Modern Mobility & Automotive Mechanics (21ME54)

Module-2 Transmission & Suspension System

Syllabus
Clutches; Plate Clutches, Cone Clutch, Centrifugal Clutch, Fluid Flywheel

Gear Box; Gear Shifting mechanism, synchromesh Gear box, Torque converter, Automatic
Manual Transmission (AMT), Automatic Transmission (AT), intelligent manual Transmission
(IMT) Continuously Variable Transmission (CVT), Infinitely Variable Transmission (IVT)-
Working of Differential, Rear Axle types & construction.

Suspension – layout & working of Hydraulic& Air suspension, Independent suspension,

Functions& advantages of Leaf Spring, Coil Spring, Telescopic Shock Absorber, Torsion Bar

Department of Mechanical Engineering, MITE Moodabidre

Automobile Engineering [15ME655]

MODULE -2

TRANSMISSION SYSTEMS
CLUTCH
Clutch is a machine member used to connect the driving shaft to a driven shaft, so that the
driven shaft may be started or stopped at will, without stopping the driving shaft. A clutch thus
provides an interruptible connection between two rotating shafts. Clutches allow a high inertia
load to be stated with a small power.
Clutches are used whenever the ability to limit the transmission of power or motion needs to
becontrolled either in amount or over time (e.g. electric screwdrivers limit how much torque is
transmitted through use of a clutch; clutches control whether automobiles transmit engine power
to the wheels).
In the simplest application clutches are employed in devices which have two rotating shafts.
Inthese devices one shaft is typically attached to a motor or other power unit (the driving member)
while the other shaft (the driven member) provides output power for work to be done. In
a drill for instance, one shaft is driven by a motor and the other drives a drill chuck. The clutch
connects the two shafts so that they may be locked together and spin at the same speed
(engaged), locked together but spinning at different speeds (slipping), or unlocked and spinning
at different speeds (disengaged).
A popularly known application of clutch is in automotive vehicles where it is used to connect
theengine and the gear box. Here the clutch enables to crank and start the engine disengaging the
transmission Disengage the transmission and change the gear to alter the torque on the wheels.
Clutches are also used extensively in production machinery of all types.

When your foot is off the pedal, the springs push the pressure plate against the clutch disc,
whichin turn presses against the flywheel. This locks the engine to the transmission input shaft,
causing them to spin at the same speed.

Department of Mechanical Engg., KVGCE, Sullia Sandesh K. J.

Automobile Engineering [15ME655]

Clutch for a drive shaft: The clutch disc (center) spins with the flywheel (left). To disengage,
thelever is pulled (black arrow), causing a white pressure plate (right) to disengage the green clutch
disc from turning the drive shaft, which turns within the thrust-bearing ring of the lever. Never
will all 3 rings connect, with no gaps.

The amount of force the clutch can hold depends on the friction between the clutch plate and
theflywheel, and how much force the spring puts on the pressure plate. When the clutch pedal is
pressed, a cable or hydraulic piston pushes on the release fork, which presses the throw-out
bearing against the middle of the diaphragm spring. As the middle of the diaphragm spring is
pushed in, a series of pins near the outside of the spring causes the spring to pull the pressure
plate away from the clutch disc (see below). This releases the clutch from the spinning engine.

Function of clutch:
Clutch is use the function of clutch to engage and disengage the engine power from gear box or
wheel.
Effortless operation.
Minimum size.
Minimum mass.
Torque transmission will be more.
Friction capacity will be more.
Heat dissipation will be more.
Minimum vibration.
Well balance.

Department of Mechanical Engg., KVGCE, Sullia Sandesh K. J.

Automobile Engineering [15ME655]

Necessity clutch:
If the engine is directly connected to the gear box. The vehicle will be moved forward of the
time of engine starting and will get stop when the vehicle going to stop the avoid this problem
clutch is necessary.

Requirement of good clutch

Minimum size.
Gradual engagement.
An effortless operation.
Minimum mass.

The working principal of clutch is friction into the clutch is increased by four methods:
Surface contact area should be more.
Pressure on surface should be maximum.
Surface should be rough.

Types of clutch:
Single plate clutch.
Diaphragm type clutch.
Multiplate clutch.
Helical type single plate clutch.
Centrifugal clutch.
Cone clutch.
Semi-centrifugal clutch.

Single plate Clutch:-

Part- fly wheel, friction plate, pressure plate.
Diagram of single plate clutch is shown in figure.
When drivers wants to shift the gear or to stop the vehicle. He depress clutch pedal so that the
fork pushed the forward and pushes the clutch bearing and finger.
The finger are pivoted so that they pulls the pressure plate back hence the clutch plate will
get free so the flywheel radiate but the clutch plate will not get rotate. This is the disengage
position on clutch.

Diaphragm type clutch:

In this type of clutch instead of helical spring diaphragm spring is used the remaining part’s
spring type clutch.

Department of Mechanical Engg., KVGCE, Sullia Sandesh K. J.

Automobile Engineering [15ME655]

Single plate clutch

Multi plate clutch:oDiagram of multi plate clutch is shown in figure.

oIn this multi plate clutch inside of using single plate more number of clutch plates are used.
oIn small vehicle like motorcycle, scooter etc. the space is limited so that a big single plate cannot
be sued so that number of plate increased size.
oThe plates are arranged in such a way that after every.
oThis type of clutch used in heavy transport vehicle and racing cars where high torque is required.
oThe construction is similar to single plate type except that all the friction plates in this case are in
two sets, one set of plates slides in grooves on the flywheel and the other one slides on splices on
the pressure plate hub,
Department of Mechanical Engg., KVGCE, Sullia Sandesh K. J.
Automobile Engineering [15ME655]

Helical type single plate clutch:

Construction of Helical type single plate Clutch:
Following parts are used in this clutch.
7. Flywheel.
8. Cover assembly.
9. Helical spring.
10. Clutch plate.
11. Operating linkage.
12. Splinted shaft or clutch shaft.

The clutch plate is hold in between flywheel and pressure plate. The helical spring is given
behind the pressure plate, which is Hal fly compressed, this spring given the force on
pressure plate and clutch plate. The cover assembly mounted on flywheel.

Working of Helical type single plate Clutch

oWhen the engine starts, the crank shaft will get rotate with flywheel, the clutch plate and
pressure plate also get rotate dew two spring force, the clutch plate rotate the clutch shaft and
so on this is the engage position of clutch.

Centrifugal clutch:
oCentrifugal clutch is shown in figure.

Centrifugal clutch

oIn this type of clutch both the spring force the centrifugal force work to engage the clutch.
oWhen engine and vehicle stop the clutch is in disengage on passion. When engine get start and
speed get increased the flyweight moves away (expand) and create a centrifugal force on pressure
plate as well as on clutch plate as speed increases the force also get increases and the clutch get fully
engage.
oWhen driver realest accelerator pedal the speed of engine get reduced so that the centrifugal force
also get reduce and clutch get disengage. This type of clutch does not require clutchpedal.

Department of Mechanical Engg., KVGCE, Sullia Sandesh K. J.

Automobile Engineering [15ME655]

oThis type of clutch is used on mopeds, and scooters.

Semi centrifugal clutch:

oSemi centrifugal clutch is shown in figure. Semi centrifugal clutch

oIn this type of clutch both the spring force the centrifugal force work to engage the clutch.
o Clutch plate one pressure plate is given the clutch plate as having external splice and engages with
clutch box, the pressure plate are having internal saplings and engage with engine gears.
oThe clutch plate and pressure plate are hold together with the help of helical spring.

Cone clutch:

oThe cone clutch is shown in figure. Cone clutch

oThis clutch is having inner cone (flywheel) and outer surface of outer cone friction material is given
to engage this two cone together helical spring is given at the center of outer cone the outer cone is
having internal spines.

Department of Mechanical Engg., KVGCE, Sullia Sandesh K. J.

Automobile Engineering [15ME655]

oWhich are engage with clutch shaft? As the inner cone rotates, the outer cone also gets rotate which
rotate the clutch shaft. In this type of clutch the frictional force is more than single plate clutch but
dew to disengage disc advantages this type of clutch is not use in automobile vehicle.

Clutch operating mechanism:

Following type is the operating mechanism.
oMechanically operated clutch: In this type mechanism linkages are connected in such a way that
the force to operate the clutch gets increased.
oHydraulic operated clutch: In this type mechanism the hydraulic oil is used to increase the
pressure to operate the clutch. In this mechanism master cylinder and slave cylinder are used to
increase the oil pressure.

Overdrive
By definition, an overdrive has a faster output speed than input speed. It's a speed increase
theopposite of a reduction. In this transmission, engaging the overdrive accomplishes two things at
once. If you read How Torque Converters Work, you learned about lockup torque converters. In
order to improve efficiency, some cars have a mechanism that locks up the torque converter so that
the output of the engine goes straight to the transmission.

