters with respect the
Basquin-Manson-Coffin model.

Here, the material is modeled as a viscos-plastic hardening type. The total damage (equal to the inverse of
cycles to failure) is instead defined as the sum of the contribution of mechanical fatigue, creep and oxidation:

1 1 1 1
𝐷 = 𝐷 𝑓𝑎𝑡 + 𝐷𝑐𝑟𝑒𝑒𝑝 + 𝐷𝑜𝑥 ⇒ = 𝑓𝑎𝑡 + 𝑐𝑟𝑒𝑒𝑝 + 𝑜𝑥
𝑁𝑓 𝑁 𝑁𝑓 𝑁𝑓
𝑓

The fatigue damage is calculated through Basquin-Mason-Coffin, whereas creep and oxidation damage
require extensive and expensive tests (due to calibration parameters).

Chaboche, BMW Model

Chaboche models the material as a viscos-elastic type and the damage based on stress and in an implicit
form. The differential formulation that neglect the oxidation damage: 𝐷 = 𝐷 𝑓𝑎𝑡 + 𝐷𝑐𝑟𝑒𝑒𝑝
Here, the damage accumulation is linear and not superimposed; still, experimental calibration is required.
64 Powertrain Components Design

Skeleton Model

Skeleton model is based on an energy approach which correlates the energy dissipated in TMF condition to
crack propagation. The residual life of the component is estimated as:

total energy dissipated by the material up to failure

energy dissipated by the component during its working condition

The total energy dissipated is computed as the total area of the hysteresis cycles up to failure. Since this is an
energy approach method, them there is difference between single and multiaxial condition.

Considering 𝑊𝐶 as the total energy expenditure to reach the failure (material characterization) and 𝑊 as the
total energy expenditure after 𝑁 cycles, then the number of cycles to failure (residual life) is:

𝑊𝐶
𝑁𝑓 =
𝑊

Multiaxial Models

Multiaxial models are developed to be used in LCF and TMF analyses of components where the stress state
is generally multiaxial. Most of these models are based on the Basquin-Manson-Coffin model possibly
corrected in case of non-zero mean stress.

Al the multiaxial model calculate a uniaxial strain amplitude equivalent to the multiaxial condition acting on
the component. This equivalent uniaxial strain amplitude is then introduced in the Basquin-Manson-Coffin
model to estimate the cycles to failure.

Different model relies on different techniques to compute the equivalent uniaxial strain:

• von Mises Maximum octahedral strain criterion (exploits strain tensors),

• ASME code based on von Mises but computed starting from a strain variation,

• Sonsino-Grubisic damage is caused by the change of strain direction due to deformation,

• Kandill-Brown-Miller equivalent uniaxial strain amplitude starting from principal strains,

• Fatemi-Socie damage is controlled by shear strain component of maximum amplitude.

§ 11 – Exhaust Manifold 65

11. Exhaust Manifold

Exhaust manifolds collects exhaust gases from the exhaust valves and drive
the gas to the turbine of the turbocharger, if present.

In modern diesel engines the common geometry is that of turbocharged

engines: short runners with a unique outlet section to guide the exhaust
gasses directly to the turbocharger.

Material

The most used materials are:

• Steel AISI 409, 441, 429, 444, 321,

• Ductile cast iron Si-Mo, Si-Mo-Cr, Ni-Resist.

Design Guidelines

The exhaust manifold is a component that highly influences the weight of the engine and the emissions quality.
The working conditions are typical of a TMF condition and they are characterized by:

• thermal cycles due to hot flow of the gases, thermal expansion of the turbocharger,

• mechanical loads fastening and turbocharger weight.

During the design procedure, the main requirements to be satisfy are:

• use of materials able to resist to thermal fatigue and oxidation,

• reduction of well thickness to save weight and reduce thermal capacity for increase the fast heating,

• optimization of pressure waves avoiding interferences (turbocharger efficiency),

• reduction of thermal strains and distortions.

The procedure is semi-empirical. The geometry is modeled using beams loaded with force 𝑊 and moment
𝑊𝐿. The component main dimensions can be obtained using non-dimensional parameters. These non-
dimensional parameters are:

• aspect ratio 𝑚

• branch ratio 𝑏

• offset ratio 𝑐

𝐿 𝑈 𝐿
𝑚= , 𝑏= , 𝑐=
𝑈 𝑦 𝑦
66 Powertrain Components Design

To increase the manifold stiffness, the following items should be verified:

• small aspect ratio it limits the amplitude of the deformation for internal runners

• large branch ratio

• large offset ratio

Numerical CFD analysis allows to define the second order approximation of the manifold geometry.

Working Condition on the Test Bench

The typical working condition is an Out-of-Phase , Thermo-Mechanical Fatigue: OP TMF. This means that the
exhaust manifold is loaded by a thermal and a mechanical load.

The thermal load is a cyclic non-isothermal load (engine characterization) and the heat exchange is:

• conduction with cylinder head,

• convection with environment.

The mechanical load is due to the mounting condition:

• bolts load,

• turbocharger weight,

• engine dynamic load.

Also it is required to perform a thermal shock test because of the extreme working conditions such as:

• fast speed regime variations,

• cooling, especially if manifolds are place in front of the cold air flux.

Finally, a leakage test must prove that no exhaust gases are quitting the manifold due to cracks.

Material Behavior

Cast iron failure mainly regards:

• material temperature resistance for high temperature LCF,

• crack propagation for high temperature resistance cast iron.

Overall, the LCF behavior of the high resistance cast iron depends on the temperature. Indeed, the cast iron
tends to:

• cycle hardening @ low and medium temperature 500°C ,

• cycle softening @ high temperature 800°C .

The damage models are based on Basquin-Manson-Coffin and Skeleton models of a commercial Si-Mo-Cr cast
iron. However, creep are generally neglected while oxidation would require more detailed models.
§ 11 – Exhaust Manifold 67

Residual Life Estimation – FEA Analysis

The main purpose of FEA and TMF study is to predict the critical areas of the exhaust manifold in terms of
structural integrity, and the estimation of the number of cycles to failure 𝑁𝑓 .

The procedure follows this general scheme:

FEA

In the Finite Element Analysis phase, two simulations must be performed:

• Thermal transient analysis temperatures and nodal temperatures values after the cycle,

• Structural transient analysis stress and strain due to bolt and then due to thermal expansion.

The temperature maps computed in the thermal analysis are then superimposed to the mechanical results.
After the calibration, the comparison between experimental and simulated must prove that hysteresis loop
variation is acceptable.

After the FEA, one can focus on the time evolution of all the variables of interest such as stresses, strains, nodal
temperatures, etc.
68 Powertrain Components Design

Multiaxial Damage Model

Also, multiaxial damage model are exploited in

temperature ranging between 160°C and 800°C. This is
possible by calibrating the parameters (four) of the
Basquin-Manson-Coffin model. However, since this last
model does not consider temperature-dependent relation,
then one must calibrate the parameter for each
temperature under investigation.

Residual life values must be computed for each critical FR

detected in structural FEA.

Usually, the most probable area where the fatigue crack

may nucleate and propagate is then reinforcement rib
between exhaust manifold main collar and external
runner.