Why do we need gears?

Let's think about cars. A car has a whole box full of gears—the gearbox—sitting between
thecrankshaft and the driveshaft. But what do they actually do?
A car engine makes power in a fairly violent way by harnessing the energy locked in gasoline. It
works efficiently only when the pistons in the cylinders are pumping up and down at high speeds—
about 10-20 times a second. Even when the car is simply idling by the roadside, the pistons still need
to push up and down roughly 1000 times a minute or the engine will cut out. In other words, the
engine has a minimum speed at which it works best of about 1000 rpm. But that creates an
immediate problem because if the engine were connected directly to the wheels, they'd have a
minimum speed of 1000rpm as well—which corresponds to roughly 120km/h or 75mph. Put it
another way, if you switched on the ignition in a car like this, your wheels would instantly turn at
75mph! Suppose you put your foot down until the rev counter reached 7000 rpm. Now thewheels
should be turning round about seven times faster and you'd be going at 840 km/h or about 525 mph!
It sounds wildly exciting, but there's a snag. It takes a massive amount of force to get a car
moving from a standstill and an engine that tries to go at top speed, right from the word go, won't
generate enough force to do it. That's why cars need gearboxes. To begin with, a car needs a huge
amount of force and very little speed to get it moving, so the driver uses a low gear. In effect, the
gearbox is reducing the speed of the engine greatly but increasing its force in the same proportion to
get the car moving. Once the car's going, the driver switches to a higher gear. More of the engine's
power switches to making speed—and the car goes faster.
Changing gears is about using the engine's power in different ways to match changing
drivingconditions. The driver uses the gearshift to make the engine generate more force or more

Department of Mechanical Engg., KVGCE, Sullia Sandesh K. J.

Automobile Engineering [15ME655]

speed depending on whether hill-climbing power, acceleration from a standstill, or pure speed
isneeded.

Introduction:-
oThe mechanism that transmits engine four to the rear wheel (in case of rear wheel drive vehicle) or
to the front wheel. (In front wheel drive vehicle) or to all the four wheel (in four wheel drive
vehicles) is known as a transmission system.
oIt comprises of the following man units.

Function of gear box:-
oThe gear box and its associated units perform the following function on.
oA gear box assists in variation of torque (or tractates effort) produced by the engine in accordance
with the driving conditions.
oA large torque is required at the start of the vehicle and a low torque at higher speeds.
oIt helps in smooth running of the vehicle at different speed since variation a torque induces.

Types of transmission:
Several kinds of transmission are employed on auto vehicles. These can be4 classified as follows.
1) Manual transmission.
1) Sliding mesh gearbox.
2) Constant mesh gearbox.
3) Synchromesh gearbox.4) Synchromesh gear box with over drive.
2) Semi- Automatic transmission.
1)Electric controlled with a avid drive.
2) Electric controlled with over drive.
3) Fluid – torque drive.
3) Automatic drive.
1) Hydromantic drive.
2) Torque converter drive.

Sliding mesh gear box:

Sliding mesh gear box shown in figure.
1st Gear:-
When driver wand’s to move the vehicle he engage the 1st dog to the with the help of gear
shifting levees as the dog slides on engage to the 1st gear it starts rotate with 1st gear and tends to
rotate the main shaft like 1st gear operates.
2nd Gear:-
As driver move fast again he slides the second dog and makes engage with second gear on
main shaft (medium gear). As the dog engager to the second gear it rotates with second gear and
tents to rotate the main shaft with high speed and low torque.
3rd Gear(Top gear):-

Department of Mechanical Engg., KVGCE, Sullia Sandesh K. J.

Automobile Engineering [15ME655]

To move the vehicle fast a gain the driver shift the second dog and make engages to the third
or top gear. As the dog engages to the 3rdgear the dog rotates with gear and lends to rotate the main
shaft with faster.

Sliding mesh gear box

Constant mesh gear box:
Constant mesh gear box is the modified gear box of sliding mesh gear box.
In this type of gear box all the gears of main shaft are errantly engaged with lag shaft gears.
Do to that the possibility of bricking teeth gets reduced as well as the noise of gear box get
ridicule.

Construction of gear box:-
oThe various sizes of helical gears are mounted on main shaft with bearing; they are free to
rotate on main shaft.
oThe dogs are provided on main shaft in between two gears such that they can slide the two
spines the remaining construction is safe.
oSame as sliding mesh gear box.
Working:-
oConstant mesh gear box shown in figure.
Neutral gear:-
When engine start and the clutch get rotate. If rotates clutch gear and lay shaft gear, all the
gears on main shaft also get rotate because the no one dog is engage to the gear.
Reverse gear:-
As the driver wand’s to move the vehicle back he shifts the first dog towards digger gear
which is engages to the idler gear. As the dog engages its start rotate with the gear in reverse or
opposite direction and tends to rotate the main shaft in reverse direction.

Department of Mechanical Engg., KVGCE, Sullia Sandesh K. J.

Automobile Engineering [15ME655]

Gear box

Overdrive is a device interposed between the transmission (gear box) and propeller shaft to permit
the propeller shaft to turn faster than or-over drive the transmission main shaft. It is so called
because it provides a speed ratio over that of the high speed ratio. The overdrive permits the engine
to operate only about 70 percent of the propeller shaft speed, when the vehicle is operating in the
high speed ranges. The overdrive is suited to high powered cars employing three-speed gear boxes,
since in order to produce flexible top gear performance a low gear final drive ;nay be necessary
resulting in the engine running faster as high speeds than is desired. Generally an overdrive is fitted
to the top gear only, but some sport cars have an over drive on2nd, 3rd and top gear giving seven
forward speeds. Overdrive is usually, employed to supplement' conventional transmission. It is
bolted to the rear of the transmission between the transmission and propeller shaft. A slightly higher
rear-axle gear ratio is employed with an overdrive than without one.

Advantages.'The main advantages of an overdrive are:

1. Prolonged engine life since the engine turns slower for any given speed.
2. Fuel economy.
3. Reduced vibration and noises.

Construction and working of overdrive:

Fig.Shows the simplified diagram of an "overdrive".
Construction.It consists of an "epicyclic gear train in which the sun gear is free to rotate on The
input shaft, while the carrier can move on splines on the input shaft. A "freewheel clutch" is also
fitted on the input shaft splines. The output shaft is connected to the ring-gear.

Department of Mechanical Engg., KVGCE, Sullia Sandesh K. J.

Automobile Engineering [15ME655]


Automatic gear box:
The parts use in automatic gear box is as follows.
1) Epicyclical gear box.(planetary gear box)
2) Torque converter.
3) Clutch packs and brake bands.
4) Freewheel or overrunning clutch.
5) Hydraulic valve controls.
6) Shifting control.
Epicyclical gear box:-
oEpicyclical gear box shown in figure.

Epicyclical gear box

An epicyclical gear box consists of two or more epicyclical gear sets.
This gear box is having sun gear planet gear and internal gear is also could annular gear the sun
gear is mounted on driving shaft and the annular gear on driven shaft.
To captain the necessary gear combinations needed for gear reduction, direct drive, reverse, neutral
and over drive the planetary set are use in automatic gear box.
The planetary gear set is always in mesh and consists of pinion gear mounted on planetary
Carrier by shaft.



Department of Mechanical Engg., KVGCE, Sullia Sandesh K. J.

Automobile Engineering [15ME655]

Torque converter:-
The torque converter is also a kind of fluid flywheel (drive) but change in the torque by providing
variable gear ration so that additional part that is stator is used its gear ration is maximum when
starting from rest and decreases as the vehicle gars speed.

Construction:-
oItuses
1) Stator.
2)A driving pump impeller.
3) Turbine.
Working:-
oTorque convertor shown in figure.

Torque converter
The fluid fitted in the torque converter is oil circulates under part to the other. The housing
from one oil float B charged by the stationary blade B such way that the oil return that pump
impeller after passing through the turbine as the vehicle picks up the speed the blade being to turn
along with the other member so the torque multiples thus the power from engine crank shaft transfer
to the turbine.
Constant mesh gear box, the gears are fixed to their positions. They are meshed. It is a type
ofmanual transmission. It is this gear box that we use in today’s automobiles, right? Synchromeshare
absent here.It shows a simple constant mesh gear box though from it you will not be able to
understand itssimulation. I would suggest that you try to analyze how the power is transmitted
through main shaft to the wheels through clutch and gear system. We use various gear ratios to
control the vehicle speed.

Department of Mechanical Engg., KVGCE, Sullia Sandesh K. J.

Automobile Engineering [15ME655]

SYNCHROMESH GEAR BOX

It is that gear box in which sliding synchronizing units are provided in place of sliding
Clutches as in case of constant mesh gear box. With the help of synchronizing unit, the speed of both
the driving and driven shafts is synchronized before they are clutched together through train gears.
The arrangement of power flow for the various gears remains the same as in the constant mesh gear
box.
Synchromesh gear devices work on the principle that two gears to be engaged are first
Brought into frictional contact which equalizes their speed after which they are engagedreadily and
smoothly. The following types of such devices are mostly used in vehicles:
(i) Pin type (ii) Synchronizer ring type.
A synchronizing system is used for smooth meshing. Synchromesh works like a friction Clutch.
Fig.(i) shows two conical surfaces; cone-1 is the part of the collar and cone-2 is part of the gear
wheel. Cones 1, 2 are revolving at different speeds. While cone-21 revolving, cone-1 gradually
slides into it~ Friction slows or speeds up the gear wheel. Finally both Cones revolve at the same
speed. They revolve one as shown in the above figure.

Department of Mechanical Engg., KVGCE, Sullia Sandesh K. J.

Modern Mobility & Automotive Mechanics (21ME54)

Automatic Manual Transmission (AMT):

Automated manual transmission (AMT), also known as an automated clutch manual

transmission or semi-automatic transmission, is a type of transmission that combines features of
both manual and automatic transmissions. It is designed to provide the convenience of an
automatic transmission while still allowing some manual control over gear selection.

Working:

Manual Gearbox: At its core, an AMT uses a manual gearbox, which means it has a set of gears
that the driver can theoretically select manually.

Automated Clutch: Unlike a traditional manual transmission, an AMT does not require a clutch
pedal. Instead, it uses an automated clutch system that engages and disengages the clutch
automatically. This eliminates the need for the driver to operate the clutch pedal when shifting
gears.

Electronic Control Unit (ECU): The AMT system is controlled by an electronic control unit that
monitors various vehicle parameters such as engine speed, vehicle speed, throttle position, and
more. Based on these inputs, the ECU decides when to engage or disengage the clutch and when
to shift gears.

Gear Selection: The driver typically has the option to manually select gears, similar to a manual
transmission, by moving the gear lever or using paddle shifters (if equipped). Alternatively, the
AMT can also operate in fully automatic mode, where it selects gears and controls the clutch
without any driver input.

Advantages of AMT:

Improved Fuel Efficiency: AMTs can offer better fuel efficiency compared to traditional
automatic transmissions because they can optimize gear shifts for the best balance between
power and fuel economy.

Department of Mechanical Engineering, MITE Moodabidre

Modern Mobility & Automotive Mechanics (21ME54)

Ease of Use: AMTs are easier to drive in traffic compared to manual transmissions since the
driver does not need to operate a clutch pedal.

Lower Cost: AMTs are generally less expensive to manufacture and maintain compared to
conventional automatic transmissions, making them a cost-effective option.

Some Control for the Driver: AMTs give drivers the option to manually select gears when
desired, providing a more engaging driving experience.

Disadvantages of AMT:

Jerky Gear Shifts: Some AMTs can exhibit jerky or unrefined gear shifts, especially in fully
automatic mode, which can be a drawback for smooth driving.

Slower Response: AMTs may have a slight delay in gear changes compared to fully automatic
transmissions or dual-clutch transmissions.

Limited in High-Performance Applications: AMTs are not commonly used in high-performance

sports cars or racing vehicles due to their slower response times compared to dual-clutch or
traditional automatic transmissions.

Automatic Transmission (AT):

An automatic transmission (AT) is a type of vehicle transmission system that shifts gears
automatically without the need for driver intervention. It is designed to make driving more
convenient and less physically demanding compared to manual transmissions, where the driver
manually selects and engages gears using a clutch pedal and gearshift.

Gear Selection: In an automatic transmission, the gear changes are handled automatically by the
transmission itself. There is typically a gear selector lever (e.g., P, R, N, D) that allows the driver

Department of Mechanical Engineering, MITE Moodabidre

Modern Mobility & Automotive Mechanics (21ME54)

to choose between different driving modes, such as Park (P), Reverse (R), Neutral (N), and Drive
(D). The transmission then determines the appropriate gear for the selected mode based on
various factors like vehicle speed, engine load, and throttle position.

Torque Converter: Automatic transmissions use a torque converter to transmit power from the
engine to the transmission. The torque converter is a fluid coupling that allows the engine to
continue running even when the vehicle is stationary or in gear without stalling. It also provides
a smooth and gradual application of power, eliminating the need for a clutch pedal.

Planetary Gearsets: Inside the automatic transmission, there are multiple planetary gearsets that
work together to provide various gear ratios. These gearsets automatically engage and disengage
based on the driving conditions and the selected gear mode. The planetary gearsets are controlled
by a hydraulic system and a complex network of valves and sensors.

Hydraulic System: Automatic transmissions use a hydraulic system to control the engagement of
gears and the operation of the torque converter. This system uses transmission fluid to transmit
power and operate various clutches and bands that control gear changes.

Advantages:

Convenience: Automatic transmissions are easier to drive, especially in heavy traffic, as there is
no need to manually shift gears or operate a clutch pedal.

Smoother Driving: Automatic transmissions provide smooth and seamless gear shifts, enhancing
passenger comfort.

Reduced Fatigue: Drivers experience less physical fatigue since they don't have to engage in gear
changes.

Wider Appeal: Automatic transmissions make driving more accessible to individuals who may
have difficulty operating a manual transmission, such as those with disabilities or individuals
who have not learned manual driving skills.

Disadvantages:

Reduced Control: Drivers have less control over gear selection, which may not be suitable for
those who prefer a more engaged driving experience.

Lower Fuel Efficiency: In some cases, automatic transmissions can result in slightly lower fuel
efficiency compared to manual transmissions, although modern automatic transmissions have
improved significantly in this regard.

Maintenance Costs: Automatic transmissions may require more maintenance and are typically
more expensive to repair if problems arise.

Intelligent manual Transmission (IMT):

Department of Mechanical Engineering, MITE Moodabidre

Modern Mobility & Automotive Mechanics (21ME54)

While an automated manual transmission (AMT) and an iMT are both regular manual gearboxes,
in an AMT, the actuators and motors change gears and operate the clutch for you. In function,
then, it’s fully automatic. Software, of course, governs when and how the shifts happen.

In an iMT, on the other hand, the software and actuators only control the clutch while you have
to manually shift gears. In effect, an iMT sits sort of half way between a regular manual gearbox
and an AMT.

Benefits of an iMT?

In this way you have complete control over what gear your car is in and you don’t have to rely
on the software getting it right. Thus, in situations like coming down a slope or overtaking, you
have full control over the gearbox and you know the car will not second guess you. And this is of
course without the headache of operating the clutch.

Another advantage is that by using fewer parts than an AMT (as there are no actuators for the
gears required), the cost of an iMT is also closer to that of a regular manual.

How should I drive it? Do I need to lift off the accelerator when changing gears?

No, you don’t need to lift off the accelerator when shifting gears, but just like an AMT it will
help smoothen things if you do. You drive it just like a manual; shift gears when you need to.
There’s no clutch pedal though, which means if you’re used to a manual, you’ll need to get used
to keeping your left leg still while you shift.

Ferrari had one on the Mondial in the late 80’s-early 90’s, where the company wanted to provide
the joy of shifting through its famed gear-gate but without the need to operate a heavy clutch.

In India, Hero Honda launched a version of its Street Step-Thru moped with a similar system.
For cars, aftermarket clutchless kits have also been around for a while too. Perhaps you’d have
seen them advertised at the back of old Autocar India issues.

Department of Mechanical Engineering, MITE Moodabidre

Modern Mobility & Automotive Mechanics (21ME54)

Interestingly, Kia also announced the same system for its upcoming Sonet back at the Expo this
year. However, the Venue with the iMT will likely be the first to hit the market.

Drawbacks of an iMT

 Just like an AMT, gearshifts aren’t as smooth as the system relies on a single clutch that
has to be modulated by an actuator.
 On a side note, this is where a dual-clutch auto transmission comes in - in principle, it is
similar to a regular manual gearbox, but comes with two clutches to enable quicker,
smoother shifts.

Continuously Variable Transmission (CVT):

A Continuously Variable Transmission (CVT) is an automatic transmission system that can

seamlessly change its gear ratios, providing a nearly infinite number of gear ratios within a
certain range. Unlike traditional automatic transmissions that have a fixed number of gears,
CVTs do not use gears in the traditional sense; instead, they use a system of belts, pulleys, or
chains to vary the transmission's output speed relative to its input speed.

CVT working:

Variable Pulleys: A CVT has two pulleys connected by a flexible belt or chain. One of these
pulleys is connected to the engine's output shaft (input pulley), while the other is connected to
the wheels (output pulley). These pulleys can change their diameters or widths, which alters the
effective gear ratio.

Infinite Gear Ratios: As the pulleys change their sizes, the CVT can provide an infinite number
of gear ratios between the minimum and maximum values, ensuring the engine operates at its
most efficient speed under various driving conditions. This continuous adjustment allows for
smoother acceleration and improved fuel efficiency.

Advantages of CVT:

Department of Mechanical Engineering, MITE Moodabidre

Modern Mobility & Automotive Mechanics (21ME54)

Smooth and Seamless Acceleration: CVTs provide smooth and uninterrupted acceleration since
there are no distinct gear shifts. The transmission continuously adjusts to maintain the optimal
engine speed.

Improved Fuel Efficiency: CVTs are designed to keep the engine operating in its most efficient
power band, resulting in better fuel economy compared to some traditional automatic
transmissions.

Reduced Noise and Vibration: The absence of traditional gear changes leads to less noise and
vibration during acceleration, making for a quieter and more comfortable driving experience.

Responsive Performance: CVTs can respond quickly to changes in driver input, providing good
responsiveness and performance when needed.

Simplicity: CVTs have fewer moving parts compared to traditional automatic transmissions,
which can lead to lower maintenance costs and potentially increased reliability.

Disadvantages of CVT:

Limited to Lower Torque: Some CVTs may not handle high torque applications as effectively as
traditional automatic transmissions, which can be a limitation in heavy-duty or high-performance
vehicles.

Unusual Sensation: Some drivers accustomed to traditional gear changes may find the
continuous variation in engine speed to be a bit unusual, as there is no "shifting" sensation.

Cooling Requirements: CVTs may require additional cooling systems to handle the heat
generated by the continuous belt or chain movement.

Infinitely Variable Transmission (IVT):

An Infinitely Variable Transmission (IVT) is a type of transmission that, like a Continuously

Variable Transmission (CVT), provides a continuously variable range of gear ratios rather than a

Department of Mechanical Engineering, MITE Moodabidre

Modern Mobility & Automotive Mechanics (21ME54)

fixed set of gears. However, IVTs operate on a different principle than CVTs. Instead of using
belts, pulleys, or chains, IVTs typically use a mechanical or hydraulic mechanism to achieve
infinitely variable gear ratios.

Working:

Mechanical Principle: IVTs use a mechanical mechanism to vary the transmission's output speed
continuously. This mechanical mechanism often involves a combination of rotating discs, cams,
and linkages.

Infinite Gear Ratios: The mechanical arrangement in an IVT can continuously change the
transmission's gear ratio as needed within a specific range. This allows the engine to operate at
its most efficient speed for various driving conditions without the discrete gear changes found in
traditional automatic or manual transmissions.

Efficiency and Smoothness: IVTs are designed to optimize fuel efficiency and provide smooth
and seamless acceleration by keeping the engine within its ideal power band.

Variability: The key feature of an IVT is its ability to vary the gear ratio over a wide range,
making it adaptable to different driving scenarios, whether it's cruising on the highway or
accelerating from a standstill.

IVTs are relatively less common than CVTs, which have gained widespread use in passenger
vehicles. IVTs have been used in some specialized applications, such as agricultural and
industrial machinery, where the ability to vary the power output continuously can be beneficial.
However, their complexity and cost have limited their adoption in mainstream passenger
vehicles.

Department of Mechanical Engineering, MITE Moodabidre

Automobile Engineering [15ME655]

'Y' shaped yokes, one on driving (A) and another on the driven (B) shafts, whose axes are inclined to
each other. The spider or cross consists of four arms, two of which are supported in the bushes in the
yoke of shaft 'A', while the other two are supported in the yoke of shaft 'B'. Thus shaft' A' can have
angular rotation about x-x and shaft' B' about y-y. The driving shaft' A', drives the spider (cross),
causes the rotation of shaft' B' through the arms of cross 'C'.

Fig: Hooke's joint. Shaft 'A' is transmitting torque in horizontal plane; shaft 'B' is transmitting
the same at different angle.

Fig: Universal joints in action. As rear axle moves up and down, universals allow drive angles
to change without bending propeller shaft.

In the universal joint explained above, the driven shaft speed does not remain constant or
uniform. Depending on the shaft inclinations, the driven shaft speed fluctuates. It is zero for zero
angle, the magnitude increases when the angle is large. To achieve uniform driven shaft speed, two
universal joints have to be used at two ends of propeller shaft.

REAR AXLE (BACK AXLE)

The propeller shaft takes the drive from transmission and transmits it to the differential, from
where the power goes to the driving wheels through rear axles. A dead axle is one which carries a
part of the vehicle weight, but does not drive the wheels connected to it. The live axle carries vehicle
weight and also drives the wheels connected to it.

Department of Mechanical Engg.,KVGCE,Sullia Sandesh K. J.

Automobile Engineering [15ME655]

The functions of live rear or back axle are

1. It acts as a beam, up on the ends of which the road wheels can revolve and through which the
weight of body and load can be transmitted, via the springs and road wheels, to the ground.
2. It acts as a housing to support the final drive, the differential and the shafts that transmit the drive
to the road wheels.

The figure shows simplified view of a live rear axle for a front engine, rear driven
automobile. The pinion shaft is supported in the bearings in axle casing and takes the drive from
propeller shaft. The pinion shaft drives a crown wheel which is in mesh with it and mounted on shaft.
The end caps are used to restrict the wheels in the axial direction. The wheels are mounted on the
ends of the axle shaft. In actual case, two half shafts are used instead of one shown here.

Fig: Rear Axle

The back axle experiences various forces and torques as follows

i. Torque Reaction: In fig, the propeller shaft applies a torque to the pinion shaft 'P', which in
turn transmitted to the axle shaft 'N. Assume that if the road wheels are fixed, then on turning
the shaft' P', the pinion will have to roll round the crown wheel 'C'. Thus, if the road wheels
are fixed with propeller shaft in the turning condition, the pinion will tend to climb around
the crown wheel. As axle casing supports pinion, it will be subjected to a force which causes
it to rotate. The torque producing this action is the equal and opposite reaction to the driving
torque which is applied to the road wheels. This phenomenon is called torque re .n, due to
which axle casing tends to turn opposite to the direction of road wheels rotation. This has
to be opposed otherwise propeller shaft would be subjected to heavy bending. This can be avoided
by attaching an arm or a member to the casing and the other end of which is secured to the frame. The
braking torque on the axle casing is opposite in direction to the torque reaction.

Department of Mechanical Engg.,KVGCE,Sullia Sandesh K. J.

Automobile Engineering [15ME655]

ii. Driving Thrust: Driving torque produced in the engine causes the thrust to be produced in
the road wheels, which has to be transmitted from axle casing to the chassis frame and the
body of the vehicle. To do this, thrust members or radius rods are used. These members are
attached to the axle casing and chassis frame in the longitudinal direction.

iii. Weight of the Body: If we consider rear axle as a beam which is supported at the ends and
loaded at two points as shown in figure. The rear axle supports, body weight OW' through
two suspension springs and R1 and R2 are the reaction forces from the road wheels. This
weight causes shear force and bending moment in the axle shaft.

iv. The sideways forces [Side thrust] : The rear axle also experiences side thrust or pull due to
any side load on the wheel. (Ex: Cornering force). Pan hard rod may be used to hold the axle
in position against the side thrust.

Fig: Rear axle as a beam

REAR AXLE DRIVES

From the above discussion, it is clear that the connections between the axle and the frame
must be capable to with stand.
 Weight of body
 Torque reaction
 The driving thrust
 The sideways forces.
Different arrangements are used and are classified as
i. The springs acts as torque members, thrust members and transmit the side way forces.
ii. The springs acts as thrust members and transmit side way forces, but a separate torque
member is used.
iii. The springs transmit sideways forces, but torque reaction, and driving thrust are taken by
separate members.
iv. The springs takes only weight of the body, and torque reaction, driving thrust and sideways
forces are taken by separate members.

Department of Mechanical Engg.,KVGCE,Sullia Sandesh K. J.

Automobile Engineering [15ME655]

In all these arrangements, springs takes weight of the body. Many drives are used, out of which the
two important rear axle drives are (i) Hotchkiss drive & (ii) Torque tube drive.

Fig: (a) Hotch kiss drive

Fig: (b) Bending of spring under torque reaction

The Hotch kiss drive is most simple and widely used system. In this arrangement, the springs
besides taking weight of the body, also take the torque reaction, driving thrust and side forces. It
consists of an open propeller shaft secured to the transmission output shaft and differential pinion
gear shaft (Bevel pinion shaft). The propeller shaft is provided with two universal joints and a sliding
joint as shown in figure. The springs are bolted to the axle casing. The front end of the spring is
rigidly fixed to the frame, while the rear end is connected to the frame by swinging [inks or shackle.
The front half of the spring will transmit the driving thrust to the frame.
It is seen that, the axle casing cannot turn under the torque reaction without causing the
springs to flex which is shown in figure (b). The springs offer considerable resistance to this
deformation, thus torque reaction is overcome. The spring deflects as it experiences torque reaction
and the bevel pinion shaft changes its position. Under this condition the axis of bevel pinion shaft
will not pass through the centre of the front universal joint. Therefore, if there is no universal joint at
the rear end, the propeller shaft will bend. To overcome this effect, two universal joints, one at the
front and other at the rear end are used.
Again the rear axle moves up and down in a circle with the front spring support at the frame

Department of Mechanical Engg.,KVGCE,Sullia Sandesh K. J.

Automobile Engineering [15ME655]

(0) as centre. But the propeller shaft moves in a circle about '0,' as centre i.e., the centre of front
universal joint. Since the two centers do not coincide, the distance between the front universal joint
and pinion shaft of the axle [length of propeller shaft] will alter during the up and down movement of
the axle and to accommodate this, a sliding 'joint is to be used in the propeller shaft.

Torque Tube Drive

In this type, the springs takes body weight and side thrust only. The torque reaction and
driving thrust are taken by another member called Torque tube. These torque tubes are made tubular
and usually surrounded the propeller shaft. One end of torque tube is attached to the axle casing
while the other end which is spherical in shape fits in the cup fixed to the frame as in figure. As
torque tube takes torque reaction, the axis of bevel pinion shaft will not change and always pass
through the centre of spherical cup, if the universal joint connecting propeller shaft and transmission
shaft is located exactly at the centre of spherical cup. Hence only one universal joint is used at the
front end and no universal joint is needed at the rear end of the propeller start. so also pinion shaft
propeller shaft will move about the same centre i.e. about the centre of spherical cup. Hence no
sliding joint is required in this case.

Fig: Torque tube drive

In both drives leaf springs take tile side thrust. When coil springs are used, they are not able
to take-side loads on therefore a separate member is used which is called "Panhard rod". The panhard
rod is in the-form of transverse radius rod fixed parallel to wheel axis with one end attached to axle
casing and the other end .to the chassis frame.
REAR AXLE SHAFT SUPPORTING
The rear live axle half shaft experiences following loads,
1. Vehicle weight causes sharing force
2. Driving torque.

Department of Mechanical Engg.,KVGCE,Sullia Sandesh K. J.

Automobile Engineering [15ME655]

3. Bending moment due to end thrust and its reaction from the tyres on ground.
4. End thrust resulting from cornering side wind etc.
There are three types of live axle - Semi floating, three quarter floating and full floating.

Fig: (a) Semi floating axle

Fig: (b) Full floating axle

Department of Mechanical Engg.,KVGCE,Sullia Sandesh K. J.

Automobile Engineering [15ME655]

Fig: (c) Three quarter floating axle

Semi -Floating Axle

This is used on most passenger vehicles and light commercial vehicles. The inner end of the
axle shaft is supported only by the differential side gear, the differential case (carrier) carries the
inner bearing between it and the axle housing that supports it. The inner end of the axle shaft thus is
relieved of the job of supporting the vehicle weight by the axle casing. The outer end supports
vehicle weight and takes end thin. Hence, this construction is called "Semi - Floating".
Here wheel hub is directly connected to the axle shaft. The splined inner end is supported by
the final drive unit; the axle casing supports the wheel bearing which is placed inside its outer end. In
this case the axle shaft supports all the loads. Each of the half shafts receives the vehicle load
through casing and bearing. This causes a bending load and a tendency to shear at the point 'A'.
Therefore, the axle shafts takes the bending moments caused by skidding, turning and wobbling of
the wheels. As a:'e shafts have to support all loads, larger diameters have to be used for the same
torque transmission compared to outer types of axle supporting.

Full Floating Axle

This type is very robust and is used on heavy trucks. The wheel hub is supported by two
bearings running directly upon the axle casing. The axle shaft is fastened to the wheel hub flange by
using some kind of coupling which transmits rotary motion of the axle shaft to the hub and wheel.
The two taper roller bearings supports axle casing in the hub and takes side load. Thus the axle shafts
have to carry only driving torque. The vehicle weight is completely supported by the wheels and the
axle casing. As axle shafts carry only driving torque, they can be removed and replaced without

Department of Mechanical Engg.,KVGCE,Sullia Sandesh K. J.

Automobile Engineering [15ME655]

removing the wheel or disturbing the differential. In this case, the wheels remain in position even if
the axle breaks which i not possible with other arrangements. It is more expensive, bulkier and
heavier than any of the other types.

Three - Quarter Floating Axle

This type is used on medium commercial vehicles and some passenger cars. This is a
compromise between more robust full floating type and simplest semi-floating type. In this type,
bearing is located between the axle casing and the hub instead of between the axle casing and the
shaft as III case 0 semi-floating type. Here the axle shaft has to take end loads and driving torque and
is not subjected to any bending or shearing actions due to vehicle weight. TI;;-axle casing supports
these two through the hub and bearing.

DIFFERENTIAL
When an Automobile negotiates a turn, the distance travelled by outside wheels is greater
than that travelled by inside wheels in the same time. If the wheels are mounted on dead axles, so
that the} turn independent to each other (like front wheels of an ordinary passenger vehicle), the
wheels will turn at different speeds to com pen ate for the difference in travel. But if the engine
drives the wheels, some device is necessary which will allow the wheels to revolve at different
speeds. To do this a device called differential is provided in the rear axle. This will increase tile end
of outside wheels and reduce the speed of inside wheels, when the vehicle travels around a corner, in
the mean time keep the speed of all the wheels same when the vehicle is going straight head. This
avoids skidding when the vehicle is taking turn.

Operation of differential
It consists of a drive pinion or bevel pinion, attached to the shaft which is coupled to the
propeller shaft. A crown wheel or ring gear which is bolted to the differential cage is in mesh with
the bevel pinion. The cage carries a cross pin or spider (cross pin is used when two pinion gears are
employed and spider is used when four pinion gears are used) to support two differential pinion gears
which are in mesh with the two differential side gears (sun gears) which are splined to the axle half
shafts. The ring gear (crown - wheel) is free to rotate on the half shaft as shown.
When the propeller shaft turns the bevel pinion, the pinion will turn the crown wheel. The
crown wheel in turn will revolve the differential cage and cross pin. The axle side gears will still not
turn. By adding two differential pinion gears (The cross pin will pass through these gears) that mesh
with the side gears, the revolving cage will turn the axle side gears with it.
When the vehicle is going straight ahead, the crown wheel turns the cage. The differential
pinion gears and axle side gears are moving around with the cage and pinion gears do not rotate on
the cross pin or about its own axis (no relative movement between teeth of pinion gears and axle side
gears), but apply equal torque to the two side gears. This drives both the rear wheels (half shafts) at
the same speed and crown wheel, differential cage, cross pin, pinion gears and side gears all turn as a
solid unit. Both half shafts rotate at the same speed and there is no relative movement among various
differential gears.
When the vehicle is taking a turn, the cage continuous to rotate and pull both the pinion gears
around on the cross pin. The outer wheel must turn faster than the inner wheel and for this to happen

Department of Mechanical Engg.,KVGCE,Sullia Sandesh K. J.

Automobile Engineering [15ME655]

the outer axle side gear has to rotate faster than the inner axle side gear. To permit this, the two
differential pinion gears rotate on their axes (on cross pin). This allows them to pull on both axle side
gears, while at the same time, compensating for the difference in speed by rotating around their shaft.
The figure (c) shows the differential gears, when the vehicle is moving straight. The pinion
gear is pulling both gears, but it is not turning. In figure (d), the right side axle gear is moving faster
than the left axle gear. The pinion gear is still moving at the same speed and pulling on both gears,
but started to turn on the cross pin. This turning action added to the forward rotational speed of the
shaft and causes the right side gear to speed up and left side gear to slow down.
To understand how all this happens, assume that the cage is stationary. If we turn one side
gear, it drives the other side gear in opposite direction. Suppose if left side gear rotates 'n ' times in a
particular time, this causes right side gear to rotate 'n' times in the same period, but of course in the
opposite direction. This rotation is super imposed on the normal wheel speed when the car travels a
curve.
As an example assume vehicle speed as say 'N' rpm, when it is going straight. When it turns
right, there is a resistance to the motion of right wheel due to differential action and right side wheel
rotates back by 'n' rpm, left side wheel rotates forward by 'n' rpm. Thus the resultant speed at the
right wheel is (N-n) rpm, and this slow down the right wheel. The resultant speed at the left wheel is
(N + n) rpm, causes the left to move faster.
As the pinion gears are free to rotate on the cross pin, they act as balance and divide the
torque equally between the two wheels.

Fig (a): Distance travelled by inner and outer wheels when a car taking turn

Department of Mechanical Engg.,KVGCE,Sullia Sandesh K. J.

Automobile Engineering [15ME655]

Fig (b): Differential

Fig (c): Axle side gears, Pinion gear and shaft revolve as a unit, Straight line driving

Department of Mechanical Engg.,KVGCE,Sullia Sandesh K. J.

Automobile Engineering [15ME655]

Fig (d): Axle side gear move forward at different speeds. Pinion gear (3) is turning

Fig (e): Power flow through nonslip differential on straight away .

Department of Mechanical Engg.,KVGCE,Sullia Sandesh K. J.

4. SUSPENSION SYSTEM AND BRAKES
Objectives and principles of suspension system, types, rigid axle and independent
suspension for front and rear ends, leaf spring, torsion bar, shock absorber Types of brake
systems-drum, disc, operation-mechanical, hydraulic, air brakes, servo and power braking,
ABS.

SUSPENSION SYSTEM
The chassis of vehicle is connected to the front and rear wheels through the medium of springs,
shock absorbers and axles. All parts perform the function of protecting parts from shocks are
known as suspension system.
The automobile chassis is indirectly connected with axles by springs. It is done to prevent the
vehicle body from road shocks due to bounce, pitch, roll or sway. These road shocks provide an
uncomfortable ride and also additional stress to the automobile frame and body
Suspension system has a spring and damper. The energy of road shock produced by the spring
oscillates. These oscillations are arrested by the damper known as shock absorber.
Components of Suspension System
1. Springs are used to neutralize the shocks from the road surface.
2. Dampers, called shock absorbers, are used to improve a riding comfort by limiting the free
oscillation of springs.
3. Stabilizer, called sway bar or anti-roll bar, isto prevent lateral swinging of the car.
4. A linkage system holds above components to control the longitudinal and lateral movements
of wheels.
Functions or Objectives of Suspension System
1. To eliminate road shocks from transmission to vehicle components.
2. To obtain good road holding while driving, cornering and braking.
3. To keep the proper steering geometry.
4. To obtain a particular height to body structure.
5. To resist the torque and braking reactions.
8. To maintain the stability of the vehicle while traveling over rough round or when turning in
order to minimize the rolling, pitching or vertical movement tendency.
9. To safeguard the occupants against road shocks and provide a riding comfort.

3
10. To minimize the effects of stresses due to road shocks on the mechanism of the motor vehicle
and provide a cushioning effect.
11. To keep the body perfectly in level while travelling over rough uneven ground. I.e. the up
and down movements of wheels should be relative to the body.
12. To prevent the structure of the vehicle from shock loading and vibration due to irregularities
of the road surface without impairing its stability.
13. To obtain the requisite height to body structure.
14. To support the body on the axles and keep the proper geometrical relationship between the
body and wheels.
Requirements of Suspension System
1. There should be minimum deflection.
2. It should be of minimum weight.
3. It should have low maintenance and low operating cost.
4. It should have minimum tyre wear.
5. It should be of low initial cost.

Principles of Suspension System

The principles of the suspension system are due to springing action of motor vehicles.
I. Supporting the weight of vehicle.
2. Absorbing satisfactorily larger and smaller road impacts with the help of a single springing
device.
3. The reduction of rolling or pitching of the body to a minimum design and attachment of
springs.
Sprung Weight and Unsprung Weight
The body of vehicle is supported by springs. The weight of the body is supported by springs
called sprung weight. Wheels, axles and other parts of the automobile which are not supported
by springs, called the unsprung weight. Unsprung weight is the weight of everything between
springs and road and a portion of weight of springs itself.
If greater is the sprung weight of an automobile, the better will be the riding comfort. This
tendency of the body reduces the jolt. Sprung weight is the weight of vehicle minus unsprung
weight
:. Sprung weight = Total weight of vehicle - unsprung weight.

4
Greater is the unsprung weight on a wheel, the greater will be the energy stored by the unsprung
weight due to road bump and greater will be the disturbances. This greater unsprung weight
increases tyre deflections but it reduces the vertical velocity on road bump. Lesser unsprung
weight causes higher natural frequencies of the unsprung.
A lighter wheel moves on road irregularities without producing much reaction to the chassis
frame, body and occupants. If the weight of wheel increases, its movement is highly noticeable
to vehicle occupants. When the unsprung weight on the wheel becomes equal to thesprung
weight above the wheel, the sprung weight will move as much as unsprung weight. So, the
unsprung weight moves up and down over road irregularities. Therefore, the unsprungweight is
kept as low as possible due to the reduced unsprung weight thereby resulting a better ride.

Figure.4.1. Sprung and Unsprung Mass

Effects of unsprung weight:
The unsprung weight of a wheel controls a trade-off between a wheel's bump and its vibration
isolation. Bumps and surface imperfections in the road cause tyre compression which induces the
force on the unsprung weight. Then, the unsprung weight responds to this force with movement
of its own. The amount of movement for short bumps is inversely proportional to the weight. A
lighter wheel which readily moves in response to road bumps will have more constant grip when
tracking over an imperfect road. Therefore, lighter wheels are especially sought for high-
performance applications. In contrast, a heavier wheel which moves less will not absorb as much
vibration.
The irregularities of the road surface will transfer to the cabin through the geometry of the
suspension and hence, ride quality and road noise are deteriorated. For longer bumps, the greater
unsprung mass causes more energy to be absorbed by wheels and it makes the ride worse.
Pneumatic or elastic tyres help by providing some springing action for most of the unsprung
mass but the damping which can be included in tyres is limited due to fuel economy and
overheating. The shock absorbers damp the wheel bounce if any spring motion must be less stiff
than the optimum value. So, the wheels produce some vibrations after each bump before
comingto rest.
5
High unsprung weight also exacerbates the wheel control issues under hard acceleration or
braking. If the vehicle does not have adequate wheel location in the vertical plane, the vertical
forces exerted by acceleration or hard braking combined with high unsprung mass can lead to
severe the wheel hop, compromising traction and steering control. Similar to above case, there is
a positive effect of unsprung mass. High frequency road irregularities such as gravels in an
asphalt or concrete road surface are isolated from the body more completely because the tyres
and springs act as separate filter stages with the unsprung weight tending to uncouple them.
Similarly, sound and vibration isolation are improved in production automobiles by the use of
rubber bushings between frame and suspension in theform of flexibility in the frame or body
work and flexibility in seats.

Types of Suspension Springs

Springs are main important parts of any suspension system which are classified as follows.
1. Steel springs
a) Leaf springs
b) Tapered leaf springs
c) Coil springs
d) Torsion bar
2. Rubber springs
a) Compression springs
b) Compression-shear springs
c) Steel reinforced springs
d) Progressive spring
e) Face shear spring
3. Air springs
a) Bellow type springs
b) Piston type springs
4. Plastic springs.

Leaf Spring Suspension

Figure 2. Shows the construction of the laminated leaf spring suspension. It has a number of
leaves of increasing lengths made of steel plates. The spring eye is mounted to the frame by a pin
called shackle pin. The centre portion of the spring is attached to the front axle by a V-bolt. One

6
end of the spring is mounted on the frame with a simple pin. The other end is mounted by a
shackle with the frame.
The stiffness or spring rate of the coil spring decides the capacity of the spring which is defined
as the force required for unit deflection. It is governed by the following factors.
The length of the spring: Shorter spring will have higher stiffness and vice versa.
The width of the leaf: Wider spring will have higher stiffness and vice versa.
The thickness of the leaf: Thicker leaf will have higher stiffness and vice versa.
The number of leaves: Greater the number of leaves higher the stiffness is.
To obtain a smooth ride, a low-rate stiffness spring is required. The low rate spring will deflect a
larger amount under a given load. Normal springs have a constant rate, and give a deflection
which is proportional to the load applied.

Figure 4.2. Leaf Spring

When a laminated leaf spring deflects, the leaves slide over each other and cause inter-plate
friction. Although this has a beneficial damping effect, the hard ride, noise and wear occurs.
Hence, it is necessary to reduce this friction as much as possible.
Older designs of spring had to be sprayed with penetrating oil, but the new designs have the
following features to eliminate the need of periodic attention. Synthetic rubber buttons are
provided at the ends of the leaves Inter-leaf plates of low friction materials are incorporated.
Types of leaf springs:
Differenttypes of leafspringsbased on its designare as follows.
1. Semi elliptical spring
2. Quarter elliptical spring
3. Three quarter elliptical spring

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4. Full elliptical spring
5. Transverse spring
6. Platform type spring.

Figure 4.3. Semi Elliptical Spring

Figure 4.4. Quarter Elliptical Spring

Figure 4.5. Full Elliptical Spring

8
Figure.4.6. Transvers Spring

Helper Springs
Where there are fluctuations in the loads, helper springs are used in trucks and many other
vehicles. It is mounted above the mainspring as shown in Figure.7. It is arranged in such a way
that if the load is less, the main spring is operated. Both the main and helpersprings are operated
if the load exceeds a certain value.

Figure 4.7. Helpers Spring

Helper springs are used along with the main leaf springs on many commercial vehicles. It is
more suitable for a wide range of loading. Helper springs are mainly provided on rear
suspension. When the load on the road wheel increases, ends of the helper spring is just made to
touch the special brackets fitted to the side member thereby operating the helper spring.
Characteristics of helper springs:
1. Due to springs having enough rigidity to hold the axis in the proper position, they are required.
2. controlling of own oscillation through inter-leaf friction is performed.
3. These springs have durability in heavy-duty applications.

9
4. Due to inter-leaf friction, it is difficult to absorb minute vibrations from the road surface. So,
leaf springs are more suitable for large commercial vehicles which can carry heavy loads.

Coil Spring
A coil spring is a steel wire. The required length is coiled throughout. The coil springs are used
in both rear and front independent suspensions. The energy stored per unit volume is
approximately twice in the coil spring when compared to leaf spring. The coil spring carries both
shear and bending stresses but both torque reaction and side thrust cannot be carried out. So,
some special arrangements are made to position the axles relative to the frame. Both driving
reaction and braking torque reaction are also considered in arranging the coil spring. Ahelper
spring is additionally used, as shown in Figure 8, to give progressive stiffness against the
increasing load.

Figure 4.8. Coil Spring

Coil springs are again classified into two types.
l. Tension, and
2. Compression springs
Characteristics of coil spring:
1. The energy absorption rate per unit of weight is greater when compared to leaf springs.
2. Soft springs can be coiled.
3. Due to no inter-leaf friction with leaf springs, no control of oscillation is necessary by the
spring itself but shock absorbers are needed.

10
4. Due to no resistance to lateral forces, linkage mechanisms to support the axle such as
suspension arm, lateral control rod, etc. are required.

Torsion Bar
A torsion bar is a steel bar operated by both twisting and shear stress. Two long steel bars form
springs. Torsion bar can be used with independent suspensions. It is a simple bar in which one
end is fitted to the frame whereas the other end is fitted to the end of a wheel arm. The structure
with a bearing supports the projection of the second end of the bar. The other end of the wheel
arm is attached with the spindle of the wheel using kingpin.
When the wheel strikes a bump, it will start to vibrate up and down thereby producing a torque
on the torsion bar called spring. Torsion bar spring is lighter in weight when compared to leaf
springs. It also occupies less space. Torsion tubes replace torsion bars inmany cases. The main
disadvantage of the torsion bar spring is that it does not carry thebraking or driving torque.
Therefore. Additional linkages are needed. Due to the absence of friction force, the damping is
required to absorb road shocks. The simple torsion bar is shown in Figure 9.

Figure 4.9. Torsion Bar

Advantages of torsion springs:
1. This spring needs less space.
2. It is lighter than leaf spring system.
3. This system provides very neat and compact design.
4. In some cases, torsion tubes are used instead of torsion bars.
Disadvantage of torsion springs:
It does not take the driving or braking torque. Therefore, inconvenient additional link
mechanisms are provided for this purpose.
Rubber Springs

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As rubber can store more energy per unit mass than any other type of spring material,
considerable weight can be saved with rubber suspension. Rubber springs, if works on
compression or shear, can be used as the main suspension spring, otherwise can be fitted along
with metal springs to improve the suspension characteristics. Large rubber 'bump' stops used in
many suspension layouts stiffens the suspension spring against maximum deflection:
Rubber springs absorb oscillations by the internal friction generation if they are stretched by an
external force. The advantages of rubber springs are as follows.
I. Springs can be made into any desired shape.
2. Springs do not require to be lubricated.
The spring is installed between the frame and the top link of the suspension system.
When the spring is connected to a point near the link pivot, deflection of the spring reduces toa
minimum, without affecting the total wheel movement. This arrangement of spring provides a
rising-rate characteristic, which is 'soft' for small wheel movements but becomes harder as the
spring deflects.
The energy released from the rubber spring after deflection is considerably less than that
imparted to it. This internal loss of energy is called hysteresis, which is an advantage, because
lower-duty dampers may be used. Some rubber suspension systems have a tendency to 'settle
down' or 'creep' during the initial stages of service, therefore allowance for this must be provided.
Air Suspension System
Air springs are used in air suspension systems. The installation and configuration of air
suspension systems varies for different makes and models but the underlying principle remains
the same. The metal spring (coil or leaf) is removed, and an air bag, also referred to as an air
spring, is inserted or fabricated to fit in the place of the factory spring. When air pressure is
supplied to the air bag, the suspension can be adjusted either up or down (lifted or lowered).
Air spring is nothing but a flexible bellows, usually made from textile-reinforced rubber,
containing compressed air which is used to carry load on vehicles. The air pressure inflates
thebellows, and raises the chassis from the axle. Air springs have elasticity or "springiness" when
it is compressed. It is used on many heavy-duty trucks, trailers and buses on the road today.
Characteristics of air springs:
1. They are soft if the vehicle is not loaded but the stiffness increases when the load is increased
by increasing the air pressure inside the chamber. So, it gives the optimum riding comfort when
the vehicle is lightly loaded and fully loaded conditions.
2. The height of the vehicle is kept constant by varying the air pressure whenever the load
variation occurs.
3. Air springs increase vehicle stability by absorbing road shock.

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4. Air spring systems are designed to maximize safe load carrying capacity, stability and overall
ride quality.
Three basic types of air springs are available as follows.
The double-convoluted,
The tapered-sleeve, and
The rolling-sleeve.
The double-convoluted design looks like a small tyres kept one over the other. These type of air
springs generally has more load capacity, a shorter stroke, and a more progressive spring rate
which is best suited for use on most front suspensions where the spring sits considerably inboard
of the suspension's load point. This has the effect of multiplying loadcapacity requirements while
dividing travel requirements.
Types of air suspension:
The following are different types of air suspension systems based on the design of air springs
used.
a) Bellow type air suspension
b) Piston type air suspension
c) Elongated bellows air suspension.
(i) Bellow type air suspension (spring):
This type of spring consists of rubber bellows. The bellows are made into circular sections
having two convolutions for proper functioning as shown in Figure 10. So, a bellow type air
suspension replaces the coil spring.

Figure 4.10. Bellow Type Air Spring

(ii) Piston type air suspension (Spring):

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This spring has a metal air container in the form of an inverted drum. The drum is connected to
the frame. A sliding piston is connected to the lower wishbone. A flexible diaphragm provides a
seal. The diaphragm is tightly connected at its outer circumference to the lip of the drum and at
the centre to the piston as shown in Figure 11.

Figure 4.11. Piston Type Air Spring

Shock Absorber
Shock absorbers will not efficiently absorb road shocks if the suspension springs are highly rigid.
They will be continuously vibrated for a longer time if springs are sufficiently flexible. To
overcome this difficulty, a system having compromise between flexibility and stiffness should be
used.
Shock absorbers are used as a part of the suspension system. They provide more resistance to the
motion of the spring and road wheel in order to damp out vibrations.
Purpose of shock absorber:
(i) To control the vibrations on springs.
(ii) To provide comfortable ride.
(iii) To act flexible and to be rigid enough.
(iv) To resist the unnecessary motion of the spring.
Types of shock absorbers:
I. Mechanical shock absorber (friction type)
2. Hydraulic shock absorber.
Again the hydraulic shock absorbers are further divided into various types.
1. Van type
2. Piston type
a. Single acting

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b. Double acting
3. Telescopic type
(i) Telescopic Shock Absorber:
Construction:
The upper eye of the telescopic shock absorber is attached to the axle and the lower eye is
attached to the chassis frame as shown in Figure 12. A two way valve V1 is connected to a rod.
Another one two-way valve V2 is connected to the lower end of the cylinder. The fluid occupies
in the space between above and below the valve V1 and also the annular space between cylinder
and tube. A gland is provided on the head. Fluid scrapped out by the rod is brought down into the
annular space through the inclined passage.
Working:
When the vehicle comes across a bump, the lower eye will move up. So, the fluid follows from
lower side of the valve VI to the upper side. Due to less volume of the space above valve VI than
the volume of the rod, the pressure is exerted on valve V2 Thus, the damping force is produced
by this pressure of the fluid. The fluid will flow from the upper side of the valve VI to lower side
when the lower eye moves down and from lower side of the valve V2 to its upper side.
When a car absorbs shocks from the road surface, the suspension springs will compress and
expand because the spring has the characteristic of continuing to oscillate for a long time of
oscillation to stop. So, a riding comfort will be poor even the damp oscillation is supplied.
Shock absorbers provide better road-holding characteristics and improved steering stability to
tyres. The stronger is the damping force, the more will be the oscillations of the body. But, the
shock from the damping effect becomes greater than the strength of the stronger damping force.
The damping force varies with the speed of the piston.

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Figure 4.12. Telescopic Shock Absorber
Types of Suspension System
Generally, the following two basic types of suspension system are given below.
(i) Front end suspension
(a) Independent front suspension
(b) Rigid axle front suspension
(ii) Rear end suspension
(a) Longitudinal leaf spring rear suspension
(b) Transverse leaf spring rear suspension
(c) Coil spring rear end suspension.
Independent Front Suspension
The independent front suspension was developed in the 1930's to improve vehicle ride control
and riding comfort. In this type of suspension, each front wheel is mounted on its own axle and
independently supported by a coil or torsion bar or leaf spring. This allows the wheels to respond
individually to road conditions. Now-a-days, all vehicles use this suspension system. Coil
springs are commonly used in this suspension system. This suspension system completely
prevents the wheel wobble. A greater wheel movement is utilized without affecting the steering

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system. The steering conditions and qualities are improved by a wider spacing of the front
springs.
Types of independent front suspensions:
1. Longitudinal suspension
2. Transverse suspension
3. Sliding suspension
4. Mac Pherson Strut and link type suspension
5. Parallelogram type suspension or Wishbone type
6. Trailing link type suspension
7. Vertical guide suspension.
1. Longitudinal independent front suspension:
Helical spring is connected between two wishbones (arms in U shape) with the support of frame
member as shown in Figure. 13. The arms are in the shape of U. The upper wishbone is hinged at
the inner end on a hydraulic damper. The outer end is hinged at stub axle carrier.

Figure 4.13. Longitudinal Independent Front Suspension System

2. Transverse independent front suspension:
In this type, two trailing arms are connected one above the other transversely at the front portion
of the vehicle. The stub axle assembly is connected with ends of arms. Radius rods are of 45° to
the centre line of the vehicle used to support it. Figure 14. Illustrates transverse independent front
suspension system arrangement.

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Figure 4.14. Transverse independent front suspension
3. Sliding type independent front suspension:
The stub axle moves up and down and it rotates in frame members. There is no change in track,
wheel attitude and wheel base throughout the rise and fall of the wheel. The line diagram of the
sliding type independent front suspension is shown in Figure 15.

Figure 4.15. Sliding Suspension

4. Mac Pherson strut and link type independent front suspension:
It is used in an integral body construction due to wider spaced loading points. Instead of the
normal top link, a flexible mounting and a telescopic damper are used. Both rolling action and
shocks absorption are readily obtained as shown in Figure 16.

Figure 4.16. Mac Pherson strut and link type independent front suspension
5. Parallelogram independent front suspension or wishbone type:

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The stub axle carrier connects an upper and lower link. The lower link is larger than the upper
but it may not be parallel. It keeps the same the track width when the wheels rise andfall
produced by the wheel scrubbing sideways. The various schematic arrangements ofparallelogram
independent front suspension using coil, torsion and leaf springs are shown in Figure 17.

Figure 4.17. Parallelogram Independent Front Suspension

The use of coil springs in the front axle suspension of cars is universal. It consists of upper and
lower wishbone arms pivoted to the frame member. The spring is placed between lower
wishbone and underside of the cross-member. The vehicle weight is transmitted from body and
cross-member to the coil spring through which it goes to the lower wishbone.
The wishbone arms are similar to a chicken wishbone or letter V in shape as shown in Figure .18.
Due to V-shape, the wishbone not only positions wheels and it transmits the vehicle load to the
springs but also they resist acceleration, braking and cornering (side) forces.

Figure 4.18. Wishbone Suspension

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7. Vertical guide suspension:
In this type, the kingpin is directly connected to the cross member of the frame. It moves up and
down thereby compressing and expanding the coil springs as shown in Figure 19.

Figure 4.19. Vertical Guide Suspension

8. Swinging half axle suspension:
In this type of suspension system, wheels are mounted rigidly on half axles which are pivoted at
their ends to the chassis member at the middle of the car as shown in Figure 20. The main
disadvantage of this system is lip and down movements of the wheel causing the camber angle to
vary.

Figure 4.20. Swinging Arm Suspension System

Rigid Axle Front Suspension
Rigid axle front suspension is also called as dependent front suspension. This type of suspension
uses a solid axle. This type of suspension has been universally used before drawing the
independent front wheel suspension. This design consists of one steel or aluminium beam
extending the width of the vehicle. This beam is held in place by leaf springs. This design also
uses kingpins and bushings to attach the wheels outboard of the axle. Because of its load

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carrying ability, the solid axle is only used on heavy trucks, and off-road vehicles. It is not
suitable for use on modern passenger cars for three important reasons.
Transfer of Road Shock: There is transfer of road shock from one wheel to the other due to the
way the wheels are connected to the axle. This causes a rough ride and could result in loss of
traction.
Unsprung Weight. “Because the solid axle has a lot of unsprung weight, it needs more spring and
shock control to keep the tyres in contact with the road.
Wheel Alignment: The solid axle design makes no provisions for alignment. Figure 21.
illustrates a typical rigid axle front wheel suspension. It has either two longitudinal leaf springs
or a transverse spring along with shock absorbers.

In this type of suspension, the front wheel hub rotates on anti-friction bearings and steering
spindles already connected with steering knuckles. The steering spindle and steering knuckle
assemblies are pinned at axle ends to permit the wheels turning. This pin is called kingpin or
steering knuckle pin.

Figure 4.21. Rigid Axial Front Wheel Suspension System

Independent Rear Suspension
Any suspension that can be used on the front end of the ‘car can be used on the rear end. The
versions of the independent' front systems described in the previous section can be found on the
rear axles. But, in the rear end of the car, the steering Linkage is absent. Therefore, rear
independent suspensions can be simplified versions of front ones, although the basic principles
remain the same.
As explained in the independent front axle suspension, here also the wheels are mounted in
separate axles and sprung independently. Figure 22. Illustrates a method of rear wheel

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independent suspension. Universal couplings are used to keep the wheels vertical. Sliding
coupling is necessary to keep the wheel track constant to avoid scrubbings of tyres.
Types of independent rear suspension:
1. Longitudinal leaf spring rear end suspension
2. Transverse leaf spring rear end suspension
3. Coil spring rear end suspension,
Both longitudinal leaf spring and coil spring suspensions are mainly used in vehicles but
transverse leaf spring suspensions are rarely used. In addition to above types, there are some
more types of such as
1. Parallel link system
2. Swinging arm type
3: Swinging half axles.
In parallel link system. Wheels are attached with a backbone-type frame using two wishbone
shaped. Links.
In swinging arm type, a spring or a torsion bar is used at the pivot. These axles are usedin most
of vehicles. It has two axle tubes joined to the final drive housing which allows the wheel to rise
or fall. A universal joint is fixed to allow the change in drive axle at the centre of each axle joint.
1. Longitudinal leaf spring rear end suspensions:
Laminated leaf spring, as shown in Figure 23, is used as a suspension member in this type of
system. The front end of the longest leaf is bending into a circle to form the spring eye. The
spring eye is attached to the spring hanger by a bolt. The spring hanger is fixed to the vehicle

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frame rubber bushings inserted in the spring hanger support the bolt as shown in Figure.

Figure 4.23. Longitudinal Leaf Spring Suspension

Transverse leaf spring rear end suspension:
This system is quite simple in which a single transverse spring is used. Such springs are mounted
in inverted positions parallel and above the rear axle. Each end is shackled to the rear axle as
shown in Figure.
The transverse rear springs are always used in combination with torque tube drive. Therefore,
they do not carry the driving thrust and torque. Figure 24. Shows the another arrangement of this
type of spring in which each rear wheel is independently suspended by one end of the transverse
spring while the tubular cross member is attached to the high centre portion.

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Figure 4.24. Transverse Leaf Spring
Coil spring rear end suspensions:
The coil springs, as shown in Figure 25, are seated in the pan shaped brackets attached to the rear
axle and they are compressed against similar spring seats incorporated into the frame (or) body.
There are two control arms (or) links attached between rear axle housing and car frame. They
permit upward (or) downward movement of the axle housing regarding the car frame.
This type of suspension is always used along with a torque tube drive. Therefore, the coil springs
are not subjected to driving thrust. The excessive roll of side way while rounding a curve is
prevented by a shock absorber mounted in rubber bushings. Energy stored in given weight of
spring coil and torsion bar springs are superior to leaf springs.

Figure 4.25. Coil Spring Rear End Suspension

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